CIVE461: Highway Engineering

Unit A: Introduction

Vehicle Characteristics

Required Reading: MW 2.2, 2.9.5, 2.9.6, 3.4.1

Supplemental Reading: W 5.3
 Why Is Vehicle Performance
Important?
• Determines all highway design and traffic
operations
– Highway design criteria (especially for passing,
stopping, and turning) should accommodate variety of
vehicles
– Major consideration for traffic operations: selection of
traffic control devices, timing of traffic signals, speed
limits, etc.
– Basis for how transportation engineers must assess the
impact of advanced vehicle technologies on existing
highway design guidelines
2
 Vehicle Characteristics
• Static characteristics
– Weight and size of vehicles
• Kinematic characteristics
– Motion of vehicle (without considering forces
causing motion)
• Dynamic characteristics
– Consider forces causing motion

3
 Outline
• Kinematic characteristics
• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics

4
Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic

5
 Kinematic Characteristics
• Of interest: acceleration / deceleration
capabilities of vehicles
• Acceleration is important for:
– Passing maneuvers
– Gap acceptance
– Design of:
• Freeway ramps
• Passing lanes
• Intersections
6
 Passing Maneuver

d1: distance perception-reaction time

d2: distance traveled by passing vehicle on left lane
d3: distance b/w passing vehicle and opposing vehicle at end of passing maneuver
d4: distance moved by opposing vehicle during time passing vehicle is on left lane
7
Gap Acceptance

Major road

gap gap

STOP

Minor road

8
Freeway Ramp Operation

9
 Acceleration
• Usually, acceleration capability of a vehicle
is related to:
– Speed of vehicle (the higher the speed, the
lower the acceleration)
– Size and weight of vehicle
– Vehicle engine

10
 Deceleration
• Without braking, a vehicle will decelerate
when driver releases gas pedal, due to
aerodynamic resistance, etc.
• Level of deceleration depends on:
– Vehicle braking ability
– Force applied by driver to brake pedal
– Pavement – tire interface (coefficient of friction)

11
Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic

12
 Static Characteristics
Vehicle Size
• Size of design vehicle determines design
standards for:
– Lane and shoulder width
– Length and width of parking spaces
– Length of vertical curves
– Turning radii (at low speed)

13
 Static Characteristics
Vehicle Weight
• Axle weight of design vehicle determines
design standards for:
– Pavement design
– Maximum grades

14
 Static Characteristics
Design Vehicle
• Highway design involves the selection of a
design vehicle which has characteristics
that meet the requirements of nearly all
vehicles expected to use the highway

15
 Static Characteristics (cont.)
Design Vehicles
• 4 general classes of design vehicles:
– Passenger cars
– Buses
– Trucks
– Recreational vehicles
• AASHTO Exhibit 2-1: categories of design
vehicles, each with representative static
characteristics
16
 Static Characteristics (cont.)
Design Vehicles: Examples

SU (Single-Unit Truck) P (Passenger Car)

WB-12 (Intermediate Semitrailer)

17
Design Vehicle Dimensions (AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-1)

18
18
 Static Characteristics (cont.)
Turning Radii
• Turning radii, at low speeds (≤ 16km/h or
10 mi/h), are mainly determined by vehicle
size
• AASHTO: Exhibit 2-2, Exhibit 2-3 (P),…,
Exhibit 2-23 (MH/B)
• At higher speeds, turns require a greater
radius

19
Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles
(AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-2 – Part 1)

20
Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles
(cont.) (AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-2 – Part 2)

21
Minimum Turning Path for
Passenger Car (P) Design
Vehicle
(AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-3)

22
Minimum Turning Path for
Single-Unit (SU) Truck
Design Vehicle
(AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-4)

23
Minimum Turning Path for
Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-
12 [WB-40]) Design Vehicle
(AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-13)

24
Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic

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 Dynamic Characteristics
• Tractive effort and resistance
• Braking force
• Stopping sight distance
• Turning radius

26
Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic
- Tractive Effort and Resistance

27
Forces Acting on a
Vehicle in Motion
θg = the angle of the grade
W = weight of the vehicle (N)
m = mass of the vehicle (Kg)
a = rate of acceleration (m/s²)

Resistance is defined as the force impeding vehicle motion.

3 major sources
Ra = aerodynamic resistance (N)
Rrl = rolling resistance (N)
= Rrlf + Rrlr
Rg = grade resistance (N)

Vehicle Tractive Effort provided by engine (front & rear wheels):

Ft = Ff + Fr (N)
28
 Forces Acting on a Vehicle in
Motion (cont.)
Forces along direction of motion:

∑ F = ma
⇒ ma = Ft − (Ra + Rrl + Rg )

Rg = W sin θ g ≈ W tan θ g = WG
(since highway grades are usually very small)

where G is the grade = vertical rise per one unit of

horizontal distance.
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Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic
- Braking

30
 Why Is It Important to Study
Braking?

• Stopping sight distance

• Roadway surface design
• Accident avoidance systems

31
 Braking Distance Derivation
V 22 = V12 + 2ad
where
V2 = final vehicle speed (m/s)
V1 = initial vehicle speed (m/s)
a = acceleration (negative for deceleration) (m/s 2 )
d = deceleration distance (m)
V2 − V
2
1
2

⇒d =
2a
− V12
If vehicle comes to a complete stop : d =
2a 32
Braking Distance Derivation (cont.)
• For simplicity of notation, express
deceleration a as a positive number and
write: 2
V1
– For level road: d=
2a
V12
– For grade: d=
a
2g ±G
g
where g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
G = roadway grade (+ for uphill, - for
downhill) in percent/100 33
Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic
- Stopping Distance

34
 Stopping Distance
• Distance traveled by a vehicle from the
time an object in vehicle’s path is observed
until vehicle comes to rest

S = distance traveled during P-R time + braking distance

2
V
S =V ×t +
a
2g ±G
g
Initial
P-R time
speed 35
 Example
• Motorist traveling at 90 km/h down a grade of 5% on a
highway
• Observes an incident ahead of him involving an
overturned truck that is completely blocking the road
• Motorist was able to stop his vehicle 10 m from the
overturned truck
• Assume P-R time = 2.5 s, and a (deceleration) = 4 m/s2
• What distance away from the truck was the motorist
when he first observed the accident?
36
 Solution
V2
S =V ×t +
a
2g −G
g
2
90
90 3 .6
= × 2.5 +
3.6 4
2 × 9.81× − 0.05
9.81
= 62.5 + 89.0
= 151.5 m

• Distance of motorist when accident was

first observed is 151.5 + 10 = 161.5 m
37
Vehicle Characteristics
• Kinematic
• Static
• Dynamic
- Turning Radius

38
 Forces
• Consider vehicle moving round a horizontal
circular track
• The forces acting on it in radial direction
are:
– Fc :outward radial force / centrifugal force
– Ff : inward radial force / due to side friction
(lateral direction)
Fc

Ff
39
 Forces (cont.)
• Centrifugal force:

W W V2
Fc = × ac = mass × lateral acceleration =
g g R

• Inward force due to side friction:

F f = f s × Wn
where
f s = coefficient of side friction
Wn = normal component of weight
40
 Forces (cont.)
• To maintain equilibrium:
F f = Fc
2
WV
⇒ f sWn =
g R
• But at high velocities, Ff is usually not
adequate to counter balance Fc (since Fc is
proportional to V²)

41
 Forces (cont.)
• Therefore, the road is “inclined” towards
the center of the curve to provide an
additional force
– Component of vehicle weight down the incline
• This roadway inclination is called the
superelevation
• Illustration (see next slides - Source: web)

42
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
2% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
1.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
1% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
0.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-0.0% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-0.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-1% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-1.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-2% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-3% L 3
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-4% L 4
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-3% L 3
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-2% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-1.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-1% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-0.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
-0.0% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
0.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
1% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
1.5% L 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan
View View
C
2% L 2
%
 Forces (cont.)

Fccosα
Fc

Wcosα
Wsinα
64

What is the relation between radius of

circular curve Rv and vehicle speed V?
64
 Forces (cont.)
W V2
Fc =
g Rv
Rv = radius defined to vehicle’s traveled path
W V2
F f = (Wn + Fcn ) f s = W cos α + sin α f s
g Rv
where Fcn = normal component of centrifugal force
Equilibrium of forces along the incline :
W V2 W V2
⇒ W sin α + f s W cos α + sin α = cos α
g Rv g Rv

65
 Forces (cont.)
Divide by W cos α :
2 2
V V
⇒ tan α + f s 1 + tan α =
gRv gRv
V2
⇒ (1 − f s tan α ) = f s + tan α
gRv

V (1 - f s tan α )
2
⇒ Rv =
g ( f s + tan α )
66
 Superelevation
• Superelevation rate = e = tan α
• Can consider fs tan α ~ 0 [since both fs and
tan α are small] and obtain a conservative
(larger) estimate of Rv

2
V
Rv =
g ( f s + e)

67
 Superelevation (cont.)
• e is selected during design of horizontal curve
• To reduce Rv , need to increase values of e and fs
• Certain factors control maximum values of e
– e.g.: high values of e can cause steering problems
– in cold climates, ice on roadways can reduce fs so that
vehicles traveling at less than design speed on an
excessively superelevated curve could be forced
inwardly off the curve by gravitational forces

68
 Selection of Superelevation and
Side Friction Factor for Design
• Superelevation:
– Maximum value depends on the type of road
(e.g. allow higher maximum e’s on freeways
than on arterials and local roads), weather
conditions, and local design practice
• Side friction factor:
– Limiting values are a function of design speed
(see next slide)

69
Side Friction Factors Assumed for Design
(AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 3-12)

70
Minimum Radius
Using Limiting
Values of e and f
(AASHTO 2004,
Exhibit 3-15)

71
Minimum Radius
Using Limiting
Values of e and f
(cont.)
(AASHTO 2004,
Exhibit 3-15)

Note: In recognition of safety considerations, use

of emax = 4.0% should be limited to urban
conditions. 72
 Example
• An existing horizontal curve has a radius of 100 m,
which restricts the max. speed on this section of the
road to only 60% of the design speed of the highway.
• The curve is to be improved so that the max. speed
will be equal to the design speed of the highway.
• Assume:
– The coefficient of side friction fs is 0.17 for the existing
curve.
– The rate of superelevation e is 0.08 for both existing and
new curve to be designed.
• Determine the minimum radius of the new curve.

73
 Solution
2
V
Rv =
g ( f s + e)
2
V
3 .6
Existing Curve : 100 = ⇒ V = 56.4 km/h
9.81(0.17 + 0.08)
(Maximum permissible speed)

56.4
Design speed of the highway = = 94.0 km/h @V=94.0 km/h
0.6 fs = 0.1260 by interpolation

2
94.0
3.6
′
New curve radius : Rv = = 337.0 m
9.81(0.1260 + 0.08)
74
Interpolation
of fs

75