Performance enhancement in swimming:

the effect of mental training with biofeedback

M Bar-Eli 1,2 & B B l u m e n s t e i n 2

1Department of Business Aflministration, School of Management, Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev, Beer-Sheva, israel. 2Ribstein Center for Sport Medicine Sciences and Research, Wingate
institute, Israel.

In this study, the relationship between mental training with biofeedback and swimmers'
performance was investigated. The Wingate five-step approach was used as a mental
preparation technique for enhancing the performance among 16-18 year-old pre-elite
swimmers. Participants (n=40) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (a}
experimental - regular training plus the Wingate 5-step mental training program (adapted for
swimming), and (b) control - regular training plus relaxing activities. After a baseline
measurement, participants were tested on running and swimming five times during a 10-
week period. Results indicated that the experimental group improved its performance over
time on both r u n n i n g and swimming, with improvement being most substantial during
transformation and realisation (steps 4 and 5). In contrast, the control group remained
relatively stable on both dependent measures. Results are discussed in reference to previous
work on the 5-step approach, including several methodological and theoretical aspects that
are particularly relevant to the use of such interventions with other athletic tasks and
populations.
(J Sci Med Sport 2004;7:4:454-464

Introduction
To e n h a n c e h u m a n p e r f o r m a n c e in sport, a variety of m e n t a l training
techniques have been suggested, which reflect various strategies intended for
athletes' self-regulation of a r o u s a l 1. To achieve appropriate arousal levels,
biofeedback (BFB) is quite often mentioned as one of the m o s t powerful m e a n s
for facilitating the learning of self-regulation by a competing athlete 2. BFB - a
technique t h a t u s e s i n s t r u m e n t s (ie, sensors and transducers) to display to a n
individual information regarding h i s / h e r own biological states t h a t are not
u n d e r voluntary control - h a d already been viewed by sport psychology in the
1980s 3, as having a great potential for athletic p e r f o r m a n c e e n h a n c e m e n t .
Since then, BFB h a s been found to be effective in reducing athletic p e r f o r m a n c e
anxiety, as well as in increasing m u s c l e strength a n d flexibility, reducing pain
and fatigue and regfllating h e a r t rate 4.
About a decade ago, it was observed t h a t the application of BFB techniques
was u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d in the professional sport psychology practice literature 5.
In particular, it was believed t h a t the efficacy of BFB-assisted m e n t a l training
interventions in enhancing athletic p e r f o r m a n c e should be investigated at a
faster rate t h a n previously, b e c a u s e the use of BFB as p a r t of larger multi-

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faceted t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s seemed to be of considerable relevance to

professional practice 6. Consequently, to increase their effectiveness, m o s t BFB
interventions involve more t h a n a single modality a n d are carried out together
with other intervention techniques, t h e r e b y reflecting s u c h a multi-faceted
a p p r o a c h 1,4. Along these lines, B l u m e n s t e i n et al7 developed a two-stage
m e n t a l p r e p a r a t i o n procedure, which u s e d BFB a p p a r a t u s a n d videocassette
recorder (VCR) equipment, combined with relaxation a n d / o r excitation tech-
niques, to simulate the s e n s a t i o n s of competitive situations.
At the s a m e time, Blumenstein, Bar-Eli a n d T e n e n b a u m 8 - using BFB -
studied the effects of autogenic and m u s i c training, as well as imagery, on
physiological indices a n d athletic p e r f o r m a n c e . They found that, w h e n accom-
panied mainly b y autogenic training a n d imagery, BFB h a d a considerable
a u g m e n t i n g effect on b o t h physiological indices a n d athletic performance. In
addition, Blumenstein et al 9, in a s t u d y on the influence of m e n t a l - s t a t e s
regulation with BFB on breathing, revealed similar a u g m e n t a t i o n effects. These
investigations, which provided s u b s t a n t i a l scientific credibility to their
approach, encouraged Blumenstein, Bar-Eli a n d T e n e n b a u m 1° to develop a
m e t h o d which provided a detailed description of the various stages of BFB-
b a s e d m e n t a l training, n a m e l y the (Wingate) five-step approach.
The a p p r o a c h of Blumenstein et allO consists of five stages, each of which
incorporates BFB with VCR to promote the effectiveness of the athletes' m e n t a l
training. T h e s e steps have flexible time-session limits t h a t can be individ-
ualised a n d include: "Introduction" (introducing self-regulation techniques),
"Identification" (determining a n d strengthening the appropriate BFB modality),
"Simulation" (BFB training with s i m u l a t e d competitive stress), "Transform-
ation" (transforming the m e n t a l training to practice) and "Realisation" (applying
the technique in real competitive situations).
In line with the m a i n principles of the transactional model of h u m a n
p e r f o r m a n c e 11, one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t characteristics of the five-step
a p p r o a c h is its high flexibility in adapting to m a t c h specific needs of individual
athletes within given environments, who are engaged in fulfilling particular
discipline-specific tasks. Thus, to be effectively applied in various sport
disciplines a n d / o r with different populations, the five-step a p p r o a c h requires
specific adaptations. Accordingly, a d a p t e d versions were specifically developed
over the y e a r s for various purposes. However, no investigation h a s b e e n
conducted t h u s far in a field setting which experimentally examined the
effectiveness of this a p p r o a c h as a whole, u s i n g a n adapted version t h a t
m a t c h e s the specific characteristics of a particular sport discipline. (For u p -
dated reviews of the work on this a p p r o a c h , see 12,13.)
To conduct s u c h a field experiment, it w a s decided to focus on swimming.
Swimming is basically a n individual sport, which requires t h a t athletes
compete mainly "against themselves", as opposed to other sports (eg, j u d o or
wrestling, in which elements of the 5-step a p p r o a c h were studied previously)
where the results are often d e p e n d e n t also on the opponent. In addition,
s w i m m e r s usually begin to specialise in their sport at a m u c h y o u n g e r age in
c o m p a r i s o n to m a n y other sports, so t h a t m a n y high-level competitors can be
found who are in their adolescence.
In a recent investigation, Bar-Eli, D r e s h m a n , Blumenstein et a l l 4 s u c c e s s -

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fully operated the first three steps - - namely, introduction, identification and
stimulation - - in a field experiment conducted with 11-14 year-old child
swimmers. With child swimmers, these steps are connected more to the
instructional, coach-athlete training processes t h a t have the p r i m a r y p u r p o s e
of acquisition of the technical skills required for a d e q u a t e performance.
However, for the entire p r o g r a m to be effective with higher-level, older
swimmers, the operation of the last two steps - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d realisation
- is required, since they are directly relevant to elite athletes preparing for
competition. Accordingly, the p r e s e n t s t u d y m a d e a n initial a t t e m p t to examine
experimentally the effectiveness of this a p p r o a c h in a field setting using a five-
step version specifically a d a p t e d to m a t c h the unique characteristics of
swimming.
Method
Participants and design
Participants were 40 male (n= 26} a n d female (n= 14) Israeli pre-elite swimmers,
aged 16 to 18 y e a r s (M= 16.70, SD= 0.54). All participants were residents of
G u s h Dan, the largest u r b a n a r e a in Israel, comprising Tel Aviv a n d several
neighbouring cities. The s w i m m e r s were pre-elite in t h a t they h a d trained
regularly for a b o u t eight y e a r s (M= 8.20, SD= 2.50) in one of the local clubs in
this area, a n d participated in 7-8 competitions a year (on a local, regional or
national level).
It should be noted t h a t for statistical p u r p o s e s there is not a sufficient
n u m b e r of elite-level s w i m m e r s in Israel, so it was decided to focus on the pre-
elite ones. The definition of a participant as a pre-elite s w i m m e r was b a s e d on
experts' opinions (ie, three of the top Israeli swimming coaches) in reference to
the E u r o p e a n swimming norms. More specifically, we u s e d the G e r m a n
Comparative Performance Tables for Swimming 15, accepted b y all E u r o p e a n
swimming associations, which give results in a point system. This point s y s t e m
enables the comparison of s w i m m e r s who perform different swimming styles;
in our case, it was u s e d to build appropriately the groups of pre-elite swimmers,
which comprised different swimming styles.
The maximal n u m b e r of points available in the G e r m a n tables is 1200. In 50
m freestyle, elite s w i m m e r s in the World usually achieve 800-1000 points; for
example, the b e s t result of the first s w i m m e r in the World's 50 m freestyle
ranking list is worth 1104 points a n d the last winner of the E u r o p e a n
c h a m p i o n s h i p (Madrid, 2004) in this discipline achieved 933 points. The Israeli
elite s w i m m e r s in this discipline usually range between 600 a n d 800 points (ie,
s o m e w h a t below the world's elite level), so t h a t in Israeli t e r m s "pre-elite" would
m e a n 500-600 points. The average n u m b e r of points achieved b y the s w i m m e r s
included in our s t u d y was 555, a n d therefore these s w i m m e r s c a n be
considered "pre-elite".
Four clubs, their c e a c h e s a n d their s w i m m e r s voluntarily participated in the
study. Clubs, r a t h e r t h a n participants, were r a n d o m l y assigned to either the
experimental (two clubs) or the control (two clubs) conditions. Experimental
and control conditions were r a n d o m i s e d between the clubs, with e a c h club
corresponding to only one condition to reduce b o t h social c o m p a r i s o n a n d the
possibility of c o m m u n i c a t i o n exchange a m o n g participants from different
groups. The clubs were located in different p a r t s of the abovementioned u r b a n

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a r e a to minimise further the possibility of social comparison. All swimming

pools were covered, as control for the weather.
It is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t the coaching p r o g r a m s for the different clubs were
very similar. More specifically, all four coaches h a d immigrated to Israel from
the former USSR and h a d similar physical education b a c k g r o u n d s . These
coaches u s e d the s a m e training program, which w a s approved by the Israel
Swimming Federation as being suitable for skill a d v a n c e m e n t of pre-elite
swimmers. The similarity of coaching styles was also evident from observing
the respective coaches during the study. Thus, only clubs t h a t insisted on
similar training environments were selected for this investigation. Although
this p r o c e d u r e could not fully eliminate potential differences in factors s u c h as
the coaches' personalities and their individual conduct, it substantially re-
duced the possibility t h a t different coaching p r o c e d u r e s could a c c o u n t for
potential differences between experimental a n d control groups.
The 40 participants were equally divided between the experimental a n d
control groups; t h a t is, each group included 20 participants. Moreover, in each
of the two g r o u p s (ie, experimental a n d control), the 20 participants specialised
in different swimming styles as follows: freestyle (seven males and three
females), butterfly (three m a l e s and two females), b a c k s t r o k e (two m a l e s a n d
one female) a n d b r e a s t s t r o k e (one male a n d one female). In other words, the
two groups were m a t c h e d with respect to swimming style and gender. The
male-female distribution was identical in each of the groups (13:7). This
distribution roughly reflects the situation of competitive swimming all over
Israel; t h a t is, a majority in favour of males. Since participants were m e a s u r e d
six times (pre-intervention plus five additional m e a s u r e m e n t s ) over the course
of a 10-week training period (see below), a 2 x 6 (Condition x Measurement)
design was used, with repeated m e a s u r e s in the M e a s u r e m e n t factor.
Treatment conditions, dependent variables, procedures and
instrumentation
The experimental and control groups m e t 31 times over the course of 10 weeks,
during the p r e p a r a t o r y and competition periods of the yearly macro-cycle. In
the first, a pre-intervention session (conducted in the first week), each of the
participants w a s requested to perform a 30 m r u n 16 a n d to swim 50 m in
h i s / h e r own style 17. The participants were r u n n i n g a n d swimming as fast as
they could individually, to eliminate the element of direct competition. The 30
m r u n is a general test; it was intended to examine the participants' speed a n d
explosive power 16,18, which are required for swimming sprint m, w h e r e a s the 50
m swim was a specific test 17. The 50 m swimming test, performed in e a c h par-
ticipant's own style, took place in a 50 m covered pool.
All interventions were administered by a s s i s t a n t s , who were especially train-
ed for this p u r p o s e and were "blind" as to the goals of the study. In sessions 2-
7, which took place during weeks 1-2 of the s t u d y (basically, three sessions per
week, approximately every second day), the experimental group - which was
given this t r e a t m e n t in addition to its regular training sessions - u n d e r w e n t
step 1 of the p r o g r a m ("Introduction"). Athletes were taught various self-
regulation techniques, s u c h as imagery, autogenic training a n d BFB, in a
"laboratory" setting; t h a t is, a c l a s s r o o m in the club. The experimenters trav-
elled to each club, using five "Ultramind Relax Plus" a p p a r a t u s 2. E a c h group

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session lasted a b o u t 35-40 minutes. The techniques to be t a u g h t during this

period were described in detail elsewhere 1°.
To suit the self-regulation t e c h n i q u e s to the specific needs of o u r participants
(ie, swimmers), several m i n o r a d a p t a t i o n s were m a d e in c o m p a r i s o n to the
original version of the program. For example, the participants were a s k e d to
imagine themselves swimming 5 0 m in their own style, performing the "ideal"
technique required by the coach. In line with a central principle u s e d by the
"Five-Step Approach" - - n a m e l y t h a t of "building on w h a t athletes already do"
w h e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t e a c h i n g t h e m p s y c h o r e g u l a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s 13 - -
swimmers in the p r e s e n t s t u d y were introduced to the BFB-channels in the
following order: HR, EMG, GSR. The r e a s o n for this particular a d a p t a t i o n m a d e
in c o m p a r i s o n to the original instructions of the "Five-Step A p p r o a c h 'q°, was
that, to control their training load and rest between training sessions,
s w i m m e r s regularly u s e HR information. In addition, EMG s e e m s to be m o r e
"natural" to s w i m m e r s t h a n GSR. Therefore, it was decided to s t a r t with HR
also in our p r e s e n t study, and go on in the abovementioned order of channels.
It should be noted t h a t the m i n o r a d a p t a t i o n s m a d e in c o m p a r i s o n to the
original version of the program, to suit the s w i m m e r s best, did not reduce the
validity of the method, as initially established. On the contrary, as mentioned
above, the p r o g r a m ' s flexibility a n d / o r adaptability w a s one of its m a j o r
advantages 12,t3. As with a n y other specific case, the order of the steps as well
as their basic contents a n d goals were maintained, b u t with the n e c e s s a r y
adaptations, which actually contributed to e n h a n c e d validity.
To prevent a n y potential influence of different training environments, the
control group u n d e r w e n t identical regular training sessions during this period
(that is, sessions 2-7). However, the control group also u n d e r w e n t - for a b o u t
35-40 m i n u t e s each session - various relaxing activities s u c h as listening to
quiet music, watching n a t u r e movies a n d playing table games. This procedure,
which w a s intended to exclude the "Hawthorne Effect" as a potential explan-
ation for a n y possible p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e m e n t s in the experimental (in
comparison to the control) group, would enable a n y s u c h potential improve-
m e n t s to be attributed to the effect of the t r e a t m e n t (ie, m e n t a l training
incorporating BFB). Therefore, it w a s decided t h a t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with each of
the experimental steps, the control group would undergo these relaxing
activities during the entire s t u d y (see Table 1).
In session 8, b o t h groups were requested individually to r u n 30 m a n d swim
50-m in their own style, thereby being m e a s u r e d in a procedure t h a t was
identical to the one they u n d e r w e n t during the first, pre-intervention session.
In sessions 9-13, which took place during weeks 3-4 of the s t u d y (again, three
sessions per week, every second day), the experimental group u n d e r w e n t step
2 of the treatment, labelled "Identification". Here, aided by a sport psychologist,
the athletes' p u r p o s e was to identify a n d strengthen the m o s t efficient BFB
response modality (I~IR, EMG, or GSR) while it was reflected on a (portable)
c o m p u t e r screen. "Identification" w a s conducted using the Self-Regulation
Test of a r o u s a l (SRT) 1°, which is u s e d to examine athletes' baseline levels of
self-regulation before applying the entire p r o g r a m and, later, between its
different steps.
In session 14, both groups were requested individually to p e r f o r m a 30 m r u n
and 50 m swim in their own style. In sessions 15-19, which took place during
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weeks 5-6 of the study, the experimental group u n d e r w e n t step 3 of the

t r e a t m e n t (labelled "Simulation"). This t r e a t m e n t was again given to the
experimental group in addition to its regular training. In step 3, the athletes'
p u r p o s e was to conduct BFB training with simulated competitive stress.
Auditory simulations were used, which consisted of original, in- a n d out-of-
water (competitive) spectator noise, recorded during high-level international
swimming contests that took place earlier in Israel. This step was conducted
in the "laboratory" (ie, classroom in the club), with each group session lasting
a b o u t 35-40 minutes.
In session 20, b o t h groups were requested individually to p e r f o r m a 30 m r u n
a n d 50 m swim in their own style. In sessions 21-25, which took place during
weeks 7-8 of the study, the experimental group u n d e r w e n t step 4 of the
t r e a t m e n t (labelled '~rransformation"). This step w a s conducted with BFB
interventions u n d e r training conditions u s i n g portable equipment2: for
example, after w a r m - u p , participants conducted elements s u c h as m e n t a l
relaxation with GSR-EMG BFB, imagery of 50 m swim in their own style with
EMG BFB, m e n t a l relaxation between different training units with GSR-EMG
BFB, as well as concentration and b r e a t h i n g exercises with HR BFB during
starts.

Group
Session (35-40 rain each) Experimental (11=20) Control (n=20)
1 (week 1) p r e - i n t e r v e n t i o n • 30 m run • 30 m run
• 50 m swim o w n style • 50 m swim o w n style
2-7 (weeks 1-2) • Step 1: I n t r o d u c t i o n • relaxation activities
• regular training • regular training
8 (week 2) • 30 m run • 30 m run
• 50 m swim o w n style • 50 m swim o w n style
9-13 (weeks 3-4) • Step 2: Identification • relaxation activities
• regular training • regular training
14 (week 4) • 30 m run • 30 m run
• 50 m swim o w n style • 50 m swim o w n style
15-19 (weeks 5-6) • Step 3: Simulation • relaxation activities
• regular training • regular training
20 (week 6) • 30 m run • 30 m run
• 50 m swim o w n style • 50 m swim o w n style
21-25 (weeks 7-8) • Step 4: Transformation • relaxation activities
• regular training • regular training
26 (week 8) • 30 m run • 50 m swim o w n style
• 30 m run • 50 m swim o w n style
27-30 (weeks 9-10) • Step 5: Realisation • relaxation activities
• regular training • regular training
31 (week 10) • 30 m run • 30 m run
• 50 m swim o w n style • 50 m swim o w n style

Table 1: Schematic Description of the Research Design,

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In session 26, both groups were requested individually to perform a 30 m r u n

and a 50 m swim in their own style. In sessions 27-30, which took place during
weeks 7-8 of the study, the experimental group underwent step 5 (labelled
"Realisation"). This step was c o n d u c t e d with BFB interventions u n d e r training
conditions and in local competitions using portable BFB equipment 2. For
example, participants conducted elements s u c h as concrete mental preparation
to training and competition starts with BFB control, simulation events (swim
50 m in their own style) 3-4 times in training with relaxation and imagery with
GSR-EMG BFB between starts, concentration before start with GSR BFB,
imagery of various competitive aspects (eg, different technical components,
imagery of various competitive aspects, start position and beginning of
swimming activity) and, finally, the real start of the 50 m swim in their own
style. In session 31 - the last one - both groups were requested to perform an
individual 30 m r u n and 50 m swim in their own style.
A schematic description of the entire research design is presented in Table 1.
Results
To examine the a s s u m p t i o n s underlying the s u b s e q u e n t repeated-measures
analyses, Bartlett probability values (chi-square tests), sensitive to non-
normality, were used. For both r u n n i n g and swimming times, no violation of
the homogeneity of variance a s s u m p t i o n in any of the conditions was indicated.

Measurement
TaSk COndition 1 2 3 4 5 6 Across
(pre- measurements
intervention)
Running Experimental (n=20)
M 5.26 5.25 5.23 5,15 5.09 5.03 5.17
SD 0.47 0.46 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.47
Control (n=20)
M 5.19 5.17 5.18 5.11 5.14 5.14 5.16
SD 0.46 0.44 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.46
Across conditions
(n=40)
M 5.23 5,21 5,20 5.13 5.11 5.08 5.16
SD 0.47 0.45 0.48 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.47

SWIMMING Experimental (n=20)

M 31.81 31.79 3 1 . 6 4 31.03 30.01 29.61 30.98
SD 2.52 2.58 2.67 2.34 2.65 2.61 2.56
Control (n=20)
M • 30.85 30.74 30.32 30.23 30.01 30,12 30.38
SD 2.57 2,99 2,48 2,58 2.22 2.34 2,53
Across conditions (n=40)
M 31,33 31.26 3 0 . 9 8 30.63 30.01 29.86 30.68
SD 2.55 2.81 2.58 2.48 2.45 2.49 2.55

Table2: Means and standard deviations of running and swimming times (in seconds) for training
conditions by measurements.

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In addition, no significant interaction between the pre-intervention m e a s u r e s

(covariates) a n d the e x p e r i m e n t a l / c o n t r o l conditions was found. Thus, it c a n
be concluded t h a t the a s s u m p t i o n s were satisfactorily met.
One-way analyses of variance were conducted on pre-intervention d a t a
( m e a s u r e m e n t 1) of both r u n n i n g a n d swimming times to determine if initial
differences existed between the experimental a n d control conditions. For each
of these two d e p e n d e n t variables, results indicated no significant difference
between the groups in the outset of the study. Thus, 2 x 6 (Condition x
M e a s u r e m e n t ) mixed-factorial ANOVA were p e r f o r m e d for r u n n i n g a n d
swimming time, respectively, with Condition representing a between-subjects
factor and M e a s u r e m e n t representing a within-subjects factor in each of these
two ANOVAs.
Means a n d s t a n d a r d deviations of r u n n i n g and swimming times (in seconds)
for training conditions by m e a s u r e m e n t s are p r e s e n t e d in Table 2.
The analysis of r u n n i n g times revealed a significant interaction, Condition x
M e a s u r e m e n t , F (5,34)= 12.79, p<.000, a n d a significant m a i n effect, of
M e a s u r e m e n t , F (5,34)= 24.07, p<.000, with m o d e s t effect sizes (0)2 estimates)
of 0.31 a n d 0.38, respectively. The analysis of swimming times revealed a
significant interaction, Condition x M e a s u r e m e n t , F (5,34)= 10.34, p<.000, a n d
a significant m a i n effect, of M e a s u r e m e n t , F (5,34)= 25.59, p<.000, with m o d e s t
effect sizes (0)2 estimates) of 0.30 a n d 0.39, respectively.
The significant Condition x M e a s u r e m e n t interactions were attributed mainly
to the i m p r o v e m e n t in p e r f o r m a n c e (ie, consistent decrease in r u n n i n g a n d
swimming times) obtained by the experimental group t h r o u g h o u t the study, in
c o m p a r i s o n to the relatively stable p e r f o r m a n c e s (running and swimming
times) of the control group. Moreover, although none of the between-groups
differences within each m e a s u r e m e n t w a s statistically significant, it is evident
t h a t for b o t h d e p e n d e n t variables the m e a n s of the experimental group tended
to be s o m e w h a t higher t h a n those of the control group t h r o u g h o u t m e a s u r e -
m e n t s 1-4, b u t s o m e w h a t lower in m e a s u r e m e n t s 5-6. (In m e a s u r e m e n t 5, the
two conditions were equal with regard to s w i m m i n g times.) In other words, the
m a j o r i m p r o v e m e n t in p e r f o r m a n c e obtained by the experimental group - be it
in r u n n i n g or swimming - occurred towards the end of the treatment; namely,
during s t e p s 4 and 5 of the program.
The significant m a i n effects of M e a s u r e m e n t resulted from a systematic
p e r f o r m a n c e increase (ie, decrease over time) in b o t h d e p e n d e n t variables.
Although n o n e of the differences between a n y two successive m e a s u r e m e n t s
within the experimental or control conditions w a s statistically significant, the
M a n d SD values calculated across conditions reveal a consistent time-
decrease from m e a s u r e m e n t 1 to 6, for b o t h r u n n i n g (see two b o t t o m lines of
Table 2's u p p e r part) a n d swimming (see two b o t t o m lines in Table 2's lower
part). No differences were revealed between experimental a n d control groups
(ie, no significant m a i n effects of Training Conditions), for either r u n n i n g or
swimming, as the M and SD values calculated across m e a s u r e m e n t s indicate
(see Table 2, right column).
Discussion
In this study, a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to examine further the relationship
between a multifaceted m e n t a l training program, incorporating BFB, a n d

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swimmers' performance. Accordingly, in an investigation designed for this

particular purpose, we tried to determine whether using the five steps proposed
by Blumenstein et al 1° with pre-elite swimmers would lead to b e t t e r
performance, in terms of actual running and swimming times, t h a n using
regular training alone while controlling for social comparison.
The present results reveal that the application of regular training plus mental
•training with BFB (while controlling for the "Hawthorne effect") does indeed
lead to better performance t h a n w h e n regular training only is used. This
conclusion is based on the results from both measures (ie, dependent
variables), which indicated that the experimental group consistently exhibited
the greater improvements. Moreover, significant interactions were obtained for
both dependent variables. These interactions were attributed mainly to a
consistent, substantial decrease in running and swimming times in the
experimental group, in comparison with the relatively stable performances of
the control group.
These findings indicate not only t h a t using our mental training approach
leads to better results t h a n using regular training alone, b u t also that the
superiority of this approach increases over time (measurements). These results
further validate previous research and application related to the (Wingate) fve-
step approach 12,1a. However, future research should be conducted to compare
the present fndings with those of other researchers in this field 1,4. Such future
research would also be advised to use other forms of control, eg, wiring
participants up to some form of c o m p u t e r games or giving false feedback from
the BFB apparatus.
It is important to recall that the major improvement in performance obtained
by the experimental group, be it in r u n n i n g or swimming, occurred towards the
end of the treatment; namely, during steps 4 and 5 of the program. It seems
that the treatment effect accumulated during the instructional steps (ie,
Introduction, Identification and Simulation) b u t was expressed first and
foremost when the athlete was required to transform the acquired mental skills
to the field and apply them in competition (ie, during the Transformation and
Realisation steps, respectively). Thus, only when the adequate situation was
set (ie, a real training or competition), did the pre-elite athlete e x h a u s t his or
her performance in a particular task, a principle which has been well
established within the transactional approach to h u m a n performance 11.
In this investigation, participants were not distributed to conditions as
individuals, but rather as a group. The present study could therefore also have
been viewed as a "quasi-experiment". However, similar designs are often con-
sidered as "true" experiments in different areas of sport psychology. Moreover,
"quasi" experimental designs can permit reasonable causal inferences even
when an investigation is not "truly" experimental in n a t u r e 2°. It should also be
noted that, in the , p r e s e n t study, any c o m p a r i s o n of competition or
performance by the participants in the control group with those participating
in the experimental condition was effectively prevented by each group being
randomly assigned to the experimental or control condition. For example, due
to this precaution, the possibility of participants in the control group being
encouraged by participants in the experimental t r e a t m e n t group was
eliminated.

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/
It is therefore reasonable to conclude that it was indeed important to control
for competition and social-comparison effects, to demonstrate the effectiveness
of the present mental training approach in enhancing athletic performance. It
appears that the present approach does produce the best performance w h e n
social-comparison processes and competition are controlled for. However, such
a conclusion would be further justified only when, to control for any con-
taminating effects, one also makes sure (as was done in this study) that there
is a similar training/coaching environment in b o t h groups. In this way,
performance e n h a n c e m e n t (naturally) occurring as a result of regular training
alone is also effectively controlled for, which further facilitates demonstrating
the unique effects of the five-step approach.
All in all, the findings of the present s t u d y support the conclusion that the 5-
step approach can produce substantial improvements in swimmers' perform-
ances. These findings are important not only because they empirically
demonstrate the effectiveness of using mental training incorporating BFB, b u t
also because they provide further evidence for the general principle advocated
by leading sport psychologists6; namely that of applying larger, psycho-
physiologically-oriented, multifaceted t r e a t m e n t programs to enhance athletes'
performances. Since the present program should be tailored to the unique
characteristics of the athlete u n d e r consideration and to the specifics of his or
her sport discipline 1°,13, it is recommended that in future research the
effectiveness of the (Wingate) five-step approach be examined in other sport
disciplines as well, such as combat, team and e n d u r a n c e sports.
For this purpose, not only nomothetic-quantitative methods should be em-
ployed b u t also qualitative and ideographic methods, s u c h as applied behavior
analyses and case studies. Effective future BFB-oriented research in sport
should be transactional in the sense that unique personality and situational
variables t h a t help determine one's response to being assigned a specific
treatment condition should be carefully examined 11. In this way, we will not
only find out whether, through applying comparable intervention programs in
other athletic settings, similar performance e n h a n c e m e n t s could be achieved,
b u t also learn m u c h more about the credibility level of such intervention
programs in general.
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