UNIT 5 - APPLICATIONS

5.10. NANOCOMPUTER:

Nanocomputer is the logical name for a computer smaller than the microcomputer, which is
smaller than the minicomputer.

5.10.1. Smallest computers today

Microelectronic components that are at the core of all modern electronic devices employ
semiconductor transistors. The term nanocomputer is increasingly used to refer to general
computing devices of size comparable to a credit card. The first use of this name appears to
be to describe the s1mp3 manufactured by The Flying Electron Inc. (7 November 2008). It is
now used for a wider range of devices, such as

 Arduino
 BeagleBoard
 Olinuxino
 Odroid
 Miracast dongles
 All the PC-on-a-stick (MK802 series...)
 Raspberry Pi

5.10.2. Future computers smaller than 10 nanometers

Eventually computers will be developed with fundamental parts are no bigger than a
few nanometers. There are several ways nanocomputers might be built, using mechanical,
electronic, biochemical, or quantum technology. Consensus among hardware developers has
been that is unlikely that nanocomputers will be made out of semiconductor transistors, as
they seem to perform significantly less well when shrunk to sizes under 100 nanometers.

Although develops have reduced microprocessors to 22 nm as of April 2012.

Moreover, Intel's 5 nanometer technology outlook predicts 5 nm feature size by 2022. The
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors gives an industrial consensus on
feature scaling following Moore's Law. Note that a Silicon-Silicon bond length is 235.2 pm,
which means that a 5 nm-width transistor would be 21 silicon atoms wide.

5.11. MOLECULAR SWITCH:

A molecular switch is a molecule that can be reversibly shifted between two or more
stable states. The molecules may be shifted between the states in response to environmental
stimuli, such as changes in pH, light, temperature, an electric current, microenvironment, or
in the presence of a ligand. In some cases, a combination of stimuli is required.

The oldest forms of synthetic molecular switches are pH indicators, which display
distinct colors as a function of pH. Currently synthetic molecular switches are of interest in
the field of nanotechnology for application in molecular computers or responsive drug
delivery systems.

Molecular switches are also important to in biology because many biological

functions are based on it, for instance allosteric regulation and vision. They are also one of
the simplest examples of molecular machines.

5.11.1. Photochromic molecular switches:

A widely studied class are photochromic compounds which are able to switch
between electronic configurations when irradiated by light of a specific wavelength. Each
state has a specific absorption maximum which can then be read out by UV-VIS
spectroscopy. Members of this class include azobenzenes, diarylethenes, dithienylethenes,
fulgides, stilbenes, spiropyrans and phenoxynaphthacene quinones.

Fig 5.1. Switching in dithienylethene

Chiroptical molecular switches are a specific subgroup with photochemical switching

taking place between an enantiomeric pairs. In these compounds the readout is by circular
dichroism rather than by ordinary spectroscopy. Hindered alkenes such as the one depicted
below change their helicity (see: planar chirality) as response to irradiation with right or left-
handed circularly polarized light

Fig 5.2. Hindered Alkene Molecular Switch

Chiroptical molecular switches that show directional motion are considered synthetic
molecular motors:
 Fig 5.3. TBu Helicene molecular motor

Other types of molecular switches are,

 Mechanically-interlocked molecular switches

 Host-guest molecular switch

5.12. NANOCRYSTAL:

A nanocrystal is a material particle having at least one dimension smaller than 100
nanometres (a nanoparticle) and composed of atoms in either a single- or poly-crystalline
arrangement. The size of nanocrystals distinguishes them from larger crystals. For example,
silicon nanocrystals can provide efficient light emission while bulk silicon does not and may
be used for memory components.

When embedded in solids, nanocrystals may exhibit much more complex melting
behaviour than conventional solids and may form the basis of a special class of solids. They
can behave as single-domain systems (a volume within the system having the same atomic or
molecular arrangement throughout) that can help explain the behaviour of macroscopic
samples of a similar material without the complicating presence of grain boundaries and other
defects. Semiconductor nanocrystals having dimensions smaller than 10 nm are also
described as quantum dots.

5.12.1. Synthesis:

The traditional method to prepare nanocrystals of a new material requires choosing

molecular precursors, surfactants, and solvents using optimized reaction conditions causing
the atoms to self-assemble into monodisperse nanocrystals.

A newer, simpler strategy uses preformed nanocrystals as templates and chemical

transformation to change the composition. Solution-based mechanisms can chemically
transform nanomaterials, allowing atoms to be easily and precisely incorporated, removed, or
replaced from preformed templates. The approach uses oxidation, reduction, alloying, or
atomic exchange reactions.

In ionic nanocrystals, cation exchange can be driven by solvation energy differences

between template and solvated ions. Ion solubilities can be controlled by adding selective
coordinating species to the solution. In metal nanocrystals, atomic exchange reactions reflect
reduction potential differences between the template metal and solvated metal ions. This
galvanic replacement method involves a redox reaction. Placing a nanocrystal in a solution
containing metal ions with a higher reduction potential oxidizes the templates' surface,
dissolving its metal ions. The released electrons reduce the ions from the solution, which
deposit at the template's surface.

Galvanic replacement also applies to ionic compounds. In oxide nanocrystals, a

redox-couple reaction can occur between multivalent metallic ions. E.g., higher–oxidation
state ions in manganese oxide nanocrystals have been replaced with solvated lower–oxidation
state iron ions.

Atomic diffusion is a key parameter in such reactions. Chemical transformation tools

provide complete composition control only within the atomic diffusion length. High
nanocrystal surface-to-volume ratios expose the entire lattice to diffusion. The effective
particle size range for these tools depends on the material, but can reach hundreds of
nanometers.

5.12.2. Applications

Nanocrystals made with zeolite are used to filter crude oil onto diesel fuel at an
ExxonMobil oil refinery in Louisiana at a cost less than conventional methods.

5.13. NANOPROBE:

A nanoprobe as existing in the real world is an optical device. It was developed by

tapering an optical fiber to a tip measuring 100 nm = 1000 angstroms wide. Also, a very thin
coating of silver nanoparticles helps to enhance the Raman scattering effect of the light. (The
phenomenon of light reflection from an object when illuminated by a laser light is referred to
as Raman scattering.) The reflected light demonstrates vibration energies unique to each
object (samples in this case), which can be characterised and identified.

The silver nanoparticles in this technique provides for the rapid oscillations of
electrons, adding to vibration energies, and thus enhancing Raman Scattering—commonly
known as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). These SERS nanoprobes produce
higher electromagnetic fields enabling higher signal output—eventually resulting in accurate
detection and analysis of samples.

The term nanoprobe also refers more generically to any chemical or biological
technique that deals with nanoquantitles, that is, introducing or extracting substances
measured in nanoliters or nanograms rather than microliters or micrograms. For example:

 Introducing nanoparticles in aqueous solution to serve as nanoprobes in electrospray

ionization mass spectrometry
 Extracting nanoquantities of neurochemicals via in vivo microdialysis
 Using gold-based metallic nanoprobes for Theranostics (therapeutic diagnostics)

In semiconductor manufacturing, nanoprobing is showing potential for conventional IC

failure analysis and debugging, as well as for transistor design, circuit, and process
development, and even for yield engineering.
5.14. NANOMEDICINE:

Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges

from the medical applications of nanomaterials and biological devices, to nanoelectronic
biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology such as
biological machines. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues
related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials (materials whose
structure is on the scale of nanometers, i.e. billionths of a meter).

Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them with biological

molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological
molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful for both in vivo and in vitro
biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the integration of nanomaterials with biology
has led to the development of diagnostic devices, contrast agents, analytical tools, physical
therapy applications, and drug delivery vehicles.

Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically useful
devices in the near future. The National Nanotechnology Initiative expects new commercial
applications in the pharmaceutical industry that may include advanced drug delivery systems,
new therapies, and in vivo imaging. Nanomedicine research is receiving funding from the US
National Institutes of Health, including the funding in 2005 of a five-year plan to set up four
nanomedicine centers.

5.14.1. Drug delivery

Nanotechnology has provided the possibility of delivering drugs to specific cells

using nanoparticles. The overall drug consumption and side-effects may be lowered
significantly by depositing the active agent in the morbid region only and in no higher dose
than needed. Targeted drug delivery is intended to reduce the side effects of drugs with
concomitant decreases in consumption and treatment expenses.

Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the

body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by
nanoengineered devices. More than $65 billion are wasted each year due to poor
bioavailability. A benefit of using nanoscale for medical technologies is that smaller devices
are less invasive and can possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction
times are much shorter.

These devices are faster and more sensitive than typical drug delivery. The efficacy of
drug delivery through nanomedicine is largely based upon: a) efficient encapsulation of the
drugs, b) successful delivery of drug to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful
release of the drug.

Drug delivery systems, lipid or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to

improve the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the drug. However, the
pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanomedicine is highly variable among different
patients. When designed to avoid the body's defence mechanisms, nanoparticles have
beneficial properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Complex drug delivery
mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes
and into cell cytoplasm. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more
efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal.
For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where
both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility.

Drug delivery systems may also be able to prevent tissue damage through regulated
drug release; reduce drug clearance rates; or lower the volume of distribution and reduce the
effect on non-target tissue. However, the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is still
imperfect due to the complex host's reactions to nano- and microsized materials and the
difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Nevertheless, a lot of work is still ongoing
to optimize and better understand the potential and limitations of nanoparticulate systems.
While advancement of research proves that targeting and distribution can be augmented by
nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further
understanding of their medical uses.

Nanoparticles can be used in combination therapy for decreasing antibiotic resistance

or for their antimicrobial properties. Nanoparticles might also used to circumvent multidrug
resistance (MDR) mechanisms.

5.14.1.1 Types of systems used:

Two forms of nanomedicine that have already been tested in mice and are awaiting
human trials that will be using gold nanoshells to help diagnose and treat cancer, and using
liposomes as vaccine adjuvants and as vehicles for drug transport. Similarly, drug
detoxification is also another application for nanomedicine which has shown promising
results in rats. Advances in Lipid nanotechnology was also instrumental in engineering
medical nanodevices and novel drug delivery systems as well as in developing sensing
applications. Another example can be found in dendrimers and nanoporous materials.
Another example is to use block co-polymers, which form micelles for drug encapsulation.

Polymeric nano-particles are a competing technology to lipidic (based mainly on

Phospholipids) nano-particles. There is an additional risk of toxicity associated with polymers
not widely studied or understood. The major advantages of polymers is stability, lower cost
and predictable characterisation. However, in the patient's body this very stability (slow
degradation) is a negative factor. Phospholipids on the other hand are membrane lipids
(already present in the body and surrounding each cell), have a GRAS (Generally Recognised
As Safe) status from FDA and are derived from natural sources without any complex
chemistry involved. They are not metabolised but rather absorbed by the body and the
degradation products are themselves nutrients (fats or micronutrients).

Protein and peptides exert multiple biological actions in the human body and they
have been identified as showing great promise for treatment of various diseases and
disorders. These macromolecules are called biopharmaceuticals. Targeted and/or controlled
delivery of these biopharmaceuticals using nanomaterials like nanoparticles and Dendrimers
is an emerging field called nanobiopharmaceutics, and these products are called
nanobiopharmaceuticals.

Another highly efficient system for microRNA delivery for example are nanoparticles
formed by the self-assembly of two different microRNAs deregulated in cancer.

Another vision is based on small electromechanical systems; nanoelectromechanical

systems (NEMS) are being investigated for the active release of drugs. Some potentially
important applications include cancer treatment with iron nanoparticles or gold shells.
Nanotechnology is also opening up new opportunities in implantable delivery systems, which
are often preferable to the use of injectable drugs, because the latter frequently display first-
order kinetics (the blood concentration goes up rapidly, but drops exponentially over time).
This rapid rise may cause difficulties with toxicity, and drug efficacy can diminish as the
drug concentration falls below the targeted range.
 UNIT 3 – NANOMATERIALS

3.7. PROPERTIES OF CNT:

3.7.1. Mechanical Properties:

 Strength
o Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in
terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results
from the covalent sp2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms.
Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation,
which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains
of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo
before fracture by releasing strain energy.
o Although the strength of individual CNT shells is extremely high, weak shear
interactions between adjacent shells and tubes lead to significant reduction in
the effective strength of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotube
bundles down to only a few GPa. This limitation has been recently addressed
by applying high-energy electron irradiation, which crosslinks inner shells and
tubes, and effectively increases the strength of these materials to ~60 GPa for
multi-walled carbon nanotubes and ~17 GPa for double-walled carbon
nanotube bundles.
o CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow
structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo buckling when placed
under compressive, torsional, or bending stress.
 Hardness
o Standard single-walled carbon nanotubes can withstand a pressure up to 25
GPa without [plastic/permanent] deformation. They then undergo a
transformation to superhard phase nanotubes. Maximum pressures measured
using current experimental techniques are around 55 GPa. However, these new
superhard phase nanotubes collapse at an even higher, albeit unknown,
pressure.
 Wettability
o The surface wettability of CNT is of importance for its applications in various
settings. Although the intrinsic contact angle of graphite is around 90°, the
contact angles of most as-synthesized CNT arrays are over 160°, exhibiting a
superhydrophobic property. By applying a voltage as low as 1.3V, the extreme
water repellant surface can be switched to a superhydrophilic one.
 Kinetic properties
o Multi-walled nanotubes are multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested
within one another. These exhibit a striking telescoping property whereby an
inner nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within its outer
nanotube shell, thus creating an atomically perfect linear or rotational bearing.
This is one of the first true examples of molecular nanotechnology, the precise
positioning of atoms to create useful machines. Already, this property has
 been utilized to create the world's smallest rotational motor. Future
applications such as a gigahertz mechanical oscillator are also envisioned.
3.7.2. Electrical properties:

Due to the role of the π-electron system in determining the electronic properties of
graphene, doping in carbon nanotubes differs from that of bulk crystalline semiconductors
from the same group of the periodic table (e.g. silicon). Graphitic substitution of carbon
atoms in the nanotube wall by boron or nitrogen dopants leads to p-type and n-type behavior,
respectively, as would be expected in silicon.

However, some non-substitutional (intercalated or adsorbed) dopants introduced into

a carbon nanotube, such as alkali metals as well as electron-rich metallocenes, result in n-type
conduction because they donate electrons to the π-electron system of the nanotube.

By contrast, π-electron acceptors such as FeCl3 or electron-deficient metallocenes

function as p-type dopants since they draw π-electrons away from the top of the valence
band.Intrinsic superconductivity has been reported, although other experiments found no
evidence of this, leaving the claim a subject of debate.

3.7.3. Optical properties

Carbon nanotubes are unique "one-dimensional systems" which can be envisioned as
rolled single sheets of graphite (or more precisely graphene). This rolling can be done at
different angles and curvatures resulting in different nanotube properties. The diameter
typically varies in the range 0.4–40 nm (i.e. "only" ~100 times), but the length can vary
~10,000 times, reaching 55.5 cm.
The nanotube aspect ratio, or the length-to-diameter ratio, can be as high as
132,000,000:1, which is unequalled by any other material. Consequently, all the properties of
the carbon nanotubes relative to those of typical semiconductors are extremely anisotropic
(directionally dependent) and tunable.

3.7.4. Thermal properties

All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube,
exhibiting a property known as "ballistic conduction", but good insulators lateral to the tube
axis. Measurements show that a SWNT has a room-temperature thermal conductivity along
its axis of about 3500 W/m·K; compare this to copper, a metal well known for its good
thermal conductivity, which transmits 385 W/m·K.

A SWNT has a room-temperature thermal conductivity across its axis (in the radial
direction) of about 1.52 W/m·K, which is about as thermally conductive as soil. The
temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 °C in vacuum and
about 750 °C in air.

3.8. APPLICATIONS OF CNT:

3.8.1. Current applications:

Current use and application of nanotubes has mostly been limited to the use of bulk
nanotubes, which is a mass of rather unorganized fragments of nanotubes. Bulk nanotube
materials may never achieve a tensile strength similar to that of individual tubes, but such
composites may, nevertheless, yield strengths sufficient for many applications. Bulk carbon
nanotubes have already been used as composite fibers in polymers to improve the
mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product.

Easton-Bell Sports, Inc. have been in partnership with Zyvex Performance Materials,
using CNT technology in a number of their bicycle components—including flat and riser
handlebars, cranks, forks, seatposts, stems and aero bars.

Zyvex Technologies has also built a 54' maritime vessel, the Piranha Unmanned
Surface Vessel, as a technology demonstrator for what is possible using CNT technology.
CNTs help improve the structural performance of the vessel, resulting in a lightweight 8,000
lb boat that can carry a payload of 15,000 lb over a range of 2,500 miles.

Amroy Europe Oy manufactures Hybtonite carbon nanoepoxy resins where carbon

nanotubes have been chemically activated to bond to epoxy, resulting in a composite material
that is 20% to 30% stronger than other composite materials. It has been used for wind
turbines, marine paints and variety of sports gear such as skis, ice hockey sticks, baseball
bats, hunting arrows, and surfboards.

Other current applications include:

 tips for atomic force microscope probes

 in tissue engineering, carbon nanotubes can act as scaffolding for bone growth
 There is also ongoing research in using carbon nanotubes as a scaffold for diverse
microfabrication techniques.

3.8.2. Potential applications

The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in
controlling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in
nanotechnology engineering. The highest tensile strength of an individual multi-walled
carbon nanotube has been tested to be 63 GPa. Carbon nanotubes were found in Damascus
steel from the 17th century, possibly helping to account for the legendary strength of the
swords made of it.

Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as
building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>1mm in all three dimensions)
all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking
method to fabricated macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single-
and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks.

These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- structured pores and the porosity
can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon scaffolds/architectures maybe
used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, field
emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices and
implants.
3.9. NANOMETAL OXIDES:

 ZnO - Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

 TiO2 - Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
 MgO - Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticles
 ZrO2 - Zirconium Dioxide Nanoparticles
 NiO - Nickel Oxide Nanoparticles
 Al2O3 – Nanoalumina – Alpha Aluminum Oxide
 CuO - Copper oxide nanoparticles

3.9.1. ZnO - Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

Molecular Weight: 81.37

Nano Zinc Oxide is used in many areas such as shielding UV light, absorbing infrared
light, sterilization care, cooling or warming and also has many other magical functions. Nano
ZnO can also improve the comprehensive mechanical properties of rubber by improving its
resistance to wearing and tearing. The unique antibacterial function of zinc oxide
nanoparticles is widely used in advanced antimicrobial and self-cleaning hygiene ceramics,
floor tile, paints, and plastics etc.; Its excellent electrical and optical properties make it good
material for producing voltage dependent resistor, phosphors, image recording.

The particle size of nano zinc oxide (ZnO) is between 1-100 nm. It is a new kind of
fine inorganic products with multifunction showing great special properties such as
nonmigration, fluorescence, piezoelectricity, absorption and scattering of UV ability. Gas
sensors, phosphors, varistors, UV shielding materials, the image recording material,
piezoelectric material, varistor efficient catalysts, magnetic materials and plastic film and so
on can be manufactured with the use of Nano ZnO’s wonderful performance in the optical,
electrical, magnetic, and sensitive side.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO) Applications:

1. Used as vulcanization activator in the rubber industry, catalysts and additives in

petroleum chemical industry, and is the most favorable material for producing car
tires, aircraft tires, industrial cable as well as zinc oxide ceramics;
2. Used in the industries of painting and coatings, transparent rubber, latex and plastics,
and can increase the strength, compactness, adhesion, and smooth finish of the
products;
3. The antibacterial agent and deodorant materials, medicine and health with sterilization
materials, glass-ceramic sterilization self-cleaning materials, sterilization dressing of
the pharmaceutical industry;
4. Used in the industries of electronics and instrument and to manufacture, electrical
device, radio, wireless fluorescence lamp, image recorder, rheostat, and phosphor and
so on.
5. Sunscreening agent used in cosmetics, antibacterial and health protection antiager;
UV protection;
 6. Used in military field as infrared absorption material.

3.9.2. TiO2 - Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles:

Nano TiO2 is excellent photo catalyst used in antiseptic which can not only inhibit
reproduction ability of bacterium, but also decompose its structure of cell membrane which
will degrade microorganisms completely and thus avoid a second time pollution caused by
creatoxin. Titanium Oxide Nanoparticle is a non-dissolved material which does not dissolve
itself when degrades organic contaminant and kills germs. It has a lasting effect on killing
germs and degrading organic contaminants.

TiO2 - Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Applications:

TiO2 nanoparticle is widely used as UV-resistant material and in the field of

producing chemical fiber, plastics, printing ink, coating, self-cleaning glass, self-cleaning
ceramics, antibacterial material, air purification, sewage treatment, chemical
industry,cosmetics, sunscreen cream, natural white moisture protection cream, beauty and
whitening cream, morning and night cream, moistening refresher, vanishing cream, skin
protecting cream, face washing milk, skin milk, powder make-up, foods packing material,
coating for paper-making industry: used for improving the impressionability and opacity of
the paper and used for producing titanium, ferrotitanium alloy, carbide alloy etc in the
metallurgical industry, astronautics industry, conducting material, gas sensor, and moisture
sensor.

3.9.3. MgO - Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticles:

Nano MgO is odorless and non-toxic white powder and has wide applications in
producing electronics, catalyst, ceramics, oil, paint and other fields. With the growing
demand of high-performance flame-retardant fiber in the textile sector, the synthesis of new
high-performance flame retardant provides ideal material for the development of functional
fabrics . Nano magnesium oxide is often used together with sawdust, wood shavings to make
fire resistant fiberboard and other refractory materials as well as metal ceramic with
advantage of light weight, sound insulation and thermal insulation.

Compared with traditional organic phosphorus or halogen flame retardants,

magnesium oxide nanoparticle is non-toxic, tasteless and only need a small amount, so it is
ideal for the development of flame-retardant fiber additives. In addition, nano magnesium
oxide added in fuel can keep clean and inhibit corrosion. Nano MgO sees good future in
producing coating.

Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticles (MgO) Applications:

1. Fire retardant used for chemical fiber and plastics trades;

2. High-temperature dehydrating agent used for the production of silicon steel sheet,
high-grade ceramic material, electronic industry material, adhesive and additive in the
chemical raw material.
 3. High-frequency magnetic-rod antenna, magnetic device filler, insulating material
filler and various carriers used in radio industry.
4. Refractory fiber and refractory material, magnetite-chrome brick, filler for refractory
coating, refractory and insulating instrument, electricity, cable, optical material,
material for steel-smelting furnace and other high- temperature furnaces, heating
material and ceramic base plate.
5. Electric insulating material for making crucible, smelter, insulated conduit (tubular
component), electrode bar, electrode sheet.
6. Fuel additive, cleaner, antistatic agent and corrosion inhibitor.

3.9.4. ZrO2 - Zirconium Dioxide Nanoparticles:

ZrO2 nanoparticle is white powder of high purity. It appears oblique crystal at low
temperature and shows tetragonal crystal formation at high temperature. Nano ZrO2 is soluble
in sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid and has good thermal-chemical stability. When at high
temperature, it has electrical conductivity and good strength and toughness. Nano ZrO2 also
possesses good mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties.

Zirconium Dioxide Nanoparticles (ZrO2) Applications:

1. Functional ceramics, ceramic pigment, high-purity pigment, porce lain glaze.

2. Pyrooptical element, oxygen-sensitive element, high-capacity capacitor, optical
storage, image display element, light modulated element, light shutter,
stereotelevision glasses, image storage and display element.
1. 3.Abrasive material, insulating material, fire-retarding material, roentgenograply.
3. High-temperature and corrosion resisting components, bearing nozzle, smelting
crucible.
2. 5.Piezoelectric element, ion exchanger, solid dielectric, filter, temperature and
pressure transmitters and transmitting elements, electrode used for magnetic-current
generator, heating element.
7. Jewelery: artificial jewel.
8. Fuel, battery.

3.9.5. NiO - Nickel Oxide Nanoparticles:

Nickel oxide nanopowder is green black, 20nm, spherical, with purity of 99.5% and
density of 6.827 g/cm3. It has a wide range of uses.

Nickel Oxide Nanoparticle Application:

1. Catalyst
2. Adhesive and coloring agents for enamel;
3. Active optical filters;
4. Antiferromagnetic layers;
5. Automotive rear-view mirrors with adjustable reflectance;
6. Cathode materials for alkaline batteries;
7. Electro chromic materials;
 8. Energy efficient smart windows (with adjustable absorption and reflectance in the
visible and near-IR wavelength range) P-type transparent conductive films;
9. Pigments for ceramics and glasses;
10. Materials for gas or temperature sensors, such as formaldehyde sensor, CO sensor, H2
sensor
11. Counter electrode

3.9.6. Al2O3 – Nanoalumina – Alpha Aluminum Oxide:

Phase stability, high hardness, materials with high dimensional stability, it is widely
used in a variety of plastics, rubber, ceramics, refractory products for reinforcement
toughening, in particular, significantly to improve the ceramic density, finish, thermal fatigue
resistance, fracture toughness, creep resistance and wear resistance.

As the α-phase ultrafine Al2O3 is a high performance material of far infrared

emission, it is widely used to produce artificial ruby, sapphire, yttrium aluminum garnet and
also used in the field of fiber fabric products and high pressure sodium lamp as far-infrared
emission and thermal insulation materials. In addition, α-phase nano-Al2O3 with high
resistivity and good insulation property, it is widely used as the main components for YGA
laser crystal and integrated circuit substrates.

Alumina Nanoparticles Application:

1. Transparent ceramics: high-pressure sodium lamps, EP-ROM window;

2. Cosmetic filler;
3. Single crystal, ruby, sapphire, sapphire, yttrium aluminum garnet;
4. High-strength aluminum oxide ceramic, C substrate, packaging materials, cutting
tools, high purity crucible, winding axle, bombarding the target, furnace tubes;
5. Polishing materials, glass products, metal products, semiconductor materials, plastic,
tape, grinding belt;
6. Paint, rubber, plastic wear-resistant reinforcement, advanced waterproof material;
7. Vapor deposition materials, fluorescent materials, special glass, composite materials
and resins;
8. Catalyst, catalyst carrier, analytical reagent;
9. Aerospace aircraft wing leading edge;

3.9.7. CuO - Copper oxide nanoparticles:

Copper oxide nanoparticle is a brownish-black powder, 40nm, with 99% purity and
6.3-6.49 g/cm3 density and melting point of 1326 ℃. It is soluble in dilute acid, NH4Cl,
(NH4) 2CO3, potassium cyanide solution, insoluble in water, and it dissolves slowly in
alcohols, ammonia solution. It can be reduced to metallic copper when meets hydrogen or
carbon monoxide under high temperature. Copper oxide is widely used in the field of
catalysis, superconductors, ceramics as a kind of important inorganic materials . It can be
used as a catalyst and catalyst support, as well as electrode active materials.
 CuO nanoparticle can also be used as burning rate catalyst in rocket propellant. Nano
copper oxide shows superior catalytic activity and selectivity than that of the common copper
oxide powder. The particle size of nanometer copper oxide is between 1-100 nm. Compared
with the ordinary copper oxide, nano CuO has peculiar physical and chemical properties such
as: surface effect, superiority of the quantum size effect, volume effect and macroscopic
quantum tunneling effect in magnetic, optical absorption, chemical activity and thermal
resistance, catalysis, and the melting point. Nano copper oxide attracts more and more
people's attention, and become one of the most extensively used inorganic materials.

Nano Copper Oxide CuO Applications:

Insoluble in water. dissolve slowly in alcohol or ammonia solution. Soluble in dilute

acids, NH4Cl, (NH4) 2CO3, potassium cyanide solution. Under high temperature, copper
oxide meet with hydrogen or carbon monoxide, can restore copper metal. Nano copper oxide
is a widely used material. It has been applied to the catalyst, superconducting materials,
thermoelectric materials, sensing materials, glass, ceramics and other fields.

In addition, the nano-copper oxide can be used as rocket propellant combustion

catalyst. It not only can significantly improve the homogeneous propellant burning rate,
lower pressure index, but also can better perform as the catalyst for the AP composite
propellant. More use such as: Ceramic resistors, Gas sensors, Magnetic storage media, Near-
infrared tilters, Photoconductive and photothermal applications, Semiconductors, Solar
energy transformation, Catalysts, High-tech superconductors etc.,

3.10. ALLOTROPES OF CARBON/ NANOFORMS OF CARBON:

Carbon is capable of forming many allotropes due to its valency. Well-known forms
of carbon include diamond and graphite. In recent decades many more allotropes and forms
of carbon have been discovered and researched including ball shapes such as
buckminsterfullerene and sheets such as graphene. Larger scale structures of carbon
include nanotubes, nanobuds and nanoribbons. Other unusual forms of carbon exist at
very high temperature or extreme pressures.

3.10.1. Diamond:

Diamond is a well known allotrope of carbon. The hardness and high dispersion of
light of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the
hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish
and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut (or even scratch)
a diamond, except another diamond.

3.10.2. Graphite:

Graphite conducts electricity, due to delocalization of the pi bond electrons above and below
the planes of the carbon atoms. These electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct
electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted along the plane of the layers. In
diamond, all four outer electrons of each carbon atom are 'localised' between the atoms in
covalent bonding.

Fig. Eight allotropes of carbon: a) diamond, b) graphite, c) lonsdaleite, d) C60

buckminsterfullerene, e) C540, Fullerite f) C70, g) amorphous carbon, and h) single-walled
carbon nanotube.

The movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric
current. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in
covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane. Each carbon atom contributes one
electron to a delocalised system of electrons that is also a part of the chemical bonding. The
delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite
conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct in a direction at
right angles to the plane.

3.10.3. Graphene:

A single layer of graphite is called graphene and has extraordinary electrical, thermal,
and physical properties. It can be produced by epitaxy on an insulating or conducting
substrate or by mechanical exfoliation (repeated peeling) from graphite. Its applications may
include replacing silicon in high-performance electronic devices.

3.10.4. Amorphous carbon:

Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that does not have any crystalline
structure. As with all glassy materials, some short-range order can be observed, but there is
no long-range pattern of atomic positions. While entirely amorphous carbon can be produced,
most amorphous carbon actually contains microscopic crystals of graphite-like, or even
diamond-like carbon.

Coal and soot or carbon black are informally called amorphous carbon. However, they
are products of pyrolysis (the process of decomposing a substance by the action of heat),
which does not produce true amorphous carbon under normal conditions.

3.10.5. Buckminsterfullerenes/ Fullerene:

The buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes or buckyballs for short, were

discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and the University of Sussex,
three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the
resemblance of their allotropic structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist
and architect Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller. Fullerenes are molecules of varying sizes
composed entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.

As of the early twenty-first century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes
are still under heavy study, in both pure and applied research labs. In April 2003, fullerenes
were under study for potential medicinal use — binding specific antibiotics to the structure to
target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma.

3.10.6. Carbon nanotubes:

Carbon nanotubes, also called buckytubes, are cylindrical carbon molecules with
novel properties that make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications (e.g.,
nano-electronics, optics, materials applications, etc.). They exhibit extraordinary strength,
unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat. Inorganic nanotubes have
also been synthesized. A nanotube is a member of the fullerene structural family, which also
includes buckyballs. Whereas buckyballs are spherical in shape, a nanotube is cylindrical,
with at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure.

Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order
of a few nanometers (approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair),
while they can be up to several centimeters in length. There are two main types of nanotubes:
single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).