1) Passive voice and active voice

Events may be related in the active or the passive voice. In the passive, the person or
thing receiving the action becomes the grammatical subject.

For example (the entity receiving the action is in boldface):

 active voice: Eric Rohmer made this film.

 passive voice: This film was made by Eric Rohmer.

One forms the passive by conjugating the verb "to be" before the past participle of the
principal verb. the tense of the verb "to be" will determine the tense of action. When an
agent of the action (that is, the person or entity performing the action) must be
described, one does so by using the preposition "by":

 This industry will soon be developed in the third world.

 Sorry, but this car has been purchasedby another customer.

English uses the passive voice frequently, although it is best to avoid it when possible.
An option is to use an impersonal subject, such as "one" or "someone"

 (passive voice): This job needs to be done.

 (active voice): Someone needs to do this job.
 2) Adjectives
 Forms
 Usage
 Related topics

Forms

Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number
and gender; nor do they take case endings:

 a blue car
 the great outdoors
 a group of young women

However, a few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine.

Thus, one says that a woman is beautiful while a man would be called handsome.

Adjectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state or province) generally

begin with a capital letter, whether they refer to people or objects:

 She is an American student.

 They go to a Catholic school.
 They enjoy Breton music.

Usage

In a noun cluster an adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the
noun it modifies. When two adjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a
comma (,) or by the conjunction "and." In a series of three or more adjectives, one
usually uses "and" before the last adjective in the list.

Examples:

 I like short novels.

 That fellow will be a competent worker.
 She writes long and flowery letters.
 He works long, hard hours.
 She had a mean, old and overbearing step-mother.
 An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative
clause. (In relative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)

Examples:

 He was a man (who was) always happy to help others.

 She is a woman (who is) true to herself.
 They were entirely satisfied.

Related topics
 Possessive adjectives
 Demonstrative adjectives
 Comparisons
 Superlatives

Possession
 Possessive adjectives
 Possessive pronouns
 "To belong"
 The "s" of possession
 "Whose"

In English possession may be expressed in five different ways:

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives agree with the person to whom they refer:

 I –> my
 you –> your
 he, her, it –> his (masculine), her (feminine), its (impersonal)
 we –> our
 they –> their

So,

 I have lost my keys.

 They are coming in their car.
 I met your grandparents.
 This car has lost its power.
 Note: In English the possessive adjective is used to refer to parts of the body:

 She brushes her teeth twice a day.

 He broke his arm playing soccer.
 His stomach aches.

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns, like the adjectives, agree with the person to whom they refer.
Singular and plural share the same form:

 I –> mine
 your –> yours
 he, she, it –> his (masculine), hers (feminine), its (impersonal)
 we –> ours
 they –> theirs

So,

 I have my likes, and she has hers.

 If you give me one of yours, I'll give you one of mine.
 I like our house, but frankly, I am jealous of theirs!
 That's mine!

The verb "to belong to"

The verb "to belong to" indicates ownership or possession:

 That poodle belongs to Louise.

 The world belongs to you.

The "s" of possession

One may add "–'s" to any noun in order to indicate possession:

 I just read Gustave's book.

 The front door's lock is broken.
 Many of the world's countries are poor.
 Note: Do not confuse the "s" of possession with the contraction of the verb "is":

 Fred's going to fetch it. (= Fred is going to fetch it.)

 The train's late again. (=The train is late again.)

"Whose" for indicating possession

"Whose" will be placed before the possession (the object possessed), and will refer
ownership to the preceding noun:

 The man whose dog bit me said he was sorry. (The dog belongs to the man.)
 Here is the woman whose daughter I intend to marry.(The woman is the mother of the
daughter.)
 3) Adverbs

 Formation
 Position
 Related topics

Formation

1. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "–ly" to the
adjectival form:

 intelligent –> intelligently

 slow –> slowly
 precise –> precisely

Some adverbs are irregular:

A. If the adjective ends with "–le," simply replace the "e" with "y":

 simple –> simply

 subtle –> subtly

B. The adverb corresponding to the adjective "good" is irregular:

 good –> well

C. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective:

 high
 low
 hard
 better
 fast

D. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the same
can be said of adverbs of quantity:

 yesterday
 today
 tomorrow
 early
 soon
 late
 here
 there
 less
 more
 as
 very
 much
 a lot of
 little of

Position

When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but before
any prepositional phrases or subordinated clauses):

 He writes poorly.
 She pronounced that word well..
 Joseph worked diligently.
 They worked hard before coming home.
Exceptions: certain adverbs signaling the speaker's opinion, such as "probably,"
"undoubtedly," "surely," "certainly," etc., come at the beginning of the sentence, or
else between the modal verb (or auxiliary) and the principal verb:

 We are probably going to spend the summer in Corsica.

 Certainly we would never do that!
 We will undoubtedly see a dirty political campaign this year.

Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however, they
may be placed at the beginning of the sentence if the predicate clause is long and
complicated:

 I saw her yesterday.

 We're going to the beach today.
 She went to bed very early.
 Tomorrow we will try to get up early to prepare for our trip.

Adverbs modifying adjectives or an other adverb are placed before the adjective or
adverb they modify:

 She was reallyvery happy to see you.

 It was a brilliantly staged performance.
 Related topics
 Comparatives
 Superlatives

Comparatives
 General principles
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Nouns
 Verbs
 Related topics

General principles

Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority,
inferiority, or equality of one term compared to another. The comparative can apply to
adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or even verbs. Whatever the part of speech concerned, the
structure of the comparison remains the same:

superiority more+term1 than+term2

inferiority less+term1 than+term2
eq. (adj/adv) as+term1 as+term2
equality(nouns) as much+term1 as+term2

Note: Certain common adjectives, and adverbs that do not end in –ly, omit “more�?
and take the ending –er. Thus fast –> faster; big –> bigger, small –> smaller, etc.

Adjectives

Adjectival comparisons follow these models:

 Jean is taller than Catherine.

 Philippe is less tall than Jean.
 Leila is as tall as Jean.
 Note: Monosyllabic adjectives, and several common two-syllable adjectives, take the
ending "–er" and do not include the adverb "more":

 young –> younger

 tall –> taller
 old –> older

If the adjective ends in "–y" the "y" becomes "i":

 heavy –> heavier

 early –> earlier
 busy –> busier
 healthy –> healthier
 chilly –> chillier

If the adjective ends in "–e" only an "r" is needed:

 wise –> wiser

 large –> larger
 simple –> simpler
 late –> later

If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and
one adds "–er":

 red –> redder

 big –> bigger
 thin –> thinner
 hot –> hotter

Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:

 good –> better

 bad –> worse
 far –> farther
 Adverbs

Adverbial comparisons follow these models:

 The students are working more diligently than the professor.

 This fellow speaks less eloquently than a schoolboy.
 They are all working as hard as possible!

Note: In comparisons indicating superiority, adverbs ending in "–ly" do not take the
adverb "more," but only the ending "–er". (However, these adverbs will function
normally in comparisons using "less" or "as.")

 fast –> faster

 hard –> harder

And some adverbs have irregular comparative forms :

 well –> better

 badly –> worse
 far –> farther

Nouns

Noun comparisons follow these patterns:

 I have more work than you.

 He has less homework than the rest of us.
 If only I had as much talent as she!

The comparative can signal quantities of nouns:

 I have less than five francs in my pocket.
 She has more than five hours worth of work to do.

However, in comparisons of inferiority, and when the quantity represents a "countable"

noun, one should use the term "fewer" rather than "less":

 He works fewer than ten hours per week.

 Sam has fewer students than I do.

Verbs

"More," "less," and "as" can be used as adverbs to modify verbs:

 He eats more than he used to.

 That boy reads less than his friends.
 You ought to listen as much as you talk.

Superlatives
 General principles
 Irregular forms
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Related topics

General principles

When comparing two things one uses the comparative; however, for comparisons in
larger groups, it is the superlative which must be used. The superlative designates
extremes: the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.

The superlative operates like the comparative, with these exceptions:

A. While the word "more" or the ending "–er" signals the comparative, it is the word
"most" or the ending "–est" that designates the superlative. (See irregular forms,
below):

 He is the most efficient worker we have.

 That is the poor est family in the neighborhood.

B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:

 He works the fastest of any student I know.

 She is the tallest woman in town.

B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses
"of," followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes
implicit):

 It's the best day of my life!

 She works the best of the whole class.
 She's the one who arrived first.

Irregular forms: Adjectives

Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two-syllable adjectives) take the ending
"–est" in superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most." However,
these same adjectives will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives of inferiority:

 young –> youngest

 tall –> tallest
 old –> oldest

If the adjective ends in "–y" the "y" becomes "i":

 heavy –> heaviest

 early –> earliest
 busy –> busiest
 healthy –> healthiest
 chilly –> chilliest

If the adjective ends in "–e" one adds only "–st" :

 wise –> wisest

 large –> largest
 simple –> simplest
 late –> latest
 If the adjective ends in "single vowel +consonant," the consonant is doubled and one
adds "–est":

 red –> reddest

 big –> biggest
 thin –> thinnest
 hot –> hottest

Some very common superlatives have irregular forms:

 good –> best

 bad –> worst
 far –> farthest

Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:

 first
 last

Irregular forms: Adverbs

Adverbs not ending in "–ly" do not use the adverb "–most" in the formation of
superlatives of superiority, but use instead the ending "–est." However, these same
adverbs will use "less," like other adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:

 fast –> fastest

 hard –> hardest

And some adverbs have irregular forms:

 well –> best

 badly –> worst
 far –> farthest

Related topics
 Comparatives
 4) Definite articles
 General principles
 Omission of the article
 Use in negatives and interrogatives
 Related topics

General principles

The definite article "the" (invariable in form) designates a person, place, or event which
has been specified or defined by the speaker:

 Here's the book I bought.

 The cat is on the roof.
 He said he would bring the money.

Omission of the definite article

The definite article does not always precede nouns: sometimes indefinite
articles or partitive articles will be used. Often, though, no article at all is necessary, as
in the following cases:

1. As a general rule, the definite article is omitted before abstract nouns or nouns
representing general categories. It is often omitted after verbs expressing opinions or
preferences:

 Truth is the highest good.

 I don't like animals.
 Cats are nicer than dogs.
 Time flies.
 She likes coffee, but she hates tea.

2. Generally, the article is omitted before days of the week and dates:
 On Tuesdays the museums are closed.
 On Saturdays I sleep in.
 Friday night we are going dancing.
 I was born on June 16, 1980.

3. Generally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states, cities, and regions:

 France is seventeen times smaller than the United States.

 California is larger than Brittany.

Exception: Some names actually include the definite article, such as The Hague.

4. Generally, the article is omitted before titles or nouns indicating professions:

 President Mitterrand completed two terms.

 We saw Professor Miller at the restaurant.
 She met with Doctor Schmidt.

Use in negatives and interrogatives

The use of the definite article does not change in interrogatives and negatives.

Related topics
 Indefinite articles
 Partitive articles
 Indefinite articles

The indefinite article has two forms: before singular nouns one uses "a" (or "an" before
most vowels); before plural nouns one uses "some":

 a cat
 an accident
 some dogs

But: before vowels producing a "y" sound (as in "you"), "a" is used, rather than "an":

 a unit
 not a one
 a unicorn

As a general rule, the indefinite article signals a person, thing or event that has not been
clearly defined by the speaker. It does not indicate a specific objection (which is the role
of the definite article); rather, it indicates any one object out of many possible ones (in
the singular), or any assortment or quantity from many possible assortments or
quantities (in the plural). It is often used after verbs of possession or consumption:

 Give me a coffee, please.

 I have a book you might like.
 She has some cherries for sale.

In the negative, the plural indefinite article changes: "some" is generally replaced by
"any" (this change also occurs in negative questions):

 Don't you have any cookies ?

 They don't have any books for sale.
 I have never had an accident.
 Definite articles
 General principles
 Omission of the article
 Use in negatives and interrogatives
 Related topics

General principles

The definite article "the" (invariable in form) designates a person, place, or event which
has been specified or defined by the speaker:

 Here's the book I bought.

 The cat is on the roof.
 He said he would bring the money.

Omission of the definite article

The definite article does not always precede nouns: sometimes indefinite
articles or partitive articles will be used. Often, though, no article at all is necessary, as
in the following cases:

1. As a general rule, the definite article is omitted before abstract nouns or nouns
representing general categories. It is often omitted after verbs expressing opinions or
preferences:

 Truth is the highest good.

 I don't like animals.
 Cats are nicer than dogs.
 Time flies.
 She likes coffee, but she hates tea.

2. Generally, the article is omitted before days of the week and dates:
 On Tuesdays the museums are closed.
 On Saturdays I sleep in.
 Friday night we are going dancing.
 I was born on June 16, 1980.

3. Generally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states, cities, and regions:

 France is seventeen times smaller than the United States.

 California is larger than Brittany.

Exception: Some names actually include the definite article, such as The Hague.

4. Generally, the article is omitted before titles or nouns indicating professions:

 President Mitterrand completed two terms.

 We saw Professor Miller at the restaurant.
 She met with Doctor Schmidt.

Use in negatives and interrogatives

The use of the definite article does not change in interrogatives and negatives.
 Partitive article: "some"

When the article "some" appears before a plural noun it functions like an indefinite
article:

 He has some tickets for the game.

 Some students decided not to attend the class.

However, when "some" appears before a singular noun, it is being used as a partitive.
This is to say that a part of something is indicated, or a partial (or indeterminate)
quantity is referred to. It is often used after verbs of possession or consumption:

 Do you have some time?

 We're going to buy some milk.
 I heard some bad news.
 She has some money to spend.
 Would you like some help ?

Note: After expressions of quantity, the partitive article is not used:

 Students buy a lot of pastries.

 Today people have more activities than before.

In negative expressions, the partitive article "some" generally becomes "any" (this
change will also occur in negative interrogatives):

 She doesn't have any money.

 They didn't have any milk.
 Don't you have any money?

The word "any" is not strictly necessary in the negative, and it may often be omitted:

 I never have accidents.

 They didn't have milk.
 5) Causative constructions

When one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has the action done by
someone else, this is expressed by a causative construction. In English it is the verb "to
have" that introduces the causative. The model will generally be: "to have"
(conjugated)+ direct object (noun or pronoun)+ principal verb (in its past participle
form):

 We'll have a monument erected on this site.

 I had my hair cut.

When one wishes to designate the agent of the action (the person who has carried out
the described action), there are two possibilities:

1. — "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its
past participle form) + "by" + agent (usually not as a pronoun):

 The professor had the work done by his lab assistants.

 I had it done by my employees.

2. — "to have" (conjugated) + agent (as a direct object noun or pronoun) + principal
verb (in its infinitive form) + the object (also in the form of a direct object noun or
pronoun)

 The professor had his students write an essay.

 I had him do it.

Note: Especially in spoken English, the verb "to get" often replaces "to have," in which
case "to" is added to the infinitive (but not before past participles). This construction
also suggests that it may be (or have been) difficult to produce a certain reaction on the
part of the agent:

 We'll get a monument erected on this site.

 The professor got his students to write an essay.
 When one wishes to express a change in temperament or in general conditions, it is the
construction "to make + adjective" which is used:

 That letter made her sad.

 He makes me furious!
 That new problem made negotiations really hard!
 6) Comparatives
 General principles
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Nouns
 Verbs
 Related topics

General principles

Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority,
inferiority, or equality of one term compared to another. The comparative can apply to
adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or even verbs. Whatever the part of speech concerned, the
structure of the comparison remains the same:

superiority more+term1 than+term2

inferiority less+term1 than+term2
eq. (adj/adv) as+term1 as+term2
equality(nouns) as much+term1 as+term2

Note: Certain common adjectives, and adverbs that do not end in –ly, omit “more�?
and take the ending –er. Thus fast –> faster; big –> bigger, small –> smaller, etc.

Adjectives

Adjectival comparisons follow these models:

 Jean is taller than Catherine.

 Philippe is less tall than Jean.
 Leila is as tall as Jean.

Note: Monosyllabic adjectives, and several common two-syllable adjectives, take the
ending "–er" and do not include the adverb "more":
 young –> younger
 tall –> taller
 old –> older

If the adjective ends in "–y" the "y" becomes "i":

 heavy –> heavier

 early –> earlier
 busy –> busier
 healthy –> healthier
 chilly –> chillier

If the adjective ends in "–e" only an "r" is needed:

 wise –> wiser

 large –> larger
 simple –> simpler
 late –> later

If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and
one adds "–er":

 red –> redder

 big –> bigger
 thin –> thinner
 hot –> hotter

Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:

 good –> better

 bad –> worse
 far –> farther

Adverbs

Adverbial comparisons follow these models:

 The students are working more diligently than the professor.
 This fellow speaks less eloquently than a schoolboy.
 They are all working as hard as possible!

Note: In comparisons indicating superiority, adverbs ending in "–ly" do not take the
adverb "more," but only the ending "–er". (However, these adverbs will function
normally in comparisons using "less" or "as.")

 fast –> faster

 hard –> harder

And some adverbs have irregular comparative forms :

 well –> better

 badly –> worse
 far –> farther

Nouns

Noun comparisons follow these patterns:

 I have more work than you.

 He has less homework than the rest of us.
 If only I had as much talent as she!

The comparative can signal quantities of nouns:

 I have less than five francs in my pocket.

 She has more than five hours worth of work to do.
 However, in comparisons of inferiority, and when the quantity represents a "countable"
noun, one should use the term "fewer" rather than "less":

 He works fewer than ten hours per week.

 Sam has fewer students than I do.

Verbs

"More," "less," and "as" can be used as adverbs to modify verbs:

 He eats more than he used to.

 That boy reads less than his friends.
 You ought to listen as much as you talk.

Superlatives
 General principles
 Irregular forms
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Related topics

General principles

When comparing two things one uses the comparative; however, for comparisons in
larger groups, it is the superlative which must be used. The superlative designates
extremes: the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.

The superlative operates like the comparative, with these exceptions:

 A. While the word "more" or the ending "–er" signals the comparative, it is the word
"most" or the ending "–est" that designates the superlative. (See irregular forms,
below):

 He is the most efficient worker we have.

 That is the poor est family in the neighborhood.

B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:

 He works the fastest of any student I know.

 She is the tallest woman in town.

B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses
"of," followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes
implicit):

 It's the best day of my life!

 She works the best of the whole class.
 She's the one who arrived first.

Irregular forms: Adjectives

Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two-syllable adjectives) take the ending
"–est" in superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most." However,
these same adjectives will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives of inferiority:

 young –> youngest

 tall –> tallest
 old –> oldest

If the adjective ends in "–y" the "y" becomes "i":

 heavy –> heaviest

 early –> earliest
 busy –> busiest
 healthy –> healthiest
 chilly –> chilliest

If the adjective ends in "–e" one adds only "–st" :

 wise –> wisest

 large –> largest
 simple –> simplest
 late –> latest

If the adjective ends in "single vowel +consonant," the consonant is doubled and one
adds "–est":

 red –> reddest

 big –> biggest
 thin –> thinnest
 hot –> hottest

Some very common superlatives have irregular forms:

 good –> best

 bad –> worst
 far –> farthest

Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:

 first
 last

Irregular forms: Adverbs

Adverbs not ending in "–ly" do not use the adverb "–most" in the formation of
superlatives of superiority, but use instead the ending "–est." However, these same
adverbs will use "less," like other adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:

 fast –> fastest

 hard –> hardest

And some adverbs have irregular forms:

 well –> best

 badly –> worst
 far –> farthest
 7) Conditional

The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping the
word "to"). The conditional is used especially in three contexts

1) Politeness

 I would like the menu, please.

 Would you have a couple of minutes for me?

2) To indicate the "future within the past":

 She said she would come to the party.

 I thought he would arrive before me.

3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the
subjunctive, the conditional is expected in the second clause:

 If I had the time, I would do my homework.

 If you told me the truth, I would believe you.

The "if" of hypothetical expressions can be implicit:

 In your position (= if I were you), I wouldn't have stayed.

See related topics:

 Past conditional
 Modal verbs

#Modal verbs
 General principles
 Contractions
 Question tag phrases: "isn't it," "wasn't it," etc.
 Related topics

General principles
 The auxiliary modals "would", "may", "might", "should", "must", "ought to", "can",
"could", "will", "shall" are invariable. They exist only in the present, and unlike most
verbs in the simple present, their form does not change in the third person singular.

Modal verbs are auxiliaries, or "helping" verbs: they are used in conjunction with
another verb (in infinitive form) as a way to modify its meaning. Modals can nuance the
meaning of the principal verb in a number of ways:
– Possibility or ability, by "can" or "could"
 I can do this job.
 Could you please do the dishes?

–Possibility or permission by "may" or "might" often translated in other languages

by a different mood, such as the subjunctive).

 I may finish my paper tonight.

 You may come with us, if you wish.
 It might be helpful to have a map.

– Obligation, or moral obligation, by "must", "ought to" o "should":

 Students must hand in their work on time.

 You ought to see a doctor.
 You should never play with fire.

Note that "must" can also indicate probability:

 You must be exhausted!

 He must play tennis pretty well.

The modal verb "would" is used to express the conditional:

 If he had time, he would pick up some groceries.

 The modal verb "will" expresses future:

 The train will arrive in an hour.

Contractions

After a pronoun subject, "would" is often contracted into "–'d" ("I'd", "we'd", "she'd",
etc.) while "will" is contracted into "–'ll" ("I'll", "you'll", "they'll", etc.). After all modal
verbs, the word "not" of the negative can be contracted into "–n't" ("wouldn't",
"shouldn't", etc.).

Exceptions: "will not" becomes "won't". "Can not" can also be written "cannot"; in its
contracted form, the "n" is not doubled: "can't".

Note: The contraction of the modal verbs "shall," "ought," and "may," is considered
slightly archaic or literary.

examples of contractions:

 I wouldn't (would not) do that, if I were you!

 They'll (they will) never believe it!
 She won't (will not) bother you anymore.

Question tag phrases ("isn't it," "wasn't it," etc.)

Modals can be used in a negative interrogative form after an affirmative expression. The
function of such an expression is to prompt the listener to reassert or reaffirm what has
been stated:
 You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?
 You can understand that, can't you?

The modal verb used in the interrogative tag is generally the same as the modal found
in the main clause; the subject pronoun is also repeated.

After a negative sentence, the modal tag phrase is in the affirmative:

 You wouldn't want to try it, would you?

 She won't be back, will she?

#Past conditional
The past conditional is expressed using the modal "would" before a past infinitive
(= "have" + past participle). This construction serves to express missed opportunities
and past hypotheses:

 She told me that she would have liked to come and see us.
 In your position, I would have done the same thing.

One finds it often in hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the
pluperfect, the conditional past is expected in the second clause:

 If I had had the time, I would have done my homework.

 If you had told me the truth, I would have believed you.
 If he had worked harder, he'd have received a better grade.

Note: In certain regions (principally in the United States) one hears the conditional past
in both clauses of hypothetical expressions:

 If you would have told me he was going to win, I wouldn't have believed you.
This usage is not recommended in writing.
 8) Direct and indirect discourse

When one reports what others have said word for word, this is called "direct discourse."
It is generally signaled by the presence of quotation marks:

 Philippe said, "I'll come if I have the time."

 My roommate said, "Clean the place up, or get out of here!"

When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct quotation,
this is called "indirect discourse." Indirect discourse entails certain changes:

A. Quotation marks are not used:

direct discourse: He told me, "You're stupid"

indirect discourse: He told me that I was stupid.

B. When the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is it generally preceded by

"that"; however, the inclusion of "that" is optional:

 She said that she would be late.

 OR: She said she would be late.

 They informed us that the plane was delayed.

 OR: They informed us the plane was delayed.

C. Imperative forms, when recounted in indirect discourse, generally become infinitive

constructions:

direct discourse: He told me, "Write to me."

indirect discourse: He told me to write him.

direct discourse: I told them, "Get out of here!"

indirect discourse: I told them to get out of here.
D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that verb
tenses reflect the change in temporal context:

direct discourse: She said, "I will be on time."

indirect discourse: She said she would be on time.

direct discourse: When he called he said, "I am at the airport"

indirect discourse: When he called he said he was at the airport.
 9) Near future

Especially in spoken English one finds the near future used as a way of describing
imminent events. Strictly speaking, the near future is not a future tense, for it is formed
by combining the present tense of the verb "to go," conjugated in the present
progressive, with the infinitive of the principal verb.

 We are going to leave soon.

 I’m going to give her a call.

Also used to express imminent actions is the construction "to be about to do

something," also conjugated in the present.

 I am about to lose my temper!

 The detective is about to stop the criminal.

One can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in order to express a "future
within the past":

 He said he was going to do it.

 She was going to buy a new car, but she never did.
 When I saw them, they were about to make a decision.

Present progressive
 General principles
 Near future
 In negative constructions
 Related topics

General principles

The present progressive is a version of the present which emphasizes the fact that an
action is still unfolding (or is continuing) at the time one speaks. It is formed by using the
auxilary "to be" with the present participle:

 I am working.
 He is eating his dinner.
 The cat is meowing.
 Usually, the present progressive indicates that one is "in the process of" or "in the
midst of" doing something. If this is the idea one wishes to communicate, the present
progressive will be preferable to the simple present. If you cannot replace the verb by a
form of "to be in the process of", the present progressive should probably not be used.
Indications of emotion, belief, and possession are rarely conjugated in the present
progressive:

 I think that is right. ["I am in the process of thinking" would be awkward.]

 Cheryl owns her own house. ["Cheryl is in the process of owning" would be awkward.]

In certain situations the present progressive can indicate an action which will take place
in the immediate future:

 I am going to the movies this evening.

 They are leaving tomorrow.

Near future

To emphasize the idea of future action while using the present tense, one may use the
verb "to go"; it indicates what one is going to do. In this case the principle verb remains
in the infinitive:

 I know he is going to yell at me!

 They are going to regret that decision.

Note: The near future can also be used in past constructions, in which case the verb "to
go" is conjugated in the past progressive:

 She was going to leave, but the telephone rang.

 Present progressive in the negative

The word "not" comes after the auxiliary "to be":

 He is not working very hard.

 You are not driving fast enough.

Negation
 "Not"
 Negative questions
 Negative constructions ("never", "no one", "nothing", etc.)

"Not"

The most common way to put a phrase in the negative is by using "not." Generally,
"not" must follow an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or a modal ("shall", "must",
"might", "will", etc.), even if this verb adds no meaning to the sentence. When no other
modal is present or appropriate, the verb "to do" is used.

Here are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negative form:

 I want to play the piano.

–> I do not want to play the piano.
 He will arrive on time.
–> He will not arrive on time.
 They should go out together.
–> They should not go out together.

Note: Most often, the adverb "not" will be contracted to "–n't" after
an auxiliary or modalverb:

 is not –> isn't

 should not –> shouldn't
 does not –> doesn't
 must not –> mustn't
 has not –> hasn't
 will not –> won't

Questions

The same structure (placing "not" after the verb) will hold for questions:

 Isn't it time to leave?

 Wouldn't you care for a drink?

Note: If one chooses not contract "not" to "–n't", the adverb "not" will be placed after
the subject in the question. This style is considered literary:

 Is it not time to leave.

 Would you not care for a drink?

Using "not" instead of the contraction can produce certain stylistic effects:

To stress the negative meaning of the sentence:

 "He will not come to your house" is stronger than "He won't come to your house"

To affect a literary style, especially in the formation of a questions:

 Will you not come by and see us?

 Negative constructions

Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double or
triple negatives, it is important to avoid using "not" with other negative constructions.
When "not" is included, use the affirmative forms of other adverbs:

No more / not... any more

 I want no more of your money

 I don't want any more of your money.

No one / not... anyone

 No one called tonight.

 I don't want to see anyone tonight.

Never / not... ever

 She never wants to see him again.

 She doesn'tever want to see him again.

Nothing / not... anything

 He does nothing at all.

 Can't you do anything right?

Nowhere / not... anywhere

 Where are you going? — Nowhere.

 I don't want to go anywhere.
 Not a single / not... a single

 Not a single letter arrived today.

 He doesn't have a single idea what we're doing.

Neither... nor...

 We neither ate nor drank during the ceremony.

 I like neither tomatoes nor zucchini.

Only (always placed before the element one wishes to limit):

 She only has seven dollars.

 We were only playing.
 They were the only ones to come.

Questions
 Simple questions
 "Do"
 Inversion
 Modal verbs ("will", "would", etc.)
 Interrogative adverbs ("how?", "when", "why?", etc.)
 Interrogative pronouns ("who", "whom", "what", etc.)
 "Which", "which one"

Simple questions

Simple questions (that is, questions to which one can respond by a simple "yes" or "no")
may be formed in three different ways:

1. "Do": one precedes an assertion with "do" or "does" (or "don't" or "doesn't" for a
negative expression, or "did", "didn't" for the past):

 Do you want to go to the movies?

 Does she work at IBM?
 Don't you travel quite a bit?
 Do they answer questions quickly?
 Didn't they want to eat?

But: One never places "do" or "does" before the verb "to be" or before modal verbs in
questions; in this case it is preferable to invert the subject and verb:

 Are you coming to the reception?

 Was the meeting boring?
 Weren't you hungry?

2. Inversion: with certain verbs (especially the verbs "to be", "to do", "to have"
and modal verbs) questions are formed by inverting the subject and object. (In the case
of the verb "to have," which is usually combined with "do" in interrogatives, inversion
signals a literary style.)

 Is Jack home?
 Have you nothing to declare?
 Would you like to go to the movies?
 Will they ever come to visit?
 Can the employees talk to the boss?
 Won't you sit down?

3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is used in a sentence, or if it is strongly implied, a

modal phrase can be used to make an interrogative form. The modal phrase is typically
an inversion of the subject and verb, in the negative, repeated at the end of the
sentence:

 It's time to go, isn't it?

 He'd like to come with us, wouldn't he?
 You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?
 You can understand that, can't you?

In the case of a negative question, the modal phrase would be in the affirmative:

 You wouldn't want to try it, would you?

 She won't be back, will she?

(See also: negations)

Interrogative adverbs
 Simple questions solicit a "yes" or "no" answer. More precise questions may be formed
by using the interrogative adverbs: when, why, how, how much, where. Generally, the
interrogative adverb precedes the rest of the question; then the order of the sentence
follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".

 Where are you going?

 Why do you want to take this class?
 How much do you earn a month?
 How do these machines work?
 When do you expect to get home?

See also: Questions, Interrogatives pronouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask who has done what, to whom, why, with what,
etc. Normally these pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence; hen the order
of the sentence follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do
/ does".

One chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to the following table:

gramm. gramm. obj. of a

subject object preposition

person who whom whom

thing what what what

pronoun which(one) which(one) which(one)

of selection

subject (person): who + question

 Who did this painting?

 Who wants to get an ice cream?

subject (thing): what + question

 What interests you?

 What is good in this restaurant?
 direct object (person): whom + question

 Whom did you see in France?

 Whom are you going to meet at this reception?

direct object (thing): what + question

 What do you want to do this evening?

 What are you preparing?

object of a preposition (person): preposition + whom + question

 About whom are you thinking?

 With whom did you go out?

Note: In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the sentence, in
which case one uses "who" instead of "whom"

 Who are you thinking about?

 Who did you go out with?

object of a preposition (thing): preposition + what + question

 With what did you open it?

 In what way does that concern you?

Note: In spoken English, the preposition is often put at the end of the sentence:

 What did you open it with?

 What did did they base their opinion on?

Which, which one, which ones

The adjective "which" and its pronominal forms ("which", "which one", "which ones")
ask that a person make a choice. Usually these pronouns will be placed at the
beginning of the sentence; then the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated
for inversion o para question formed with "do / does".

 Which film do you want to see?

 Which date did you choose?
 Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?
 There are many different Burgundy wines. Which ones do you like?

Past progressive

The past progressive is a past tense which emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action
described. It is formed by using the auxiliary "to be" with the present participle:

 I was working.
 He was eating his dinner when the phone rang.
 The cat was meowing last night while we tried to sleep.

Normally, if an idea could be expressed with the expression "was in the process of
doing" or with "was in the midst of doing," the past progressive will be more appropriate
than the simple past. Consequently, verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, etc.,
are rarely conjugated in the past progressive:

 I thought that was right. ["I was in the process of thinking..." would be awkward.]
 Cheryl owned her own house. ["Cheryl was in the midst of owning..." would be
awkward.]

Note: Do not use the past progressive in order to describe habitual actions in the past.

Habitual actions in the past

To describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, one generally uses the
construction used to + verb. Thus:

 When I was little, we used to go camping a lot.

 When my father was in school, they used to slap children who didn't behave.
 I used to work days, but now I work the night shift.

In spoken English, one often uses the common construction with the modal "would,"
followed by the main verb:

 When we were kids, we would haze each other quite a bit.

 When I was little, we would go camping a lot.
 When my father was in school, they would slap children who didn't behave.

The preterit

As a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending "–ed" to the infinitive
(dropping any unpronounced "e" in final position, and changing any final "y" to "i"):

 to walk –> walked

 to answer –> answered
 to want –> wanted
 to smile –> smiled
 to cry –> cried

The preterit forms of many common verbs are irregular:

 to be –> was (singular), were (plural)

 to have –> had
 to do –> did
 to make –> made
 to eat –> ate
 to go –> went
 to drink –> drank
 to think –> thought
 to bring –> brought
 to drive –> drove
 to write –> wrote
 to sing –> sang
 to build –> built

(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits and past participles).

Usage

The preterit expresses actions which were completed in the past. Unlike those
described by the present perfect, these actions do not continue in the present. Unlike
 the past progressive, the preterit does not describe the process or duration of actions: it
states them only as completed actions:

 She went to the store this afternoon.

 They called the police.
 He came, he saw, he conquered.

The duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may describe an action
lasting an instant or many years. Thus verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession,
location, etc. will often be expressed in the preterit:

 I lived in London for three years.

 She owned three dogs throughout her childhood.
 I never trusted what they told me.

In the negative and interrogative, the auxiliary verb "to do", — conjugated in the preterit
— will be used with the infinitive to express the past:

 Did you arrive in time?

 Didn't you eat yet?
 We didn't go to the movies after all.
 10) Future perfect

Relatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action
which precedes a future moment or another future action. Moreover, it asserts that
these actions will be completed before the principal action. It is formed by adding
the modal "will" al auxiliary "have," preceding the past participle:

 She will have finished before eight o'clock.

 Tomorrow morning they will all have left.
 They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.

One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is lost:
the simple future does not emphasize the completion of the first action:

 Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize that they
will already have departed before tomorrow morning.)
 They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we arrive; the
future perfect would emphasize that they will have finished before we arrive.)

simple future

The simple future uses the modal "will" followed by the infinitive (dropping the
preposition "to"). It serves to express actions which will take place at a specified time, or
to signal the beginning of an action. (If, on the other hand, one wishes to describe an
action which is in the process of occurring, it is the future progressive which will be used
to express it.)

 I will meet you at five o'clock.

 She will go to the library this evening.
 We will dance all night long.

One sometimes find the modal "shall" in place of "will". This usage, generally reserved
for the first person, is considered archaic:

 What shall I do ?

Note: this usage of "shall" to indicate the future is different from the commonplace
usage of "shall" to indicate desire or wishes. See modal verbs.
 11) Auxiliary verbs

An auxiliary verb ("helping" verb) is combined with the principal verb to form certain
tenses or moods. (See also the modal verbs, which nuance the meaning of the verbs
they accompany.) The only true auxiliary verbs in English are "to be", "to have" and "to
do".

"To be" is an auxiliary verb for the progressive tenses (See the present progressive, the
past progressive, the future progressive):

 I am going home.
 She was fishing with her father.
 We will be calling on you later.

"To have" is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including the present perfect, the
present perfect progressive, the pluperfect, the future perfect, the past conditional:

 We have finished.
 They hadn't waited for us.

"To do" is an auxiliary verb for making questions and negations in both present
simple and the preterit:

 Do you have any money?

 Did you hear me?
 He doesn't want to help us.
 12) Irregular preterits and past participles

This alphabetical list shows the irregular forms of the most common verbs. Each entry
includes the infinitive, the preterit, and the past participle. In cases where variant forms
exist, they will be shown at the end of the entry. Literary or archaic forms are marked by
an asterisk (*). The past participle is used in many conjugations, including the present
perfect, the pluperfect, the past conditional, and the future perfect.

 can = could [pret.], been able [p.p.]

 may = might [pret.]
 to abide = abode [pret., p.p.]
 to arise = arose [pret.], arisen [p.p.]
 to awake = awoke [pret.], awakened [p.p.]
 to be = was, were [pret.], been [p.p.]
 to bear = bore [pret.], borne [p.p.]
 to beat = beat [pret.], beaten [p.p.]
 to become = became [pret.], become [p.p.]
 to befall = befell [pret.], befallen [p.p.]
 to begin = began [pret.], begun [p.p.]
 to bend = bent [pret., p.p.]
 to beseech = besought [pret., p.p.]
 to bet = bet [pret., p.p.]
 to bid = bid [pret., p.p.]; bade [pret.]*
 to bind = bound [pret., p.p.]
 to bite = bit [pret.], bitten [p.p.]
 to bleed = bled [pret., p.p.]
 to blow = blew [pret.], blown [p.p.]
 to break = broke [pret.], broken [p.p.]
 to breed = bred [pret., p.p.]
 to bring = brought [pret., p.p.]
 to build = built [pret., p.p.]
 to burn = burned [pret., p.p.]; burnt [pret., p.p.]*
 to burst = burst [pret., p.p.]
 to buy = bought [pret., p.p.]
 to cast = cast [pret., p.p.]
 to catch = caught [pret., p.p.]
 to choose = chose [pret.], chosen [p.p.]
 to cleave = cleaved [pret., p.p.]; cleft [pret., p.p.]*
 to cling = clung [pret., p.p.]
 to come = came [pret.], come [p.p.]
 to cost = cost [pret., p.p.]
 to creep = crept [pret., p.p.]; creeped [pret.]
 to cut = cut [pret., p.p.]
 to deal = dealt [pret., p.p.]
 to dig = dug [pret., p.p.]
 to do = did [pret.], done [p.p.]
 to draw = drew [pret.], drawn [p.p.]
 to dream = dreamed [pret., p.p.]; dreamt [pret., p.p.]*
 to drink = drank [pret.], drunk [p.p.]
 to drive = drove [pret.], driven [p.p.]
 to dwell = dwelled [pret., p.p.]; dwelt [pret., p.p.]*
 to eat = ate [pret.]; eaten [p.p.]
 to fall = fell [pret.], fallen [p.p.]
 to feed = fed [pret., p.p.]
 to fight = fought [pret., p.p.]
 to find = found [pret., p.p.]
 to flee = fled [pret., p.p.]
 to fling = flung [pret., p.p.]
 to fly = flew [pret.]; flown [p.p.]
 to forbid = forbad [pret.]; forbidden [p.p.]
 to forget = forgot [pret.]; forgotten [p.p.]
 to forsake = forsook [pret.]; forsaken [p.p.]
 to freeze = froze [pret.]; frozen [p.p.]
 to get = got [pret., p.p.]; gotten [p.p.]
 to gild = gild [p.p.]
 to give = gave [pret.], given [p.p.]
 to go = went [pret.], gone [p.p.]
 to grind = ground [pret., p.p.]
 to grow = grew [pret.], grown [p.p.]
 to hang = hung [pret., p.p.]; hanged (·éxécution·) [pret., p.p.]
 to have = had [pret., p.p.]
 to hear = heard [pret., p.p.]
 to hew = hewn [p.p.]
 to hide = hid [pret.]; hidden [p.p.]
 to hit = hit [pret., p.p.]
 to hold = held [pret., p.p.]
 to hurt = hurt [pret., p.p.]
 to keep = kept [pret., p.p.]
 to kneel = kneeled [pret., p.p.]
 to kneel = knelt [pret., p.p.]
 to know = knew [pret.], known [p.p.]
 to lay = laid [pret., p.p.]
 to lead = led [pret., p.p.]
 to lean = leaned [pret., p.p.]
 to lean = leant [pret., p.p.]
 to leap = leaped [pret., p.p.]
 to leap = leapt [pret., p.p.]
 to learn = learned [pret., p.p.]
 to learn = learnt [pret., p.p.]
 to leave = left [pret., p.p.]
 to lend = lent [pret., p.p.]
 to let = let [pret., p.p.]
 to lie = lay [pret.], lain [p.p.]
 to light = lit [pret., p.p.]
 to lose = lost [pret., p.p.]
 to make = made [pret., p.p.]
 to mean = meant [pret., p.p.]
 to meet = met [pret., p.p.]
 to mow = mowed [pret.], mown [p.p.]
 to pay = paid [pret., p.p.]
 to put = put [pret., p.p.]
 to quit = quit [pret., p.p.]
 to read = read [pret., p.p.]
 to rebuild = rebuilt [pret., p.p.]
 to recut = recut [pret., p.p.]
 to redeal = redealt [pret., p.p.]
 to redo = redid [pret.], redone [p.p.]
 to relay = relaid [pret., p.p.]
 to remake = remade [pret., p.p.]
 to rend = rent [pret., p.p.]
 to repay = repaid [pret., p.p.]
 to reread = reread [pret., p.p.]
 to rerun = reran [pret.], rerun [p.p.]
 to resend = resent [pret., p.p.]
 to reset = reset [pret., p.p.]
 to retake = retook [pret.], retaken [p.p.]
 to reteach = retaught [pret., p.p.]
 to retell = retold [pret., p.p.]
 to rethink = rethought [pret., p.p.]
 to rewrite = rewrote [pret.], rewritten [p.p.]
 to rid = rid [pret., p.p.]
 to ride = rode [pret.], ridden [p.p.]
 to ring = rang [pret.], rung [p.p.]
 to rise = rose [pret.], risen [p.p.]
 to run = ran [pret.], run [p.p.]
 to saw = sawed [pret., p.p.]; sawn [p.p.]*
 to say = said [pret., p.p.]
 to see = saw [pret.], seen [p.p.]
 to seek = sought [pret., p.p.]
 to sell = sold [pret., p.p.]
 to send = sent [pret., p.p.]
 to set = set [pret., p.p.]
 to sew = sewed [pret., p.p.]; sewn [p.p.]
 to shake = shook [pret.], shaken [p.p.]
 to shave = shaved [pret., p.p.]; shaven [p.p.]
 to shear = sheared [pret., p.p.]; shorn [p.p.]
 to shed = shed [pret., p.p.]
 to shine = shone [pret., p.p.]; shined [pret.]
 to shoe = shod [pret., p.p.]
 to shoot = shot [pret., p.p.]
 to show = showed [pret., p.p.]; shown [p.p.]
 to shrink = shrank [pret.], shrunk [p.p.]
 to shut = shut [pret., p.p.]
 to sing = sang [pret.], sung [p.p.]
 to sink = sank [pret.], sunk [p.p.]
 to sit = sat [pret., p.p.]
 to slay = slew [pret.], slain [p.p.]
 to sleep = slept [pret., p.p.]
 to slide = slid [pret., p.p.]
 to sling = slung [pret., p.p.]
 to slink = slunk [pret., p.p.]
 to slit = slit [pret., p.p.]
 to smell = smelled [pret., p.p.]
 to smell = smelt [pret., p.p.]
 to smite = smote [pret.], smitten [p.p.]
 to sow = sowed [pret., p.p.]; sown [p.p.]
 to speak = spoke [pret.], spoken [p.p.]
 to speed = sped [pret., p.p.]
 to spell = spelled [pret., p.p.]
 to spell = spelt [pret., p.p.]
 to spend = spent [pret., p.p.]
 to spill = spilled [pret., p.p.]
 to spill = spilt [pret., p.p.]
 to spin = spun [pret., p.p.]
 to spit = spat [pret., p.p.]
 to split = split [pret., p.p.]
 to spoil = spoiled [pret., p.p.]; spoilt [pret., p.p.]
 to spread = spread [pret., p.p.]
 to spring = sprang [pret.]; sprung [p.p.]
 to stand = stood [pret., p.p.]
 to steal = stole [pret.], stolen [p.p.]
 to stick = stuck [pret., p.p.]
 to sting = stung [pret., p.p.]
 to stink = stank [pret.], stunk [p.p.]
 to stride = strode [pret.], stridden [p.p.]
 to strike = struck [pret., p.p.]; stricken [p.p.]
 to string = strung [pret., p.p.]
 to strive = strove [pret.], striven [p.p.]
 to swear = swore [pret.], sworn [p.p.]
 to sweep = swept [pret., p.p.]
 to swell = swelled [pret.], swollen [p.p.]
 to swim = swam [pret.], swum [p.p.]
 to swing = swung [pret., p.p.]
 to take = took [pret.], taken [p.p.]
 to teach = taught [pret., p.p.]
 to tear = tore [pret.], torn [p.p.]
 to tell = told [pret., p.p.]
 to think = thought [pret., p.p.]
 to thrive = thrived [pret., p.p.]
 to throw = threw [pret.], thrown [p.p.]
 to thrust = thrust [pret., p.p.]
 to tread = trod [pret.], trodden [p.p.]
 to undo = undid [pret.], undone [p.p.]
 to unlearn = unlearned [pret., p.p.]; unlearnt [pret., p.p.]*
 to unwind = unwound [pret., p.p.]
 to wake = woke [pret.], woken [p.p.]
 to wear = wore [pret.], worn [p.p.]
 to weave = wove [pret.], woven [p.p.]; weaved [pret.]
 to weep = wept [pret., p.p.]
 to win = won [pret., p.p.]
 to wind = wound [pret., p.p.]
 to withdraw = withdrew [pret.], withdrawn [p.p.]
 to wring = wrung [pret., p.p.]
 to write = wrote [pret.], written [p.p.]
 13) Never, Nothing, Nowhere, Only

Negation
 "Not"
 Negative questions
 Negative constructions ("never", "no one", "nothing", etc.)

"Not"

The most common way to put a phrase in the negative is by using "not." Generally,
"not" must follow an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or a modal ("shall", "must",
"might", "will", etc.), even if this verb adds no meaning to the sentence. When no other
modal is present or appropriate, the verb "to do" is used.

Here are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negative form:

 I want to play the piano.

–> I do not want to play the piano.
 He will arrive on time.
–> He will not arrive on time.
 They should go out together.
–> They should not go out together.

Note: Most often, the adverb "not" will be contracted to "–n't" after
an auxiliary or modalverb:

 is not –> isn't

 should not –> shouldn't
 does not –> doesn't
 must not –> mustn't
 has not –> hasn't
 will not –> won't

Questions

The same structure (placing "not" after the verb) will hold for questions:

 Isn't it time to leave?

 Wouldn't you care for a drink?

Note: If one chooses not contract "not" to "–n't", the adverb "not" will be placed after
the subject in the question. This style is considered literary:
 Is it not time to leave.
 Would you not care for a drink?

Using "not" instead of the contraction can produce certain stylistic effects:

To stress the negative meaning of the sentence:

 "He will not come to your house" is stronger than "He won't come to your house"

To affect a literary style, especially in the formation of a questions:

 Will you not come by and see us?

Negative constructions

Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double or
triple negatives, it is important to avoid using "not" with other negative constructions.
When "not" is included, use the affirmative forms of other adverbs:

No more / not... any more

 I want no more of your money

 I don't want any more of your money.

No one / not... anyone

 No one called tonight.

 I don't want to see anyone tonight.

Never / not... ever

 She never wants to see him again.

 She doesn'tever want to see him again.

Nothing / not... anything

 He does nothing at all.

 Can't you do anything right?

Nowhere / not... anywhere

 Where are you going? — Nowhere.

 I don't want to go anywhere.

Not a single / not... a single

 Not a single letter arrived today.

 He doesn't have a single idea what we're doing.

Neither... nor...

 We neither ate nor drank during the ceremony.

 I like neither tomatoes nor zucchini.

Only (always placed before the element one wishes to limit):

 She only has seven dollars.

 We were only playing.
 They were the only ones to come.
 14) Nouns
 Gender
 Plural
 Related topics

Gender

In English nouns rarely change form, even to indicate gender. As a general rule, only
nouns referring to people and some animals reflect gender in their form. By the same
token, unlike many other languages, the adjectives modifying nouns will remain
unchanged.

Example:

 My poor little dog died.

However, certain nouns — especially those referring to people – may have different
forms to indicate masculin or feminine usage:

 man — woman
 gentleman — lady
 actor — actress
 uncle — aunt
 father — mother

The same can be said of certain male and female animals:

 a buck, a doe
 a ram, a ewe
 a bull, a cow
 a stallion, a mare
 In other cases, the word "male" or "female" is added, if it is considered necessary to be
specific:

 a female cat
 a male giraffe

Note: If the gender of the person or animal is known, one will generally use the pronoun
"he" or "she" to refer to it, as appropriate. When the gender is left unstated, the pronoun
"he" is generally used when speaking of people, or "it" when speaking of animals. Some
objects are also considered to be gendered in certain usages: some people may refer to
a boat or a car as "she."

Certain nouns (especially the names of professions) are traditionally associated with
men or women, in which case one signals exceptions to the tradition by adding
"woman" (or "lady") or "man" to the term:

 They are in a group of male dancers.

 My wife prefers to see a woman doctor.

Plurals

As a general rule, the plural is formed by adding "-s" to the singular form of nouns.

 shoe –> shoes

 book –> books
 river –> rivers

Nouns ending in "s" or "s" will generally take the ending "-es" :

 bus –> buses

 kiss –> kisses
 Words ending in "y" will generally take the ending "-ies" in place of the "y":

 party –> parties

 supply –> supplies

Certain words have very irregular forms in the plural:

 one man –> two men

 one woman –> two women
 one person –> two people
 one foot –> two feet
 one mouse –> two mice
 one goose –> two geese
 one tooth –> two teeth
 one wife –> two wives
 one child –> two children
 one knife –> two knives
 one thief –> two thieves
 one dwarf –> two dwarves (or: dwarfs)
 one potato –> two potatoes
 one leaf –> two leaves
 one life –> two lives
 one loaf –> two loaves
 one half –> two halves

A small set of words do not change form in the plural:

 one moose –> two moose

 one sheep –> two sheep
 one aircraft –> two aircraft

Words of Greek or Latin origin which have retained their original endings will generally
take the plural form associated with the language they are drawn from:

 one alumnus –> two alumni

 one syllabus –> two syllabi
 one alumna –> two alumnae
 one alga –> many algae
 one criterion –> many criteria
 one forum –> many fora (or: forums)
 one thesis –> two theses
 one hypothesis –> two hypotheses
 one phenomenon –> two phenomena
 one cactus –> two cacti (or: cactuses)
 one diagnosis –> two diagnoses
 one oasis –> two oases
 one analysis –> two analyses

A few nouns are invariable or collective, always indicating a plural meaning:

 She gave me some information.

 Michelle has a lot of clothes.

Capital letters

Certain nouns are generally capitalized, including: days of the week and months; names
of holidays, cities (or states, etc.) and religions; nouns of nationality:

 Minneapolis
 Jewish
 Monday
 April
 15) Personal pronouns
 Forms
 Subject pronouns
 Predicate pronouns
 Order of pronouns
 Related topics

The following are the different forms for personal pronouns in English:

person subject object

1st I me
2nd you you
3rd it, he, she it, him, her
1st plural we us
3rd plural they them

Use of the subject pronoun

Subject pronouns reflect the nouns they replace. Since English nouns rarely show
gender, the pronouns "he" and "she" are generally used only for people or animals; in
the case of objects or impersonal expressions, the pronoun "it" will be used.

Examples:

 She wants to eat.

 You look tired.
 It is hard to cook well.

Use of predicate pronouns

Predicate pronouns will always have the same form whether they are used as direct,
indirect, or prepositional objects. The forms are: "me", "you", "it", "him", "her", "us",
"them".
 Whatever the form of the sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative), direct objects
— or the pronouns replacing them — will follow the verb:

 Did you buy it?

 You didn't buy it.
 You bought it.

Prepositional objects will come after their preposition:

 Will you come to the store with me?

 He left without her.

Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the
pronoun precedes the direct object, in which case the proposition "to" disappears:

 I have spoken to her.

 I gave this present to them.
 But: I gave them this present.

Order of pronouns

When a verb is followed by two or more pronouns, the following sequence is observed:
object object
subj. verb obj. indirect prep.
He gave it to me for Christmas

Examples:

 Don't tell that to him.

 He couldn't sell the car to them.

Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an indirect
object, in which case the indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:

 He gave me it for Christmas.

 Don't tell him that.
 He couldn't sell them the car.
 Relative pronouns
 General information
 Subject pronouns
 Object pronouns
 Possession ("whose")
 As prepositional objects
 Time
 Space
 Related topics

General information

Relative pronouns are used to join two sentences. For example, the following two
sentences,

 I found an apartment. This apartment has three rooms.

may be joined using a relative pronoun:

 I found an apartment which has three rooms.

Relative pronouns have many different forms: who, whom, whose, that, which, that
which, what. The pronoun is selected based on the following criteria:

1. What is the grammatical function of the pronoun? Is it a subject, a direct object, or a

prepositional object?

2. Does the pronoun refer to a person or a thing (or a situation)?

3. Does the pronoun have an antecedent, or does it represent an unknown entity?

 4. Does it represent a special case (possession, time, or space)?

According to the role it plays, the pronoun will take one of the following forms:

specific specific unspecified

person thing thing

subject who that that which

which what

dir obj who that that which

whom which what

subject prep+whom prep+which prep+what

that+prep+
which

Subjects

The pronoun "who" expresses a grammatical subject when this subject is a person;
"that" or "which" are used (indifferently by most speakers) to represent subjects which
are things, events, situations, etc.

 There's the man who stole my wallet!

 I read a novel that entertained me a great deal.
 He made a mistake which embarrassed him.

When the antecedent is vague or totally absent, one uses "what" or (less commonly)
"that which":

 What interests me in this film is the music.

 That which eludes us intrigues us the most.
 I don't know what happened.
 Objects

The pronoun "whom" (in spoken language one often hears "who") expresses a
grammatical object when this object is a person; "that" or "which" are used (indifferently
by most speakers) to represent objects which are things, events, situations, etc.

 She is a person whom I respect a great deal.

 He ordered a beverage which he didn't drink.
 She is talking about the trip that we're going to take.

Note: Use of the relative pronoun is optional (except in the case of "what" or "that
which" when referring to specific antecedents); the same sentences as above may be
written correctly without the pronoun:

 She is a person I respect a great deal.

 He ordered a beverage he didn't drink.
 She is talking about the trip we're going to take.

When the antecedent is vague or absent, on uses "what" or (less often) "that which":

 You can do what you want.

 What they are doing seems useful.

Possession: "whose" / "of which"

The pronoun "whose" expresses possession when the subject is a person; it will often
be replaced by "of which" if it refers to an object, an event, etc.:

 The tourist whose ticket had expired filed a complaint.

 There is the man whose mother is our mayor.
 That was a good article, the point of which was to make us think.
 Prepositional objects

The preposition generally precedes the appropriate pronoun:

 Here's the pattern with which I made this shirt.

 The woman for whom I work is quite strict.
 Here's the tree next to which Newton was sitting.
 They went out for dinner, after which they went home.

In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the clause.
Moreover, with the pronoun "what" this structure is required, even in written English:

 Here's the pattern which I made this shirt with.

 The woman whom I work for is quite strict.
 Here's the tree which Newton was sitting next to.
 Tell me what you're thinking about.

Time

The pronoun "when" is used with nouns indicating time. However, it is rarely necessary
to include this pronoun, and it is often omitted:

 I remember the day when we met.

 I remember the day we met.
 He arrived at the moment when we were speaking of him.
 He arrived at the moment we were speaking of him.

Space
 When more specific prepositions (such as "on," "under,", etc.) are not necessary, the
general pronoun "where" will suffice:

 Here's the house where my parents were born.

 She doesn't know where she's going.
 Possession
 Possessive adjectives
 Possessive pronouns
 "To belong"
 The "s" of possession
 "Whose"

In English possession may be expressed in five different ways:

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives agree with the person to whom they refer:

 I –> my
 you –> your
 he, her, it –> his (masculine), her (feminine), its (impersonal)
 we –> our
 they –> their

So,

 I have lost my keys.

 They are coming in their car.
 I met your grandparents.
 This car has lost its power.

Note: In English the possessive adjective is used to refer to parts of the body:

 She brushes her teeth twice a day.

 He broke his arm playing soccer.
 His stomach aches.
 Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns, like the adjectives, agree with the person to whom they refer.
Singular and plural share the same form:

 I –> mine
 your –> yours
 he, she, it –> his (masculine), hers (feminine), its (impersonal)
 we –> ours
 they –> theirs

So,

 I have my likes, and she has hers.

 If you give me one of yours, I'll give you one of mine.
 I like our house, but frankly, I am jealous of theirs!
 That's mine!

The verb "to belong to"

The verb "to belong to" indicates ownership or possession:

 That poodle belongs to Louise.

 The world belongs to you.

The "s" of possession

One may add "–'s" to any noun in order to indicate possession:

 I just read Gustave's book.

 The front door's lock is broken.
 Many of the world's countries are poor.
 Note: Do not confuse the "s" of possession with the contraction of the verb "is":

 Fred's going to fetch it. (= Fred is going to fetch it.)

 The train's late again. (=The train is late again.)

"Whose" for indicating possession

"Whose" will be placed before the possession (the object possessed), and will refer
ownership to the preceding noun:

 The man whose dog bit me said he was sorry. (The dog belongs to the man.)
 Here is the woman whose daughter I intend to marry.(The woman is the mother of the
daughter.)
 Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon the
subject of the verb: the subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of reflexive
pronouns correspond to the forms of the subject pronouns:

 I –> myself
 you (singular) –> yourself
 you (plural) –> yourselves
 he –> himself
 she –> herself
 it –> itself
 we –> ourselves
 they –> themselves

To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the case of
an intransitive verb, it will follow any preposition used with the verb). If there are multiple
verbs in the sentence, the reflexive pronoun follows the verb to which it applies:

 I told myself it would never happen.

 She talks to herself all the time.
 Look at yourself in that mirror!
 I would like to give myself a raise.

At the end of a sentence, one can add reflexive pronouns as a way of accentuating the
subject in the sentence. In this case, the verb does not have reflexive power:

 I would rather do that myself.

 Can you talk to him yourself?
 Personal pronouns
 Forms
 Subject pronouns
 Predicate pronouns
 Order of pronouns
 Related topics

The following are the different forms for personal pronouns in English:

person subject object

1st I me
2nd you you
3rd it, he, she it, him, her
1st plural we us
3rd plural they them

Use of the subject pronoun

Subject pronouns reflect the nouns they replace. Since English nouns rarely show
gender, the pronouns "he" and "she" are generally used only for people or animals; in
the case of objects or impersonal expressions, the pronoun "it" will be used.

Examples:

 She wants to eat.

 You look tired.
 It is hard to cook well.

Use of predicate pronouns

Predicate pronouns will always have the same form whether they are used as direct,
indirect, or prepositional objects. The forms are: "me", "you", "it", "him", "her", "us",
"them".
 Whatever the form of the sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative), direct objects
— or the pronouns replacing them — will follow the verb:

 Did you buy it?

 You didn't buy it.
 You bought it.

Prepositional objects will come after their preposition:

 Will you come to the store with me?

 He left without her.

Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the
pronoun precedes the direct object, in which case the proposition "to" disappears:

 I have spoken to her.

 I gave this present to them.
 But: I gave them this present.

Order of pronouns

When a verb is followed by two or more pronouns, the following sequence is observed:
object object
subj. verb obj. indirect prep.
He gave it to me for Christmas

Examples:

 Don't tell that to him.

 He couldn't sell the car to them.

Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an indirect
object, in which case the indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:

 He gave me it for Christmas.

 Don't tell him that.
 He couldn't sell them the car.
 Reciprocal pronouns

To show that two people, represented by a single grammatical subject, are acting on
each other, one uses the reciprocal pronouns "one another" or "each other".

 They hate each other.

 They killed one another.
 We talk to each other often.
 Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives have two singular forms (this, that) and two plural forms
(these, those). These adjectives are used to designate proximity to an object, or to
distinguish between an object that is close (in time or space) and one that is more
remote. Usually "this" and "these" signal proximity, while "that" and "those" suggest
distance:

 These books are too expensive.

 This car is responsive.
 That man irritates me!
 This hotel is more expensive than that one.
 16) The imperative

Imperatives are used to issue commands. They use the infinitive of verbs (dropping the
word "to"); in the first person plural ("we"), the infinitive is preceded by "let's" (or: "let
us"):

 Speak!
 Finish your homework!
 Let's eat!
 Close the door!

The negative imperative is formed by placing "don't" (or "do not") before the imperative
form; in the first person plural one uses "let's not" (or "let us not"):

 Let's not forget who helped us.

 Don't leave me!
 Don't walk on the grass!
 Please don't eat the daisies!

The imperative has no effect on the word order of the rest of the sentence.
 17) Present participles

Formation

The present participle is formed by adding the ending "–ing" to the infinitive (dropping
any silent "e" at the end of the infinitive):

 to sing –> singing

 to talk –> taking
 to bake –> baking
 to be –> being
 to have –> having

Use

A. The present participle may often function as an adjective:

 That's an interesting book.

 That tree is a weeping willow.

B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity (this form is also
called a gerund):

 Swimming is good exercise.

 Traveling is fun.

C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it cannot
stand by itself as a verb. In these cases it generally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an
adverb, or a past participle:

 Thinking myself lost, I gave up all hope.

 Washing clothes is not my idea of a job.
 Looking ahead is important.

D. The present participle is used in progressive verb tenses, which indicate continuing
actions or actions in progress (the present progressive, the future progressive,
the present perfect progressive):

 I am eating my dinner.
 He was walking across the park.
 We will be calling you tomorrow.

E. The present participle may be used with "while" or "by" to express an idea of
simultaneity ("while") or causality ("by"):

 He finished dinner while watching television.

 By using a dictionary he could find all the words.
 While speaking on the phone, she doodled.
 By calling the police you saved my life!

F. The present participle of the auxiliary "have" may be used with the past participle to
describe a past condition resulting in another action:

 Having spent all his money, he returned home.

 Having told herself that she would be too late, she accelerated.
 18) Habitual actions in the past

To describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, one generally uses the
construction used to + verb. Thus:

 When I was little, we used to go camping a lot.

 When my father was in school, they used to slap children who didn't behave.
 I used to work days, but now I work the night shift.

In spoken English, one often uses the common construction with the modal "would,"
followed by the main verb:

 When we were kids, we would haze each other quite a bit.

 When I was little, we would go camping a lot.
 When my father was in school, they would slap children who didn't behave.
 19) Pluperfect

The pluperfect is formed with the preterit of the auxiliary "to have," followed by the past
participle of the principle verb:

 He had always wanted to travel in Africa.

 She had already left when Philippe arrived.
 I bought the book that Corinne had recommended to me.

Usage

The pluperfect expresses the precedence of one action compared to another. The
earlier action will be described by the pluperfect; the later will generally be described by
the preterit. When one action precedes another, the pluperfect is not absolutely
necessary. Witness this sentence, which provides a list of actions in chronological order
(all expressed by the preterit):

 The alarm rang, I got up, and I ate breakfast.

It is usually only when one seeks to emphasize the precedence of one action that the
pluperfect will be used. Often one finds such adverbs as "already," which reinforces the
impression of precedence.

 She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.
 When I got home, I had already heard the bad news.
 The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.

In certain phrases one action may be left implicit:

 She had already thought of that.

The pluperfect is often used in in hypothetical expressions with "if," in conjunction with
the past conditional:

 I would not have come if I had known he was ill.

With the adverb "just" the pluperfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:

 He had just eaten lunch when I arrived.

 20) Prepositions
 Space
 Geography
 Means of transportation
 Time
 "To" with indirect objects
 Related topics

Space

In their simplest form, prepositions are used to indicate position (in time or space) of
one thing with respect to another:

 I put the book on the table.

 She arrived before the others.
 He came toward me.

There are many prepositions. Here is a partial list, with examples:

 to — He gave the book to his friend.

 at — They arrived at his house at 5 o'clock.
 of — It was the third day of the month.
 from — That young women comes from Thailand.
 on — She put the plate on the table.
 under — The cat crawled under the bed.
 over — The boy threw the rock over the tree.
 underneath — The rabbit escaped underneath the fence.
 before — (time) She arrived before the movie started.
 after — He called his mother after he finished shopping.
 in front of — His mother parked her car in front of his apartment.
 behind — The dog ran behind the house.
 for — He went to the store for more milk.
 toward — The criminal walked toward him with a gun.
 against — Everyone was against that idea.
 around — The athletes ran around the track six times.
 close to — He placed the food close to the squirrel.
 far from — He placed the food far from the lion.
 next to — He was hot, so he sat down next to the air conditioning.
 facing — She sat down on the other side of the table, facing him.
 in the midst of — I don't know where to find any free time in the midst of these emergencies.
 Usage of prepositions

The use of prepositions is one of the most complex aspects of English, and it is
impossible to cover all cases. Some general guidelines, however, may be helpful.

Geography

Movement toward a town, country, state, or continent is generally expressed by the

preposition "to"; presence in a city, state, etc. is expressed by "in"; movement away
from a city, state, etc., is expressed by "from" (if the verb requires a pronoun):

 When are you going to Canada.

 He went to Asia last year.
 I spent three years in London.
 She was born in Normandy.
 He comes from Mexico.

Transportation

As a general rule, the preposition "by" is used to describe how one has traveled. The
prepositions "in" and "on" describe one's presence inside a vehicle. In the case of small
vehicles (a car, a helicopter...), the preposition "in" is required:

 I came by bike.
 Traveling by plane is my favorite.
 I was already on (in) the train when he arrived.
 She is waiting for me in the car.
 Time

To designate an hour the preposition "at" is used:

 Let's meet at six o'clock.

 They arrived at 4:45.

For dates and days of the week, one uses "on":

 His birthday is on Monday.

 It happened on March 3, 1997.

For months one uses "in":

 My birthday is in September.
 We will begin work in August.

To express duration, the preposition "for" is used; "in" can be used to express the time
it will take to complete a task:

 I am going away for a few days.

 He worked with them for three years.
 I can read that book in a day.

Indirect objects

The preposition "to", which generally precedes an indirect object, will disappear before
a noun (or pronoun) when the indirect object precedes a direct object. ("To" will be
retained when the indirect object follows a direct object.)
 Examples:

 She gave John the ticket.

 But: She gave the ticket to John.

or:

 He sent her a letter.

 But: He sent a letter to her.
 or: He sent it to her.

This can also be seen in certain phrases in which the direct object is implicit.

 I already told it to him.

 But: I already told him (the news).
 Verbs with prepositions

Certain verbs and verbal expressions are generally followed by a preposition before
their object (and this preposition will generally be shown in the dictionary).

However, the meaning of these verbs is not dramatically changed by the addition of the
preposition. The same cannot be said of the prepositional verbs, dealt with in another
section.

Examples:

 to wait for
 to look for
 to look at
 to listen to
 to pay for
 to ask for
 to be happy with something
 to be mad at (or: with) someone
 to depend on
 to be interested in
 to thank fort
 to be busy with

Sample sentences:

 She's the one who paid for our dinner!

 I'm not asking for anything!
 I'm busy with my own stuff.
 That depends on you.
 Prepositional Verbs
 Single preposition verbs
 Sentence structure
 Multiple preposition verbs
 Sentence structure
 Related topics

Single preposition verbs

A great number of verbs in English can be modified by the addition of a preposition.

Often the preposition will nuance, or even dramatically change, the meaning of the base
verb. The meanings are often idiomatic, and the meaning expressed by any given
preposition may be very different from one verb to another.

It would be impossible to list all such verbs here (but you will find them in the dictionary
itself). These examples will suffice to provide an illustration of the principle:

 to speak — to say words

 to speak up — to speak loudly
 to speak down (to someone) — to be condescending toward someone
 to speak for (someone) — to speak in someone's place
 to put — to set down
 to put up — to place up high
 to put up — to put in jars or cans
 to put away — to put something back where it belongs
 to put down — to release one's grasp of something
 to put out — to place outside, or to take outside
 to put on — to wear
 to turn — to twist
 to turn on — to make something function (a light, a motor)
 to turn off — to remove the power to (a light, a motor)
 to turn around — to turn to face the opposite direction
 to turn up — to augment the sound, the light
 to turn down — to diminish the sound, the light
 to turn out — to become
 to turn red, white, etc. — to change colors
 13) Sentence structure

When the sentence includes a noun object, the object will follow the preposition; if the
object is replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition:

 He turned on the television.

 He turned it on.
 She put away her books.
 She put them away.

Multiple preposition verbs

There are many prepositional verbs that take two prepositions:

 to put up with (something, someone) — to tolerate someone

 to go out with — to accompany someone
 to go off on (a digression, an adventure) — to begin, to start
 to run away from — to flee

14) Sentence structure

When the verb is followed by two prepositions, the object follows the two prepositions,
whether the object is a noun or a pronoun:

 How can you put up with him?

 Bill should not go out with Monica.
 21) Present perfect
 General principles
 Recent past

General principles

The present perfect describes an action or emotion which began in the past and which
continues in the present. It is formed by using the auxilary "to have" with the participle:

 I have always wanted to visit Israel.

 Money has always been the problem and not the solution.
 I have discovered the answer.

After such expressions as "since", "for", "howlong", etc., one generally uses the
present perfect or even the present perfect progressive:

 I have been in Paris for three weeks

 He has been telling that story for years!
 How long have you lived in Quebec?

In the negative, the present perfect expresses and action which has not yet occurred:

 I haven't finished yet.

 She said she would call, but she hasn't called.

Recent past

In conjunction with the word "just", the present perfect or the preterit can be used to
express the recent past:

 I (have) just arrived.

 The film has just come out [or: The film just came out].

Note: do not confuse this use of "just" (which indicates the recent past) with "just
about", which indicates, to the contrary, something which will happen in the near future:

 I have just about finished. (= I have almost finished; I will finish soon.)
 22) Present perfect progressive

A close relative of the present perfect, the present perfect progressive, emphasizes the
continuation of a single action: it indicates that the action is ongoing or continuing at the
moment one is speaking. The form — relatively complicated — consists of the past
auxiliary "to have" + "been" (the past participle of "to be") + the present participle of the
principal verb. For example:

 I have been trying to reach you all afternoon.

 They have been working hard to finish their project.
 23) Simple present (indicative)

The simple present is used to express actions which take place in the present or which
occur regularly. It also serves to express general or absolute statements not anchored
in a particular time frame.

 I work at home.
 Politics are a dirty business.
 Jill speaks four languages fluently.
 On Sundays, we like to fish.

In the interrogative, the present is generally introduced by a form of the verb "to do"
("do / does"):

 Does your father like to cook?

 Do you have time to stop by my place?

The appropriate form of the verb "to do" will also be used for the negative:

 I do not (don't) work at home.

 No, he does not (doesn't) like to cook.

After the conjunctions "when," "as soon as," etc., the present is used, even though
actions expressed may refer to the future:

 She'll come when she can.

 He'll pay us as soon as we finish.

The present is extremely regular in its conjugation. As a general rule, one uses the base
form of the infinitive (minus the preposition "to"). For the third person singular ("he,"
"she," "it"), an "-s" is added if the verb ends in a consonant, or "-es" if the verb ends with
a vowel:
 To work
 I work
 you work
 he / she / it works
 we work
 they work

To go
 I go
 you go
 he / she / it goes
 we go
 they go

However: verbs ending with "consonant + y" (for example, "to try," "to cry," "to bury,"
etc.) will end in "-ies" in the third person singular:

To bury
 I bury
 you bury
 he / she buries
 we bury
 they bury

15) "To have", "to be"

The only irregular verbs in the present are "to have," "to be," and the modal verbs.

To have
 I have
 you have
 he / she has
 we have
 they have
 To be
 I am
 you are
 he / she is
 we are
 they are
 24) The preterit

As a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending "–ed" to the infinitive
(dropping any unpronounced "e" in final position, and changing any final "y" to "i"):

 to walk –> walked

 to answer –> answered
 to want –> wanted
 to smile –> smiled
 to cry –> cried

The preterit forms of many common verbs are irregular:

 to be –> was (singular), were (plural)

 to have –> had
 to do –> did
 to make –> made
 to eat –> ate
 to go –> went
 to drink –> drank
 to think –> thought
 to bring –> brought
 to drive –> drove
 to write –> wrote
 to sing –> sang
 to build –> built

(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits and past participles).

Usage

The preterit expresses actions which were completed in the past. Unlike those
described by the present perfect, these actions do not continue in the present. Unlike
the past progressive, the preterit does not describe the process or duration of actions: it
states them only as completed actions:
 She went to the store this afternoon.
 They called the police.
 He came, he saw, he conquered.

The duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may describe an action
lasting an instant or many years. Thus verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession,
location, etc. will often be expressed in the preterit:

 I lived in London for three years.

 She owned three dogs throughout her childhood.
 I never trusted what they told me.

In the negative and interrogative, the auxiliary verb "to do", — conjugated in the preterit
— will be used with the infinitive to express the past:

 Did you arrive in time?

 Didn't you eat yet?
 We didn't go to the movies after all.
 25) The subjunctive

The subjunctive is used only in select phrases or situations in English. One finds
vestiges of it in certain hypothetical expressions (using "if + to be") and in certain set
phrases. (In many cases the subjunctive — considered archaic or literary — is replaced
by the modal "would," used to express the conditional.) Other meanings often
communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be expressed by modal verbs
in English.

In constructions using "if + to be" the subjunctive will amount to using the form "were"
(instead of "was") with the first and third persons singular ("I" and "he," "she," or "it").
(In spoken English, and in much informal writing, "was" will still be used.)

 If I were Muriel, I'd never go back there.

 If she were alone, I'd stop by to see her.
 He acts as if he were crazy.

Set phrases and proverbs:

 God help us!

 Long live the king!
 Would that I were free!
 26) Verbs

Verb conjugations reflect three elements: the subject, the tense, and the mood. The
subject may be singular or plural and may be in the first person ("I" or "we"), in the
second person ("you"), or in the third person "he," she," "it," or "they"). Verb tenses
include different forms of the past, present and future. The term "mood" refers,
generally, to the attitude of the speaker toward his subject. The different moods include
the indicative, the subjunctive (rare in English), the conditional, and the imperative.

 Auxiliaries ("to be", "to have")

 Past conditional ("I would have worked...")
 Present conditional ("I would work...")
 Future perfect ("We will have finished...")
 Near future ("We are going to finish...")
 Future progressive ("I will be calling you...")
 Simple future ("We will leave....")
 Imperative ("Let's go!")
 Irregular participles
 Past progressive ("I was working...")
 Habitual past ("I used to work...")
 Pluperfect ("I had worked...")
 Present perfect ("I have finished...")
 Present perfect progressive ("I have been finishing...")
 Present progressive ("I am finishing...")
 Simple present ("I finish...")
 Preterit ("I worked...")
 Subjunctive ("If I were you...")
 Modal verbs ("would", "should", etc.)
 Prepositional verbs ("to put down, to put up with..." etc.)
 Questions
 Simple questions
 "Do"
 Inversion
 Modal verbs ("will", "would", etc.)
 Interrogative adverbs ("how?", "when", "why?", etc.)
 Interrogative pronouns ("who", "whom", "what", etc.)
 "Which", "which one"

Simple questions

Simple questions (that is, questions to which one can respond by a simple "yes" or "no")
may be formed in three different ways:

1. "Do": one precedes an assertion with "do" or "does" (or "don't" or "doesn't" for a
negative expression, or "did", "didn't" for the past):

 Do you want to go to the movies?

 Does she work at IBM?
 Don't you travel quite a bit?
 Do they answer questions quickly?
 Didn't they want to eat?

But: One never places "do" or "does" before the verb "to be" or before modal verbs in
questions; in this case it is preferable to invert the subject and verb:

 Are you coming to the reception?

 Was the meeting boring?
 Weren't you hungry?

2. Inversion: with certain verbs (especially the verbs "to be", "to do", "to have"
and modal verbs) questions are formed by inverting the subject and object. (In the case
of the verb "to have," which is usually combined with "do" in interrogatives, inversion
signals a literary style.)
 Is Jack home?
 Have you nothing to declare?
 Would you like to go to the movies?
 Will they ever come to visit?
 Can the employees talk to the boss?
 Won't you sit down?

3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is used in a sentence, or if it is strongly implied, a

modal phrase can be used to make an interrogative form. The modal phrase is typically
an inversion of the subject and verb, in the negative, repeated at the end of the
sentence:

 It's time to go, isn't it?

 He'd like to come with us, wouldn't he?
 You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?
 You can understand that, can't you?

In the case of a negative question, the modal phrase would be in the affirmative:

 You wouldn't want to try it, would you?

 She won't be back, will she?

(See also: negations)

Interrogative adverbs

Simple questions solicit a "yes" or "no" answer. More precise questions may be formed
by using the interrogative adverbs: when, why, how, how much, where. Generally, the
interrogative adverb precedes the rest of the question; then the order of the sentence
follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".

 Where are you going?

 Why do you want to take this class?
 How much do you earn a month?
 How do these machines work?
 When do you expect to get home?
 See also: Questions, Interrogatives pronouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask who has done what, to whom, why, with what,
etc. Normally these pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence; hen the order
of the sentence follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do
/ does".

One chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to the following table:

gramm. gramm. obj. of a

subject object preposition

person who whom whom

thing what what what

pronoun which(one) which(one) which(one)

of selection

subject (person): who + question

 Who did this painting?

 Who wants to get an ice cream?

subject (thing): what + question

 What interests you?

 What is good in this restaurant?
 direct object (person): whom + question

 Whom did you see in France?

 Whom are you going to meet at this reception?

direct object (thing): what + question

 What do you want to do this evening?

 What are you preparing?

object of a preposition (person): preposition + whom + question

 About whom are you thinking?

 With whom did you go out?

Note: In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the sentence, in
which case one uses "who" instead of "whom"

 Who are you thinking about?

 Who did you go out with?

object of a preposition (thing): preposition + what + question

 With what did you open it?

 In what way does that concern you?

Note: In spoken English, the preposition is often put at the end of the sentence:

 What did you open it with?

 What did did they base their opinion on?
 27) Which, which one, which ones

The adjective "which" and its pronominal forms ("which", "which one", "which ones")
ask that a person make a choice. Usually these pronouns will be placed at the
beginning of the sentence; then the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated
for inversion o para question formed with "do / does".

 Which film do you want to see?

 Which date did you choose?
 Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?
 There are many different Burgundy wines. Which ones do you like?