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PhysiologidSyetems
Introductim
In humanPhysiolog,y,w€ are concernedwith the specific ctraracteristicsand
mechanisms oftlre humanbodythatmakeit a living being,to understarxltheftrrrctionof
to knowaboutdtcbadcorganization
organsard dhsr sfiucftresofthe body,it is essential
oftre dl ard itsfurrctim. h isrpw wellcstisred thd thehummbodywhidt isconQomd
of livilg tissls cur beconsiM alrapo$,erS*ion gen€r,ding multipleelectricalsignals
witr two irfiernalsounses, nanrelymuclesard nerves,mostofthe flnlniologicalprccesses
wereaccornprid wittt electricalchanges. Thediscoveryfonrt€dthebmisofocplanation
oftlrc actionof living tissuesintems ofbioelectic potentialqBioelwtic potentialsal€
iscomposed
g€rsaed atacellularlevel.All living rnaffier ofcellsofditrerentt'"e& Hunran
cellsmayvaryfromI microntolOOmicrcnsindiameterfrom I mm'toI minl€ngth.
Membranethichressof0. I micron
with themigrationofions generating
Normallymuscularconfiactionis associated
with suitablyplacedelectnodes.
potegtrddifferencesmeasurable
Cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleoulus
Cellmembrane
Nuclearmembrane
Figure1.1
The differentsubstances thatmakeupthe cell collectivelycalledprotoplasm-
composed proteins,lipidsandcarbohydrates.
ofwater,elecfrolytes, Wateris theprincipal
fluidmediumofthecellanditsconcenftation isbenveen70and85percent.Theelectrolytes
presentin thecell arepotassium,magnesiun"phosphate, sulphate,bicarbonate andsmall
quantitiessodium,calciumandchloride.Theelectolyteprovidein organicchemicalsfor
cellularfunctions. (reactinsproteinswhich constitutel0 to 20o/oof the cell massare
proteinsandglobularproteirs(enzlrmes).Proteinsarein theform
dividedinto stnrct'ural
of longthin filamentscomposedofmanyproteinmolecular.Theglobularproteinarein
globalform. Thesearemainlyenzymes whichcatalyst thechemicalreactionswhichprovide
enerryforcellularfunction. .
Lipidsarecomposed ofdifferenttypesofsubstances. Theyaresolublein fatsolvents
andinsolublein water.Phospholipids andcholesterof importantlipids. Carbohydrates
playamajorrolein nutition ofthe cell. Theyarestoredin theform ofglycogen.Theseare
usedto supplythecellsenergy.
Organellespresentin thecellcontainscell'schemicalconstituents. Thecytoplasm is
filled with cytosol,in whichtheminuteandlargeparticlesandorganelles areclispersed.
Ribosomes areminutegranularparticles inthecytosolandcomposed ofRNA (Ribonucleic
acid).Lysosomes arevericulargranularandprovideaninnacellulardigestivesystems that
allowsthecell to digestandremovesbacteria.Themitochondriaorganallesarecalled
'Powerhouse'ofthecell. ThemitochondriacontainDNA acid).DNA
@eoxyribonucleic
is thebasicsubstance ofthe nucleus,soit is calledascontrolcentreofthe cell. It controls
replication.NrcleuscontainlargeamourtofDNA calledgenes.Thegenefirst reproduce
Figurc 1.2
Theelectrode-electrolyte
interfaceresemblesa voltagesourcehavinghalfcell
potential'E*' developeddueto chargegradient.A capacitorcoin parllel with leakage
resistance\. The sbriesresistanc€'R,' represents,the serieselectrolyteandskin
resistanceunderequilibriumcondition.
Theimpedanceofthis circuit is givenby
7 =fl t
"h;
J'
I
R", +
j 2nfCo
Ro
z = ft-*
" I + j2nfcoRn
-RT '^ f
Eb.= t";t,--
rr = -2.303#to*,odi
.,,, RT ,^ - c,f,
. T absolutetemperatwein kelvin
n valencyof ion
, c' c2 -. concentrationofthe selectedion on the two sidesofthe membrane
,2
Polarizedcell
with its resting
potential-70mV
+
Cell+
membrane
Figure1.3
J. varies.
Permeability
4. By Goldman'sequationtherestingpotentialV, of acellis givenby
pn
vr - - L r [ [K.]i+t*"
^^^Ltu [*u.]t*t, [ri],
q L [..], +r*,[*u.]o *4, [ci]iI
K - Boltzman'sconstant
T - Absolutetemperature
q chargeof anelectron
Pk - Permeability
';:il:Iil:::ilffi
ofpoussiumion
' r -Krhllryl
v- ^^'l : _e4.emy
q [r.l I
LL JOJ
1.6 Action Potential
When a sectionofthe cell membraneis excitedby someform ofapplied enerry,the
permeabilityofthe membranechanges,sothat the sodium ions arenot allowed to enter
insidethe cell. It constitutesan ionic currentwhich reducesthe barrier. The net resultis
avalanchbeffect so that the sodium ion rush into the cell andtry to balancewith the ions
outside,potassiumions leaving the cell areurable to move rapidly assoidum ions.
Thereforethe cell hasa slightly positive potential on the inside due to inbalanceof
potassiumions. This positive potentialofthe cell membraneduring excitation is called
action potential about 20mV. When the positive potential exists, the cell is said to be
depolarised.
'
When sodium ions passageis stopped,the ionic currentsthat lowered the barrier to
sodium ions areno longer presentand it getsback to the originat condition. Now the cell
is in resiing potential. In nerve and muscle cells repolarisation occurs by following
depolarisationthat the action potential appearsasa spike of I ms total duration. Heart
muscle- 150to 300ms.
+ +\
l-l+
+
+ +
+ +
tr+ +
+
Depolarizedcell
duringan action
+ + + +20mV
potential
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +./
80
60
+
1 4 0
I
^20
or7
E 9o Repolarisation -|' Tlne (ms)
€'Ezo
I floo
Resting
60 potential
80 .
F.-_-|{--+l
AbsotuteR"l{I:. friggering of
refradoryretra$o.rV'
tF6 ef f)
period - period
'RefractoyOeriM
F--l
.
t
Tirnedurationof cell
-non-response
to furtherstimuli
ofa cellNa*ionsrushintothecell
Figure 1.5:Depolarization
while K. ionsattemptto leave
1.7 SodiumPump
A cellintherestingstateis saidto bepolarized.Whenaswtionofthecellmerrbrane
is excitedby theflow of ionic currentor by someformof externallyappliedenergy,the
membrane changes its characteristics
andbeginsto allowsomeofthe sodiumionsto enter.
A cellthathasbeenexcitedandthatdisplaysanactionpotentialis saidto bedepolarized
tlreprocessofchangingfromtherestingstateto theactionpotentialis catleddepolarization.
An activeprocess,calleda sodiumpump,thesodiumionsarequicklytransported
to theoutersideofthe cell andthecell againbecomes
polarizedandassumesits resting
potential.Thesodiumis withdrawnagainstbothchargeandconcentrationgradients
suppg*dd by someform ofhigh-energy phosphatecompound. The rate ofpumping is
dryrtflyproportionalto thesodiumconcentration
in thecell.
1.8 NeryousSystem
Different Systemsof Human Body
A number of organs in the body that function iri a co-ordinated manner form a
system.For example,the heart,arteries,capillariesand veins constitutethe circulatory
system.The humanbody is functioning properly dueto the co-ordinatedaction ofvarious
systemglvenbelow.
a) Skeletalsystem ( b) Circulatorysystem
c) Respiratorysystem d) Digestivesystem
e) Excretorysystem 0 Regulatorysystem
g) Reproductive
system h) Muscularsystem
' '
1.8.1 Central Nelvous System [CNSI .
The brain stemcontinuesdirectly into the spinal cord. It consistsof l0r0 neurons.
The brain consistsofcerebrum, cerebellumandthe brain stem. The cerebrumconsistsof
two hemispheresandthe hemispheresaredivided into frontal lobe parietal lobe, occipital
lobe andtemporal lobe. The frontal lobesareresponsiblefor intelligence,consfiructive
imaginationand abstractthought. The outerlayer ofthe brain is called cerebralcortex.
The areasin the cerebralcortex is responsiblefor sight,hearing,touch and control ofthe
voluntary muscles ofthe body. The upper side of the temporal lobe contains hearing
center.The temporallobesarealsoof importanceforthe storageprocessinthe long term
memory. The visual centreis situatedin the occipital lobe which is in the back side of
brain. Motor centerin the cerebralcortexcorrespondsto certainbody movementwhich
Dendrites
Cell Nucleus
Cell Body
Nodes of Ranvier
Nerve Ending
1.10Cardio PulmonarySYstem
Thecirculatorysystem,helps
Theciriuratorysystemis atypeoftansport rystem
to differer:3*: of our bodyandremoving
in supplyingthe oxygenanddigesiedfood
fromtheblood. Theheartisthecentue ofthe circulatorysystem'Theheart
carbondioxide
Theheartpumpsblrrodby amovementcalled
is madeup of muscles.It actsasapump
tl* pulmorprycirculationtothehrngs
heartbeating.Theheartpumpsth, uooa thfough
oJthebody'
andtl|rougfrthesy$ematiccirrouhimg @srrgans
flows from ttreright venticle ofthe
In thepulmonarycirculationthevexo's brood givesoff
through the pulmonary artery to the lungswhereit is oxygenatedand
heart
throughpulmorraryveinsto
carbondioxide: Thearterial(pgreo, o*ygrout"djbbod flows
flowsintoleftventiclev"tler€'itisFessurised
theleftaftiumoftheheart.Thenthepureblood
calledarteriesto thedifferentpartsofthe
andis pumpedthroughaortaandits branches in
thebloodis disfributedto thecapillaries
body.Througlrsmallarteriescalledarteriores,
otherchemicalsandtakesup carbondioxide
thetissueswhereit givesup it" oxygenand
products of combustion. The blood returnsto the heartthroughdifferent routes'
and asthe
theheartto variousorglns areknown
Bloodvesselswhich carrypurebloodfrom known as
Blood through
vessels which imp're bloodrett'ns to the heartare
arteries. through
half ofthe bodyreh*nsto right atrium
veins.Theimp're bloodtoritrr. upper The
of thebodythrougtrinferior venacava'
superiorvenacavaandfrom therowerhalf veins
thelungsto heartarecalledpulmorrary
bloodvesselswhich caryp..lrebloodfrom pulmonary
the blood vesselwhich impure
car-ries bloodfromttreheartto hrngsis called
and
Physiologyof lleart
.vlwrcm andoxyl3en
rirenourishment
requirenouri to performvariousphysiological
,*u parts
All \'oftlre body
trxurD , ,rr^ ^.-+^r +rra.pfirnffinns
fromthebody.Tocarryoutall thesefinrctions
functions.Theexcretashouldbe:efminated
'J r --- ^- ^r-.,rarin.
##;;d;;;;; *""gir outthebodv.rhisisknownascirculation'
The Heart
andcontinuo'slyfor years'The
Theheartis apumpingorganwhichbeatsrygurarlv
is inherentandindependent ofnerrrousconfiol'
. rhythmiccontaction and
minuteat rest. contraction is systole
Theheartheatsaboutseventytimesa a
diastole.It is situatedalmostin themiddleof thechest.It is enclosedin
is
relar<ation
doublewalledmembranous sac,thepeicardium'
Superior Vena
Pulmonary artery
To Lungs
Aortic Valve
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonaryv
I-eft Auricle
Right Auricle
Inferior Vena ca
Mitral Valve
Right
Left Ventricle
Inferior VCnacava
tr'igure1.7
Theheartis a fotn camberedorgan.Theright andthe left halvesofthe heart
are
completelyseparated bypartitionscalledsepta.Eachhalfhasanuppe/chamberasthe
auricleanda lower chamberastheventriculo.Eachauricleopensinto theverticle
of its
ownsidetlrroughanatlricle-ventricular aperture.Thetwoapertures areguadedbyvalves
whichopenonlyintotheventicle andprevehtthebaclcward flow ofthe blood.Themihal
valveor bicuspidvalvehastrvoflaps.It is presentattheauricleventicularopening
onthe
left side.Thetricuspidvalvehavingthreeflapsis tumedontheright sideofthe
heart.
Theleftventriclehaspapillarymuseles whichpreventthevalvesftom beingpushd
intorlreat[icles.At thestartingpointoft]reaortaftom theleft venticle thereis
anotherset
ofsemilunarvalve.
Therightawiclereceivesvenousblood(deoxygenated)fiom thebody,tfyoughtwo
mainvesselsa superiorvenacavaandaninferiorvenacava.Thesuperioruro*uuulring,
thebloodfrom theupperregionsofthe bodyandthelatterfrom its lowerparts.
Theleft
auriclereceivestheoxygenated
bloodfiom thelungs,ttubughfoupulmonaryveins.
The Working of Heart
Theventriclesarchighlymuscular.Theyrweivebloodfromthereqpective
awicles.
tffhentheventriclesconfracttheblood
is facedinto thearteries.Thevalvespresentthe
and
reactswith waterfromscarbonicacidwiththehelpof anenzymecarbonicanhydrase
,thecarbonicacidglvesriseto bicarbonateandhydrogen.
'
l.l2.l Circulationand Respiration ,
Organsof Respiration
Theftrngsarelargeoccupytngthem{or partofthechestcavitybelow*re AanlqaSn.
Th9lurg hasbranchingair passagesandfoldedwallsandis madetrpof manyalveoli.Air
thebodytluoughnoseandthepharymxandthenentersintottrewindpipeasftachea.
ente,rs
Theopeninginto*re windprpeis anarrowslitrtheglottis,thnoughwhichtheairpasses
into
\
thetacheavialarynx.
Thetractreais atubesupported rings.It is dividedintotwo major
by cartilagineous
bronchi.Thebronchidivideandzubdivide intosmallbronchioles,terminating in analveolts
air sac.Thepassage of air is asfollows,nose- pharynx- fiachea- bronchi- bronchioles
- alveoliofthe lungs. Theringsofcartilagein thewallsofthe tracheamakethemelastic
andpreventthemfromcollaPsing.
Therespiratorytractis linedinternallywith themucusmembranewhichis kept
moist
TheLung
Thereareapairof hlrgsin ahuman,therightlungis largerthantheleft lungandtheir
lowersurfacesareconcaveto accomodate thediaphragm,which dividethebodycavity
into thethoi.acicandabdominalregions.Thelungsareenvelopedby thedoublelayered
membrane calledthepleura.
Themainbronchifromthetacheaentertherootofeachhurg anddividerepeatedly
into smallluronchioles.Thesmallerbronchiolesopeninto manythin walledsacscalled
alveoli.Thethin walledalveolihelpintheinterchangeofgasesbehveenthebloodandair.
Mechanismof Respiration
Theprocessofrespirationis divisibleintoinspirationandexpiration
Inspiration
Theintercostalmusclesin betweentheribspull themupwardandoutward.The
musculardiaphragmalsocontactsandflattens.Sothepleuralcavrtyis enlarged.The
pressureinsidethe lungsfalls down with increasein the volumeof thoraciccavity.
Ahospheric airrushesin througtrnacheaintothelungs.
and
reactswith waterfromscarbonicacidwiththehelpof anenzymecarbonicanhydrase
,thecarbonicacidglvesriseto bicarbonateandhydrogen.
'
l.l2.l Circulationand Respiration ,
Organsof Respiration
Theftrngsarelargeoccupytngthem{or partofthechestcavitybelow*re AanlqaSn.
Th9lurg hasbranchingair passagesandfoldedwallsandis madetrpof manyalveoli.Air
thebodytluoughnoseandthepharymxandthenentersintottrewindpipeasftachea.
ente,rs
Theopeninginto*re windprpeis anarrowslitrtheglottis,thnoughwhichtheairpasses
into
\
thetacheavialarynx.
Thetractreais atubesupported rings.It is dividedintotwo major
by cartilagineous
bronchi.Thebronchidivideandzubdivide intosmallbronchioles,terminating in analveolts
air sac.Thepassage of air is asfollows,nose- pharynx- fiachea- bronchi- bronchioles
- alveoliofthe lungs. Theringsofcartilagein thewallsofthe tracheamakethemelastic
andpreventthemfromcollaPsing.
Therespiratorytractis linedinternallywith themucusmembranewhichis kept
moist
TheLung
Thereareapairof hlrgsin ahuman,therightlungis largerthantheleft lungandtheir
lowersurfacesareconcaveto accomodate thediaphragm,which dividethebodycavity
into thethoi.acicandabdominalregions.Thelungsareenvelopedby thedoublelayered
membrane calledthepleura.
Themainbronchifromthetacheaentertherootofeachhurg anddividerepeatedly
into smallluronchioles.Thesmallerbronchiolesopeninto manythin walledsacscalled
alveoli.Thethin walledalveolihelpintheinterchangeofgasesbehveenthebloodandair.
Mechanismof Respiration
Theprocessofrespirationis divisibleintoinspirationandexpiration
Inspiration
Theintercostalmusclesin betweentheribspull themupwardandoutward.The
musculardiaphragmalsocontactsandflattens.Sothepleuralcavrtyis enlarged.The
pressureinsidethe lungsfalls down with increasein the volumeof thoraciccavity.
Ahospheric airrushesin througtrnacheaintothelungs.
Carbondioxide
OxygenatedBlood
Chapter- 2
for
Transdtmers
di"r" discussed'
instnrmentationwas
, , i i } - . t
E r '
Lecture
-
Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC
2.2 BIO MEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
R"=E$ft.frtr
Figure2.1
I + dividedintoI' 12,13,14
B:
I,-Ir-I, : 0 K.Ilaw
D:
1 2 + I s - 1 4: 0 K. II law
ABDA
I,P+IsG-I2R: 0
ABCDA
Ir P + 1 3 Q - I o S - 1 2 :R ...(l)
B and D I. Same
So I*:o
Ir -- 13
Ir:14
I,P : I,R
in (l)
Substitute
I,P+IrQ-14S-12R
13:Ir 14:12
IrP+IrQ : 12S+I2R
IrG+Q) : 12(R+S)
l,(p+Q) I(n+s)
I,P IrR
Loading effect
It is theinabilityofthe instnrments
to reproduce
theinputwithoutanydistortion.
P+Q _ R+S
P R
t+9 : t+!
P R
a _ s
P R
(or)
E3
Let ustakethebridgeurbalancefrom figure2.1 aseo"whichis developed dueto
theresistance changein thetransducerwhich formsoneof the bridgearms.Assume
intemalresistance
iszerc(battery)andurdernoloadconditioqthebridgernrbalance
voltage
canbewriffenas
rrm-- € n c
(RJn-)
Itn _
(R. * R,.)
, e n c u - , 1 , .
gec ':*F"/.
'( )
,/R'/
=r,
-cxf4Ll
L2RJ
:
Sensitivityofthebridgo'5' :
tr k
'
Sensitivrryis proportionalto excitationvoltageandinverselyproportionalto the
ofthe armofthe bridge.
resistance
2.2.2 StrainGauge
pressuremonitoringsystemsusestraingaugetype pressuretransducers.For
Thisfactis tsedto measureblood
inraarterialandintravenouspressuremeasurements.
volumesandthechangesin bloodvolumes.Theinstnrmentwhichis usedfor measuring
bloodvolumeis calledplethysmogaph.
Sapphire
pins
BondedStraingauge
Figure 2.2
For a goodstraingaugetansducer
\ fi --
AR/P
a) F = l,i* high.Gaugefactor)
Lvl
t -
Al - incremental
changeinlengttr
I unstretched
lengthofwire
AR - incrementalchangein resistance
dueto stress ,
R - resistance
ofunstretchedwire
b) Resistance
shouldbemore
c) Gaugeres*istance
wire shouldhavelowtemperature
coefficientresistance.
IAR+o
c.-
RAT
d) Theremustbblinearrelationbetweenstain andresistance
ofthe wire,theresistance
wirewouldnothaveanymrchanicalhysteresis.
R = P l _-#
A V
wire : Al.
V .: volumeoftheresistance
2.2.3Strain Gaugeasa PressureTransducer
Figure 2,3
thediaplragrn.Thisin ttrmstuetches
to adomeanddiqplaces
A fluid likebloode,nters
thegaugewiresfrom oneendto other.Appliedpressurerangesfrorn 50to 300mm Hg.
Whentheinputis availablein theform ofpulsewaveto measurethepressure,thestrain
gaugepulsetansduceris used.
2.2.4 Metallic \ilire Transducers
Figure 2.4
\: q(l+ooT)
cr,,- Temperature
coefficientofresistance
q - Resistance at 0oC
' R'-R'
.,_
tl tRrI
2.3 CapacitiveTransducers
It is usedto measurethedisplacement producedby thebio-variableby meansof
changein overlapingareaofcross plates,thickness
sectionoftheconducting ofthedielectic
materialanddistancebenveentheconductingplates.
Capacitorconsistsoftwo conductingstrfacesseparated
by a dielrcfric in theform
of solid,liquid,gasor vacurm.
C : eoerA/d
ro - Permitivityoffree space
r, Relativepermitivity
A - Areaofcrosssectionofthe plate
d distanceof separation theplate
betrveen
Thechangein capacitance is normallymeasured throughthefrequencychangein
theoscillatorcircuitwhercthecapacitivefiansducerformsatankcircuit. Componentor
Insulatingmaterial
>l
Diaphragm
staticposition ! >
nr"rrrn"#
Figuro 2.5
Thecapacitanceis directlyproportionalto areaoftheplateandinverselyproportional
to thedistancebetweentheparallelplates(d). Variationof d causesa corresponding
variationin thecapacitance.
Theprincipleof variationof d is usedin thecapacitivetrartsducer.
Whena forceis appliedon the diaphragmactsasoneplateof a capacitor,the
distancebetweenthediaphragmandthestaticplateis changed.Theresultantchangein
capacitance canbemeasuredwith anacbridgeor anoscillatorcircuit. It measurestatic
anddynamicchanges.
2.4 InductiveT[ansducer
permeability,no.ofturnsin
It is basedontheprincipleof changeinthe reluctance,
t5ecoilwtrichmayprodweachange ormutualindrctanceofthetansducer.
intheinductance
N'[rA : N , P G: N A
ofthe coil 'L3:
Inductance
R - Reluctance ofthe coil
N - No. ofturns
p Effectivepermeability
A - Areaof crosssection
I l,engttrofthecoil
G - Geometicformfactor
Arnplifier
, A
I OttPutvoltage180
Y out of Phasewith
Figure2.7
Cutve
ofLVDT is linea for limitedmngeofdiqplacement (sayabout5
Thectraracteristics
olfi at
thisrangecurvestartsflattening
mmeithersidefromthenull position).fuid loeyond
bothends.
existsatoutput
output voltageis +otzaroatnull positionbutsomeresidrnlvoltage
to magneticunbalance
terminals.It is gsually< lo . Thisresidtralvolagemaybeeitls drr
or dueto elecfiicalrurbalance.
LVDTsnormallyfttngefor displacement variesfrom+0.01mmto *25mm'
Merits
I . Havelinearctraracteristics 2. HiEhsensitivity
3. Highotsput 4. Lesspower
5. Higlrfircquency
Demerits
1. Sometimes it is affectedby variations'
2. Thereceivinginstnrmentmustbeselected onacsignals'
3. Demodulatoris usedif a dcrequired'
Applications
It is usedfor measuementofdisplacement
thatrangefroma fiaction of amm to a
fewcm.
Seondary
s2
il*
-o Dif output
AC o voltage
input V
voltage
Figure 2.9
fiansducer
Thesoundlevelmea$rementcanbedonewith (i) intensltyfibre optic
(ii) aninterferometrictypetransducer'
Sensingfibre coil
ttu
I
trc
oetec{or
-l r -
Bearn Recombining
sPlitter Ref. Fibre coil odtcs
Laserbeam
Figure 2'10
part of the beampasspsthroughthe referencecoil which is enclosedin stable
envirormen6andtlreremainingpasses throughthesensingcoil. sorurdwavesdistorttlre
of
therelativeptrases
senslngfiber,whichcausesits,opticallengthto change,thusaltering
whichwill beseenin
thelight in eachfiber. Theso4d levelis thefirnctionofptraseshift,
theinterfer,encepatternwhenthetwo beamsarerecombined'
2.6. Fibre-opticTransducer[TemperatureMeasur€mentl
- treafinentby
Theelevatedtemperattrein theftrngeof 42 45"or higherfor cancer
passes
electomagrreticenergy,eitherin theradiofrequencyor rnicrowavefrequencyftmge
mearurement problem.Sensorszuchasthermistorsorthermocouples
adifficulttemperafure
andconnecting wireswhichmaY^even causelocalisedheating
requiremetalliccomponents
,pot, andthetempreadingsmayevenbeerraticdueto interference'
ofopticalfibreis flexibility,smalldimensions'
tJpicaladvantage
Figure2.ll
Ga As
crystal
(Galliurnarsenide)
Figure2.l2
2.7 PhotoelectricTypeResistiveTlansducer
Tomeasure thepulsatilebloodbyusug photoresistorsor light dependent
resistors
(LDR)is used.
Photoresistor
Lamp Photoresistor
(a)
Figure2.13
pH_rog
i.e., roft =_rog
ro[H.]
: :
i; Figure2.14
s
Itr,
2.9.1 PHElectrode
PH Meter
A pHmeteris anelectonicinsffumentusedto measure tlrePH(acidityor basicity)of
a liquid (thoughspecial,probesaresometimesusedto measurethe PHof semi-solid
v substannces, A typicalPHmeterconsistsof a specialmeasuringprobe(a glasselecfrode)
fi connected to anelectronicmeterthatmeasures anddisplaysthePHreading.
Constnretion
ThedigitalpH meteris usedto measure PHnotonly,atagiventemperahrebutalso
atdifferenttempcratuies.
It consistsof aPHelecuodewhichconsistsofa glass(active)elecuodeterminaland
referegrce chlorideelwt''olyteis
terminal.Thesilver-silverctrlorideelecfiodein potassium
actingasareference terminal.A saltbridgeconsistingofa fiberwick satuatedwith kcl is
atthetip ofthe referenceelectode& keepstherefemceterminalpotentialessentiallythe
sameregardless of thesolutioncommonglasswhichconsistsof a hydrotedgelatinou
glasslayer.Itsmembronepotentialis proportionalto thelog[H*] *rereforeis proportional
to thepHofthe solutionrurdertest.Boththeelectodesarekeptin asingleglassenclosure.
(FromRefl - E'
E,n
(Fromsolution)
YT
- 10 mVfC
Fromtemperature V*=Er-ErN-Yr
sensor
Referenceelectrode
Electricaloonductor
Buffersolution
Glassmembrane
Analyzedsolution
Figure2.lS
Digital PHmeter
Theintemalresistance ofa glasselectodeisveryhigh( I 07-l0l0 otrms).Eventhough
theoutputfromthePHelectrodeis highenoughto deflectthevoltneternedle, to increase
thesensitivlty& accurocy,theelectoniccircuity is adopted.Externalreference voltage,
to compensate thevariouseilors andis alsoaddedwith theoutputfrom PHelectode.
TodeterminethePHatdifferenttemperature avoltagefromthetemperature
rcgulafi
circuitconeryonding to a gfrrcn
temperature
isalsoaddedwiththeorSr$ ftomPHelec'tnode.
TheopAmps amplifi therevoltagesin therequiredmannerandthefinal outputisgivento
adigitalvolmercr. Thedisplayis obtainedintermsof PHasdiscretenumerals.
UsingPHelectrode,PCOzmd PO, canalsobemeasured.It rangerfrom simple
andinexpensive pen-linedevicesto complexandexpensivelaboratoryinstumentswittl
computerinterfocesandseveralinputsfor indicatorandtemperaturesensorssuchas
(or) thermocoup
thermoresistors les.
Thusata giventemPerafure
,25"C
Vm : -bolog tH.l +C (inmv)
whereCisaconstant
since PH = - log tH.l
Vm = 60PH+C
to 60 mv.
OnePHcorresponds
Nomal Blood GasParameters
7.37-7.M 7.35-7.45
34-50mm Hg
75-90mmHg 2540mmHg
Outpnt
voltage
Eo
Figure2.16
Thepiezo-electiceffectcanbemadetoreqpondto(cause) mechanical
deformations
ofthe materialin differentmodes.Themodeofmotion dependontheshapeofthe body
relativeto thecrystalaxisandlocationofthe electrodes.Themodescanbethickness
expression" fiansverseexpansion,
thicknessshear& faceshear.
Mechanicaldeformationgeneratora chargeandthis chargeappearsasa voltage
acrosstheelectrodes,
ThevoltageisE : Q/C.
Q - Chargein coulomb
E = Voltage
C : Capacitance
a = dxFcoulomb
d : Clrargesensitivityofthqcrysal
CAI ( It is constantforagiven crystal)
F : Applied forceN
Thepiezo-elecniceffectis directionsensitivc..Atensile
forceproducea voltageof
onepolaritywhile aeomprcssiveforceproducesa volt4geofoppositepolarity.
Propertiesof Piezo-ElectricCrystals
D Stability
D Higho/Psensitivity
u) Humidrtyarcthedesirableproperties
2.ll UltrasonicTransducers
Ulnasonicfiansducers areued to producehiglrfrequencyultasonicwaves.There
arenonaudiablesoundwaveswhosefrequenciesaregreaterthen20000Hz. Theyare
vgryusefulfor diagnosticandtherapeuticapplications.
aredividedinto
Theretransducers
D Magnetostictiveultasonictansducersii) Piezoelecticulnasonicfiansducers
2.ll.l Magnetostrictive ultrasonictransducer
Whena ferromagneticrod is placedin a magneticfield, alongthemagnetisation
thereis a changein the lengthofthe rod. This phenomenonis calledmagnetosftiction.
Dependingon the natureof the material,the degreeof earlier magnetisationandthe
temperature, thelengthofthe rod increasesor decreases.
Thnsifanickelrodraihichissuitably andplacedinanalternatirymagnetic
field whosefrequencyis equalto thenaturalmechanicalfrequenryofthe rod. Thereis
resonantvibrationofthe rod.
Thefrequencyofthe rod ls glven by
t
f- _2 t t F t
(, : Lengthofthe rod
E : Yotutg'smodulw ofthe rod
p : Densrtyofthe rod
Tlreresonant waves.
vibrationoftherodisutilizeto producelow fiequencyultrasonic
Themagnetosfiiction coefficientshouldbemoreto gethighpowerulfrasonicwaves.The
materialspermalloyan{ cobaltferrite,Nickel aremagnetostictivematerials.Ifthe rod
hassmallerlength,ultrasonicwavesofhigh frequencycannotbeproduced.
developedtensile stress
)u=
Changein magneticflux density
F. ?t = Magrretosfiictivecoefficient'
t3
f
T
# Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC
BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
fM/ N:1
Figure2.17
2.,! 2 Pieoclectric UltrasonicThansduccr
Therearemanufacttredfromnaturalandsyntheticpiezoelecticmaferials.Quartz
is tlresinglemodenatrualmaterialwith singlefirequency
whidr is widelyusd. Ulnasonic
wavesareproducedin quartzby inversepiezoelecticeffect.
If we apply an a.c voltagealongx-axis of the crystal,then the corresponding
compression or tensionis producedalongy-a><isof thecrystal.Ttrisis calledInverse
piezoelectriceffect. SowherrahighfrequencyR.Finputis givento electricalaxisofthe
crystalthenalongthe mechanicalaxisofthe crystal,thecrystalexpandsandcontracts
periodically,Whenthenat ual frequencyofthe crystalis equalto R.F input frequency
ulfiasonicresonantvibrations
areobtained.Thefrequency isdetermined bythedimensions,
young'smodulusanddersityofthe crystal.
Eqrivalent Cincuit of Pieoelectric UltrasonicThansducers
Figure2.18
Theproductionofultasonicwavesatresonance in thenansducer
canberepresentd
by asanelectno-mechanical -
(or) voltage forcetnansformer.
'
" - SffessdeveloPed Y oh /
@'-/m
Thetrmi ratioofthat tansformeris eqnalto I : \Co
Co - Staticelectricalcapacitance
ofthe fiansdlrcer
Short QuestionsandAnswers
1. lVhet is neant bYtranrducer?
It is a devicewhich detectsor sensesthe biosignalandconvertsinto anelectrical
signalfor biosignalProcessing.
2. DefineStrain Gauge.
It is anelectical devicewhichis usedto measurestressor prcs$re in termsof suain
usingtlrcprincrpleofchangeofresistivitydneto mechanical sftss.
3. How transducersarc clessified?
nle1rcanbeclassifiedintodifferentt)"esbasedontheenergrconversion, application
andsoon. Therearetwo t1Pes.