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Chapter- 1

PhysiologidSyetems
Introductim
In humanPhysiolog,y,w€ are concernedwith the specific ctraracteristicsand
mechanisms oftlre humanbodythatmakeit a living being,to understarxltheftrrrctionof
to knowaboutdtcbadcorganization
organsard dhsr sfiucftresofthe body,it is essential
oftre dl ard itsfurrctim. h isrpw wellcstisred thd thehummbodywhidt isconQomd
of livilg tissls cur beconsiM alrapo$,erS*ion gen€r,ding multipleelectricalsignals
witr two irfiernalsounses, nanrelymuclesard nerves,mostofthe flnlniologicalprccesses
wereaccornprid wittt electricalchanges. Thediscoveryfonrt€dthebmisofocplanation
oftlrc actionof living tissuesintems ofbioelectic potentialqBioelwtic potentialsal€
iscomposed
g€rsaed atacellularlevel.All living rnaffier ofcellsofditrerentt'"e& Hunran
cellsmayvaryfromI microntolOOmicrcnsindiameterfrom I mm'toI minl€ngth.
Membranethichressof0. I micron
with themigrationofions generating
Normallymuscularconfiactionis associated
with suitablyplacedelectnodes.
potegtrddifferencesmeasurable

, ,YI ceil $ructune


\,/ Thebasicliving unit ofthebodyis thecell. Tounderstardthefinction oforgBnsard
otlrershrcturesofth bodyit is necessaryto sndy ttrcbasicorganisationofthe cell. Each
organofour bodyconsistsofan aggregatecells. Th€entirebodycontains100trillion
cells.25tillion RBC - wtrichfiansporhoxygsnftom ttrclungsto thetissues.Theorygen
combineswith caftoblrdrate,fator proteinto releasetheeneqgyrequiredfor cell fimction.
$rucaut
EaGheellconsistsofcenfiallylocatedntrclearsurrourdedby pytophsn (cellbody).
ftom th cytoplasmbya nrrcler mernbmne
Ttrentdeus is separated andthecytoplasmis
ftomthe sunoundingfluidsbyacell membrare
separqfied
"..i

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.2 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

Cytoplasm

Nucleoplasm
Nucleus

Nucleoulus

Cellmembrane

Nuclearmembrane

Figure1.1
The differentsubstances thatmakeupthe cell collectivelycalledprotoplasm-
composed proteins,lipidsandcarbohydrates.
ofwater,elecfrolytes, Wateris theprincipal
fluidmediumofthecellanditsconcenftation isbenveen70and85percent.Theelectrolytes
presentin thecell arepotassium,magnesiun"phosphate, sulphate,bicarbonate andsmall
quantitiessodium,calciumandchloride.Theelectolyteprovidein organicchemicalsfor
cellularfunctions. (reactinsproteinswhich constitutel0 to 20o/oof the cell massare
proteinsandglobularproteirs(enzlrmes).Proteinsarein theform
dividedinto stnrct'ural
of longthin filamentscomposedofmanyproteinmolecular.Theglobularproteinarein
globalform. Thesearemainlyenzymes whichcatalyst thechemicalreactionswhichprovide
enerryforcellularfunction. .
Lipidsarecomposed ofdifferenttypesofsubstances. Theyaresolublein fatsolvents
andinsolublein water.Phospholipids andcholesterof importantlipids. Carbohydrates
playamajorrolein nutition ofthe cell. Theyarestoredin theform ofglycogen.Theseare
usedto supplythecellsenergy.
Organellespresentin thecellcontainscell'schemicalconstituents. Thecytoplasm is
filled with cytosol,in whichtheminuteandlargeparticlesandorganelles areclispersed.
Ribosomes areminutegranularparticles inthecytosolandcomposed ofRNA (Ribonucleic
acid).Lysosomes arevericulargranularandprovideaninnacellulardigestivesystems that
allowsthecell to digestandremovesbacteria.Themitochondriaorganallesarecalled
'Powerhouse'ofthecell. ThemitochondriacontainDNA acid).DNA
@eoxyribonucleic
is thebasicsubstance ofthe nucleus,soit is calledascontrolcentreofthe cell. It controls
replication.NrcleuscontainlargeamourtofDNA calledgenes.Thegenefirst reproduce

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


SYSTEMS
PHYSIOLOGICAL 1.3

themselves calledmitosisto formtwo daughtercell.


andthecell splitsby a specialprocess
Thenucleusis surrounded byntrclearmembrane.InsidetheNucleus-Nucleolwis present
andcontainslargeamoturtofRNA andproteins.Thecellsizeis detemrined bytheamount
of functioningDNA in thenucleusand5- 10pm. t argeamountof DNA-cell sizeis larger.
DNA growsdueto theincreasedproductionof RNA andcell proteins.
CancerCells(Nature)
It is causedbyabnormalactivationofcellulargenesthatcontnolcell growttrandcell
mitosis.Theabnormalactivationcanbeincreased by exposotreof ionizing'radiations,
hereditary, chemicalsubstances.
1.2 Electrodes
Devicesthat convertionic potentialsinto electonic potentialsarecalledelecfiodes.
It is usedto pickup the electical signalsofthe body. Theseareusedto transferthe
bioelectric event to the input of the amplifier. Amplifier is designedin such a way to
accomodatethe characteristicsof elecfiodes.The elechodeto be useddependupoh the
anatomicallocation andthe dimensionsofthe bioelectic generator.
Three types of electrodesare used
a) Microelectrode-to measurethe bioelectricpotentialnearor singlecell.
b) Depth and needle electrode- to measurebipotential of highly localized
extacellular region.Ex. brain
c) Surfaceelectrode-to measuresurfaceof the skin [ECG EEq EMG].

1.3 ElectrolyteInterface- ElectrodePotential


The interfaceofmetallic ions in solution(or) with their associatedmetalsresultsin an
electode polential
Half Cell Potential
The voltagedevelopedat an electode-electrolyteinterfaceis designatedashalfcell
potential (or) electrodepotential.
In the caseof a metal-solution interface an electrodepotential results from the
differencein the ratesbetweentwo opposingprocesses.
a) Passageofions fnomthe metalinto the solution
b) Combinationofmetallic ions in solutionwith elecfionsin the metalto form atoms
' '
ofthe metal.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.4 BIO MEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

Souilrcnannetalelecuodecomesintocontactwith anelectnolyte (bodyfluid) there


is atendencyfor theelectnode to discharge
ionsintothesolution.As thercis a netresultis
thecreationofa chargegradient,theryatialarrangement calledelectnodedoublelayer.
Electrodesin which no nettransferofchargeoccursacnoss the metalelectrolyte
interfacearecalledasperfectlypolarisedelecfrrodes.
Exchange ofclrargeoccrns- perfectly
nonpolaisedelecuodes.In betweenthesenvo charge(rccursis calledrealelecnodes.If
'tlre
electnodeis Wrstable,
its'rariationsconsitutea sourtpofvariablenoisevoltage,called
artifact
1.3.1Electricd Equivalent Circuit wben Electrode is in Electrolyte Inter{ace
[contectwith the body sur{acel

Figurc 1.2
Theelectrode-electrolyte
interfaceresemblesa voltagesourcehavinghalfcell
potential'E*' developeddueto chargegradient.A capacitorcoin parllel with leakage
resistance\. The sbriesresistanc€'R,' represents,the serieselectrolyteandskin
resistanceunderequilibriumcondition.
Theimpedanceofthis circuit is givenby

7 =fl t
"h;
J'
I
R", +
j 2nfCo

Ro
z = ft-*
" I + j2nfcoRn

Thevalueofthe voltageandimpedancedependon the electnodemetal,its area,


theelectnolyte,chargedensityandfreguencyofcurrent

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


PHYSIOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS 1.5

The halfcell potential or elecfiodepotentialis measuredwith referenceto hydrogen


electrodeplacedin the electrolytenearthat metallic electrode.
E* can be expressedby Nernst equation

-RT '^ f
Eb.= t";t,--
rr = -2.303#to*,odi
.,,, RT ,^ - c,f,

R - gasconstant- 8.314kJ/k mol/k.

. T absolutetemperatwein kelvin

F no. of coulombstransferred(or) Faradayconstant: 96500coulombs.

n valencyof ion
, c' c2 -. concentrationofthe selectedion on the two sidesofthe membrane

f pf2 activitl coefficientsofthe ion on the two sidesofthe membrane

In dilute solutionsf, :4: I

1.4 Resting and Action Potential


Thevariousioru seekbalancebetweentheinsideandoutsideofthe cellbydiffision
anddrift processgrveriseto membrane potartial. Themembranepotentialcausedby the
differentconcentrationof ionsis calledtherestingpotentialofthe cell.
Thenerveandmusclecellspermitstheenty ofpotassiumandchlorideionsit blocks
theentryof sodiumions. Thepermeabilityof sodiumionsis about2 x l0{ cm/sandfor
potassiumandchlorideionsis 4 x 10{ cp/s
Dueto thedifferencein permeability of sodiumionsinsidethecell
theconcenfration
becomesmuchlowerthantheoutsidethecell. Sincethesodiumionsarepositive,the
outsideofthecellis morepositivethaninside.Theconcenfiationofpotassiumandchloride
ionsis moreinsidethantheoutside.Thusthechargeis notbalanced.Whenp.dacrossthe
membrahe is negativeontheinsideandpositiveontheoutside.
1.5 Characteristicsof RestingPotential
1. The valuesofresting potential is maintainedasa constant.
2. Dependson temperattre.

,2

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.6 BIOMEDIGALINSTRUMENTATION

Polarizedcell
with its resting
potential-70mV
+
Cell+
membrane

Figure1.3
J. varies.
Permeability
4. By Goldman'sequationtherestingpotentialV, of acellis givenby

pn
vr - - L r [ [K.]i+t*"
^^^Ltu [*u.]t*t, [ri],
q L [..], +r*,[*u.]o *4, [ci]iI
K - Boltzman'sconstant
T - Absolutetemperature
q chargeof anelectron
Pk - Permeability
';:il:Iil:::ilffi
ofpoussiumion

K", Na* and Cl- + concentationof ions.

i and o (subscripts) -+ insideandlutside the cell


5. If P*u= 0 and Po = 0 theGoldman'sequationisreducedintoNemstequation.
-i
fr . -r.

' r -Krhllryl
v- ^^'l : _e4.emy
q [r.l I
LL JOJ
1.6 Action Potential
When a sectionofthe cell membraneis excitedby someform ofapplied enerry,the
permeabilityofthe membranechanges,sothat the sodium ions arenot allowed to enter
insidethe cell. It constitutesan ionic currentwhich reducesthe barrier. The net resultis
avalanchbeffect so that the sodium ion rush into the cell andtry to balancewith the ions
outside,potassiumions leaving the cell areurable to move rapidly assoidum ions.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


SYSTEMS
PHYSIOLOGICAL 1.7

Thereforethe cell hasa slightly positive potential on the inside due to inbalanceof
potassiumions. This positive potentialofthe cell membraneduring excitation is called
action potential about 20mV. When the positive potential exists, the cell is said to be
depolarised.
'
When sodium ions passageis stopped,the ionic currentsthat lowered the barrier to
sodium ions areno longer presentand it getsback to the originat condition. Now the cell
is in resiing potential. In nerve and muscle cells repolarisation occurs by following
depolarisationthat the action potential appearsasa spike of I ms total duration. Heart
muscle- 150to 300ms.

+ +\
l-l+
+
+ +
+ +
tr+ +
+
Depolarizedcell
duringan action
+ + + +20mV
potential
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +./

Figure 1.4: Depolarizedcell duringan actionpolarization

80
60
+
1 4 0
I
^20
or7
E 9o Repolarisation -|' Tlne (ms)
€'Ezo
I floo
Resting
60 potential

80 .
F.-_-|{--+l
AbsotuteR"l{I:. friggering of
refradoryretra$o.rV'
tF6 ef f)
period - period
'RefractoyOeriM
F--l
.
t
Tirnedurationof cell
-non-response
to furtherstimuli

ofa cellNa*ionsrushintothecell
Figure 1.5:Depolarization
while K. ionsattemptto leave

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.8 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

1.7 SodiumPump
A cellintherestingstateis saidto bepolarized.Whenaswtionofthecellmerrbrane
is excitedby theflow of ionic currentor by someformof externallyappliedenergy,the
membrane changes its characteristics
andbeginsto allowsomeofthe sodiumionsto enter.
A cellthathasbeenexcitedandthatdisplaysanactionpotentialis saidto bedepolarized
tlreprocessofchangingfromtherestingstateto theactionpotentialis catleddepolarization.
An activeprocess,calleda sodiumpump,thesodiumionsarequicklytransported
to theoutersideofthe cell andthecell againbecomes
polarizedandassumesits resting
potential.Thesodiumis withdrawnagainstbothchargeandconcentrationgradients
suppg*dd by someform ofhigh-energy phosphatecompound. The rate ofpumping is
dryrtflyproportionalto thesodiumconcentration
in thecell.
1.8 NeryousSystem
Different Systemsof Human Body

A number of organs in the body that function iri a co-ordinated manner form a
system.For example,the heart,arteries,capillariesand veins constitutethe circulatory
system.The humanbody is functioning properly dueto the co-ordinatedaction ofvarious
systemglvenbelow.
a) Skeletalsystem ( b) Circulatorysystem
c) Respiratorysystem d) Digestivesystem
e) Excretorysystem 0 Regulatorysystem
g) Reproductive
system h) Muscularsystem
' '
1.8.1 Central Nelvous System [CNSI .
The brain stemcontinuesdirectly into the spinal cord. It consistsof l0r0 neurons.
The brain consistsofcerebrum, cerebellumandthe brain stem. The cerebrumconsistsof
two hemispheresandthe hemispheresaredivided into frontal lobe parietal lobe, occipital
lobe andtemporal lobe. The frontal lobesareresponsiblefor intelligence,consfiructive
imaginationand abstractthought. The outerlayer ofthe brain is called cerebralcortex.
The areasin the cerebralcortex is responsiblefor sight,hearing,touch and control ofthe
voluntary muscles ofthe body. The upper side of the temporal lobe contains hearing
center.The temporallobesarealsoof importanceforthe storageprocessinthe long term
memory. The visual centreis situatedin the occipital lobe which is in the back side of
brain. Motor centerin the cerebralcortexcorrespondsto certainbody movementwhich

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


SYSTEMS
PHYSIOLOGICAL 1.9

canbeelicitedby electricallystimulatingthebrainsurface.In the anteiiorpartof the


parietallobecontainsthesensorycenterwherethesensorynervesareterminated.
Cerebellumconsists oftrruohemisphenes. ofmtrscular
theco-ordination
Theyregulate
movementselicitedby the cerebrum. It is alsoa balancecenter.In thebrain stem;we
havediencephaloru whichconsistssfthalamusandhypothalamus andmedullaoblongata"
Thalamusis a relay stationfor sensorypathwaysto the cortical sensorycenterof the
cerebrum.Hypothalamus metabolism,
consistsofcentersfortemperatureregulation, fluid
regulation,appetite,thirst,sleep,feelingsandemotions.Themedullaoblongatacontains
centersofregulatingtheworkingofheartandlungs.Thebrainconsistsofa systemof
oavitiescalledventricles.Theventriclescontaincerebrospinal fluid whichhelpsto resist
thestressdueto acceleration.
Spinalcordisthedownwardcontinuation ofthe medullaoblongataandis protected
by the spinalcord. It runsthroughthevertebralcolumnor throughthebackbone.The
workingofthe entirebodyis linkedwith it. It is connectedto a largentrmberof nerves.
Thespinalcordmakesthework ofthe braineasyby receivingmessages from it andthen
sendingthemto differentprgans andviceversa.Thespinalcordis meantto takedecisions
wherenothinkingis required.Ifwe feelttrirsty,wedrinkwater.Thist)apeofautornaticor
quickreactionis calledreflexor reflexaction-
sJ
1.8.2PeripheralNervousSystem C PP
Theperipheralneryoussystemconsistsofmotor andsensorynerves.Themotor
pathwaysconductoutwards(efferent)andsensorypathwaysconductinwards(afferent).
Theautonomidneryogssystemconsistsoftwo motorsystemsworkingin opposition.
Theyaresympathetic andparasympathetic systems.Ifthe nerueimpulsesareconducted
tluoughsympatheticmotor systemin anorgan,theystimulatemuscularactivity in one
directionandtheseconductedthroughparasympathetic systemevoketheoppositeeffect.
For examplethe pupil of our eyeis dilatedby the sympatheticandcontractedby the
parasympathetic. Throughthe co-ordinatingactionof the two systemshomeostasis
develops, thatis equilibriumin theactivityofthe pupil.
1.9 NerueCell
A groupof cellsofthe sutme typeis calledatissue.For example,a nervetissue'is
fromnervecellsandglial cells.Thenervottssystemis madeupofnervecells.
constnrcted
Eachnenrecellbodyhasseveraldendritesalongitsboundaryanda longneryefibrecalled
andfiberiscalledneuron.krformationisfiansmitted
a(on. Thenervecellwith itsdendrites

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.10 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATIOf{

throughana>(onby meansof shortimpulsesof constantamplitude.Theinformationis


codedandsentthroughpulse frequencymodulated impulses.Aconnectionbetweentwo
excitablecells,ih theform ofa contactsurfacebetweentwo neuronsis calleda synapse.
Thussynapse is thestnrcturein whichnerv€impulsescanbeconductedblocked,altered
or integratedis actingasatansmissionline.kr thesynapse theinformationis caniedby a
, chemicalsubsancecalledaneuroftansmitter whichdiftses acrcsstlregap.Ttrendve call
synthesizntheneurofransmitters andnorepinepluine.Thenervewhich
intoacetylcholine
containsacetylcholineis calledcholinergic.Theneryewhichcontainsnorepinephrine is
' calledadrenergic.Thenerveimptrlseis conducted, inthickneunonsis 100m/sandinthin
,neurons is 0.5ni/s.

Dendrites

Cell Nucleus
Cell Body

Nodes of Ranvier

Nerve Ending

Figure lf: Nervecell


Theorganofthe bodyis composedofvarioustissues.Theorgqncontaintissuethat
furnishessomemechanicalstuengthandspecialisedtiszuethatglvesaparticularfimction.
.Therearefive senseorgansin ourbody.Theyareeye,ear,nose,tongueandskin. These
areexposedoutsidethebodyandhelpusin sensation.Therearecertainintemalorgans
which servetheptrposeofmaintainingthebodyin goodconditionfor work. Themain
functionsofthemarebreathingdigestingfooq circulatingbloodandremovingwastes.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.11
PHYSIOLOGICALSYSIET\49

1.10Cardio PulmonarySYstem
Thecirculatorysystem,helps
Theciriuratorysystemis atypeoftansport rystem
to differer:3*: of our bodyandremoving
in supplyingthe oxygenanddigesiedfood
fromtheblood. Theheartisthecentue ofthe circulatorysystem'Theheart
carbondioxide
Theheartpumpsblrrodby amovementcalled
is madeup of muscles.It actsasapump
tl* pulmorprycirculationtothehrngs
heartbeating.Theheartpumpsth, uooa thfough
oJthebody'
andtl|rougfrthesy$ematiccirrouhimg @srrgans
flows from ttreright venticle ofthe
In thepulmonarycirculationthevexo's brood givesoff
through the pulmonary artery to the lungswhereit is oxygenatedand
heart
throughpulmorraryveinsto
carbondioxide: Thearterial(pgreo, o*ygrout"djbbod flows
flowsintoleftventiclev"tler€'itisFessurised
theleftaftiumoftheheart.Thenthepureblood
calledarteriesto thedifferentpartsofthe
andis pumpedthroughaortaandits branches in
thebloodis disfributedto thecapillaries
body.Througlrsmallarteriescalledarteriores,
otherchemicalsandtakesup carbondioxide
thetissueswhereit givesup it" oxygenand
products of combustion. The blood returnsto the heartthroughdifferent routes'
and asthe
theheartto variousorglns areknown
Bloodvesselswhich carrypurebloodfrom known as
Blood through
vessels which imp're bloodrett'ns to the heartare
arteries. through
half ofthe bodyreh*nsto right atrium
veins.Theimp're bloodtoritrr. upper The
of thebodythrougtrinferior venacava'
superiorvenacavaandfrom therowerhalf veins
thelungsto heartarecalledpulmorrary
bloodvesselswhich caryp..lrebloodfrom pulmonary
the blood vesselwhich impure
car-ries bloodfromttreheartto hrngsis called
and

Physiologyof lleart
.vlwrcm andoxyl3en
rirenourishment
requirenouri to performvariousphysiological
,*u parts
All \'oftlre body
trxurD , ,rr^ ^.-+^r +rra.pfirnffinns
fromthebody.Tocarryoutall thesefinrctions
functions.Theexcretashouldbe:efminated
'J r --- ^- ^r-.,rarin.
##;;d;;;;; *""gir outthebodv.rhisisknownascirculation'
The Heart
andcontinuo'slyfor years'The
Theheartis apumpingorganwhichbeatsrygurarlv
is inherentandindependent ofnerrrousconfiol'
. rhythmiccontaction and
minuteat rest. contraction is systole
Theheartheatsaboutseventytimesa a
diastole.It is situatedalmostin themiddleof thechest.It is enclosedin
is
relar<ation
doublewalledmembranous sac,thepeicardium'

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.12 BIOMEDTCAL
INSTRUMENTATION

Superior Vena
Pulmonary artery
To Lungs
Aortic Valve

Pulmonary vein
Pulmonaryv
I-eft Auricle
Right Auricle
Inferior Vena ca
Mitral Valve
Right
Left Ventricle
Inferior VCnacava

tr'igure1.7
Theheartis a fotn camberedorgan.Theright andthe left halvesofthe heart
are
completelyseparated bypartitionscalledsepta.Eachhalfhasanuppe/chamberasthe
auricleanda lower chamberastheventriculo.Eachauricleopensinto theverticle
of its
ownsidetlrroughanatlricle-ventricular aperture.Thetwoapertures areguadedbyvalves
whichopenonlyintotheventicle andprevehtthebaclcward flow ofthe blood.Themihal
valveor bicuspidvalvehastrvoflaps.It is presentattheauricleventicularopening
onthe
left side.Thetricuspidvalvehavingthreeflapsis tumedontheright sideofthe
heart.
Theleftventriclehaspapillarymuseles whichpreventthevalvesftom beingpushd
intorlreat[icles.At thestartingpointoft]reaortaftom theleft venticle thereis
anotherset
ofsemilunarvalve.
Therightawiclereceivesvenousblood(deoxygenated)fiom thebody,tfyoughtwo
mainvesselsa superiorvenacavaandaninferiorvenacava.Thesuperioruro*uuulring,
thebloodfrom theupperregionsofthe bodyandthelatterfrom its lowerparts.
Theleft
auriclereceivestheoxygenated
bloodfiom thelungs,ttubughfoupulmonaryveins.
The Working of Heart
Theventriclesarchighlymuscular.Theyrweivebloodfromthereqpective
awicles.
tffhentheventriclesconfracttheblood
is facedinto thearteries.Thevalvespresentthe

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


SYSTEMS
PHYSIOLOGICAL 1.13

bloodfrom flowing into the auricle.Theright ventriclepushesthe bloodinto a large


putmonary tnffrtqwhichsoon lungs.The
intotrro arteriesleadingto therespective
left ventriclepumpsthebloodintothethick aorta When ttreheartrelaxesandcontracts,
thevenfiiclesdrawmorebloodfromtheawicles.Bloodleavingtheventiclesflow onlyin
onedirectionandthevalvespreventtherettrmofblood into theventricle.
t
TheArteries and Veins
'
All thebloodvesselsleadingfrom theheartarecalledarteries,thearterieshave
thickerelasticandmuscularwallsthantheveins.Thearteriesbranchinto smallarteries,
arteriolesandfinatlyendin capillaries.Thegapillariesleadinto smallvenuleswhichfrom
smallveinsandfurallylage veins.
Origin of the Heart Beat
areaofmtrsclefibresis foundknownasthesine- auricular
kr theheart,a specialised
node.Thisistheregionuiherefte heartbeatorigirfates.TtF sine- auricularnodedetermines
th.erateof heartbeat. Henceit is knownaspacemaker.
Theheartbeatradiatesthroughatrioventricularnode.It wasdiscoveredby His
andis calledthebundleofHis. Thisconductingbundlethenentersthevenfiiclesthrough
thePurkinjefibres.
Ttreheartbeatcanbeclearlyheardthroughaninstnrmentcalledthe stethoscope.
'lub' andthesecondsoundis 'dub'. Thefirst
Twosoundscanbeheard.Thefirst soundis
soundis causedby theenclosure ofthe arniculoventicularValveandthesecondis causes
of semilunarvalves.
bythedlosr.ue
l.l2 Physiologyof Lungs
Tfiesearetherespiratory organs.Lurgstansnits tlreatnoqpheric airthroughrpsnilq
pharynx,tracheabronchiandbronchioles. Air entersfinaltyinto tlrealveoli. Respiratory
gasesareexchanged betweenthealveolarair andthebloodin alveolarcapillaries.
Lungsarelocatedin thethoraciccavity.l,oweringof diaphragmby confiactionof
intercostalmuscleincreases thevolumeofthorax. Sothepressure falls downin thelungs
andthiscauses airto enterintothelurrgsproducinginspirationRelanation ofthesemtrscles,
reducesthevolumeofthe thorar<andincreases thepressue. Sothe air is sentout. This
causes theexpiration.
Tidal volumeis the volumeof air breathedin andout duringrespirationoxygen
diffirsesfrom thealveolarair to thealveolarcapillaryblood. Thealveolarpressueis
higherthanthepressrneofthe venousbloodCO, diffirsesin the revercedirectionCO,

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.14 ON
BIO MEDICALINSTRUMENTATI

and
reactswith waterfromscarbonicacidwiththehelpof anenzymecarbonicanhydrase
,thecarbonicacidglvesriseto bicarbonateandhydrogen.
'
l.l2.l Circulationand Respiration ,
Organsof Respiration
Theftrngsarelargeoccupytngthem{or partofthechestcavitybelow*re AanlqaSn.
Th9lurg hasbranchingair passagesandfoldedwallsandis madetrpof manyalveoli.Air
thebodytluoughnoseandthepharymxandthenentersintottrewindpipeasftachea.
ente,rs
Theopeninginto*re windprpeis anarrowslitrtheglottis,thnoughwhichtheairpasses
into
\
thetacheavialarynx.
Thetractreais atubesupported rings.It is dividedintotwo major
by cartilagineous
bronchi.Thebronchidivideandzubdivide intosmallbronchioles,terminating in analveolts
air sac.Thepassage of air is asfollows,nose- pharynx- fiachea- bronchi- bronchioles
- alveoliofthe lungs. Theringsofcartilagein thewallsofthe tracheamakethemelastic
andpreventthemfromcollaPsing.
Therespiratorytractis linedinternallywith themucusmembranewhichis kept
moist
TheLung
Thereareapairof hlrgsin ahuman,therightlungis largerthantheleft lungandtheir
lowersurfacesareconcaveto accomodate thediaphragm,which dividethebodycavity
into thethoi.acicandabdominalregions.Thelungsareenvelopedby thedoublelayered
membrane calledthepleura.
Themainbronchifromthetacheaentertherootofeachhurg anddividerepeatedly
into smallluronchioles.Thesmallerbronchiolesopeninto manythin walledsacscalled
alveoli.Thethin walledalveolihelpintheinterchangeofgasesbehveenthebloodandair.
Mechanismof Respiration
Theprocessofrespirationis divisibleintoinspirationandexpiration
Inspiration
Theintercostalmusclesin betweentheribspull themupwardandoutward.The
musculardiaphragmalsocontactsandflattens.Sothepleuralcavrtyis enlarged.The
pressureinsidethe lungsfalls down with increasein the volumeof thoraciccavity.
Ahospheric airrushesin througtrnacheaintothelungs.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


1.14 ON
BIO MEDICALINSTRUMENTATI

and
reactswith waterfromscarbonicacidwiththehelpof anenzymecarbonicanhydrase
,thecarbonicacidglvesriseto bicarbonateandhydrogen.
'
l.l2.l Circulationand Respiration ,
Organsof Respiration
Theftrngsarelargeoccupytngthem{or partofthechestcavitybelow*re AanlqaSn.
Th9lurg hasbranchingair passagesandfoldedwallsandis madetrpof manyalveoli.Air
thebodytluoughnoseandthepharymxandthenentersintottrewindpipeasftachea.
ente,rs
Theopeninginto*re windprpeis anarrowslitrtheglottis,thnoughwhichtheairpasses
into
\
thetacheavialarynx.
Thetractreais atubesupported rings.It is dividedintotwo major
by cartilagineous
bronchi.Thebronchidivideandzubdivide intosmallbronchioles,terminating in analveolts
air sac.Thepassage of air is asfollows,nose- pharynx- fiachea- bronchi- bronchioles
- alveoliofthe lungs. Theringsofcartilagein thewallsofthe tracheamakethemelastic
andpreventthemfromcollaPsing.
Therespiratorytractis linedinternallywith themucusmembranewhichis kept
moist
TheLung
Thereareapairof hlrgsin ahuman,therightlungis largerthantheleft lungandtheir
lowersurfacesareconcaveto accomodate thediaphragm,which dividethebodycavity
into thethoi.acicandabdominalregions.Thelungsareenvelopedby thedoublelayered
membrane calledthepleura.
Themainbronchifromthetacheaentertherootofeachhurg anddividerepeatedly
into smallluronchioles.Thesmallerbronchiolesopeninto manythin walledsacscalled
alveoli.Thethin walledalveolihelpintheinterchangeofgasesbehveenthebloodandair.
Mechanismof Respiration
Theprocessofrespirationis divisibleintoinspirationandexpiration
Inspiration
Theintercostalmusclesin betweentheribspull themupwardandoutward.The
musculardiaphragmalsocontactsandflattens.Sothepleuralcavrtyis enlarged.The
pressureinsidethe lungsfalls down with increasein the volumeof thoraciccavity.
Ahospheric airrushesin througtrnacheaintothelungs.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


.
t
1.15
SYSTEMS-
PHYSIOLOGICAL

Carbondioxide

OxygenatedBlood

(D) (c) ExPiration


v (B) ,j,
.t
.-,i Figure 1.8: Stnrctureofthe lung
l,
F,ryiration
*.,, Theribsareloweredby theintercostalmusclesandthediaphragrn becomes asched'
forcingtlreair outofthe hrnsthrouglrthenose'
so trratplet'al cavitybe@mescompressed
whichis refend to asresidualvolume'
someairremainsin thehungsaftertheexhalation
is calledthetidal volume'
Theamountof airthatmovesin with eachinspiration
GasExchangein the Lung - RespiratoryPigments
Thegasexchange involvpsthefollowingsteps
alveoli. This process
1. The exchaageof air betweentheatmosphereand
thedistributionof
includesthemovementof air in andout ofthe hungsand
lungs'
air within thelungs.Thisprocessis ventilationofthe

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


\t.r

Chapter- 2
for
Transdtmers

2,1 Introduction to BasicTransducerPrin ciples

r* @er of aceurasY requues


"Mugrtiatdtof quantityto bemeasured
n
I *or
:F.-a
dynamiccharacterofthe processto be studies.
tbepqneter of&e elementcanberecognized onlywtrentheelement
*l*e*f*fioR trat arehsed on
or exciAtbn. Hencefiansducers
energyconversion
irirpries andnaniducers
ffi;io.tion
ffi;;ffi: iesistineo
Active'trans&rcer. capacitive
ir,rdugtive,
-{r.i
Thermocouplesandpiezoelecticcrystalsare
' transducers.
. +, i

id#ilirll tan$uqer or' Agtive'transducers'


lar*e of datato haveit readily
Sdrrrputrsto storerrery luantY:: Sothefeatne
exnq.n9t*t inhospital'
*ury them
fFurv' ffiriog
r-{=---

di"r" discussed'
instnrmentationwas
, , i i } - . t

E r '
Lecture
-
Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC
2.2 BIO MEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

2.1.1 Acfive and PassiveComponents


Active Component
Afansduceru&ichgieitsoulpr$withouttheuseofanexcitationvoltage
ormodulation
of a carrier signal is called an active transducer.

Exanple; M4grreticinductiontypefians&rcer Nonelec-+ electric-+


Piezoelectrictype Non elecfricenergy
Photovoltaictype
Thermoelectictype
PassiveComponent
A fransducer whichgrveitsoutputwith or usinganexcitationvoltageor modulation
of acarriersignalis calledpassivetansducer.
Example: Resistive.
Inductive
Capacitive It cannotbe operatedin reversedirection.
Fibre-optic
t
Photo-electric ",f:
i:
Chemicaltansducers.
.*t6l{
PassiveTransducers
It convertsthephysiologicalparameters like bloodpressuregd
.i terrtdirf,tiiie
I -'--'''
into
anelecticaloutputusinga d.c.or a.c.excitationvoltage.
e
-'ali-
2.2 Resistive Transducer : ,".rr.i:ii ;
Principle
it is basedontheprinciplethatttremeasured
parameter capses" *,"fiin*gr in the
resistanceof the transducer.Resistivetransducersare strain gairge,photr#bsistor,
photodiode, photofransistors, wire. ' ii ' 'r'r'
thermiqlor,andmetallicresistance
A wheatstone bridgeis commonlyusedto measuretherr}o*.e changein the
transducer.In the caseof bridgecircuits,the loadeffect'errorshouldbe avoidedto
reproduce
inputsignalwithoutanydistortion.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


TMNSDUCERSFORBIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION 2.3

2.z.|Loading Effect and Sensitivityof the Bridge

R"=E$ft.frtr

Figure2.1
I + dividedintoI' 12,13,14
B:
I,-Ir-I, : 0 K.Ilaw
D:
1 2 + I s - 1 4: 0 K. II law
ABDA
I,P+IsG-I2R: 0
ABCDA
Ir P + 1 3 Q - I o S - 1 2 :R ...(l)

B and D I. Same
So I*:o
Ir -- 13
Ir:14
I,P : I,R

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.4 BIOMEDICALTNSTRUM
ENTATION

in (l)
Substitute
I,P+IrQ-14S-12R
13:Ir 14:12
IrP+IrQ : 12S+I2R
IrG+Q) : 12(R+S)

l,(p+Q) I(n+s)
I,P IrR
Loading effect
It is theinabilityofthe instnrments
to reproduce
theinputwithoutanydistortion.
P+Q _ R+S
P R

t+9 : t+!
P R

a _ s
P R
(or)
E3
Let ustakethebridgeurbalancefrom figure2.1 aseo"whichis developed dueto
theresistance changein thetransducerwhich formsoneof the bridgearms.Assume
intemalresistance
iszerc(battery)andurdernoloadconditioqthebridgernrbalance
voltage
canbewriffenas

e : El " *- R r- &R. & J2 I


6 nc
E
L--t&
B and D are at samepotential (basedon equivalentcircuit)
oec = I, (R. + \")

rrm-- € n c
(RJn-)

Itn _
(R. * R,.)

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


FORBIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
TRANSDUCERS 2.5

R"- bridg. equivalentresistance


Thevoltageindicatedby volmeterin thebridge.
9lcn, : I,n\

, e n c u - , 1 , .
gec ':*F"/.
'( )
,/R'/

. To avoidloadingeffecterror,soztsto geteo'u,= eoc,theresistance


ofthe voltneter
in thebridgeis high.
Sensitivity
In straingaugebridgethearmsofthe brigehaveequalresistances.
R- R': &: &: Rt
Rr - activesfraingauge
R, - dummystraingauge
=
Whenthereis no outputfor thefiansducerthebridgeoutputvgltageeo" 0
Whenthereis inputR, andlo *. changedinto R,'+ AR,Rn- AR.
Thebridgeoutputvoltage
n+an
vaA c - rt -rJ[ q L n * A R + R _ A R - - L l
R+Rl

=r,
-cxf4Ll
L2RJ

:
Sensitivityofthebridgo'5' :
tr k
'
Sensitivrryis proportionalto excitationvoltageandinverselyproportionalto the
ofthe armofthe bridge.
resistance
2.2.2 StrainGauge
pressuremonitoringsystemsusestraingaugetype pressuretransducers.For
Thisfactis tsedto measureblood
inraarterialandintravenouspressuremeasurements.
volumesandthechangesin bloodvolumes.Theinstnrmentwhichis usedfor measuring
bloodvolumeis calledplethysmogaph.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.6 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATI
ON

FingermorHrtedstraingaugeis usedfor measuringsmallchanges


in bloodvolume
flowingthroryhthefinger.
Straingaugeis anelechicaldevicewhichis usedto measuresfressandpresstuein
termsofstain usingtheprincipleofchangeofresistivrtydueto mechanicalstress.
Thetwo tlpes are
D Bondedand
i| Unbondedstraingauge
In bondedstraingauge,a gnd of fine wireis cementedto a thin papersheet.In
unbondedstraingauge,aresistance
wire is woundarourdthestrrcttre.

Sapphire
pins

BondedStraingauge

Figure 2.2
For a goodstraingaugetansducer
\ fi --
AR/P
a) F = l,i* high.Gaugefactor)
Lvl
t -

Al - incremental
changeinlengttr
I unstretched
lengthofwire
AR - incrementalchangein resistance
dueto stress ,
R - resistance
ofunstretchedwire
b) Resistance
shouldbemore
c) Gaugeres*istance
wire shouldhavelowtemperature
coefficientresistance.
IAR+o
c.-
RAT
d) Theremustbblinearrelationbetweenstain andresistance
ofthe wire,theresistance
wirewouldnothaveanymrchanicalhysteresis.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


FORBIOMEDICATINSTRUMENTATION
TRANSDUCERS 2.7

R = P l _-#
A V
wire : Al.
V .: volumeoftheresistance
2.2.3Strain Gaugeasa PressureTransducer

Figure 2,3
thediaplragrn.Thisin ttrmstuetches
to adomeanddiqplaces
A fluid likebloode,nters
thegaugewiresfrom oneendto other.Appliedpressurerangesfrorn 50to 300mm Hg.
Whentheinputis availablein theform ofpulsewaveto measurethepressure,thestrain
gaugepulsetansduceris used.
2.2.4 Metallic \ilire Transducers

Figure 2.4

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.8 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

A wire wourld resistivepotentiometic trarrsducercanbeemployedashigh efficient


transducerto detectmovementwhen the moving object candevelopa moderateforce.
Respirationis detectedby connectinga rotatory potentiometerto thechest. The rotating
part ofthe potentiometeractsasapivot. For the caliperarms. The changein the resistance
is linearly relatedto the musclemovement. It mayproducevoltagedrop. Dependingupon
the muscularmovement correspondingpulsatingd.c. voltage is recordedin d recorder.
The abovefigure showsresistancewire r. The choice ofthe resistance
wire dependsupon the linearity andsernitivity ofthe temperatureresistance.It is usedto
measunethe temperature.Aand B are fixed standardresistance,C is variable resistance
madefrom constantwhich hasvery lowtemperaturecoefficientofresistance.The platinum
resistancecoil and its connectingleadsareconnectedin the oppositeann. The changein
the resistanceofthe coil leadswith ambienttemperaturearecancelledout by correqponding
changein dummy compensatingleads.
The resistanceofR, ofa metallic resistancewire at atemperatureT" C is given by

\: q(l+ooT)
cr,,- Temperature
coefficientofresistance
q - Resistance at 0oC

' R'-R'
.,_
tl tRrI
2.3 CapacitiveTransducers
It is usedto measurethedisplacement producedby thebio-variableby meansof
changein overlapingareaofcross plates,thickness
sectionoftheconducting ofthedielectic
materialanddistancebenveentheconductingplates.
Capacitorconsistsoftwo conductingstrfacesseparated
by a dielrcfric in theform
of solid,liquid,gasor vacurm.
C : eoerA/d
ro - Permitivityoffree space
r, Relativepermitivity
A - Areaofcrosssectionofthe plate
d distanceof separation theplate
betrveen
Thechangein capacitance is normallymeasured throughthefrequencychangein
theoscillatorcircuitwhercthecapacitivefiansducerformsatankcircuit. Componentor

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


ON
FORBIOMEDIGALINSTRUMENfATI
TRANSDUCERS 2.9

theunbalanced voltagefrom*re bridge\*Hnethetransducerformsoneannofthe bridge


circuit. Thecapacitance changeis duetochangein s€pagsonbetweentheplates,change
in areaor dielecfiicglvesmeasurement.
Deflected
Static plate

Insulatingmaterial

>l
Diaphragm
staticposition ! >

nr"rrrn"#

Figuro 2.5
Thecapacitanceis directlyproportionalto areaoftheplateandinverselyproportional
to thedistancebetweentheparallelplates(d). Variationof d causesa corresponding
variationin thecapacitance.
Theprincipleof variationof d is usedin thecapacitivetrartsducer.
Whena forceis appliedon the diaphragmactsasoneplateof a capacitor,the
distancebetweenthediaphragmandthestaticplateis changed.Theresultantchangein
capacitance canbemeasuredwith anacbridgeor anoscillatorcircuit. It measurestatic
anddynamicchanges.
2.4 InductiveT[ansducer
permeability,no.ofturnsin
It is basedontheprincipleof changeinthe reluctance,
t5ecoilwtrichmayprodweachange ormutualindrctanceofthetansducer.
intheinductance
N'[rA : N , P G: N A
ofthe coil 'L3:
Inductance
R - Reluctance ofthe coil
N - No. ofturns
p Effectivepermeability
A - Areaof crosssection
I l,engttrofthecoil
G - Geometicformfactor

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.10 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

2.4.1 LVDT pinbar VariableDifrerentialTransfomerl


MostwidelyusedinductivetansducsffitansleftEthe linearmotionintoelecnical
sigtal.
Principle of LVDT [Linear Variable Differential Transfomerl
It is widelyusedasaplrysiologicalpressuresensor.Thedifferenceoutputvoltage
becomesamea$r€ofvibration/accele,rationuih€ncalihated" ThediffercrrceouQtfvoltage
ofthe secondary windingofthe LVDT is a displacementis theprincipleused.
Diaphragm

Arnplifier

Figure 2.6: LVDT wi*r z&roadjusnnent


Constmction
It coniistsofone primarywindingandtwo secondarywindingss, ands, wound
overahollow bobbinofnon-magnethaveequalno.ofturns arrangedconcenfiicallyand
placedeither sideof the primary winding P. A soft iron coreattachedto the sensing
elementofwhich displacement to bem€asured in thestrapeofrod. [n orderto overcome
theproblemofeddy currentlossesin thecore,nickel,iron alloy is usedascorematerial.
Primarywinding is connectedto anacvoltagefrom 5 to 25Y F - 50 Hz. Whenthecore
is movedinsidethebobinit variescouplingofprimarywindingto secondary winding.
In null positionofthe corci.e.in centalpositio4couplingofprimarywindingands,,
s2ureequal.As theconeis movedtowardleft from its null position,them4gneticlinkage
to s, increases ands, decreases. Thereforeoutputvoltagein s, increases outputvoltagein
s,decreases. Oppositeactiontakesplaceurlrenit moveto\ /ardsright. Secordarywindings

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


ON
ENTATI 2.11
CERSFORBIO MEDICALINSTRUIVI
TRAT.ISDU

s, ands2areconnected in seriesoppositionthedifferencein outputvoltagesof secondary


windingsgivesthe measurement of displacernent.This movementofthe coresin one
increasesandit is in
directionawayfrom thenull position,thedifferentialoutputvoltage
cocein other
phasewith the input voltageof primarywinding. Themovementof the
increase'But l80o
directionfromnull positioncausesagaindifferentialoutprrtvoltageto
the magnitudeand
out of phasewith the input primary vortage.Now by measuring
primaryvoltageamoulrt
,o,,,p*irrg theptraseof differentialoutputvoltagewith theinput
anddirectionof displacement of coremaybedetermined'

, A
I OttPutvoltage180
Y out of Phasewith

Figure2.7
Cutve
ofLVDT is linea for limitedmngeofdiqplacement (sayabout5
Thectraracteristics
olfi at
thisrangecurvestartsflattening
mmeithersidefromthenull position).fuid loeyond
bothends.
existsatoutput
output voltageis +otzaroatnull positionbutsomeresidrnlvoltage
to magneticunbalance
terminals.It is gsually< lo . Thisresidtralvolagemaybeeitls drr
or dueto elecfiicalrurbalance.
LVDTsnormallyfttngefor displacement variesfrom+0.01mmto *25mm'
Merits
I . Havelinearctraracteristics 2. HiEhsensitivity
3. Highotsput 4. Lesspower
5. Higlrfircquency
Demerits
1. Sometimes it is affectedby variations'
2. Thereceivinginstnrmentmustbeselected onacsignals'
3. Demodulatoris usedif a dcrequired'

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.12 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

Applications
It is usedfor measuementofdisplacement
thatrangefroma fiaction of amm to a
fewcm.

Seondary
s2
il*
-o Dif output
AC o voltage
input V
voltage

2.5 Fibre-optic Transducer[SoundMeasurementl


Opticalfibresconsistsoftwo concentriclayerscalledcore,cladding.Theseare
ttrin,flexiblethreadsofhansparentglassthatcancarryvisiblelight.
Principle
Ifa beamoflight crosses theboundarybetrveen
two materials,ofrefiactiveindices
n, andn, thenit will berefractedasshown.

Figure 2.9

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.13
FoRbI
TMNSDUcERS

fiansducer
Thesoundlevelmea$rementcanbedonewith (i) intensltyfibre optic
(ii) aninterferometrictypetransducer'
Sensingfibre coil

ttu
I
trc
oetec{or
-l r -
Bearn Recombining
sPlitter Ref. Fibre coil odtcs
Laserbeam
Figure 2'10
part of the beampasspsthroughthe referencecoil which is enclosedin stable
envirormen6andtlreremainingpasses throughthesensingcoil. sorurdwavesdistorttlre
of
therelativeptrases
senslngfiber,whichcausesits,opticallengthto change,thusaltering
whichwill beseenin
thelight in eachfiber. Theso4d levelis thefirnctionofptraseshift,
theinterfer,encepatternwhenthetwo beamsarerecombined'
2.6. Fibre-opticTransducer[TemperatureMeasur€mentl
- treafinentby
Theelevatedtemperattrein theftrngeof 42 45"or higherfor cancer
passes
electomagrreticenergy,eitherin theradiofrequencyor rnicrowavefrequencyftmge
mearurement problem.Sensorszuchasthermistorsorthermocouples
adifficulttemperafure
andconnecting wireswhichmaY^even causelocalisedheating
requiremetalliccomponents
,pot, andthetempreadingsmayevenbeerraticdueto interference'

ofopticalfibreis flexibility,smalldimensions'
tJpicaladvantage

Figure2.ll

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.14 BIO MEDICALINSTRUMENTATI
ON

Oneofthe simplesttypesoftemperafiresensors consistsofa layerof liquid crystal


at the endof optical fibres,giving a variationof light scatteringwith temperatureat a
particularwavelength.
A temprisecausesareductionin thenefractive indexofthe liquid cladfibresection.
Thelighttavellingftomthesilicon-cldfibretotheliquid-cladfibrerndergo6anattemration
whichdwreases by increasing
tempe,ratre.Thelightftom 860nn(I-ED) coupledto fibre.
Opticalfibr€scanbeu$edfor measurcment oftemperatrre.Ttretempemature indrrces
changesin refractiveindex of the fiber. A increasein temperaftrechangecausesthe
criticalangleofthe fiberto changeslightlywhichin turn changes theamountof light lost
throughleakagein thecladding.
In thetemperature measuringsystemlight is emittedby anLEDltransmitted
to and
ftom thecrystal(via) opticalfibresandmeasured by photodetector.
Temperature sensor
is used.

Ga As
crystal
(Galliurnarsenide)

Figure2.l2

2.7 PhotoelectricTypeResistiveTlansducer
Tomeasure thepulsatilebloodbyusug photoresistorsor light dependent
resistors
(LDR)is used.
Photoresistor

Lamp Photoresistor
(a)

Figure2.13

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


FORtsIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
TRANSDUCERS 2.15

In figure(a)calledastansmittancemethod.Aminiatrre larnpad photoresistor are


moqntedin anenclosure thatfits overthetip ofthe finger.Theptffioresistorformsoneof
thearmsofthe bridgecircuit. Thephotoresistor is madefrom semiconductors andhence
theresistance ofthe photoresistor decreaseswhenlight is incidentonit. De'pending upon
theintensityofthe fiansmittedlight reachecl to thephotoresistortll€ ortput voltageofthe
bridgecircuitis alsovaried.
Dqringthecontractionofthe heartmuscles,b'loodis forcedto theerfiemitiesand.
thevolumeofthe fingeris increasd. Densityof'thefingeris alt€redard hencetheamourt
of light tansmittedthroughthefingeris decremed, theresistanceofthe photoresistoris
increased
Duringtherelaxationoftheheartmuscles&eamountofthetnnsrrrittedlightreaching
andhenceits resistance
increases
thephotoresistor Light sour@slike LED are
decreases.
usedto avoid the heatingof blood. LED is manufactured using Gallium-Arsenide
semiconductors
In thereflectancemethodthephotoresistor is placedbetweenlampssothatthe
reflectedand scatteredlight from the skin andthe tissuesof the finger falls on the
*
photoresistor.Figure(b).
Insteadof connectingto thebridgecircuit,thephotoresistormaybeconnected asa
partof voltagedivider circuit andthe voltagedrop :rcrossthephotoresistoris directly
proportionalto the volumechangeofthe bloodvessels.Photoresistors aregenerally
calledphotoconductive cells.Photbfiansistoris alsoused.Whenlight fallsontheemitter
side,moreelectron-holeparisareproducedin thebase.Ttrisis amplifiedby fransistor
actionanda targscollectorcurrentis obtained.
Thusthepulsatilebloodis measured by uing photoresistor'

2.8 Sourceof Bio-Electric Potentials


Thechemicalactivityinthe neryesandmusclesofthe body,avarietyofelecnii.al
signalsaregenerated.Example,Heartandbrainproduceclraracteristic pattemofvoltage
variations
at a cellularlevel. Positiveandnegativeions
Bio electricpotentialaregenerated
(resting
tendto concentaterurqually insideandoutsidethecellwall,apotentialditrerence
potential)is established.
Thecell in its normalrestingstateie interioris negativewith raspectto theodside.
Therecharginganddischargingofthe cell knownasdepolarisationandrepolarisation
producesthevoltagewaveforms
respectively

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


.:
2.16 BIO[ffi DICALINSTRUMENTATION

2.9 Chemical Transducers


The transducerswhich is basedon the chemicalreactionsare called as chemical
fransducer.Cheriiical reactionoccursin the fuel cell whe,nttle potassiumhydroxide in the
cell comesinto contactwith oxygen.
This cr,eatesan electric currentbetweenthe leadanodeandthe gole-platedcathode
througha load resistance.The voltagethat is producedis proportionalto the concenftation
of oxygen presenl They areusedin oxygen analysers.

Chemical elecfiodesare generallyusedto meastre PHand PO, ofblood. They are


usedto determinethe oxygentensionor carbondioxideterlsioninthe blood.
There arethreetlpes of chemical electrodes.
a) The Hydrogen electroden
b) Practical Referenceelectodes
c) PHelectrode.
Hydrogen electrodeig also called asthe referenceelectrodeand it hasbeenchosen
asthe standareand its potential specified aszero. The potentials of other metal to ion
interfacesaremeasuredwith referenceto it.
So it is called asrefemceelectode. The hydrogenelectode canbe usedto measure
the PHofbody fluids. But the hydrogenelectrodeiJnot stlfficiently stableto serveasa
referenceelementfirther during measurementhydrogengasshouldbe supplied.

The silver-silver chloride electode is usedasa referenceelecfrodedueto its smaller


andstablehalfcell potential
The chemical balanceofthe body is idnetified by the measruementofPH ofblood
and other body fluids. The PHis defined asthe logarithm ofthe reciprocal ofthe H+ ion
concenfration. \

pH_rog
i.e., roft =_rog
ro[H.]

A neutral'solutionhasa PHof 7, whenthevalueof PHof a solutionis morethan


7 thenit is basicsolution,whenthevalueofPHistowerthan7,thenthesolutionis acidic
solution..Theglasselectrodeis normallyusedasa PHelecfiode.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


FORBIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
TRANSDTJCERS 2.17

: :

i; Figure2.14

s
Itr,

2.9.1 PHElectrode
PH Meter
A pHmeteris anelectonicinsffumentusedto measure tlrePH(acidityor basicity)of
a liquid (thoughspecial,probesaresometimesusedto measurethe PHof semi-solid
v substannces, A typicalPHmeterconsistsof a specialmeasuringprobe(a glasselecfrode)
fi connected to anelectronicmeterthatmeasures anddisplaysthePHreading.
Constnretion
ThedigitalpH meteris usedto measure PHnotonly,atagiventemperahrebutalso
atdifferenttempcratuies.
It consistsof aPHelecuodewhichconsistsofa glass(active)elecuodeterminaland
referegrce chlorideelwt''olyteis
terminal.Thesilver-silverctrlorideelecfiodein potassium
actingasareference terminal.A saltbridgeconsistingofa fiberwick satuatedwith kcl is
atthetip ofthe referenceelectode& keepstherefemceterminalpotentialessentiallythe
sameregardless of thesolutioncommonglasswhichconsistsof a hydrotedgelatinou
glasslayer.Itsmembronepotentialis proportionalto thelog[H*] *rereforeis proportional
to thepHofthe solutionrurdertest.Boththeelectodesarekeptin asingleglassenclosure.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.18 BroMEDCALINSTRUMENTATToN

(FromRefl - E'

E,n
(Fromsolution)

YT

- 10 mVfC
Fromtemperature V*=Er-ErN-Yr
sensor

Referenceelectrode

Electricaloonductor

Buffersolution

Glassmembrane

Analyzedsolution

Figure2.lS
Digital PHmeter
Theintemalresistance ofa glasselectodeisveryhigh( I 07-l0l0 otrms).Eventhough
theoutputfromthePHelectrodeis highenoughto deflectthevoltneternedle, to increase
thesensitivlty& accurocy,theelectoniccircuity is adopted.Externalreference voltage,
to compensate thevariouseilors andis alsoaddedwith theoutputfrom PHelectode.
TodeterminethePHatdifferenttemperature avoltagefromthetemperature
rcgulafi
circuitconeryonding to a gfrrcn
temperature
isalsoaddedwiththeorSr$ ftomPHelec'tnode.
TheopAmps amplifi therevoltagesin therequiredmannerandthefinal outputisgivento
adigitalvolmercr. Thedisplayis obtainedintermsof PHasdiscretenumerals.
UsingPHelectrode,PCOzmd PO, canalsobemeasured.It rangerfrom simple
andinexpensive pen-linedevicesto complexandexpensivelaboratoryinstumentswittl
computerinterfocesandseveralinputsfor indicatorandtemperaturesensorssuchas
(or) thermocoup
thermoresistors les.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


,il
{ ON 2.19
FORBIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATI
TRAI.ISDUCERS

Thusata giventemPerafure
,25"C
Vm : -bolog tH.l +C (inmv)
whereCisaconstant
since PH = - log tH.l
Vm = 60PH+C
to 60 mv.
OnePHcorresponds
Nomal Blood GasParameters

7.37-7.M 7.35-7.45

34-50mm Hg
75-90mmHg 2540mmHg

WlrerlPHis raisedto 7.60andPco,reducedto 18mmHg, thenthereis respiratory


alkalosiswhichcanbefreatedby settingofthe ventilatorsoasto rpducetheventilation.
Anotheronewhich is alsoknown aschemosensor (chemoreceptor)is a cell or
gorry ofcellsthattransduce achemicalsignalintoanactionpotential.e, moregenerally'
achemosensor defectscertainchemicalstimuliin theenvirorunent
2.10 Piezo- Electric Tfansducers
intoanelectricalvariable
or pressure
It convertsdisplacement
It is basedon piezo-electrieeffect.It a varyingpotentialis appliedto theproper
axisofthe crystal,it will changethedimensionsofthe crystaltherebydeformingit. This
effect,is calledpiezo-elecniceffect.
\
), A piezoelectricmaterialis onewhich aselecfticpotentialappearsacrosscertain
sigfacesofa crystalifthe dimensionsofthe crystalarechangedby theapplicationsofthe
crystalarechangedby the applicationofa mechanicalforce. The elementsanhibiting
piezoelectricqtralitiesarecalledaselectro-resistiveelements.
piezo-elecfiicmaterialsincludeRochellesalt$ ditrydrogenphosphate,
v quarts& cenamicsAand B. Thematerialswhichextribita singnificantandusefulPiezo-
elecniceffretaredivtdedinto two categories.i)Nahrralgoup ii) Synttreticgptlp.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


2.20 BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

QuartzandRochEllesaltSaFIbelongto naturalgoup. Lithium sulphate,ethylene


diaminetastarate
belongto thesyntheticgoup.
ForceF

Outpnt
voltage
Eo

Figure2.16
Thepiezo-electiceffectcanbemadetoreqpondto(cause) mechanical
deformations
ofthe materialin differentmodes.Themodeofmotion dependontheshapeofthe body
relativeto thecrystalaxisandlocationofthe electrodes.Themodescanbethickness
expression" fiansverseexpansion,
thicknessshear& faceshear.
Mechanicaldeformationgeneratora chargeandthis chargeappearsasa voltage
acrosstheelectrodes,
ThevoltageisE : Q/C.

Q - Chargein coulomb
E = Voltage
C : Capacitance

a = dxFcoulomb

d : Clrargesensitivityofthqcrysal
CAI ( It is constantforagiven crystal)
F : Applied forceN
Thepiezo-elecniceffectis directionsensitivc..Atensile
forceproducea voltageof
onepolaritywhile aeomprcssiveforceproducesa volt4geofoppositepolarity.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


FORBIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
TRANSDUCERS 2.21

Propertiesof Piezo-ElectricCrystals
D Stability
D Higho/Psensitivity
u) Humidrtyarcthedesirableproperties
2.ll UltrasonicTransducers
Ulnasonicfiansducers areued to producehiglrfrequencyultasonicwaves.There
arenonaudiablesoundwaveswhosefrequenciesaregreaterthen20000Hz. Theyare
vgryusefulfor diagnosticandtherapeuticapplications.
aredividedinto
Theretransducers
D Magnetostictiveultasonictansducersii) Piezoelecticulnasonicfiansducers
2.ll.l Magnetostrictive ultrasonictransducer
Whena ferromagneticrod is placedin a magneticfield, alongthemagnetisation
thereis a changein the lengthofthe rod. This phenomenonis calledmagnetosftiction.
Dependingon the natureof the material,the degreeof earlier magnetisationandthe
temperature, thelengthofthe rod increasesor decreases.
Thnsifanickelrodraihichissuitably andplacedinanalternatirymagnetic
field whosefrequencyis equalto thenaturalmechanicalfrequenryofthe rod. Thereis
resonantvibrationofthe rod.
Thefrequencyofthe rod ls glven by
t
f- _2 t t F t

(, : Lengthofthe rod
E : Yotutg'smodulw ofthe rod
p : Densrtyofthe rod
Tlreresonant waves.
vibrationoftherodisutilizeto producelow fiequencyultrasonic
Themagnetosfiiction coefficientshouldbemoreto gethighpowerulfrasonicwaves.The
materialspermalloyan{ cobaltferrite,Nickel aremagnetostictivematerials.Ifthe rod
hassmallerlength,ultrasonicwavesofhigh frequencycannotbeproduced.
developedtensile stress
)u=
Changein magneticflux density

F. ?t = Magrretosfiictivecoefficient'
t3
f
T
# Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC
BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION

Equivalent Circuit of MagnetostrictiveTransducerof resonanc€

fM/ N:1

Figure2.17
2.,! 2 Pieoclectric UltrasonicThansduccr
Therearemanufacttredfromnaturalandsyntheticpiezoelecticmaferials.Quartz
is tlresinglemodenatrualmaterialwith singlefirequency
whidr is widelyusd. Ulnasonic
wavesareproducedin quartzby inversepiezoelecticeffect.
If we apply an a.c voltagealongx-axis of the crystal,then the corresponding
compression or tensionis producedalongy-a><isof thecrystal.Ttrisis calledInverse
piezoelectriceffect. SowherrahighfrequencyR.Finputis givento electricalaxisofthe
crystalthenalongthe mechanicalaxisofthe crystal,thecrystalexpandsandcontracts
periodically,Whenthenat ual frequencyofthe crystalis equalto R.F input frequency
ulfiasonicresonantvibrations
areobtained.Thefrequency isdetermined bythedimensions,
young'smodulusanddersityofthe crystal.
Eqrivalent Cincuit of Pieoelectric UltrasonicThansducers

Figure2.18
Theproductionofultasonicwavesatresonance in thenansducer
canberepresentd
by asanelectno-mechanical -
(or) voltage forcetnansformer.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC


FORBIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATION
TRANSDUCERS 2.23

'
" - SffessdeveloPed Y oh /
@'-/m
Thetrmi ratioofthat tansformeris eqnalto I : \Co
Co - Staticelectricalcapacitance
ofthe fiansdlrcer

2.12 FactorsDecidingthe Choiceof Tlansducer


D Magninrdeofquantitytobemeasured.
D Theorderof accuracYrequired.
nr)Thestatic(o0 dynamiccharacterofthe processto be studied.
iv) Thesiteofapplicationonthepatient'sbodybothfor shorttermandlongterrlr
mmitoring;
v) Economicconsiderations.
Z.l3 FeatureApplicrble for Bio-MedicalInstmmentation
pressuretansducerarelinkeddirectlyto thepatient'sheart.Theyensurccomplete
safetyof the patient. Thcy arecommonlyusedin intensivecareunits. The feature
applicationsaswedescribed in thischapterarejust ttrosewtrichfindsapplicationin ptient
monitoringsystemsandexperimentalwork on fotr parameters, namelybloodpr€ssure ,
tempe,raturepulseandreqpiratoryactivity.
tsytheability of computento storeverylargequantitiesof datato haveit readily
accessibleforfirtherprocessingmakesthemextlemelyuseful inhospital.Theadmission
anddisclrarge officeofthg wards,andvariousexamination roonuiandlaboratories canbe
computerized.Thetaskofphysicianis relieved.

Short QuestionsandAnswers
1. lVhet is neant bYtranrducer?
It is a devicewhich detectsor sensesthe biosignalandconvertsinto anelectrical
signalfor biosignalProcessing.
2. DefineStrain Gauge.
It is anelectical devicewhichis usedto measurestressor prcs$re in termsof suain
usingtlrcprincrpleofchangeofresistivitydneto mechanical sftss.
3. How transducersarc clessified?
nle1rcanbeclassifiedintodifferentt)"esbasedontheenergrconversion, application
andsoon. Therearetwo t1Pes.

Lecture Notes / Bio-Medical-Inst / Unit-1 / K.Srinivasan / EEE / VEC

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