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On the Mediterranean Sea, Aeneas and his fellow Trojans flee from their home city of Troy, which

has
been destroyed by the Greeks. They sail for Italy, where Aeneas is destined to found Rome. As they near
their destination, a fierce storm throws them off course and lands them in Carthage. Dido, Carthage’s
founder and queen, welcomes them. Aeneas relates to Dido the long and painful story of his group’s
travels thus far.

Aeneas tells of the sack of Troy that ended the Trojan War after ten years of Greek siege. In the final
campaign, the Trojans were tricked when they accepted into their city walls a wooden horse that,
unbeknownst to them, harbored several Greek soldiers in its hollow belly. He tells how he escaped the
burning city with his father, Anchises; his son, Ascanius; and the hearth gods that represent their fallen
city. Assured by the gods that a glorious future awaited him in Italy, he set sail with a fleet containing
the surviving citizens of Troy. Aeneas relates the ordeals they faced on their journey. Twice they
attempted to build a new city, only to be driven away by bad omens and plagues. Harpies, creatures that
are part woman and part bird, cursed them, but they also encountered friendly countrymen
unexpectedly. Finally, after the loss of Anchises and a bout of terrible weather, they made their way to
Carthage.

Impressed by Aeneas’s exploits and sympathetic to his suffering, Dido, a Phoenician princess who fled
her home and founded Carthage after her brother murdered her husband, falls in love with Aeneas.
They live together as lovers for a period, until the gods remind Aeneas of his duty to found a new city.
He determines to set sail once again. Dido is devastated by his departure, and kills herself by ordering a
huge pyre to be built with Aeneas’s castaway possessions, climbing upon it, and stabbing herself with
the sword Aeneas leaves behind.

As the Trojans make for Italy, bad weather blows them to Sicily, where they hold funeral games for the
dead Anchises. The women, tired of the voyage, begin to burn the ships, but a downpour puts the fires
out. Some of the travel-weary stay behind, while Aeneas, reinvigorated after his father visits him in a
dream, takes the rest on toward Italy. Once there, Aeneas descends into the underworld, guided by the
Sibyl of Cumae, to visit his father. He is shown a pageant of the future history and heroes of Rome,
which helps him to understand the importance of his mission. Aeneas returns from the underworld, and
the Trojans continue up the coast to the region of Latium.

The arrival of the Trojans in Italy begins peacefully. King Latinus, the Italian ruler, extends his hospitality,
hoping that Aeneas will prove to be the foreigner whom, according to a prophecy, his daughter Lavinia is
supposed to marry. But Latinus’s wife, Amata, has other ideas. She means for Lavinia to marry Turnus, a
local suitor. Amata and Turnus cultivate enmity toward the newly arrived Trojans. Meanwhile, Ascanius
hunts a stag that was a pet of the local herdsmen. A fight breaks out, and several people are killed.
Turnus, riding this current of anger, begins a war.
Aeneas, at the suggestion of the river god Tiberinus, sails north up the Tiber to seek military support
among the neighboring tribes. During this voyage, his mother, Venus, descends to give him a new set of
weapons, wrought by Vulcan. While the Trojan leader is away, Turnus attacks. Aeneas returns to find his
countrymen embroiled in battle. Pallas, the son of Aeneas’s new ally Evander, is killed by Turnus. Aeneas
flies into a violent fury, and many more are slain by the day’s end.

The two sides agree to a truce so that they can bury the dead, and the Latin leaders discuss whether to
continue the battle. They decide to spare any further unnecessary carnage by proposing a hand-to-hand
duel between Aeneas and Turnus. When the two leaders face off, however, the other men begin to
quarrel, and full-scale battle resumes. Aeneas is wounded in the thigh, but eventually the Trojans
threaten the enemy city. Turnus rushes out to meet Aeneas, who wounds Turnus badly. Aeneas nearly
spares Turnus but, remembering the slain Pallas, slays him instead.

The Aeneid Summary


Virgil's seminal epic, the Aeneid, tells the story of Aeneas's journey in search of the land
where he is destined to build the city that will one day become the great Roman Empire. Largely
influenced by Homer's Odyssey and Iliad, the Aeneid begins halfway through Aeneas's
journey, as he nears the city of Carthage, ruled over by Dido, who built the city after fleeing
from her murderous brother. Over dinner one night, he tells Dido and her court about his travels
thus far.
Aeneas recounts the story of the fall of Troy, and how he was forced to leave the city of his birth
with his father Anchises, his son Ascanius, and his wife Creusa. During the flight, he lost
Creusa, whose shade appeared to him, telling him to follow his destiny, which is to build a great
city and take a royal bride. Aeneas and the other Trojan refugees set out to sea, where they had a
great many adventures before arriving in Carthage: believing that their destined land was in
Crete, they founded a city there, only to be struck down by a plague that forced them to leave;
they fought against the Harpies and were cursed by their leader, Celeano; they fled the island of
the Cyclops to avoid being slaughtered by the one-eyed beasts; Anchises died on the island of
Drepanum.
When Aeneas finishes telling Dido his tale, she realizes that she has become inflamed with love
for him, and she pursues him relentlessly.Juno manipulates the situation so that the pair spends
the night in a cave, where they become lovers. Eventually, however, Aeneas realizes that he has
been abandoning his destiny by dallying in Carthage, so he readies his men to leave. Dido has
convinced herself that the two are in fact husband and wife, and she is so distraught by her
lover's abandonment that she builds a funeral pyre and slays herself on it using Aeneas's sword.
As Aeneas and his men sail away from Carthage, they see the city aflame, the residents in a
panic, but they do not know that the queen has died. The fleet sails to Drepanum, where they
engage in celebrations commemorating the one-year anniversary of Anchises's death, and Aeneas
receives a prophecy telling him to travel to the Underworld to meet with his father.
With the sibyl of Cumae, Deiphobe, as his guide, Aeneas travels through the Underworld in
search of Anchises. On the journey, Aeneas sees a great many terrible sights, including restless
souls who have not received proper burials, the ghosts of dead babies, and the terrifying fortress
Tartarus, where the most horrible sinners live in eternal torture. When he finally locates his
father in the beautiful Elysium, where only the most heroic souls go to rest, Anchises shows him
the shades that, once reincarnated, will become the heroes of the Roman Empire. Aeneas returns
to the land of the living, certain of the need to fulfill his destiny, and then sets sail for Laurentum,
where he will build his great city.

When Aeneas and his men arrive in Laurentum, they are greeted warmly by King Latinus, who
has heard a prophecy that his daughter, Lavinia, should be wed to a foreigner. Juno, however,
angered by the treaty, sends one of the Furies to stir up trouble. The Fury Allectostarts a war
between the Trojans and the Latins by striking anger into the heart of Turnus, Lavinia's other
suitor. She also inspires Latinus's wife, Queen Amata, to do all that she can to prevent the
Trojans from building their city in Laurentum. Turnus calls the Latin men to arms against the
foreigners, and a terrible, drawn-out battle ensues. Aeneas seeks the aid of King Evander, ruler
of a poor neighboring kingdom, and the Etruscans, who wish to avenge the wrong done to them
by Mezentius, one of Turnus's supporters. King Evander entrusts his son, Pallas, to fight at
the great warrior's side, but Pallas is brutally slain by Turnus - a move that Turnus will come to
regret.
Eventually, even the Latins come to realize the inevitability of the Trojan victory, and they call
for a one-on-one duel between Turnus and Aeneas. Just as the duel is about to begin, however,
Turnus's sister Juturna inflames the Latin troops. A young Trojan is killed, and the battle
begins once again. Finally, even Turnus realizes that the only way to end the slaughter is through
a duel, so the two meet in a field. Aeneas clearly has the upper hand throughout the battle, even
though Turnus is aided by his sister, Juturna, until Jupiter intervenes and declares that the gods
may no longer meddle in mortal affairs. Finally, Aeneas strikes Turnus to the ground, and the
fallen man pleads for his life, or at least for his corpse to be sent back to his father for burial.
Although Aeneas is momentarily moved by his adversary's plea, he sees that Turnus has
callously slung Pallas's belt across his shoulders, and Aeneas decides not to be merciful. The epic
ends with Aeneas plunging his sword through Turnus's heart and then with Turnus's moaning
shade fleeing to the Underworld.

The Aeneid Character List


Acestes
King of the Sicilian city of Drepanum, Acestes offers Aeneas and his men a safe harbor when
they are driven ashore by a raging storm.
Achaemenides
A Greek warrior who was accidentally abandoned by his shipmates in Sicily when they fled the
one-eyed Cyclops Polyphemus, Achaemenides is rescued by Aeneas and his crew, who take pity
on him and allow him to join their ranks.
Achates
One of Aeneas's most faithful and trusted men, Achates remains by his side throughout the tale.
Aeneas
The titular protagonist of the Aeneid, Aeneas is one of the great epic heroes. One of the
ancestors of Emperor Augustus, Aeneas is one of the only survivors of the Trojan War. A
fearless warrior and remarkable leader, Aeneas guides his men through uncharted waters and
terrible adversity, finally bringing them to the land to which they were destined: the land that
would one day become Rome. Aeneas is the embodiment of a number of characteristics highly
valued by the Romans of Virgil's era, including piety (obedience to the will of the gods),
courage, skill at arms, leadership, and determination.
Aeolus
The god of the winds, Aeolus raises the waves in an attempt to capsize Aeneas's ship, thereby
angering Neptune, god of the sea.
Allecto
One of the Furies, Allecto is sent by Juno to start the war between the Latins and the Trojans.
Amata
The wife of Latinus and the Queen of Laurentum, where Aeneas and his crew seek their destiny,
Amata is strongly opposed to the proposed marriage between Aeneas and her daughter, Lavinia.
Favoring the disagreeable Turnus, Amata becomes a mortal assistant to the goddess Juno in her
quest to destroy the Trojans, and eventually takes her own life once she realizes that Aeneas is
destined to win the battle.
Anchises
Aeneas's father, for whom Aeneas has a deep love and respect. Although Anchises dies during
the journey, he maintains his role as a wise counselor, appearing to Aeneas in a series of visions
and dreams and helping him to determine the most appropriate course of action. In Book VI,
Anchises guides Aeneas through the Underworld and reveals the future of Rome to his son.
Andromache
Queen of Buthrotum, Andromache is a Trojan and the widow of the great Hector. Remarried to
Hector's brother, Helenus, Andromache is overwhelmed with emotion when Aeneas and his men
arrive on her shores, and offers them counsel.
Anna
Dido's sister, Anna has good intentions, but unwittingly sets into motion a series of events with
disastrous consequences. Advising Dido to surrender herself to her love for Aeneas and forget
her vow to her slain husband, she places the life of her sister in grave danger.
Apollo
The god of the sun, Apollo comes to Aeneas's aid when he and his men stop in Delos.
Arruns
The Trojan warrior who slays Camilla, and who is in turn killed by one of Diana's emissaries to
avenge Camilla's death.
Ascanius
The son of Aeneas with his first wife, Creusa (who dies during the flight from Troy). Also called
Iulus, Ascanius is a symbol of Aeneas's future (and, by extension, the future of Rome). He is a
motivating force for Aeneas, and though still a child, demonstrates remarkable courage; he is
clearly destined for greatness.
Camilla
One of Turnus's allies, the female warrior Camilla leads a doomed attack on the Trojans during
the battle in Latium. Her death is avenged by the goddess Diana, who sends an emissary to slay
the Etruscan warrior who killed her.
Circe
A sorceress who transforms men into beasts, Circe's island is narrowly avoided by Aeneas and
his men.
Creusa
Aeneas's first wife and Ascanius's mother, Creusa pleads with Aeneas to flee Troy to save their
family. When their group is besieged during the flight, Aeneas, in a panic, loses Creusa. He
returns to Troy in search of her, but is met by Creusa's shade, who urges him to escape so that he
can fulfill his destiny to rule a kingdom and win a royal bride.
Cupid
The god of desire, Venus's son Cupid makes Dido fall in love with Aeneas by disguising himself
as Ascanius, Aeneas's son.
Dido
Queen of the African city of Carthage, Dido is one of the strongest female characters in
the Aeneid. Dido left her homeland, Tyre, when her husband was murdered by Pygmalion, and
began construction on a great new city. Although she is portrayed as Aeneas's equal, Dido is
undone by her love for him; the gods use her as a pawn in their conflict over the fate of the
Trojans. Overwhelmed by passion, Dido builds a funeral pyre and stabs herself atop the structure
using Aeneas's sword.
Diomedes
The Greek Diomedes is one of the heroes of the Trojan War, but he refuses Turnus's request to
aid him in his battle against Aeneas.
Drances
A Latin leader with an old grudge against Turnus who urges Turnus and Aeneas to put an end to
their battle.
Evander
Pallas's father and the ruler of the Italian city Pallanteum, Evander aids Aeneas in his battle
against the Latins. Evander is also related to Aeneas, since both men are descendants of Atlas.
Hector
Hector is the husband of Andromache and the son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy.
One of the greatest Trojan warriors, Hector is killed during the fall of Troy. His shade appears to
Aeneas in a dream on the night of the battle, warning him to flee the city.
Hecuba
Queen Hecuba of Troy, Priam's wife, pleas with her husband not to go into battle during the fall
of Troy, but to stay with her and her daughters and pray at the altar.
Helenus
The ruler of the city of Butrothum and Andromache's new husband, Helenus is also brother of
the slain Hector. A fellow Trojan, Helenus offers Aeneas and his men shelter when they arrive
on his shores, and he gives them guidance.
Hercules
Renowned for his strength, Hercules is honored with yearly celebrations by King Evander and
his subjects for having slain the monster Cacus.
Juno
Queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter, Juno is the driving force behind Aeneas's trials. She
despises the Trojans because Paris, a Trojan, did not choose her as the fairest of the goddesses in
a contest of beauty. Although Juno's wrath causes Aeneas considerable difficulty, she is
ultimately unable to alter his fate.
Jupiter
King of the gods and husband of Juno, Jupiter is the most powerful of the gods and is the
ultimate arbiter of fate. Although many other gods attempt to intervene during Aeneas's journey,
it is Jupiter who guides him towards his destiny.
Juturna
Turnus's sister, Juturna is Juno's pawn in instigating the battle between the Latins and the
Trojans.
Laocoon
The only Trojan to question the appearance of the wooden horse at their gates, Laocoon hurls a
spear at the object in anger. When two enormous sea snakes kill Laocoon and his two sons, the
Trojans believe that it is a portent and that Laocoon was killed because he profaned the horse.
Fearing further wrath from the gods, the Trojans decide to take the horse into their city,
precipitating the fall of Troy.
Latinus
The Latin King, Latinus is a respectful, warm man who welcomes Aeneas and his men. He also
encourages Aeneas to marry his daughter, Lavinia, thereby instigating the battle with Turnus,
Lavinia's other suitor.
Lavinia
Daughter of King Latinus and Queen Amata, Lavinia is the sole heir to Latium. She is pursued
by both Aeneas and Turnus, and she is designated as the prize that will go to the victor of the
battle.
Mercury
The messenger god, Mercury repeatedly appears to Aeneas to communicate the wishes of the
gods.
Mezentius
The former king of the Etruscans and one of Turnus's most faithful allies. Mezentius is a
complex character because he is portrayed as cruel and heartless, yet he is so overcome by grief
when Aeneas kills his son, Lausus, that he sacrifices his own life in an attempt at revenge.
Minerva
Another goddess who was not chosen by Paris as the fairest, Minerva aids Juno in her quest to
destroy the Trojans. Minerva protects the Greeks during the battle in Troy.
Neptune
The god of the sea, Neptune is angered when Aeolus, god of the winds, intervenes in his territory
and raises the waves in an attempt to capsize Aeneas's ship. Neptune calms the seas and allows
the Trojans to continue on their voyage.
Nisus
The Trojan warrior and best friend of Euryalus, Nisus is slain while attempting to carry a
message to Aeneas.
Palinurus
The pilot of Aeneas's ship, Palinurus is killed when Somnus, the god of slumber, puts him to
sleep, causing him to fall overboard. He manages to swim ashore but then is slain by the island
savages.
Pallas
Evander's son and Aeneas's companion, Pallas is killed by Turnus. Overcome with anger when
Turnus carelessly slings Pallas's belt over his shoulder, Aeneas kills Turnus to avenge his friend.
Priam
King Priam of Troy is killed during the fall of his great city. Priam is husband to Queen Hecuba
and father to the slain Hector. Priam is a noble character who displays courage and piety even in
the face of certain death. Aeneas is powerfully affected by the death of his king.
Pyrrhus
A Greek warrior who enters Troy in the belly of the wooden horse.
Saturn
Father to both Jupiter and Juno, Saturn is the former king of Olympus.
Sinon
A Greek warrior who turns himself over to the Trojans, Sinon tells them that he has defected to
their side and convinces them to bring the wooden horse into the city.
Sychaeus
Sychaeus, Dido's husband, was killed by Dido's brother, Pygmalion. Following his death, Dido
pledged never to marry again, but her vow is threatened by the appearance of Aeneas, with
whom she falls passionately in love. Sychaeus and Dido are reunited in the afterlife.
Turnus
Aeneas's greatest mortal opponent, Turnus is the leader of the Latin warriors. Turnus opposes
Latinus's decision to allow the Trojans to settle in Latium, and he is angered by Aeneas's pursuit
of Lavinia. When Aeneas slays Turnus in the climactic moment of the Aeneid, the event
symbolizes the triumph of virtue and piety over pride and egoism.
Venus
The goddess of love and Aeneas's mother, Venus appears to her son a number of times
throughout the poem to offer him aid.
Vulcan
Venus's husband and the god of fire, Vulcan crafts a set of arms for Aeneas that helps him win
the battle against Turnus.

The Aeneid Glossary


adroit
skillful
ambiguous
neither here nor there; uncertain
annuls
nullifies; makes void
assiduous
diligent; persistent
atonement
an action or actions performed in the hope of forgiveness
audacious
fearless; insolent
augur
prophet; one who foretells events
augury
divination; omen
auspices
omens; individuals who make predictions about future events
auspicious
likely to succeed; lucky
austere
unornamented; strict and severe
azure
a light shade of blue
bacchic
relating to the god Bacchus, the god of wine and celebration; drunken
begrudge
envy
beguiled
deceived; confused
belligerence
angry defiance; hostility
beseeching
begging; earnestly asking for aid
betrothed
engaged to be wed
bier
a platform on which a coffin or corpse is placed prior to burial
blazon
to adorn or embellish (e.g. with a coat of arms)
brazen
insolent; audacious
bucklers
small shields worn on the arm
bulwarks
defensive fortifications
cadence
rhythmic flow
calamity
tragic event
calumny
false statements
catastrophe
disastrous event
chide
reprimand
cisterns
receptacles used to hold liquid, usually water
citadel
a fortress, usually in a city
clamorous
excessively loud
clangorous
a loud racket
cleave
to split apart, usually by force
combers
long waves that have reached their peak
conflagration
a large, destructive fire
consecrate
perform ceremonies to make something sacred
corselet
undergarment; body armor surrounding the torso
counterfeits
fakes; impostors
covenant
contract; binding agreement
cuirass
breastplate
defiled
dirtied; polluted
deign
condescend to do something unappealing
dexterous
skillful (usually with one's hands)
diadem
crown
ebbing
declining; diminishing
eddies
water currents
edict
a formal pronouncement or decree
edicts
declarations; decrees
emissary
messenger
entrails
internal organs, such as the intestines
entreaties
requests
envoys
messengers
excavate
to dig out; expose by uncovering
execrable
disgusting; reprehensible
exile
(n) someone who has had to leave their hometown or home country; (v) to force someone to do
so
eyrie
residence located at great height
fervent
impassioned; sincerely felt
fracas
conflict; fight
fugitive
someone who is fleeing; a refugee
galleys
large ships
gilded
decorated gaudily
girding
preparing for battle; donning clothing (usually for battle)
goaded
encouraged, usually through taunting or force
greaves
leg armor; the residue from animal fat
guile
cunning; deviousness
hewn
made or shaped (usually with an axe or blunt instrument)
homage
ceremonial honors
idle
lazy; unmoving
ilex
a type of tree or shrub
impieties
actions that reveal disrespect for the gods
implacable
impossible to please
implore
beg
indignation
irritation following an unjust event
indolent
lazy; slow and inactive
insidious
treacherous; subtly attempting to spread harm
intractable
difficult to manage
invoke
to call upon a god or other higher power for support or assistance
laggards
stragglers
lamentable
arousing sadness
lamentation
a (usually verbal) expression of grief
libation
a liquid poured in a religious offering
limpid
clear; serene
lithe
supple; graceful
magistrate
a minor official with judicial power
mantle
a long cloak
matrons
women of mature age
melee
a disorderly brawl
mime
fake or pretend; imitate
mongrel
a mixed-breed animal
motley
incongruous; made up of dissimilar parts
myrtle
an aromatic shrub
obscene
disgusting; offensive
obstinate
insolent; unwilling to obey direction
orichalcum
an ancient mixed metal resembling brass
outstripped
left behind; surpassed
paeans
expressions of joy or praise
pallid
pale; lacking vitality
perjury
false testimony under oath
pestilence
fatal disease or plague
pinions
small cogwheels
pious
respectful towards the gods
pomp
ostentatious display
portcullis
a grating that can be lowered to guard the entrance to a fortress
presentiments
premonitions; feelings that something is going to occur
pretexts
expressed purposes; excuses
profaned
dirtied; sullied
putrefaction
decay; decomposition
pyre
objects that have been piled up with the intention of setting them on fire
quench
satisfy (as in thirst); put out (as in a fire)
raucous
loud and rowdy
rebukes
chastises
renowned
famous; publicly respected for positive deeds
reverential
showing awe or veneration
rites
formal religious ceremonies
rudiments
basic elements
rustic
coarse; unsophisticated
sack
loot and pillage a town or city
saffron
a rich yellow color; a spice
sanctifies
makes holy; purifies
sanctity
purity (usually religious)
scabbard
the sheath for a dagger or sword
sentry
lookout; guardian
shade
the physical form of a deceased person; a ghost
shoals
shallow areas in a body of water
shun
reject
sinuous
supple; winding
skirt
pass close by the edge of something (e.g. an island)
sovereignty
royal power; authority
squalid
dirty from lack of care
staunch
to stop the flow (of blood, tears, etc.)
stratagems
military maneuvers
stupefying
amazing, astonishing; dulling
sullen
downcast; depressed
superfluous
unnecessary
tallow
animal fat
tawny
pale goldish-brown
teats
an animal's nipples
tedious
time-consuming and boring
tempests
storms
tenacious
determined
terebinth
a small tree, common to the Mediterranean
timbrel
ancient percussion instrument, similar to a tambourine
tranquil
peaceful
treachery
deception; betrayal of trust
tumult
disorderly event
unbridled
free from restraint
unfettered
unrestrained; free
valor
bravery
vanguard
the foremost position in an army entering into battle
vortex
center
votaries
individuals wholly devoted to religious service
wanton
immoral or lewd; excessively playful

The Aeneid Themes


Fate
Fate is perhaps the overriding theme that governs the Aeneid. The action centers
around Aeneas's determination to fulfill his destiny - if not for himself, then for his
son, Ascanius, and for the generations of heroes who will succeed him. Although there are
many who attempt to sway Aeneas from his destined path - most notably Juno, the goddess
whose anger leads her to set countless obstacles to disturb the Trojans on their journey - and
some of them are successful in delaying the course of events, there is nothing that can be done to
prevent Aeneas from building the city that will one day become the great Roman Empire.
Even Jupiter, at the outset of Book X, chides the gods for attempting to meddle in the affairs of
mortals. Although they may alter the manner in which the events transpire, they can do nothing
to change what Jupiter has decreed will be. Throughout the Aeneid there are many references to
the inevitability of Aeneas's success. Two notable instances are when Anchises takes Aeneas
on a journey through the Underworld and shows him his great descendants, and
when Vulcanbuilds Aeneas a shield that depicts the founding of Rome and the future of the
Roman Empire.
The Gods
The gods in the Aeneid are, quite often, even more interesting than the mortals with whom they
appear so fascinated, having highly distinctive personalities and taking extraordinary measures to
see their wishes achieved. The gods' alliances drive the action of the story. Modern readers may
be more comfortable with the idea of gods who are above the petty grievances of individual
mortals, but Virgil creates supreme beings who appear to have little more to do than discuss the
intricacies of the lives of those below them. Jupiter even calls a council on Mount Olympus to
mediate between Venusand Juno and to discuss the fates of Aeneas and Turnus. Interestingly,
although the gods do have the power to manipulate the manner in which events transpire, they
cannot change the ultimate outcome; destiny is supreme (see Fate, above).
Patriotism
Virgil quite clearly intended the Aeneid to appeal to the patriotic spirit of the Romans,
documenting the origins of the great Roman Empire. Virgil's contemporaries, who relished their
belief that they were direct descendants of the mighty Trojans, undoubtedly would have enjoyed
a story portraying their race as one destined for greatness. The epic often refers to the destiny of
Aeneas's descendants; most importantly, Aeneas's victory is inevitable because it is his fate, as
well as the fate of his son Ascanius, to lay the groundwork for Rome's shining future.
Virgil's patron, Caesar Augustus, is even directly mentioned twice in the epic. He appears in the
Underworld, when Anchises points out the shade that will become Augustus, and again when
Aeneas sees the image of Augustus leading the Italians into battle as depicted on Vulcan's
extraordinary shield. These references to Augustus would have been particularly appealing to
Virgil's contemporaries, portraying their leader as a heroic man directly descended from the
gods.
Prayer
One of the most important values of Virgil's day was piety, or reverence for the gods.
Throughout the epic, the virtuous characters send prayers to the gods asking for assistance,
whether in the form of sacrifices (such as Aeneas's sacrifice of the white cow and sucklings to
Juno), celebrations (such as Evander's ceremony for Hercules), or mere requests (such as
Ascanius's prayer to Jupiter for aid in killing Remulus). Time and again, Virgil reveals that
prayer works: the characters who ask for the gods' help frequently receive it, while those who
disrespect the gods or claim not to need their aid are punished. During the battle between Aeneas
and Mezentius, for example, Aeneas calls on Apollo for aid and is victorious; Mezentius,
however, cries out that he does "not fear death or care for any god" (1208), and he dies within
moments.
Religious Rituals and Omens
Throughout the Aeneid, many of the characters make offerings to the gods in order to secure
their favor or assistance. Indeed, Aeneas appears to spend much of the book making sacrifices to
one god or another (even sacrificing a white sow and thirty white sucklings to Juno, the source of
his trials). Respect for the gods was viewed as a great virtue during Virgil's era, and Virgil
frequently depicts characters engaged in ceremonies for the gods in order to indicate the
characters' essential goodness. For example, the epic first presents King Evander engaged in
celebrations honoring Hercules, thereby indicating that Evander is a morally upstanding
individual.
The gods themselves frequently respond to mortal requests with omens, signs that they are taking
an interest in and might intervene in particular human affairs. For example, Venus sends Aeneas
a thunderstorm to indicate that he should indeed join forces with the Etruscans. Omens were a
part of life among Virgil's contemporaries, and Virgil may have included so many of them in his
epic in order to appeal to his audience, who may have been heartened by the idea that the gods
listened to the needs of mortals and sent them signs intended as guidance.
Respect for Ancestors
The most intimate relationships found in the Aeneid are those between fathers and sons:
Anchises and Aeneas, Aeneas and Ascanius, King Evander and Pallas, and even Mezentius and
Lausus. Indeed, it is more out of concern for Ascanius's welfare than out of a true desire to
achieve renown himself that Aeneas is determined to fulfill his destiny and journey to Latium.
Virgil's contemporaries placed great importance on these familial relationships, feeling that
respect for one's ancestors was one of the most important virtues. This perspective can be seen in
the deep and abiding respect that Aeneas has for Anchises - a respect that continues even after
Anchises's death. A particularly interesting expression of this bond is found between Mezentius
and Lausus: even though Mezentius is truly evil, Virgil arouses the audience's sympathies for
this character by revealing his deep sorrow over the death of his son. Likewise, Aeneas feels pity
and regret when he is forced to slay Lausus, because thoughts of his own father run through his
mind.
Humanity
One of Virgil's most extraordinary skills was his ability to craft truly complex characters. Even
though the line between "good" and "evil" in the Aeneid is rather clear (e.g., Aeneas is "good"
and Turnus is "bad"), even the most admirable character displays flaws, and even the most
heinous villain has moments where he seems somewhat redeemed. Although Turnus is clearly
the antagonist of the story, he displays a courage that rivals Aeneas's own. Even Aeneas, who
frequently appears almost too perfect, reveals that he, too, has human shortcomings when he is
swayed off course by his passion for Dido, as well as in his panicked flight from Troy, when he
loses his wife, Creusa. Virgil was not interested in creating hollow shells into which he could
pile his values; he was interested in crafting real, multilayered humans to whom his audience
could relate.

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