DC-DC converter

What is Converter?
Converter is an electrical device which actually convert voltage level from one level to another.
It converts voltage range from very low to very high. It takes input as DC from one level and gives output
another voltage level DC. In all type of converter, same power device is used. Earlier that power device was
thyristor, which was turned on by apply the gate pulse on it gate signal. The thyristor is connected in series with
load to a dc supply, or a Forward(positive) voltage is applied between anode and cathode terminals.

Classification of converter
The converter is classification on the it’s transformer. And it also classified on the base of its voltage
conversion.
The converter is classified in two major branches
1)Non-isolated converter
2) Isolated converter

1.0 Non-isolated converter

In the non-isolated we actually use simple transformer. The simple transformer is low frequency transformer.
Consider the voltage level is define by Vdc the Non-isolated converts
the input level ranges from 0.5<Vdc< 2. Let our voltage is 100 which can be converter range between from 50-
200v.
The Non-isolated converter has 4 types.
i)Buck converter
ii)Boost converter
iii)Buck-boost converter
iv)CUK converter

1.1 Buck converter

A buck converter (set-down converter) setup down the voltage from high voltage level. It consists on a switch
(MOSfet , transistor), Diode, capacitor and inductor. Capacitor and inductor are energy storing element.to
reduce the ripple voltage filter is used which is made of capacitor.
Switching converter converts the voltage with high power efficiency as DC-DC converter than simple voltage
regulator.
1.1.1 Theory of Operation
The operation is simple in this a switch is used in series with source the inductor and inductor is used to
maintain the current of the system. And a capacitor is used parallel with load the output capacitor is used to
maintain the voltage level. In an ideal converter all the power of system should be dissipated by all the storage
elements to get the output without losses.

The converter basic diagram shown as below which shows the basic diagram of the system
The converter start work in different steps
Step 1
As the source is applied the inductor start charging by Appling the signal the gate of the switch with allow the
start the conducting. It starts the charging of the Inductor when it charged it makes the diode forward biased
and then start other cycle.

Step 1
Step 2
The inductor is fully charged so all the power should dissipate power so it delivers all power to capacitor and
RL(load). The power start delivers from inductor to capacitor.

Step 2
1.1.2 Mathematical Model
A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor never falls to zero during the
commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is described by the plots below.

When the switch closed as mentioned in step 1, the voltage across the inductor is VL =Vi - Vo. The current
through the inductor rises linearly. As the diode is ON(reverse-biased) by the voltage source V, no current
flows through it.
When the switch is opened as mentioned, the diode is forward biased. The voltage across the inductor
VL= - VO
Current IL decreases.

The energy stored in inductor is

1
𝐸 = 𝐼𝐿2
2
Therefore, it can be seen that the energy stored in L increases during on-time as IL increases and then
decreases during the off-state. L is used to transfer energy from the input to the output of the converter.
The rate of change of IL can be calculated from:

𝑑𝐼
𝑉𝑙 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
With VL equal to Vi-Vo during the on-state - Vo and to during the off-state. Therefore, the increase in
current during the on-state is given by
𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑉𝑙 (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜)
△𝐼 =∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑛
0 𝐿 𝐿

If we assume that the converter operates in the steady state, the energy stored in each component at the end
of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the cycle. That means that the current IL is the
same at t=0 and at t=T mentioned in above figure
So we can write from the above equations:

△ILon + △ILoff = 0
𝑉𝑖−𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0
𝐿 𝐿
The above integrations can be done graphically. In △ILon is proportional to the area of the yellow surface,
and △ILoff to the area of the orange surface, as these surfaces are defined by the inductor voltage (red lines).
As these surfaces are simple rectangles, their areas can be found easily: (𝑽𝒊 − 𝑽𝒐)𝒕𝒐𝒏 for the yellow
rectangle and (−𝑽𝒐)𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒇 or the orange one. For steady state operation, these areas must be equal.
As can be seen from fig ton=DT and toff =(1-DT)
This yield:

(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜)𝐷𝑇 − 𝑉𝑜(1 − 𝐷 )𝑇 = 0

𝑉𝑜 − 𝐷𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑉𝑜
𝐷=
𝑉𝑖
The output of the converter varies linearly with duty cycle for a given input voltage as the duty cycle is equal to
the ratio of ton and the period T, it can exceed one that’s why the Vo ≤ Vi. This is why it is referred to set-down
converter.
1.2 Boost converter
A boost converter (setup-up converter) setup up the voltage from low voltage level. It consists on a
switch (MOSfet , transistor), Diode, capacitor and inductor. Capacitor and inductor are energy storing
element.to reduce the ripple voltage filter is used which is made of capacitor.
Switching converter converts the voltage with high power efficiency as DC-DC converter than simple voltage
regulator.
1.2.1 Theory of Operation
The operation is simple in this an inductor is used in series with source supply and inductor is used to maintain
the current of the system. And a capacitor is used parallel with load the output capacitor is used to maintain the
voltage level. In an ideal converter all the power of system should be dissipated by all the storage elements to
get the output without losses.

The converter basic diagram shown as below which shows the basic diagram of the system

The converter perform work in two steps.

Step 1
The source is applied to the inductor the inductor starts charging and the diode become reverse biased which
remain open circuit and cutoff the load from the main circuit. In 1st setup the circuit become very short type
supply and inductor are in series and current flow from source to inductor.

Step 1

Step 2
In the 2nd setup the switch become open and the diode become forward which result in attach the source with
the remaining circuit in this the stored charge in inductor start dissipate across capacitor here the capacitor
voltage is some of inductor and source voltage
.

Step 2

1.2.2 Mathematical Model

A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor never falls to zero
during the commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is described by the plots below.

During step 1, the switch is closed, which the input Vi appears across the inductor, which result in current
across inductor IL flowing through the inductor during the period of T
∆𝐼 𝑉𝑖
=
∆𝑡 𝐿
Where L is the value of inductor.
And at the end of step 1 the current of inductor increases therefore:

1 𝐷𝑇 𝐷𝑇
∆𝐼 = ∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖
𝐿 0 𝐿
D is the duty cycle which is defined as for how much time the switch remains close or conduct.
During the step 2, the switch is open the energy starts dissipate across the load. If we consider zero voltage
drop across diode, and the capacitor is large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the inductor current
will:
 𝑑𝐼
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, the variation of inductor current is expressed as
𝑇
(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜)𝑑𝑡 (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜)(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
∆𝐼𝑜𝑓𝑓 = ∫ =
𝐷𝑇 𝐿 𝐿
For an ideal converter all the energy should be dissipate across the load to make the output without ripple. The
energy stored is given by
1
𝐸 = 𝐼𝐿2
2
From that assumption the inductor current should remain zero at start and end which is given as:

△ILon + △ILoff = 0
𝑉𝑖𝐷𝑇 (𝑉𝑖−𝑉𝑜)(1−𝐷)𝑇
+ =0
𝐿 𝐿

This can be written as:

𝑉𝑜 1
=
𝑉𝑖 1− 𝐷

This show that the output will always higher then the input voltage that is increased with D. this is why this is
always referred to as a step-up converter. Arranging the above equation:

𝑉𝑖
𝐷 =1−
𝑉𝑜

Compression between buck and boost converter

Buk converter Boost converter

• Source current is not continuing not apply • Source current is continuous apply both time
when switch is on. either switch is close or open.

• Power Extraction is very low because the • Power Extraction Is very high.
power is transferred in half cycle.

• Inefficient with solar panels • Efficient with solar panels

• Conversion efficiency is very high

• Conversion efficiency is low.

• The power losses is just on switching. • The power losses in just on switching
1.3 Buck-Boost Converter
The buck-boost converter is a type of dc-dc converter that takes an input DC voltage and gives output DC
voltage magnitude that can either higher or lower than the input voltage.it is equivalent of fly-back
converter using a single inductor of a transformer. The two different topologies are used buck and boost.

The output has opposite polarity than the input. This is a switch mode power supply used in buck and
boost converter. The converter topology can be buck and boost which totally depends upon the duty cycle.
The drawback of this converter is that the switch does not have a terminal at ground.
1.3.1 Theory of Operation
It can either operate as a buck or boost converter. In either mode only one switch controls the duty
cycle, another is for commutation and must be operate inversely to the former one, and the remaining
two switches fixed position. The basic diagram of buck-boast is given below.

Here in the diagram we can see that the switch is present which can either transistor or MOSfet.
The configuration changes the circuit when the switch closes. It performs the work in two setups.

Setup 1
In 1st setup the switch close and due the circuit complete and diode become reverse biased and cutoff
the circuit from main supply.

Setup 1
Setup 2
In this inductor charged and switch open and the switch is controlled through the gating signal. The
diode become forward biased and connect the inductor with load the polarity of capacitor is opposite to the
applied voltage.

Setup 2

1.3.2 Mathematically Model

If the current through the inductor never fall to zero the converter’s mode of operation is called as
continuous operation mode. The voltage and current ideal waveform can be seen above
From t=0 to t=DT, the convert will be in on state (step 1). The rate of change of current across inductor
is given by
𝑑𝐼 𝑉𝑖
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Before the next state the inductor current goes maximum and full charged the relationship is given by
𝐷𝑇 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖𝐷𝑇
∆𝐼𝑜𝑛 = ∫0 𝑑𝐼𝑙 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐿 𝐿
D is defining as the period for which the switch is remained close. The range of D is between 0 (S is
never on) and 1(S is always on)

During the off state (step 2), the switch open, so the inductor current start dissipation across the load. If
we assume the zero voltage drop across diode and capacitor is large enough for its voltage remain constant.
The current changes across the inductor which is due the dissipation of its charge across the load.
 𝑑𝐼 𝑉𝑜
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Therefore, the variation across the inductor during the off cycle is given by:
(1−𝐷)𝑇 (1−𝐷)𝑇 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜(1−𝐷)𝑇
∆𝐼𝑜𝑓𝑓 = ∫0 𝑑𝐼 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐿 𝐿

As we explained above that the waveform will be ripple free if all the stored energy dissipates from storing
element the energy in an inductor is given by:
1
𝐸 = 𝐼𝐿2
2
It is obvious that the value of inductor current should be same during on-state and off-state to make a
waveform ripple free

△ILon + △ILoff = 0
𝑉𝑖𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑜(1−𝐷)𝑇
+ =0
𝐿 𝐿
𝑉𝑜 −𝐷
=
𝑉𝑖 1− 𝐷
Form the equation it can be easily seen that the polarity of output will always will be opposite to the input
voltage.
By rearranging the equation, we get:
𝑉𝑜
𝐷=
𝑉𝑜−𝑉𝑖
As already expressed that it can be buck or boost converter which is totally depend upon the duty cycle. For
what D the converter behaves as buck or boost converter.

D=0.5; Vo=-Vg (polarity converter)

D<0.5; Vo< Vg (Buck Converter)
D>0.5; Vo> Vg (Boost Converter)
1.4 CUK Converter
It is a modified foam of Buck and boost converter which has high efficient. It is a type of DC-DC converter
which converter the input voltage dc to either high-level or low-level magnitude of DC output voltage. It is
essentially a boost converter followed by buck converter with a capacitor to couple the energy.
Similarly, just like buck-boast converter the output has opposite polarity than the input. This is a switch mode
power supply used in CUK converter. The converter topology can be buck and boost which totally depends
upon the duty cycle.

1.4.1 Theory of Operation

The circuit of basically is consist on two inductors and two capacitors. It can either operate as a buck
or boost converter. In either mode only one switch controls the duty cycle, another is for commutation
and must be operate inversely to the former one. The basic diagram of buck-boast is given below.

Here by changing the position of switching the topology changes. The switch can either be switch or
transistor etc. The circuit complete cycle in two step which is given by:

Step 1
In 1st setup the switch close and due the circuit complete and diode become reverse biased and cutoff the
circuit from main supply.

Step 1

Step 2
In next setup the circuit the switch open and inductor L1 came in contact with capacitor C1 and diode become
forward biased .the charged inductor’s start dissipation it charge across load.

Setup 2
 1.4.2 Mathematically Model
An non-isolated converter compromise two inductor, two capacitor, a switch usually transistor and a
diode. The inverter has opposite polarity then the input. The capacitor is used to transfer enrgy and to
the output of the converter via the commutation of the Switch and the diode.
The two inductor L1 and L2 are used to convert respectively the input voltage source (Vi) and
the output voltage source Co into current source the inductor is used some time as current source.

The inductor should dissipate the power in order to make waveform ripple less. The energy in an
inductor is given by:
1
𝐸 = 𝐼𝐿2
2
The voltage across the inductor is given as
𝑑𝐼
𝑉=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
If we consider that the capacitor C1 and C2 are large enough to the voltage ripple across them to be
negligible the inductor voltage become:

• In off state (step 1), inductor L1 is connected in series with Vi and C1. Therefore
VL1 = Vi – Vc
L2 is directly connected to the output capacitor

VL2=Vo
• In the on-state (setup 2), inductor L1 is directly connected to the source. Therefore.
VL1=Vi
 And the inductor L2 is connected in series with C and the output capacitor, so

VL2=Vo + Vc
The inverter is operate in two steps as describe above in on-state (step 1) from t=0 to t=D.T, and in off-state
(step 2) from t=D.T to T. The average values VL1 and VL2 are therefore:

𝑉𝑙1 = 𝐷. 𝑉𝑖 + (1 − 𝐷 ). (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑐 ) = (𝑉𝑖 − (1 − 𝐷 ). 𝑉𝑐)

𝑉𝑙2 = 𝐷(𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑐) + (1 − 𝐷 ). 𝑉𝑜 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝐷. 𝑉𝑐)
Both average should be zero to satisfy the steady state conditions, using the last equation we can write:
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑐 = −
𝐷
The average voltage has to be zero across L1 become:
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑙1 = (𝑉𝑖 + (1 − 𝐷) =0
𝐷
The characteristic equation is given by:
𝑉𝑜 −𝐷
=
𝑉𝑖 1 − 𝐷
As can be seen that the equation is same as the equation of buck-boost converter.
𝑉𝑜
𝐷=
𝑉𝑜−𝑉𝑖
As already expressed that it can be buck or boost converter which is totally depend upon the duty cycle. For
what D the converter behaves as buck or boost converter.

D=0.5; Vo=-Vg (polarity converter)

D<0.5; Vo< Vg (Buck Converter)
D>0.5; Vo> Vg (Boost Converter)

Compression between Buck-boost and CUK converter

Buck-boost converter CUK converter

 • Source current is not continuing not apply
when switch is on.
• Power Extraction is very low because the
power is transferred in half cycle.
• Inefficient with solar panels
• Conversion efficiency is low.
• The power losses is just on switching.
• Source current is continuous apply both time
either switch is close or open.
• Power Extraction Is very high.
• Efficient with solar panels
• Conversion efficiency is very high
• The power losses in just on switching

2.0 Isolated converter

Isolated converter is an modified foam of DC-DC converter it is same as non-isolated converter which takes an
Dc voltage input and gives dc voltage output either with higher magnitude or lower magnitude. If both follow the
same principle than why we switch to isolated converter?
The reason behind the isolated converter is that the non-isolated converter has limited step-up and
step-down Characteristics as mention above that it has limits corresponding from 0.5 to 2. Like as in our
laptops adapter same DC-DC converter phenomena is used in which first AC converter to 220v dc and then it
step-down to 20v approximately here it we notice that step-down voltage level is about 11 times and above
mention limit is half to input so that’s why we need to improve our converter to get desire value. The heart of
the isolated converter is High frequency transformer. In which the inductor is replaced by high frequency
transformer. It has many types which is used which is shortly describe below
i) Flyback converter
ii) Forward converter
iii)Half Bridge converter
iv)Full bridge converter
ii)Push-Pull converter
2.1 Fly back converter
The Flyback converter used in both AC/DC and DC/DC converter in which the input circuit is isolated through
transformer. Flyback converter is actually a buck-boost converter split out through transformer. Here by using
the transformer the voltage can be converter to any voltage level controlling the transformer turns ratio which is
an additional advantage of isolated converter.
The converter completes its operation in two cycles just like a buck-boost converter.

Step 1
In the 1st setup the switch is closed and then primary of the transformer is directly connected to the input
voltage. The primary current and flux increase in transformer. The secondary gives the negative voltage which
makes the diode reverse biased the capacitor supply the power to the load directly.

Setup 1

Setup 2
In other setup the switch is opened which cut off the input from primary side of the transformer. The primary
current and flux is decreases. The secondary of the become positive and the diode become forward biased
and the capacitor proved the power to load in the switch closed state.

setup

Draw back
• Used in low-power switch mode power supplies (cell phones charger, standby power supply in PCs)
• The Converter is used for low power appliances till 250W.
• Use half cycle of transformer which make transformer abnormal and inefficient.
2.2 Forward Converter
The forward converter is a converter which uses a high frequency transformer which increase and decrease
voltage level (depend upon its secondary winding turns ratio) as Flyback uses but it is more efficient because it
has both positive and negative due to its multiple secondary winding it is possible to provide both higher and
lower voltage simultaneously. While it works same as Flyback back but is more efficient.

In which the voltage is a same polarity the multiple winding perform the operation in which a way that the
corresponding diodes work and the power is transferred to the load.

2.3 Half bridge Converter

In the half bridge the one and two diode is used. The input is split out from the output circuit. In the input circuit
the 2 switches are used in parallel with capacitor to make the supply constant voltage.

The circuit operate in two steps

Step 1
In step 1 the switch S1 is closed and S2 is opened the capacitor C1 is connected to the primary of the
transformer. In the primary side of the transformer the current and flux increase which transformed to the
double secondry with center ground. The positive polarity the D1 start conducting and meet the load demands.

Setup 1

Step 2
In step 2 the switch S2 is closed and S2 is opened the capacitor C2 is connected to the primary of the
transformer. In the primary side of the transformer the current and flux increase which transformed to the
double secondary with center ground. The negative polarity the D2 start conducting and meet the load
demands.

Setup 2

2.4 Full bridge Converter

In the half bridge the 4 diodes are used. The input is split out from the output circuit. In the input circuit the
switches are used in parallel with capacitor to make the supply constant voltage.
The operation is consisting on two steps.

Step 1
In step 1 the switch M1 and M3 are closed and M2 and M4 is opened the capacitor Cin is connected to the
primary of the transformer. In the primary side of the transformer the current and flux increase which
transformed to the secondary. The positive polarity the DR1 and DR3 start conducting and meet the load
demands.

Setup 1

Step 2
In step 1 the switch M1 and M3 are opened and M2 and M4 is closed the capacitor Cin is connected to the
primary of the transformer. In the primary side of the transformer the current and flux increase which
transformed to the secondary. The positive polarity the DR2 and DR4 start conducting and meet the load
demands.

Setup 2
2.5 Push-Pull Converter
In this converter, the converter uses transformer to change the voltage of a DC power supply. The converter’s
main purpose of the push-pull converter is that the primary side of the transformer is supplied with current from
the input line by pairs of switches circuit shown below. The switches are alternately switched on and off,
periodically reversing the current in the transformer. Therefore, current is drawn from the line during both
halves of the switching cycle. This contrasts with buck-boost converter, in which the input current is supplied by
a single switch which is switched on and off, so current is only drawn from the line during half the switching
cycle. During the other half the output power is supplied by energy stored in inductors or capacitors in the
power supply. Push–pull converters have steadier input current, create less noise on the input line, and are
more efficient in higher power applications

The switches S1 and S2 control the output through diode in 1st step the switch S1 close and S2 open. In the
primary side of the transformer the current and flux increase which transformed to the secondary. The diode
D1 become forward biased and transferred power to load. In 2nd setup in the switch S2 close and S1 open. In
the primary side of the transformer the current and flux increase which transformed to the secondary. The
diode D2 become forward biased and transferred power to load.