CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is

responsible for the flow of blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen and other gases
to and from cells. Without the circulatory system, the body would not be able to
fight disease or maintain a stable internal environment — such as proper
temperature and pH — known as homeostasis.

Description of the circulatory system

While many view the circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular
system, as simply a highway for blood, it is made up of three independent
systems that work together: the heart (cardiovascular); lungs (pulmonary); and
arteries, veins, coronary and portal vessels (systemic), according to the U.S
National Library of Medicine (NLM).

In the average human, about 2,000 gallons (7,572 liters) of blood travel
daily through about 60,000 miles (96,560 kilometers) of blood vessels, according
to the Arkansas Heart Hospital. An average adult has 5 to 6 quarts (4.7 to 5.6
liters) of blood, which is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets. In addition to blood, the circulatory system moves lymph, which is
a clear fluid that helps rid the body of unwanted material.

The heart, blood, and blood vessels make up the cardiovascular

component of the circulatory system. It includes the pulmonary circulation, a
"loop" through the lungs where blood is oxygenated. It also incorporates the
systemic circulation, which runs through the rest of the body to provide
oxygenated blood, according to NLM.

The pulmonary circulatory system sends oxygen-depleted blood away

from the heart through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns
oxygenated blood to the heart through the pulmonary veins.

Oxygen-deprived blood enters the right atrium of the heart and flows
through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle.
From there it is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the
pulmonary artery on its way to the lungs. When it gets to the lungs, carbon
dioxide is released from the blood and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein
sends the oxygen-rich blood back to the heart.

Diseases of the circulatory system

 According to the American Heart Association, cardiovascular disease is the
leading cause of death in the United States. Because of its vastness and critical
nature, it is one of the systems of the body most prone to disease.

One of the most common diseases of the circulatory system is

arteriosclerosis, in which the fatty deposits in the arteries causes the walls to
stiffen and thicken the walls. According to the Mayo Clinic, the causes are a
buildup of fat, cholesterol and other material in the artery walls. This can restrict
blood flow or in severe cases stop it all together, resulting in a heart attack or
stroke.

Stroke involves blockage of the blood vessels to the brain and is another
major condition of the circulatory system, according to Mitchell Weinberg of the
North Shore-LIJ Health System. “Risk factors include smoking, diabetes and high
cholesterol,” he noted.

Another circulatory disease, hypertension — commonly called high blood

pressure — causes the heart to work harder and can lead to such complications
as a heart attack, a stroke, or kidney failure, the NLM noted.

An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aorta is damaged and starts to bulge
or eventually tear, which can cause severe internal bleeding. This weakness can
be present at birth or the result of atherosclerosis, obesity, high blood pressure
or a combination of these conditions, according to Weinberg.

Peripheral arterial disease (also known as PAD) typically involves areas of

narrowing or blockage within an artery, according to Jay Radhakrishnan, an
interventional radiologist in Houston, Texas. In addition, chronic venous
insufficiency (also known as CVI) involves areas reflux (or backward flow) within
the superficial veins of the lower extremities.

PAD is diagnosed with noninvasive testing including ultrasound, CT scan,

and/or MRI. Ultrasound is the least expensive of these methods, but also gives
the least amount of detail, as CT and MRI show a much higher degree of
anatomic detail when identifying areas of narrowing/blockage within an artery.
CVI is diagnosed with ultrasound as the venous reflux can be measured
accurately by ultrasound, which ultimately guides treatment.

Milestones

Some milestones in the history and study of the circulatory system include:
 16th century B.C.: The Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical
document, provides some of the earliest writing on the circulatory. It describes
the connection of the heart to the arteries.

6th century B.C.: Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India describes

how vital fluids circulate through the body.

2nd century A.D.: the Greek physician Galen documents how blood
vessels carry blood, identifies venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and
thinner) blood and notes that each has a separate functions.

1628: William Harvey, an English physician, first describes blood

circulation.

1706: Raymond de Vieussens, a French anatomy professor, first describes

the structure of the heart's chambers and vessels.

1733: Stephen Hales, an English clergyman and scientist, measures blood

pressure for the first time.

1816: Rene T.H. Laennec, a French physician, invents the stethoscope.

1902: American physician James B. Herrick first documents heart disease

resulting from hardening of the arteries.

1903: Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven invents the electrocardiograph.

1952: The first successful open heart surgery takes place by F. John
Lewis, an American surgeon.

1967: South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard performs the first

transplant of a whole heart from one person to another.

1982: American physician Robert Jarvik designs the first artificial heart
and American surgeon Willem DeVries implants it.

REFERENCE:

Kim Ann Zimmermann (2016), Circulatory System: Facts, Function & Diseases,

From http://www.livescience.com/22486-circulatory-system.html.

Retrieved October 20, 2016

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The human digestive system is a series of organs that converts food into
essential nutrients that are absorbed into the body and eliminates unused waste
material. It is essential to good health because if the digestive system shuts
down, the body cannot be nourished or rid itself of waste.

Description of the digestive system

Also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the digestive system begins
at the mouth, includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
(also known as the colon) and rectum, and ends at the anus. The entire system
— from mouth to anus — is about 30 feet (9 meters) long, according to the
American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE).

Digestion begins with the mouth. Even the smell of food can generate
saliva, which is secreted by the salivary glands in the mouth, contains an
enzyme, salivary amylase, which breaks down starch. Teeth, which are part of
the skeletal system, play a key role in digestion. In carnivores, teeth are
designed for killing and breaking down meat. Herbivores’ teeth are made for
grinding plants and other food to ease them through the digestion process.

Swallowing pushes chewed food into the esophagus, where it passes

through the oropharynx and hypopharynx. At this point, food takes the form of a
small round mass and digestion becomes involuntary. A series of muscular
contractions, called peristalsis, transports food through the rest of the system.
The esophagus empties into the stomach, according to the National Institutes of
Health (NIH).

The stomach’s gastric juice, which is primarily a mix of hydrochloric acid

and pepsin, starts breaking down proteins and killing potentially harmful
bacteria. After an hour or two of this process, a thick semi-liquid paste, called
chyme, forms.

At this point the pyloric sphincter valve opens and chyme enters the
duodenum, where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and acidic
bile from the gall bladder, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The next stop for
the chyme is the small intestine, a 20-foot (6-meter) tube-shaped organ, where
the majority of the absorption of nutrients occurs. The nutrients move into the
bloodstream and are transported to the liver.
 The liver creates glycogen from sugars and carbohydrates to give the
body energy and converts dietary proteins into new proteins needed by the
blood system. The liver also breaks down unwanted chemicals, such as alcohol,
which is detoxified and passed from the body as waste, the Cleveland Clinic
noted.

Whatever material is left goes into the large intestine. The function of the
large intestine, which is about 5 feet long (1.5 meters), is primarily for storage
and fermentation of indigestible matter. Also called the colon, it has four parts:
the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon and the sigmoid
colon. This is where water from the chyme is absorbed back into the body and
feces are formed primarily from water (75 percent), dietary fiber and other waste
products, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Feces are stored here until they are
eliminated from the body through defecation.

Diseases of the digestive system

Many symptoms can signal problems with the GI tract, including:

abdominal pain, blood in the stool, bloating, constipation, diarrhea, heartburn,
incontinence, nausea and vomiting and difficulty swallowing, according to the
NIH.

Among the most widely known diseases of the digestive system is colon
cancer. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 51,783 Americans
died from colon cancer in 2011 (the most recent year for available data).
Excluding skin cancers, colon and rectal cancer, or colorectal cancer, is the third
most common cancer diagnosed in both men and women in the United States,
according to the American Cancer Society.

Polyp growth and irregular cells, which may or may not be cancerous, are
the most common development paths for colorectal cancers (also referred to as
CRC), and can be detected during a routine colonoscopy, according to Dr. John
Marks, a gastroenterologist affiliated with the Main Line Health health care
system.

“The best news is that, if caught early enough, they can also be removed
during the colonoscopy — eliminating the possibility that they grow further and
become cancer,” Marks said.
 For those patients whose cancer has already spread, there are various
minimally invasive surgical options that have extremely good prognoses. It is
recommended that asymptomatic patients without a family history begin getting
tested regularly between the ages 45 and 50, according to Marks. “Symptoms
which may suggest that you need a colonoscopy at an earlier age include rectal
bleeding and stool/bowel habit changes which last for more than a few days.”

While CRC gets a great deal of attention, many diseases and conditions of
the digestive system — including irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis, GERD
(acid reflux) and Crohn’s disease — can be chronic and are difficult to diagnose
and treat, according to Dr. Larry Good, a gastroenterologist affiliated with South
Nassau Communities Hospital. “With many of these diseases, blood work and
colonoscopies all looks normal, so there is an absence of red flags.”

Many of the diseases of the digestive system are tied to the foods we eat,
and a number of sufferers can reduce their symptoms by restricting their diets,
Good said. “Of course no one wants to hear that they can’t eat certain foods, but
many times, eliminating acidic things from the diet, such as tomatoes, onions,
and red wine, can have an impact,” Good said.

There are a number of tests to detect digestive tract ailments. A

colonoscopy is the examination of the inside of the colon using a long, flexible,
fiber-optic viewing instrument called a colonoscope, according the American
Gastroenterological Association. Other testing procedures include upper GI
endoscopy, capsule endoscopy, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
and endoscopic ultrasound.

Milestones

References to the digestive system can be traced back to the ancient

Egyptians. Some milestones in the study of the gastrointestinal system include:

Claudius Galen (circa 130-200) lived at the end of the ancient Greek
period and reviewed the teachings of Hippocrates and other Greek doctors. He
theorized that the stomach acted independently from other systems in the body,
almost with a separate brain. This was widely accepted until the 17th century.

In 1780, Italian physician Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted experiments to

prove the impact of gastric juice on the digestion process.
 Philipp Bozzini developed the Lichtleiter in 1805. This instrument, which
was used to examine the urinary tract, rectum and pharynx, was the earliest
endoscopy.

Adolf Kussmaul, a German physician, developed the gastroscope in 1868,

using a sword swallower to help develop the diagnostic process.

Rudolph Schindler, known to some as the “father of gastroscopy,”

described many of the diseases involving the human digestive system in his
illustrated textbook issued during World War I. He and Georg Wolf developed a
semi-flexible gastroscope in 1932.

In 1970, Hiromi Shinya, a Japanese-born general surgeon, delivered the

first report of a colonoscopy to the New York Surgical Society and in May 1971
presented his experiences to the American Society for Gastrointestinal
Endoscopy.

In 2005, Australians Barry Marshall and Robin Warren were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Helicobacter pylori
and its role in peptic ulcer disease.

REFERENCE:

Kim Ann Zimmermann (2016), Digestive System: Facts, Function & Diseases,

From http://www.livescience.com/22367-digestive-system.html

Retrieved October 20, 2016

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones

that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.

The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland,

parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles
(in males), the Mayo Clinic notes.

The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning
within, and "crinis," meaning to secrete, according to Health Mentor Online. In
general, a gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them
and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. The
endocrine system affects almost every organ and cell in the body.

Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of

hormone is targeted toward certain organs and tissues, the Merck Manual notes.
The endocrine system gets some help from organs such as the kidney, liver,
heart and gonads, which have secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for
example, secretes hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.

Diseases of the endocrine system

Hormone levels that are too high or too low indicate a problem with the
endocrine system. Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to
hormones in the appropriate ways. Stress, infection, and changes in the blood's
fluid and electrolyte balance can also influence hormone levels, according to
the National Institutes of Health.

The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a

condition in which the body does not properly process glucose, a simple sugar.
This is due to the lack of insulin or, if the body is producing insulin, because the
body is not working effectively, according to Dr. Jennifer Loh, chief of the
department of endocrinology for Kaiser Permanente in Hawaii.

Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive

system, particularly in women, Loh explained.

Another disorder, hypothyroidism, occurs when the thyroid gland does not
produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body’s needs. Loh noted that
insufficient thyroid hormone can cause many of the body's functions to slow or
shut down completely.

Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the
thyroid begin to change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor,
according to Loh.

Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs
when blood glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result
of treatment for diabetes when too much insulin is taken. While Loh noted that
the condition can occur in people not undergoing treatment for diabetes, such an
occurrence is fairly rare.

Causes and treatment of endocrine diseases

Diabetes, the most common disease of the endocrine system, can be

linked to obesity, diet and family history. "To diagnose diabetes, we do an oral
glucose tolerance test with fasting."

It is also important to understand the patient's health history as well as

the family history, Myers noted.

Tumors — both benign and cancerous — can also disrupt the functions of
the endocrine system, Myers explained. Infections and medications such as blood
thinners can also cause adrenal deficiencies.

Diabetes is treated with pills or insulin injections. Managing other

endocrine disorders typically involves stabilizing hormone levels with medication
or, if a tumor is causing an overproduction of a hormone, by removing the
tumor. Treating endocrine disorders takes a very careful and personalized
approach, Myers said, as adjusting the levels of one hormone can impact the
balance of other hormones.

Milestones in the study of the endocrine system

200 B.C.: The Chinese begin isolating sex and pituitary hormones from
human urine and using them for medicinal purposes

1025: In medieval Persia, the writer Avicenna (980-1037) provides a

detailed account on diabetes mellitus in "The Canon of Medicine" (c. 1025),
describing the abnormal appetite, the collapse of sexual functions and the sweet
taste of diabetic urine.
 1835: Irish doctor Robert James Graves describes a case of goiter with
bulging eyes (exophthalmos). The thyroid condition "Graves' disease" was later
named after the doctor.

1902: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling perform an experiment in which

they observe that acid instilled into the duodenum (part of the small intestine)
causes the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous
connections between the two organs.

1889: Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski observe that surgically
removing the pancreas results in an increase of blood sugar, followed by a coma
and eventual death.

1921: Otto Loewi in 1921 discovers neurohormones by incubating a frog's

heart in a saline bath.

1922: Leonard Thompson, at age 14, is the first person with diabetes to
receive insulin. Drugmaker Eli Lilly soon starts mass production of insulin.

REFERENCE

Kim Ann Zimmermann (2016), Endocrine System: Facts, Function & Diseases,

From http://www.livescience.com/26496-endocrine-system.html

Retrieved October 20, 2016

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM/ EXOCRINE SYSTEM

The human body's largest organ is the integumentary system, which

includes the skin, hair, nails, glands and nerve receptors.

Skin weighs about 6 lbs. (2.7 kilograms) and sheds itself about once every
27 days, according to the Cleveland Clinic. In adults, skin covers a surface area
of 18 square feet (1.7 square meters), according to the University of
Pennsylvania Health System (Penn Medicine).

How the integumentary system works

The integumentary system works to waterproof, cushion and protect the

body from infection, according to the National Institutes of Health. Most skin is
waterproof because of keratin, a fibrous protein, and it also is made up of water,
other proteins, lipids and different minerals and chemicals.

Skin excretes wastes, regulates temperature and prevents dehydration by

controlling the level of perspiration. It also houses sensory receptors that detect
pain, sensation and pressure.

The skin is also the body's initial defense against bacteria, viruses and
other microbes. Skin and hair provide protection from harmful ultraviolet
radiation, and the skin guards against sunburn by secreting melanin, according
to the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD). Human skin color is determined
by the interaction of melanin, carotene and hemoglobin.

Storage of water, fat, glucose and vitamin D is also a function of the

integumentary system, according to the AAD.

Three layers of tissue

Human skin is composed of three layers of tissue: the epidermis, dermis

and hypodermis, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

 Epidermis

The epidermis is the top layer of skin and does not contain blood vessels.
While it is only about one-tenth of a millimeter thick, the epidermis is made of 40
to 50 rows of stacked cells called squamous cells or keratinocytes.

Keratinocytes produce keratin, a fibrous, waterproofing protein. The majority

of the skin on the body is keratinized, meaning it's waterproof, with the
exception of the lining of skin on the inside of the mouth, according to the
Cleveland Clinic. Keratin is also a key component of hair and nails.

The epidermis also consists of melanocytes, which produce melanin, the dark
pigment that gives skin its color; Merkel cells, which are thought to be involved
in touch reception; and Langerhans cells, which help the immune system fight
antigens (foreign bodies), according to Penn Medicine.

Only the deepest layer of the epidermis receives nourishment from the layer
beneath it. Cells that are pushed away from this layer eventually die. When they
reach the skin surface, they are sloughed off or shed. The skin sheds millions of
dead keratinocytes every day.

 Dermis

The dermis is the middle layer of skin, and it actually has two layers,
according to the AAD. The papillary layer consists of the loose connective tissue,
while the reticular layer is the deep layer of the dermis and consists of dense
connective tissue. These layers provide elasticity, allowing for stretching while
also working to fight wrinkling and sagging.

The dermal layer provides a site for the endings of blood vessels and nerves,
according to the AAD. The structures for hair are in this layer of skin.

Lymph vessels, which supply the clear fluid containing white blood cells of the
immune system, are also housed in this layer, to help ward off infections and
other foreign bodies. The dermis, the AAD noted, is also home to the sweat
glands and oil glands, which are attached to hair follicles.

 Hypodermis

The hypodermis — also called subcutaneous tissue — is the deepest layer of

the skin. It helps insulate the body and cushion internal organs, the Cleveland
Clinic noted. The hypodermis is composed of connective tissue called adipose
tissue, which stores excess energy as fat. Blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves
and hair follicles also run through this layer of skin.

Diseases of the integumentary system

Dermatologists specialize in treating diseases, disorders and injuries of the

skin, hair and nails. They treat common conditions such as acne and warts;
chronic skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis; and more serious diseases
like skin cancer, according to the AAD. A residency in dermatology involves one
year as an intern in either surgery or internal medicine, followed by a three-year
residency.

After this, many dermatologists pursue further training through one- or

two-year fellowships in specialized fields, such as cosmetic surgery, laser
medicine or immunodermatology, the AAD noted.

 Skin cancer

There are three main types of skin cancer, the most common of which is
basal cell carcinoma, said Dr. Charles E. Crutchfield III, a clinical professor of
dermatology at the University of Minnesota Medical School, and medical director
of Crutchfield Dermatology. More than 2 million cases of this skin cancer are
diagnosed in the United States every year, according to the AAD. This type of
cancer is skin colored or has a slight pearl color to it. It rarely metastasizes (i.e.,
it rarely spreads to other parts of the body), but it can be very problematic if it's
not treated, Crutchfield cautioned. According to the AAD, basal cell carcinoma
can destroy skin tissue and bone.

The second most common skin cancer is squamous cell carcinoma. This is a
rough-surfaced skin-colored lesion. Squamous cell skin cancer causes death in
about 10 percent of affected patients.

The most serious skin cancer is melanoma, which looks like a dark, changing,
bleeding skin spot, Crutchfield said. Melanoma is fatal in as many as 35 percent
of patients diagnosed with this form of skin cancer.

 Warts

Warts are rough bumps caused by a viral infection. They commonly occur on
the hands and feet. Sometimes, tiny black dots will be visible in a wart,
Crutchfield noted. "Those are blocked blood vessels, which is a common
occurrence with a papilloma viral infection." The best treatment for warts is to
cause a mild irritation of the wart — usually by freezing, liquid irritation and
lasers — so the immune system can recognize the viral infection and get rid of it.

 Eczema

Also known as dermatitis, eczema looks like red, itchy, flaky skin. It can occur
anywhere. Sometimes, it happens by itself, and other times, it is caused by
outside factors such as poison ivy, according to Crutchfield. Dermatitis is best
treated with topical anti-inflammatory creams and ointments. For mild cases,
over-the-counter medications work well, but a prescription may be required for
more severe cases.

 Acne

Acne, a disorder of the hair and oil glands, is among the most common
conditions treated by dermatologists, Crutchfield said. "It is under the control of
hormonal changes, hence the initial flare during adolescence," he said.

Acne presents itself as red bumps and pimples on the face, chest and back,
Crutchfield said. Treatments include vitamin A products (retinols), salicylic acid
(to unplug pores), benzoyl peroxides (to decrease bacteria) and antibiotics (to
reduce inflammation).

 Psoriasis

Psoriasis is an inflammatory skin condition in which red, itchy plaques

commonly occur on the knees and elbows. Crutchfield explained that the nails
can have pits and the scalp can be red and itchy, flaky and inflamed. "About 3
percent of all people have psoriasis to some degree, and it does run in families
many times," he noted. Some patients with psoriasis can also develop arthritis,
called psoriatic arthritis. The best treatment for psoriasis are topical medicines,
light treatments and, in severe cases, systemic prescription medicines.

 Moles

Moles are normal parts of the skin. Moles can be flat or raised, and they
can be red, brown, black or skin-colored. If a mole start changing — in size,
color or shape, or if it bleeds and doesn't heal on its own in three weeks — it
should be evaluated by a doctor to make sure it is not turning into a skin cancer,
Crutchfield said.

REFERENCE:

Kim Ann Zimmermann (2016), Integumentary System: Facts &Function

Fromhttp://www.livescience.com/27115-skin-facts-diseasesconditions.html

Retrieved October 20, 2016

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the
body of toxins, waste and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the
lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white
blood cells, throughout the body.

The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are

similar to the circulatory system's veins and capillaries. The vessels are
connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph is filtered. The tonsils, adenoids,
spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.

Description of the lymphatic system

There are hundreds of lymph nodes in the human body. They are located
deep inside the body, such as around the lungs and heart, or closer to the
surface, such as under the arm or groin, according to the American Cancer
Society.

The spleen, which is located on the left side of the body just above the
kidney, is the largest lymphatic organ, according to the U.S. National Library of
Medicine (NLM). It controls the amount of red blood cells and blood storage in
the body, and helps to fight infection. If the spleen detects potentially dangerous
bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms in the blood, it — along with the
lymph nodes — creates white blood cells called lymphocytes, which act as
defenders against invaders. The lymphocytes produce antibodies to kill the
foreign microorganisms and stop infections from spreading. Humans can live
without a spleen, although people who have lost their spleen to disease or injury
are more prone to infections.

The thymus is located in the chest just above the heart, according to
Merck Manual. This small organ stores immature lymphocytes (specialized white
blood cells) and prepares them to become active T cells, which help destroy
infected or cancerous cells.

Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells found in the pharynx.

According to the American Academy of Otolaryngology, they are the body's "first
line of defense as part of the immune system. They sample bacteria and viruses
that enter the body through the mouth or nose." They sometimes become
infected, and although tonsillectomies occur much less frequently today then
they did in the 1950s, it is still among the most common operations performed
and typically follows frequent throat infections.

Lymph is a clear and colorless fluid; the word "lymph" comes from the
Latin word lympha, which means "connected to water," according to the National
Lymphadema Network.

Plasma leaves the body's cells once it has delivered its nutrients and
removed debris. Most of this fluid returns to the venous circulation through tiny
blood vessels called venules and continues as venous blood. The remainder
becomes lymph, according to the Mayo Clinic.

Unlike blood, which flows throughout the body in a continue loop, lymph
flows in only one direction — upward toward the neck. Lymphatic vessels
connect to two subclavian veins, which are located on either sides of the neck
near the collarbones, and the fluid re-enters the circulatory system, according to
the Mayo Clinic.

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system are typically treated by

immunologists. Vascular surgeons, dermatologists, oncologists and physiatrists
also get involved in treatment of various lymphatic ailments. There are also
lymphedema therapists who specialize in the manual drainage of the lymphatic
system.

The most common diseases of the lymphatic system are enlargement of

the lymph nodes (also known as lymphadenopathy), swelling due to lymph node
blockage (also known as lymphedema) and cancers involving the lymphatic
system, according to Dr. James Hamrick, chief of medical oncology and
hematology at Kaiser Permanente in Atlanta.

When bacteria are recognized in the lymph fluid, the lymph nodes make
more infection-fighting white blood cells, which can cause swelling. The swollen
nodes can sometimes be felt in the neck, underarms and groin, according to the
NLM.

Lymphadenopathy is usually caused by infection, inflammation, or cancer.

Infections that cause lymphadenopathy include bacterial infections such as strep
throat, locally infected skin wounds, or viral infections such as mononucleosis or
HIV infection, Hamrick stated. “The enlargement of the lymph nodes may be
localized to the area of infection, as in strep throat, or more generalized as in
HIV infection. In some areas of the body the enlarged lymph nodes are palpable,
while others are to deep to feel and can be seen on CT scan or MRI.”

Inflammatory or autoimmune conditions occur when a person's immune

system is active, and can result in enlargement of lymph nodes. This can happen
in lupus, according to Hamrick.

Lymphoma is cancer of the lymph nodes. It occurs when lymphocytes

grow and multiply uncontrollably. There are a number of different types of
lymphoma, according to Dr. Jeffrey P. Sharman, director of research at
Willamette Valley Cancer Institute and medical director of hematology research
for the U.S. Oncology Network.

“The first ‘branch point’ is the difference between Hodgkin lymphoma and
non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL),” Sharman said. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more
common of the two, according to the Lymphoma Research Foundation.

The most common types of NHL are follicular, which accounts for about
30 percent of all NHL cases; diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), which
comprises 40 to 50 percent of NHL cases; and Burkitt's lymphoma, which
accounts for 5 percent of NHL cases. "The remainder of cases makes up the
bewildering complexity of NHL,” Sharman said.

“Though there can be a significant range within an individual category,

the clinical approach to each category is unique and the expectations of patient
outcome varies by category," Sharman said.

When a person has had surgery and/or radiation to remove a cancer, the
lymphatic flow back to the heart and can result in swelling or lymphedema,
Hamrick noted. This most commonly occurs in women who have had surgery to
remove a breast cancer. Part of the operation to remove the breast cancer
involves removing lymph nodes in the armpit.

The more lymph nodes removed the higher the risk of chronic bothersome
swelling and pain due to lymphedema in the arm, Hamrick explained.
“Fortunately modern surgical techniques are allowing for fewer lymph nodes to
be removed, and thus fewer cases of severe lymphedema for breast cancer
survivors.”
 Castleman disease is a group of inflammatory disorders that cause lymph
node enlargement and can result in multiple-organ dysfunction, according to the
Castleman Disease Cooperative Network. While not specifically a cancer, it is a
similar to a lymphoma and is often treated with chemotherapy. It can be
unicentric (one lymph node) or multicentric, involving multiple lymph nodes.

Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed

from lymphatic vessels, according to the Lymphangiomatosis & Gorham's Disease
Alliance. It is thought to be the result of a genetic mutation.

Diagnosis and treatment

Diseases of the lymphatic system are usually diagnosed when lymph

nodes are enlarged, Hamrick noted. This may be discovered when the lymph
nodes become enlarged enough to be felt ("palpable lymphadenopathy") or are
seen on imaging studies such as CT scans or MRIs.

The majority of enlarged lymph nodes are not dangerous; they are the
body's way of fighting off an infection, such as a viral upper respiratory infection.
If the lymph nodes become significantly enlarged and persist longer than the
infection then they are more worrisome. There is no specific size cutoff, but
typically nodes that persist at larger than a centimeter are more worrisome and
warrant examination by a doctor.

Common symptoms of any lymphatic disorder include swelling of the arm

or groin, weight loss, fever and night sweats, according to Stephanie Bernik,
chief of surgical oncology at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York. “A PET or CAT scan
is usually ordered to further investigate.”

The diagnosis of lymphadenopathy depends on the location of the

abnormal lymph nodes and other things that are going on with the patient. If the
patient has a known infection, then the lymph nodes can simply be followed to
await resolution with treatment of the infection. If the nodes are growing quickly
and there is no obvious explanation then typically a biopsy is warranted to look
for a cancer or an infection. If the node can be felt then this can be done at the
bedside with a needle, according to Hamrick.

If the lymph node is deeper, such as in the abdomen or pelvis, Hamrick

said the biopsy might need to be done by an interventional radiologist using
image guidance to place the needle into the node. Sometimes the biopsy needs
to be done by a surgeon in the operating room. This is often where the most
tissue can be obtained to make a diagnosis, he said.

With many types of lymphoma and leukemia, there are unique treatment
options for each type, according to Sharman. “There is no one ‘summary’ of
treatment options. Treatment options can include traditional chemotherapy,
immunotherapy (such as using antibodies or immune modulating drugs), and
even radiation.”

Treatment of lymphatic diseases depends on treating the underlying

cause. Infections are treated with antibiotics, supportive care (while the immune
system does its job, as in a viral infection) or antivirals. Lymphedema can be
treated by elevation, compression and physical therapy. Cancers of the lymphatic
system are treated by chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, or a combination of
those modalities, Hamrick noted.

In last several years, Sharman noted that there has been explosion of new
treatment options. “There are a handful of newly approved drugs that target the
actual disease causing processes within cells. Ibrutinib, idelalisib, obinutuzumab,
lenalidomide have been approved in various indications and it is likely that we
will see multiple more in coming year.”

REFERENCE:

Kim Ann Zimmermann (2016), Lymphatic System: Facts, Function & Diseases,

From http://www.livescience.com/26983-lymphatic-system.html

Retrieved October 20, 2016

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than
assist in lifting heavy objects. The 650 muscles in the body not only support
movement — controlling walking, talking, sitting, standing, eating and other daily
functions that people consciously perform — but also help to maintain posture
and circulate blood and other substances throughout the body, among other
functions.

Three types of muscles

The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles:
skeletal, smooth and cardiac, according to the NIH.

Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body
and control every action that a person consciously performs. Most skeletal
muscles are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move
parts of those bones closer to each other.

Visceral, or smooth, muscle is found inside organs such as the stomach

and intestines, as well as in blood vessels. It is called a smooth muscle because,
unlike skeletal muscle, it does not have the banded appearance of skeletal or
cardiac muscle. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscles contract to
move substances through the organ, according to The Merck Manual. Because
visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as
involuntary muscle, as it cannot be controlled by the conscious mind.

Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle

responsible for pumping blood throughout the body, according to The Merck
Manual. The heart's natural pacemaker is made of cardiac muscle that signals
other cardiac muscles to contract. Like visceral muscles, cardiac muscle tissue is
controlled involuntarily. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the
rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract.

Muscle shapes

Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction, according
to the NIH. The deltoids, or shoulder muscles, have a triangular shape. The
serratus muscle, which originates on the surface of the second to ninth ribs at
the side of the chest, and runs along the entire anterior length of the scapula
(shoulder blades), has a distinctive sawlike shape. The rhomboid major, which
attaches the scapula to the spinal column, is a diamond shape.

Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The
gluteal region (the buttocks) contains three muscles differentiated by size: the
gluteus maximus (large), gluteus medius (medium) and gluteus minimus
(smallest), the NIH noted.

The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a
muscle. In the abdominal region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles,
according to the NIH. The muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are
the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to right) are the
transverse abdominis and the ones running at an angle are the obliques. As any
exercise enthusiast knows, obliques are among the hardest muscles to develop
to achieve "six-pack" abs.

Muscles also can be identified by their function. The flexor group of the
forearm flexes the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that allows
you to roll your wrist over to face palm up. Adductor muscles in the legs adduct,
or pull together, the limbs, according to the NIH.

Diseases of the muscular system

There is no single type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and

disorders. Rheumatologists, orthopedists and neurologists may all treat
conditions that affect the muscles.

There are a number of common neuromuscular disorders, according to Dr.

Robert Schabbing, chief of neurology at Kaiser Permanente in Denver.

Common primary muscle disorders include inflammatory myopathies,

including polymyositis, which is characterized by inflammation and progressive
weakening of the skeletal muscles; dermatomyositis, which is polymyositis
accompanied by a skin rash; and inclusion body myositis, which is characterized
by progressive muscle weakness and wasting. Other common disorders are
muscular dystrophies and metabolic muscle disorders, he said. Muscular
dystrophy affects muscle fibers. Metabolic muscle disorders interfere with
chemical reactions involved in drawing energy from food.Neuromuscular junction
disorders impair the transmission of nerve signals to muscles, Schabbing noted.
 The most common neuromuscular junction disorder is myasthenia gravis,
which is characterized by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal muscles.
Schabbing said. "There are many types of peripheral neuropathies that can be
secondary to other medical conditions, such as diabetes, or due to a variety of
other causes, including toxins, inflammation and hereditary causes," he said.

Motor neuron disorders affect the nerve cells that supply muscles,
Schabbing said. The most recognizable motor neuron disease is amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis, or ALS, commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease.

Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment

The most common symptom or sign of a muscle disorder is weakness,

although muscle disorders can cause a number of symptoms, according to
Schabbing. In addition to weakness, symptoms include abnormal fatigue with
activity, as well as muscle spasms, cramping or twitching. Neuromuscular
disorders affecting the eyes or mouth can cause drooping eyelids or double
vision, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing or, sometimes, difficulty breathing.

Electromyography — commonly referred to as an EMG — is often used to

diagnose muscular disorders. An EMG helps characterize causes of nerve and
muscle disorders by stimulating nerves and recording responses, Schabbing
noted. Rarely, nerve or muscle biopsies are needed.

Steroids and other medications can help to reduce spasms and cramping.
Milder forms of chemotherapy can help treat many muscular disorders, according
to Dr. Ricardo Roda, an assistant professor of neurology, neuroscience and
physiology at NYU Langone Medical Center.

REFERENCE:

Kim Ann Zimmermann (2016), Muscular System: Facts, Function & Diseases,

From http://www.livescience.com/26854-muscular-system-facts-functions-

diseases.html Retrieved October 20, 2016

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeletal system is the framework of our body. The adult human skeletal
system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons, ligaments and
cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions —
support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and
endocrine regulation — that enable us to survive. The adult human skeleton is
anatomically divided into two parts, the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton.

Organization of the Human Skeleton

The core of the skeleton is referred to as the axial skeleton. It consists of

the following 80 bones.

• Skull: 22 bones

• Hyoid: 1 bone

• Vertebrae: 32 bones

• Ribs: 24 bones

• Sternum: 1 bone

Attached to the axial skeleton is the appendicular skeleton, which consists

of 126 bones.

• Pectoral girdle: 4 bones • Bony Pelvis: 2 bones

.(Scapula and clavicle) .(Os coxae)

• Arms and forearms: 6 bones • Thighs and legs: 8 bones

.(Humerus and radius) .(Femur, patella, tibia, and fibula)

• Wrists and hands: 54 bones • Ankles and feet: 52 bones

.(Carpals, metacarpals, and .(Tarsals, metatarsals, and

phalanges) phalanges)

Functionally, the bones primarily give support to the appendages and

protect the fragile organs of the body such as the brain, spinal cord, heart, and
lungs. They also store calcium and phoshorus in the hard bone matrix, which can
be released when needed elsewhere. The bumps, ridges, and grooves on the
surface of bones provide attachment sites for the skeletal muscles. Additionally,
many bones contain a soft tissue called marrow that produces new blood cells
and stores fat.

Joints

A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made

between bones in the body. They are constructed to allow for different degrees
and types of movement. Sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little
movement. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a
joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are
classified both structurally and functionally.

Structural classification (binding tissue)

Structural classification names and divides joints according to the type of

binding tissue that connects the bones to each other. There are three structural
classifications of joints:

 fibrous joint – joined by dense regular connective tissue that is rich in

collagen fibers

 cartilaginous joint – joined by cartilage

 synovial joint – not directly joined – the bones have a synovial cavity and
are united by the dense irregular connective tissue that forms the articular
capsule that is normally associated with accessory ligaments.

Functional classification (movement)

Joints can also be classified functionally according to the type and degree
of movement they allow:

 synarthrosis – permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints

are fibrous joints (e.g., skull sutures).

 amphiarthrosis – permits slight mobility. Most amphiarthrosis joints

are cartilaginous joints (e.g., intervertebral discs).

 synovial joint (also known as a diarthrosis) – freely movable. Synovial

joints can in turn be classified into six groups according to the type of
movement they allow: plane joint, ball and socket joint, hinge joint, pivot
joint,[9][10] condyloid joint and saddle joint.
 Joints can also be classified, according to the number of axes of
movement they allow, into nonaxial (gliding, as between the proximal ends of
the ulna and radius), monoaxial (uniaxial), biaxial and multiaxial. Another
classification is according to the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished
between joints with one, two or three degrees of freedom. A further classification
is according to the number and shapes of the articular surfaces: flat, concave
and convex surfaces. Types of articular surfaces include trochlear surfaces.

Diseases of the skeletal system

X-rays, MRIs, bone density tests and arthroscopy are some of the primary
diagnostic tools used to detect diseases and deformities of the skeletal system.
Bone scans and bone marrow biopsies are used to diagnose cancer, according to
the Merck Manuals.

The primary skeletal conditions are metabolic bone diseases such as

osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and a few other rarer conditions, said Dr. Nathan
Wei of the Arthritis Treatment Center.

Osteoporosis is a prevalent disease, particularly among the elderly,

resulting in the loss of bone tissue. In osteoporosis, bone loses calcium, becomes
thinner and may disappear completely, according to Wei.Osteomalacia is a
softening of the bones, according to the Mayo Clinic. It is often caused by a
vitamin D deficiency and results from a defect in the bone-building process.
Osteoporosis, on the other hand, develops in previously constructed bones.

Arthritis is a group of more than 100 inflammatory diseases that damage

joints and their surrounding structures. Arthritis can attack joints, joint capsules,
the surrounding tissue, or throughout the body. It usually affects the joints of
the neck, shoulders, hands, lower back, hips, or knees. “The diagnosis is
suspected by a careful history and physical exam and confirmed through
laboratory and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the type of arthritis,” Wei
said.

Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often

creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine.
This condition is typically becomes evident during adolescence, the Merck
Manuals noted.
 About 90 percent of people will experience lower back pain at some point
in their lives, according to Dr. James Nace of LifeBridge Health. “Patients can
often be helped with things such as anti-inflammatory medications, but in some
cases may need treatments such as topical medications, patches or electrical
stimulation.”

One of the much rarer diseases of the skeletal system is bone cancer. It
may originate in the bones or spread there from another part of the body. In the
United States, primary bone cancers accounts for less than 1 percent of all
cancer cases, according to the American Cancer Society. Cancers that
metastasize — originate from other parts of the body and then spread to the
bones — are much more common than primary bone cancer.

Bone cancer is a malignancy arising in the bones and supporting

structures such as cartilage, according to Dr. Robert Christie, medical oncologist
and hematologist at Virginia Cancer Specialists, a practice inThe U.S. Oncology
Network. “Unfortunately, these bone cancers are often seen in younger patients
in their 20s and 30s versus lung cancer and breast cancer which are typically
diagnosed later in life.”

While leukemia is a cancer that primarily affects the blood, the skeletal
system is involved as the cancer starts in the marrow of the bone. With this type
of cancer, abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably, affecting the
production of normal white blood cells and red blood cells, according to the
American Cancer Society.

Bursitis is a disorder that most commonly affects the shoulder and hip
joints, Nace said. It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled
bags that act as lubricating surfaces for muscles to move over bones.

The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks, strains and fractures.

While bones are meant to protect the body’s vital organs, it takes about 10 to 16
pounds of pressure to break an average bone. Bones such as the skull and femur
are much tougher to break.

REFERENCE:

http://www.livescience.com/22537-skeletal-system.html
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous Tissue

The majority of the nervous system is tissue made up of two classes of

cells: neurons and neuroglia.

Neurons. Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the

body by transmitting electrochemical signals. Neurons look quite different from
other cells in the body due to the many long cellular processes that extend from
their central cell body. The cell body is the roughly round part of a neuron that
contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and most of the cellular organelles. Small
tree-like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up stimuli
from the environment, other neurons, or sensory receptor cells. Long
transmitting processes called axons extend from the cell body to send signals
onward to other neurons or effector cells in the body.

There are 3 basic classes of neurons: afferent neurons, efferent neurons,

and interneurons.

 Afferent neurons. Also known as sensory neurons, afferent neurons

transmit sensory signals to the central nervous system from receptors in
the body.
 Efferent neurons. Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons transmit
signals from the central nervous system to effectors in the body such as
muscles and glands.
 Interneurons. Interneurons form complex networks within the central
nervous system to integrate the information received from afferent
neurons and to direct the function of the body through efferent neurons.

Neuroglia. Neuroglia, also known as glial cells, act as the “helper” cells of the
nervous system. Each neuron in the body is surrounded by anywhere from 6 to
60 neuroglia that protect, feed, and insulate the neuron. Because neurons are
extremely specialized cells that are essential to body function and almost never
reproduce, neuroglia are vital to maintaining a functional nervous system.

Brain

The brain, a soft, wrinkled organ that weighs about 3 pounds, is located
inside the cranial cavity, where the bones of the skull surround and protect it.
The approximately 100 billion neurons of the brain form the main control center
of the body. The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system
(CNS), where information is processed and responses originate. The brain, the
seat of higher mental functions such as consciousness, memory, planning, and
voluntary actions, also controls lower body functions such as the maintenance of
respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons that carries
information through the vertebral cavity of the spine beginning at the medulla
oblongata of the brain on its superior end and continuing inferiorly to the lumbar
region of the spine. In the lumbar region, the spinal cord separates into a bundle
of individual nerves called the cauda equina (due to its resemblance to a horse’s
tail) that continues inferiorly to the sacrum and coccyx. The white matter of the
spinal cord functions as the main conduit of nerve signals to the body from the
brain. The grey matter of the spinal cord integrates reflexes to stimuli.

Nerves

Nerves are bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that
act as information highways to carry signals between the brain and spinal cord
and the rest of the body. Each axon is wrapped in a connective tissue sheath
called the endoneurium. Individual axons of the nerve are bundled into groups of
axons called fascicles, wrapped in a sheath of connective tissue called the
perineurium. Finally, many fascicles are wrapped together in another layer of
connective tissue called the epineurium to form a whole nerve. The wrapping of
nerves with connective tissue helps to protect the axons and to increase the
speed of their communication within the body.

Afferent, Efferent, and Mixed Nerves. Some of the nerves in the body are
specialized for carrying information in only one direction, similar to a one-way
street. Nerves that carry information from sensory receptors to the central
nervous system only are called afferent nerves. Other neurons, known as
efferent nerves, carry signals only from the central nervous system to effectors
such as muscles and glands. Finally, some nerves are mixed nerves that contain
both afferent and efferent axons. Mixed nerves function like 2-way streets where
afferent axons act as lanes heading toward the central nervous system and
efferent axons act as lanes heading away from the central nervous system.
 Cranial Nerves. Extending from the inferior side of the brain are 12 pairs
of cranial nerves. Each cranial nerve pair is identified by a Roman numeral 1 to
12 based upon its location along the anterior-posterior axis of the brain. Each
nerve also has a descriptive name (e.g. olfactory, optic, etc.) that identifies its
function or location. The cranial nerves provide a direct connection to the brain
for the special sense organs, muscles of the head, neck, and shoulders, the
heart, and the GI tract.

Spinal Nerves. Extending from the left and right sides of the spinal cord
are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal nerves are mixed nerves that carry both
sensory and motor signals between the spinal cord and specific regions of the
body. The 31 spinal nerves are split into 5 groups named for the 5 regions of the
vertebral column. Thus, there are 8 pairs of cervical nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic
nerves, 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, 5 pairs of sacral nerves, and 1 pair of coccygeal
nerves. Each spinal nerve exits from the spinal cord through the intervertebral
foramen between a pair of vertebrae or between the C1 vertebra and the
occipital bone of the skull.

Meninges

The meninges are the protective coverings of the central nervous system
(CNS). They consist of three layers: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia
mater.

Dura mater. The dura mater, which means “tough mother,” is the
thickest, toughest, and most superficial layer of meninges. Made of dense
irregular connective tissue, it contains many tough collagen fibers and blood
vessels. Dura mater protects the CNS from external damage, contains the
cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the CNS, and provides blood to the nervous
tissue of the CNS.

Arachnoid mater. The arachnoid mater, which means “spider-like mother,” is

much thinner and more delicate than the dura mater. It lines the inside of the
dura mater and contains many thin fibers that connect it to the underlying pia
mater. These fibers cross a fluid-filled space called the subarachnoid space
between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
Pia mater. The pia mater, which means “tender mother,” is a thin and delicate
layer of tissue that rests on the outside of the brain and spinal cord. Containing
many blood vessels that feed the nervous tissue of the CNS, the pia mater
penetrates into the valleys of the sulci and fissures of the brain as it covers the
entire surface of the CNS.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

The space surrounding the organs of the CNS is filled with a clear fluid
known as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is formed from blood plasma by special
structures called choroid plexuses. The choroid plexuses contain many capillaries
lined with epithelial tissue that filters blood plasma and allows the filtered fluid to
enter the space around the brain.

Newly created CSF flows through the inside of the brain in hollow spaces
called ventricles and through a small cavity in the middle of the spinal cord called
the central canal. CSF also flows through the subarachnoid space around the
outside of the brain and spinal cord. CSF is constantly produced at the choroid
plexuses and is reabsorbed into the bloodstream at structures called arachnoid
villi Cerebrospinal fluid provides several vital functions to the central nervous
system:

CSF absorbs shocks between the brain and skull and between the spinal
cord and vertebrae. This shock absorption protects the CNS from blows or
sudden changes in velocity, such as during a car accident.

The brain and spinal cord float within the CSF, reducing their apparent
weight through buoyancy. The brain is a very large but soft organ that requires a
high volume of blood to function effectively. The reduced weight in cerebrospinal
fluid allows the blood vessels of the brain to remain open and helps protect the
nervous tissue from becoming crushed under its own weight.

CSF helps to maintain chemical homeostasis within the central nervous

system. It contains ions, nutrients, oxygen, and albumins that support the
chemical and osmotic balance of nervous tissue. CSF also removes waste
products that form as byproducts of cellular metabolism within nervous tissue.

Sense Organs

All of the bodies’ many sense organs are components of the nervous
system. What are known as the special senses—vision, taste, smell, hearing, and
balance—are all detected by specialized organs such as the eyes, taste buds, and
olfactory epithelium. Sensory receptors for the general senses like touch,
temperature, and pain are found throughout most of the body. All of the sensory
receptors of the body are connected to afferent neurons that carry their sensory
information to the CNS to be processed and integrated.

Functions of the Nervous System

The nervous system has 3 main functions: sensory, integration, and

motor.

 Sensory. The sensory function of the nervous system involves collecting

information from sensory receptors that monitor the body’s internal and
external conditions. These signals are then passed on to the central
nervous system (CNS) for further processing by afferent neurons (and
nerves).

 Integration. The process of integration is the processing of the many

sensory signals that are passed into the CNS at any given time. These
signals are evaluated, compared, used for decision making, discarded or
committed to memory as deemed appropriate. Integration takes place in
the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord and is performed by
interneurons. Many interneurons work together to form complex networks
that provide this processing power.

 Motor. Once the networks of interneurons in the CNS evaluate sensory

information and decide on an action, they stimulate efferent neurons.
Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) carry signals from the gray
matter of the CNS through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system to
effector cells. The effector may be smooth, cardiac, or skeletal muscle
tissue or glandular tissue. The effector then releases a hormone or moves
a part of the body to respond to the stimulus.

Divisions of the Nervous System

 Central Nervous System

 The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system, or CNS.
The CNS acts as the control center of the body by providing its processing,
memory, and regulation systems. The CNS takes in all of the conscious and
subconscious sensory information from the body’s sensory receptors to stay
aware of the body’s internal and external conditions. Using this sensory
information, it makes decisions about both conscious and subconscious actions
to take to maintain the body’s homeostasis and ensure its survival. The CNS is
also responsible for the higher functions of the nervous system such as
language, creativity, expression, emotions, and personality. The brain is the seat
of consciousness and determines who we are as individuals.

 Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all of the parts of the nervous
system outside of the brain and spinal cord. These parts include all of the cranial
and spinal nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors.

1. Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a division of the PNS that includes all of
the voluntary efferent neurons. The SNS is the only consciously controlled part of
the PNS and is responsible for stimulating skeletal muscles in the body.

2. Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS that includes all
of the involuntary efferent neurons. The ANS controls subconscious effectors
such as visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue.

There are 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system in the body: the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

a. Sympathetic. The sympathetic division forms the body’s “fight or flight”

response to stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions, and
embarrassment. The sympathetic division increases respiration and heart
rate, releases adrenaline and other stress hormones, and decreases
digestion to cope with these situations.
b. Parasympathetic. The parasympathetic division forms the body’s “rest and
digest” response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. The
parasympathetic works to undo the work of the sympathetic division after
a stressful situation. Among other functions, the parasympathetic division
 works to decrease respiration and heart rate, increase digestion, and
permit the elimination of wastes.

Enteric Nervous System

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is the division of the ANS that is responsible
for regulating digestion and the function of the digestive organs. The ENS
receives signals from the central nervous system through both the sympathetic
and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system to help regulate
its functions. However, the ENS mostly works independently of the CNS and
continues to function without any outside input. For this reason, the ENS is often
called the “brain of the gut” or the body’s “second brain.” The ENS is an
immense system—almost as many neurons exist in the ENS as in the spinal cord.

Action Potentials

Neurons function through the generation and propagation of electrochemical

signals known as action potentials (APs). An AP is created by the movement of
sodium and potassium ions through the membrane of neurons. (See Water and
Electrolytes.)

 Resting Potential. At rest, neurons maintain a concentration of sodium

ions outside of the cell and potassium ions inside of the cell. This
concentration is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump of the cell
membrane which pumps 3 sodium ions out of the cell for every 2
potassium ions that are pumped into the cell. The ion concentration
results in a resting electrical potential of -70 millivolts (mV), which means
that the inside of the cell has a negative charge compared to its
surroundings.
 Threshold Potential. If a stimulus permits enough positive ions to enter a
region of the cell to cause it to reach -55 mV, that region of the cell will
open its voltage-gated sodium channels and allow sodium ions to diffuse
into the cell. -55 mV is the threshold potential for neurons as this is the
“trigger” voltage that they must reach to cross the threshold into forming
an action potential.
 Depolarization. Sodium carries a positive charge that causes the cell to
become depolarized (positively charged) compared to its normal negative
charge. The voltage for depolarization of all neurons is +30 mV. The
depolarization of the cell is the AP that is transmitted by the neuron as a
 nerve signal. The positive ions spread into neighboring regions of the cell,
initiating a new AP in those regions as they reach -55 mV. The AP
continues to spread down the cell membrane of the neuron until it
reaches the end of an axon.
 Repolarization. After the depolarization voltage of +30 mV is reached,
voltage-gated potassium ion channels open, allowing positive potassium
ions to diffuse out of the cell. The loss of potassium along with the
pumping of sodium ions back out of the cell through the sodium-
potassium pump restores the cell to the -55 mV resting potential. At this
point the neuron is ready to start a new action potential.

Synapses

A synapse is the junction between a neuron and another cell. Synapses

may form between 2 neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell. There
are two types of synapses found in the body: chemical synapses and electrical
synapses.

Chemical synapses. At the end of a neuron’s axon is an enlarged region of

the axon known as the axon terminal. The axon terminal is separated from the
next cell by a small gap known as the synaptic cleft. When an AP reaches the
axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium ion channels. Calcium ions cause
vesicles containing chemicals known as neurotransmitters (NT) to release their
contents by exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. The NT molecules cross the
synaptic cleft and bind to receptor molecules on the cell, forming a synapse with
the neuron. These receptor molecules open ion channels that may either
stimulate the receptor cell to form a new action potential or may inhibit the cell
from forming an action potential when stimulated by another neuron.

Electrical synapses. Electrical synapses are formed when 2 neurons are

connected by small holes called gap junctions. The gap junctions allow electric
current to pass from one neuron to the other, so that an AP in one cell is passed
directly on to the other cell through the synapse.

Myelination

The axons of many neurons are covered by a coating of insulation known

as myelin to increase the speed of nerve conduction throughout the body. Myelin
is formed by 2 types of glial cells: Schwann cells in the PNS and oligodendrocytes
in the CNS. In both cases, the glial cells wrap their plasma membrane around the
axon many times to form a thick covering of lipids. The development of these
myelin sheaths is known as myelination.

Myelination speeds up the movement of APs in the axon by reducing the

number of APs that must form for a signal to reach the end of an axon. The
myelination process begins speeding up nerve conduction in fetal development
and continues into early adulthood. Myelinated axons appear white due to the
presence of lipids and form the white matter of the inner brain and outer spinal
cord. White matter is specialized for carrying information quickly through the
brain and spinal cord. The gray matter of the brain and spinal cord are the
unmyelinated integration centers where information is processed.

Reflexes

Reflexes are fast, involuntary responses to stimuli. The most well known
reflex is the patellar reflex, which is checked when a physicians taps on a
patient’s knee during a physical examination. Reflexes are integrated in the gray
matter of the spinal cord or in the brain stem. Reflexes allow the body to
respond to stimuli very quickly by sending responses to effectors before the
nerve signals reach the conscious parts of the brain. This explains why people
will often pull their hands away from a hot object before they realize they are in
pain.

Functions of the Cranial Nerves

Each of the 12 cranial nerves has a specific function within the nervous
system.

 The olfactory nerve (I) carries scent information to the brain from the
olfactory epithelium in the roof of the nasal cavity.
 The optic nerve (II) carries visual information from the eyes to the brain.
 Oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves (III, IV, and VI) all work
together to allow the brain to control the movement and focus of the
eyes. The trigeminal nerve (V) carries sensations from the face and
innervates the muscles of mastication.
 The facial nerve (VII) innervates the muscles of the face to make facial
expressions and carries taste information from the anterior 2/3 of the
tongue.
  The vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) conducts auditory and balance
information from the ears to the brain.
 The glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries taste information from the
posterior 1/3 of the tongue and assists in swallowing.
 The vagus nerve (X), sometimes called the wandering nerve due to the
fact that it innervates many different areas, “wanders” through the head,
neck, and torso. It carries information about the condition of the vital
organs to the brain, delivers motor signals to control speech and delivers
parasympathetic signals to many organs.
 The accessory nerve (XI) controls the movements of the shoulders and
neck.
 The hypoglossal nerve (XII) moves the tongue for speech and swallowing.

Sensory Physiology

All sensory receptors can be classified by their structure and by the type of
stimulus that they detect. Structurally, there are 3 classes of sensory receptors:
free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, and specialized cells. Free nerve
endings are simply free dendrites at the end of a neuron that extend into a
tissue. Pain, heat, and cold are all sensed through free nerve endings. An
encapsulated nerve ending is a free nerve ending wrapped in a round capsule of
connective tissue. When the capsule is deformed by touch or pressure, the
neuron is stimulated to send signals to the CNS. Specialized cells detect stimuli
from the 5 special senses: vision, hearing, balance, smell, and taste. Each of the
special senses has its own unique sensory cells—such as rods and cones in the
retina to detect light for the sense of vision.

Functionally, there are 6 major classes of receptors: mechanoreceptors,

nociceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors, and
thermoreceptors.

 Mechanoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to mechanical stimuli

like touch, pressure, vibration, and blood pressure.
 Nociceptors. Nociceptors respond to stimuli such as extreme heat, cold, or
tissue damage by sending pain signals to the CNS.
 Photoreceptors. Photoreceptors in the retina detect light to provide the
sense of vision.
  Chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors detect chemicals in the bloodstream
and provide the senses of taste and smell.
 Osmoreceptors. Osmoreceptors monitor the osmolarity of the blood to
determine the body's hydration levels.
 Thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors detect temperatures inside the body
and in its surroundings.
 Prepared by Tim Taylo

Diseases of the nervous system

“Of all the diseases of the nervous system, the most common difficulty
that people have is pain, and much of that is nerve-related,” according to Dr.
Shai Gozani, founder and CEO of NeuroMetrix, a medical device company. “There
are 100 million people who live with chronic pain.”

According to the Mayo Clinic, patients with nerve disorders experience functional
difficulties, which result in conditions such as:

 Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause

seizures

 Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects

movement

 Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is

attacked by the body’s immune system

 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is

a motor neuron disease which weakens the muscles and progressively
hampers physical function

 Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve

cells in the brain to degenerate

 Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts

mental functions, particularly memory.

REFERENCE:

Tim Taylor (2016), Nervous System: Anatomy and Physiology

From http://www.innerbody.com/image/nervov.html

Retrieved October 20, 2016

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE BRAIN

NEURON
SPECIAL SENSES

Senses are physiological capacities of organisms that provide data for

perception. The senses and their operation, classification, and theory are

overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields, most notably neuroscience,

cognitive psychology (or cognitive science), and philosophy of perception. The

nervous system has a specific sensory system or organ, dedicated to each

sense.

Humans have a multitude of senses. Sight (ophthalmoception), hearing

(audioception), taste (gustaoception), smell (olfacoception or olfacception), and

touch (tactioception) are the five traditionally recognized. While the ability to

detect other stimuli beyond those governed by the traditional senses exists,

including temperature (thermoception), kinesthetic sense (proprioception), pain

(nociception), balance (equilibrioception), and various internal stimuli (e.g. the

different chemoreceptors for detecting salt and carbon dioxide concentrations in

the blood), only a small number of these can safely be classified as separate

senses in and of themselves. What constitutes a sense is a matter of some

debate, leading to difficulties in defining what exactly a sense is.

Animals also have receptors to sense the world around them, with

degrees of capability varying greatly between species. Humans have a

comparatively weak sense of smell, while some animals may lack one or more of

the traditional five senses. Some animals may also intake and interpret sensory

stimuli in very different ways. Some species of animals are able to sense the

world in a way that humans cannot, with some species able to sense electrical

and magnetic fields, and detect water pressure and currents.

Definition

A broadly acceptable definition of a sense would be "A system that

consists of a group of sensory cell types that responds to a specific physical

phenomenon, and that corresponds to a particular group of regions within the

brain where the signals are received and interpreted." There is no firm agreement

as to the number of senses because of differing definitions of what constitutes a

sense. The senses are frequently divided into exteroceptive andinteroceptive:

 Exteroceptive senses are senses that perceive the body's own position,

motion, and state, known as proprioceptive senses. External senses

include the traditional five: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, as well

asthermoception (temperature differences) and possibly an additional

weak magnetoception (direction).[1] Proprioceptive senses include

nociception (pain); equilibrioception (balance); proprioception (a sense of

the position and movement of the parts of one's own body).

 Interoceptive senses are senses that perceive sensations in internal

organs.

Non-human animals may possess senses that are absent in humans,

such as electroreception and detection of polarized light.

Traditional Senses

Sight

Sight or vision is the capability of the eye(s) to focus and detect images of

visible light on photoreceptors in the retina of each eye that generates electrical

nerve impulses for varying colors, hues, and brightness. There are two types of

photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods are very sensitive to light, but do not

distinguish colors. Cones distinguish colors, but are less sensitive to dim light.

There is some disagreement as to whether this constitutes one, two or three

senses. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two senses, given that different

receptors are responsible for the perception of color and brightness. Some

argue[citation needed] that stereopsis, the perception of depth using both eyes,

also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a cognitive (that is, post-

sensory) function of the visual cortex of the brain where patterns and objects in

images are recognized and interpreted based on previously learned information.

This is called visual memory.

The inability to see is called blindness. Blindness may result from damage

to the eyeball, especially to the retina, damage to the optic nerve that connects

each eye to the brain, and/or from stroke (infarcts in the brain). Temporary or

permanent blindness can be caused by poisons or medications. People who are

blind from degradation or damage to the visual cortex, but still have functional

eyes, are actually capable of some level of vision and reaction to visual stimuli

but not a conscious perception; this is known as blindsight. People with blindsight

are usually not aware that they are reacting to visual sources, and instead just

unconsciously adapt their behavior to the stimulus. On February 14, 2013

researchers developed a neural implant that gives rats the ability to sense

infrared light which for the first time provides living creatures with new abilities,

instead of simply replacing or augmenting existing abilities.

Hearing

Hearing or audition is the sense of sound perception. Hearing is all about

vibration. Mechanoreceptors turn motion into electrical nerve pulses, which are

located in the inner ear. Since sound is vibrations propagating through a medium

such as air, the detection of these vibrations, that is the sense of the hearing, is a

mechanical sense because these vibrations are mechanically conducted from the

eardrum through a series of tiny bones to hair-like fibers in the inner ear, which

detect mechanical motion of the fibers within a range of about 20 to 20,000

hertz,[4] with substantial variation between individuals. Hearing at high

frequencies declines with an increase in age. Inability to hear is called deafness

or hearing impairment. Sound can also be detected as vibrations conducted

through the body by tactition. Lower frequencies than can be heard are detected

this way. Some deaf people are able to determine direction and location of

vibrations picked up through the feet.[5]

Taste

Taste (or, the more formal term, gustation; adjectival form: "gustatory") is

one of the traditional five senses. It refers to the capability to detect the taste of

substances such as food, certain minerals, and poisons, etc. The sense of taste

is often confused with the "sense" of flavor, which is a combination of taste and

smell perception. Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on

taste. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or

gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. There are

five basic tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami. Other tastes such as

calcium and free fatty acids may be other basic tastes but have yet to receive

widespread acceptance.
Smell

Smell or olfaction is the other "chemical" sense. Unlike taste, there are

hundreds of olfactory receptors (388 according to one source[9]), each binding to

a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules possess a variety of features and,

thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly. This combination of

excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what we perceive as the

molecule's smell. In the brain, olfaction is processed by the olfactory system.

Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that they

die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is called anosmia.

Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones.

Touch

Touch or somatosensory, also called tactition or mechanoreception, is a

perception resulting from activation of neural receptors, generally in the skin

including hair follicles, but also in the tongue, throat, and mucosa. A variety of

pressure receptors respond to variations in pressure (firm, brushing, sustained,

etc.). The touch sense of itching caused by insect bites or allergies involves

special itch-specific neurons in the skin and spinal cord.[11] The loss or
impairment of the ability to feel anything touched is called tactile anesthesia.

Paresthesia is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or numbness of the skin that may

result from nerve damage and may be permanent or temporary.

Umami: The 5th Taste

When we were in grade school, many of us learned that there were four

basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Now there's a new taste to learn and

it's called umami (pronounced "oo-mommy"). Actually, while the term is new to

us, it's not new to the Japanese, who have used the term to describe the "fifth

taste" since the early 1900s. What exactly is the umami taste? Well, there's no

English word that's synonymous with umami, however it's most often described

as a "savory" or "meaty" taste.

Being able to distinguish the umami taste takes some practice because it's

not as obvious as other tastes, such as sweet or bitter. For example, when

tasting a homemade chicken broth made without salt or seasoning of any kind,
you may find it bland and practically tasteless. If you added a small amount of

monosodium glutamate to that same broth, the umami taste it provides may lead

you to describe the "enhanced" broth as tasting "more like chicken" than the first

broth. This taste is not as simple as making something taste more salty (salt

alone can do that). Rather, the umami taste is one of richness, fullness and

complexity. Simply put, it just makes the food taste more delicious.

Glutamate's the key

The amino acid glutamate could well be called "nature's flavor enhancer"

because it conveys the umami taste in foods. Glutamate is also well known

among food and nutrition professionals as one of the most common "building

blocks" of protein. As such, it's no surprise that most foods contain some amount

of glutamate. Protein foods, such as meat, fish, cheese, milk and some

vegetables are especially good sources of glutamate. Not coincidentally, these

foods also have a lot of umami taste.

In some foods, the amount of glutamate they contain—and their flavor—

increases as they age or ripen. For example, according to research, aged ham

and aged cheese have much more glutamate than their "younger" counterparts.

The graphic to the left illustrates this concept using a ripening tomato. As a

tomato ripens from green to red, its glutamate content increases dramatically.

The superior flavor of the ripe tomato can be attributed, in part, to its higher

glutamate level.

REFERENCE:

http://udel.edu/~bcarey/ART307/project1_4b/
URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and
eliminates urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make
urine by filtering wastes and extra water from blood. Urine travels from the
kidneys through two thin tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. When the
bladder is full, a person urinates through the urethra to eliminate the waste.

The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other

problems, including blockages and injuries. These can be treated by a urologist
or another health care professional who specializes in the renal system.

How do the kidneys and urinary system work?

The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body
has taken the food components that it needs, waste products are left behind in
the bowel and in the blood.

The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called
urea, and to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in
balance. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry,
and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the
bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other
wastes in the form of urine.

Other important functions of the kidneys include blood pressure regulation and
the production of erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the
bone marrow. Kidneys also regulate the acid-base balance and conserve fluids.

Kidney and urinary system parts and their functions:

 Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the

ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to remove liquid
waste from the blood in the form of urine; keep a stable balance of salts
and other substances in the blood; and produce erythropoietin, a
hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells. The kidneys remove
urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a
glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with
water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through
the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
  Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the
bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing
urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed
to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15
seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the
ureters.

 Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower

abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other
organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to
store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra.
The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two
to five hours.

 Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from
leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the
bladder.

 Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to

urinate, or empty the bladder.

 Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain
signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the
bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax
to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals
occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

Facts about urine:

 Adults pass about a quart and a half of urine each day, depending on the
fluids and foods consumed.

 The volume of urine formed at night is about half that formed in the
daytime.

 Normal urine is sterile. It contains fluids, salts and waste products, but it
is free of bacteria, viruses and fungi.

 The tissues of the bladder are isolated from urine and toxic substances by
a coating that discourages bacteria from attaching and growing on the
bladder wall.
Diseases of the urinary system

Different specialists treat urinary system ailments. Nephrologists treat

kidney diseases, while urologists treat problems with the urinary tract, including
the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, bladder and urethra, according to the
American Urological Association (AUA). Urologists also treat the male
reproductive organs, while gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders
in females, including yeast infections. Nephrologists and urologists often work
with endocrinologists or oncologists, depending on the disease.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) occur when bacteria enters the urinary tract
and can affect the urethra, bladder or even the kidneys. While UTIs are more
common in women, they can occur in men. UTIs are typically treated with
antibiotics, according to Dr. Oscar Aguirre, a urogynecologist in Denver.

Incontinence is another common disease of the urinary system. It can

come in the form of a pelvic prolapse, which can result in leakage and can be the
result of a vaginal delivery. Then there is the overactive bladder, “which we see
a lot and is not related to having children or trauma,” Aguirre said. A third
condition involves overflow, in which the bladder does not completely empty.

Some common treatments involve medications, physical therapy and

pelvic mesh surgery, Aguirre noted. Vaginal laser surgery is also becoming a
viable treatment option, he explained. “In another 10 to 15 years, vaginal laser
surgery will be another common option for the treatment of urinary conditions.”

Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic

bladder condition, primarily in women, that causes bladder pressure and pain
and, sometimes, pelvic pain to varying degrees, according to the Mayo Clinic. It
can cause bladder scarring, and can make the bladder less elastic. While the
cause isn’t known, many people with the condition also have a defect in their
epithelium, the protective lining of the bladder.

Prostatitis is a swelling of the prostate gland and, therefore, can only

occur in men. Often caused by advanced age, symptoms include urinary urgency
and frequency, pelvic pain and pain during urination, the Mayo Clinic noted.

Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere
in the urinary tract. Kidney stones form when chemicals in the urine become
concentrated enough to form a solid mass, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
They can cause pain in the back and sides, as well as blood in the urine. Many
kidney stones can be treated with minimally invasive therapy, such as
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, which disintegrates the kidney stones with
shock waves.

Kidney failure, also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease, can be
a temporary (often acute) condition or can become a chronic condition resulting
in the inability of the kidneys to filter waste from the blood. Other conditions,
such as diabetes and hypertension, can cause chronic kidney disease, according
to the Mayo Clinic. Acute cases may be caused by trauma or other damage, and
may improve over time with treatment. However, renal disease may lead to
chronic kidney failure, which may require dialysis treatments or even a kidney
transplant.

Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 75,000 Americans each year and is

more frequent in men and the elderly according to the American Cancer Society.
The symptoms, including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and
or frequent urination, mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system.

REFERENCE:

http://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default%3Fid%3Danatomy-of-the-
urinary-system-85-P01468&
URINARY SYSTEM
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs —

in both males and females — that work together for the purpose of procreating.

The female reproductive system

The female reproductive organs are the vagina, womb (uterus), fallopian
tubes and ovaries:

 Vagina – a muscular canal around 7.5 cm long that extends from the neck
of the womb to the genitals, or vulva
 Uterus (womb) – a muscular organ, shaped like an upside down pear. Its
lining is called the endometrium. The neck or entrance to the womb is the
cervix, which has a small hole in its centre called the os
 Fallopian (uterine) tubes – these tubes extend from the womb, one on
each side. They both open near an ovary. These tubes carry the egg
(ovum) from the ovary to the womb
 Ovaries – two small almond-shaped glands that contain ova. Sex
hormones are also made by the ovaries.

The menstrual cycle

Hormones secreted by the ovaries and a small gland in the brain called
the pituitary gland control the menstrual cycle. The average menstrual cycle is
around 28 days.

After a period, rising levels of the hormone oestrogen help to thicken the
lining of the womb (the endometrium). At mid-cycle, an egg is released from one
of the ovaries (ovulation). If the egg is fertilised on its journey down the fallopian
tube, it lodges in the womb lining.

If the egg is unfertilised, falling levels of the hormone progesterone make

the womb lining come away. This is called a period, or menstruation. The cycle
then repeats.

The egg (ovum)

A female’s entire egg supply is developed when she is still an unborn

baby. At the start of puberty, the eggs are ripened inside the ovary and released
every month.
 Each egg contains genetic material. At menopause, the ovaries stop
making hormones and eggs are no longer ripened or released.

Female reproductive system problems

Some of the conditions women may experience at some time in their lives
include:

 Endometriosis – the presence and growth of functioning endometrial

tissue in places other than the uterus
 Fibroids – non-malignant tumours of the womb
 Infertility – inability to become pregnant
 Painful periods
 Premenstrual tension
 STIs – bacteria or viruses acquired through sexual contact, some of which
can cause cancer or infertility.

The male reproductive system

The male reproductive organs are the penis, the testicles, the epididymis,
the vas deferens and the prostate gland:

 Penis – contains tissue that fills with blood during sexual arousal, making
the penis erect (or ‘hard’). Semen is a mixture of sperm and fluid from the
male reproductive organs. It exits the penis, through the urethra, during
ejaculation
 The testicles (testes) – small oval sex glands located in a skin sack called
the scrotum. Sperm and sex hormones are made by the testicles. Keeping
the testicles outside of the body means they have a lower temperature,
which is important for sperm production
 Epididymis – a series of small tubes attached to the back of each testicle.
The epididymis collects and stores sperm
 Vas deferens – the epididymis eventually becomes the vas deferens, a
larger tube that transports sperm to the urethra (the urinary passage from
the bladder)
 Accessory sex glands – including the prostate gland, seminal vesicles and
the bulbourethral glands. These glands contribute nourishing fluid to the
sperm.

Male reproductive hormones

 Hormones are chemical messengers made by glands in the body.
Androgens are the hormones that make men ‘male’.

Androgens are responsible for sexual functioning, fertility and secondary

sexual characteristics such as muscle mass, height, deep voice and body hair
(including the beard). The most important androgen is testosterone, which is
manufactured in the testicles.

The sperm

The sperm is the male reproductive cell. Its role is to fertilise an egg. It
contains the man’s genetic material in its head.

A sperm is tadpole-shaped and around 60 microns in length (one micron

is a millionth of a metre). It has a lashing tail, which helps it to ‘swim’ towards a
waiting egg. Sperm production requires a temperature around 2 °C lower than
that of the body, which is why the testicles are housed in the scrotum and
happens. Sperm production continues throughout a man’s life, from puberty into
old age.

Male reproductive system problems

Some of the conditions men may experience at some time in their lives
include:

 Impotence – a problem with getting or keeping an erection

 Infertility – the inability to achieve a pregnancy in a fertile woman due to
low sperm production, blockages or other factors
 Prostate disease – benign prostate enlargement and prostate cancer
 STIs – bacteria or viruses acquired through sexual contact.

REFERENCE:

https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/reproductiv
e-system
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking

in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory
system are lungs, which carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe.

The respiratory system, which includes air passages, pulmonary vessels,

the lungs, and breathing muscles, aids the body in the exchange of gases
between the air and blood, and between the blood and the body’s billions of
cells. Most of the organs of the respiratory system help to distribute air, but only
the tiny, grape-like alveoli and the alveolar ducts are responsible for actual gas
exchange.

In addition to air distribution and gas exchange, the respiratory system

filters, warms, and humidifies the air you breathe. Organs in the respiratory
system also play a role in speech and the sense of smell.

The respiratory system also helps the body maintain homeostasis, or

balance among the many elements of the body’s internal environment.

The respiratory system is divided into two main components:

A. Upper respiratory tract: Composed of the nose, the pharynx, and

the larynx, the organs of the upper respiratory tract are located
outside the chest cavity.

 Nasal cavity: Inside the nose, the sticky mucous membrane lining the
nasal cavity traps dust particles, and tiny hairs called cilia help move them
to the nose to be sneezed or blown out.

 Sinuses: These air-filled spaces along side the nose help make the skull
lighter.

 Pharynx: Both food and air pass through the pharynx before reaching
their appropriate destinations. The pharynx also plays a role in speech.

 Larynx: The larynx is essential to human speech.

B. Lower respiratory tract: Composed of the trachea, the lungs, and

all segments of the bronchial tree (including the alveoli), the organs
of the lower respiratory tract are located inside the chest cavity.
  Trachea: Located just below the larynx, the trachea is the main airway to
the lungs.

 Lungs: Together the lungs form one of the body’s largest organs. They’re
responsible for providing oxygen to capillaries and exhaling carbon
dioxide.

 Bronchi: The bronchi branch from the trachea into each lung and create
the network of intricate passages that supply the lungs with air.

 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is the main respiratory muscle that contracts

and relaxes to allow air into the lungs.

REFERENCE:

http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/respiratory-system

http://www.livescience.com/22616-respiratory-system.html
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM