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One of the most exciting projects that a sive range of techniques is described so that glossary that the gardener

the gardener should refer if he fortunate gardeners; plant propagation is an


gardener can undertake is to propagate his the gardener can propagate most plants, is puzzled by the use of a certain word. entirely rational and logical technique, which,
own plants. Few experiences can match the either from seed or vegetatively. The section on tools and equipment is if practiced with knowledge and understand-
thrill and awe felt by a gardener who has The gardener can discover the way to essential reading before the gardener sets out ing, can be relatively simple and easy.
successfully germinated an even crop of propagate more than 700 genera of plants by to do any propagating. Here he will find Undoubtedly some people do seem capable
bedding plant seedlings or a particularly referring to the index at the back of the book, explained the importance of cold frames, of conjuring success without any basic knowl-
difficult woody plant seed, or who has where the appropriate method is listed. A few propagators, mist units, etc., and he will edge and of carrying out the various oper-
managed to root a cutting or unite t w o plants, such as rhododendrons, have been discover tips on how to select suitable pots ations instinctively, but these people have,
grafted parts of a plant. dealt with in detail, and so have a page to and seed trays from the bewildering array perhaps by subconscious observation, noted
Plant propagation has been practiced ever themselves, because there are several equally that is available. The correct use of composts, correct conditions and timing. The gardener
since early man abandoned his itinerant life satisfactory ways to propagate them. fertilizers and rooting hormones is also dis- who is gifted with "green" fingers is not
and settled down on the land, where he cussed, and he will learn how to tackle the dissimilar to the person who is " g o o d " with
started to grow his own food. The techniques How this book is arranged ubiquitous problems of pests and diseases. animals or who has the capability to lead or
of vegetative propagation developed in such The concept and approach in this book is The section on propagating from seeds is influence other people. It is simply the result
ancient civilizations as those of the Baby- entirely my own, based on my experience divided into two parts: seeds in general, and of an innate ability to observe particular
lonians and the Chinese are still relevant and gained over the past 20 years evolving tree and shrub seeds, where the problems of conditions.
in use in the twentieth century. different systems of plant propagation and dormancy are explained. The information on Nothing, however, can supersede the value
teaching both horticultural students and how to collect, store and germinate various of real knowledge and understanding that the
Using this book amateur gardeners. kinds of seeds and how to look after seedlings gardener needs when propagating a plant.
The object of this book is to try to present My aim has been to try to present propa- is of vital importance to any gardener. Only once he is fully versed in the basic
some of the basic facts on which successful gation techniques in their logical sequence, The book then presents a wide range of propagating techniques can he hope to be
plant propagation is founded, so that the in seven separate sections. For example, I have ways to propagate vegetatively. It starts with really successful.
gardener wishing to venture into this field placed layering in the same section as stem a section on roots and progresses through to Although plant propagation is completely
will find the elementary principles explained cuttings as they are both ways of inducing sections on modified stems, stems and leaves. logical and explainable, some gardeners are
and will then only have to learn their roots on a stem. Until now, plant propagation The last section gives full details on grafting definitely more successful than others; and
application from experience. has often been presented in a confusing and budding techniques, and there is a it is here that the "art" of plant propagation
It is not intended that this book will be a manner: root, stem and leaf cuttings have comprehensive index at the back of the book. cannot be discounted. The "art" is in inter-
complete answer—it can only be a guide. frequently been lumped together, when preting information: it is possible to define the
Inevitably, some techniques of plant propa- logically there is little or no relationship Dispelling the mystique state of plant materials, the condition of
gation have not been included either because between them. The practice of plant propagation is inclined plants or the effect of a particular environ-
they are too complicated or because they do The book starts with a glossary of propa- to be surrounded by a certain mystique, ment, but success derives from being able to
not always produce satisfactory results. Veg- gation terms that the gardener may not know. despite the enlightened modern tendency to transfer this knowledge into practice and
etables have not been included as they are Although the main text is written in a non- share knowledge. The "art" of plant propa- interpret these aspects in relation to a
given detailed coverage in a companion technical style, some technical terms have gation and the possession of "green" fingers situation that is continually, but often almost
volume, Vegetables. However, a comprehen- inevitably been included, and it is to the are not magical powers confined to a few imperceptibly, changing.
The many phases of plant propagation its parent plant, as well as the age of the Such preparation of highly regenerative and protect it with a general or specific
The actual process of propagation is only one variety from which it is taken. material can be done by growing techniques pesticide. The shorter this survival period the
of many phases in the production of a plant. Plant material of the current year's growth such as pruning, feeding and watering, or by less time there is for things to go wrong.
The other phases are selecting suitable will regenerate more readily than older forcing the plant in a warmer environment
plant material; preparing it so it has a high material, and the highest rooting response than normal. Establishing the new plant
capacity to regenerate; then providing suit- will be found in a plant that is juvenile, i.e. As soon as the plant material has regenerated,
able conditions in which the plant material immature and unable to produce flowers or Providing suitable conditions for the last phase in successful propagation is the
can regenerate; and ensuring its survival until fruit. As soon as a seed germinates and regeneration establishment of this young material as an
the final phase of establishing the plant produces a juvenile plant, it begins to "age" Next, it is necessary to stimulate this plant integrated, self-supporting new plant. W h e n
material as an integrated, self-supporting new and its capacity to regenerate starts to material to regenerate as a new plant by any cutting, such as a leaf or stem, is taken,
plant. decline. Most plants subsequently enter a encouraging the processes that cause the the new parts that are required to form a
mature phase when their regenerative abili- development of a new and complete plant. complete new plant will need time to become
Selecting suitable plant material ties continue to decline. Old plants and older This can be done by placing the plant material fully integrated with the original cutting. Just
Often the most overlooked, but one of the varieties will exhibit very low levels of in a suitably controlled environment, such as because a stem cutting produces roots does
most significant, phases is the consideration response. Pruning or forcing a plant will only a cold frame or propagator. This will not only not imply a new plant—both systems must
and choice of suitable material from which recover a little of this capacity to regenerate. speed up regeneration but also lessen the grow sympathetically so that a balanced and
to propagate. It is well worth the extra time Thus the gardener must be prepared to chances of the plant material dying from integrated growth is achieved. It is often
and effort to assess the available plant accept that old and very old plants and rotting, disease or exhausted food reserves. relatively simple to persuade a cutting to
material critically so that the best selection varieties will be difficult to propagate. For A stem, for example, can also be encouraged regenerate a missing part, but it is more
is chosen, and new plants are not produced example, a deciduous azalea, of the Exbury to produce roots by dipping it in a rooting difficult to establish the plant material. This
from inferior stock. Only the best forms and type, which was germinated from seed only hormone or wounding it toward its base. has to be done by weaning it from its pro-
selections of a plant should be earmarked for about 40 years ago, will be much easier to The ability of plant material to regenerate tected environment and hardening it off until
propagation, and they must always be from propagate than a Ghent azalea, which would is also influenced by the different seasons. it is a self-supporting individual that can grow
healthy stock, free from virus infections. have been originated over 140 years ago. It is Always, therefore, propagate a plant during happily in a normal environment, whether
Many plants, more especially the older and important to realize this distinction, and that the season recommended by this book. this is indoors or outdoors. This is often the
popular selections, will have deviated from all plants derived from one selected form hardest part of plant propagation.
the normal to some extent. Despite their must, physiologically, be the same age, Ensuring its survival
varietal name, they may differ quite con- regardless of when they were vegetatively Once the plant material is in its propagating The path of success
siderably and will exist in several clones, so propagated. environment, it is vital to ensure its survival Provided the gardener uses this book to
bear this in mind when choosing plant until it becomes established. understand the principles and basic practical
material for propagation. Preparing the plant material The only way to do this is by maintaining tasks of plant propagation and then follows
Another limitation that should be con- Having chosen the most desirable forms, the absolute hygiene in the propagating environ- his judgment in relation to a particular plant,
sidered if propagating by vegetative methods next phase is to prepare the material so that, ment and by thoroughly cleaning all tools he can always approach propagation with
is that the capacity of the plant to regenerate when the time comes for propagation, it will and equipment. Also, treat the plant material confidence. It is this last factor that underlies
will be affected by the age of the cutting and possess its maximum capacity to regenerate. with a fungicide such as Captan or Benlate, all aspects of successful propagation.
To propagate plants successfully, it is neces- not to push a cutting into the compost;
sary to have a clean and tidy working area, always first make a hole with a dibble of
efficient and effective tools and equipment suitable size, and then plant the cutting in
and to follow a standardized procedure. that hole. A dibble should be approximately
Failure in any part of the system leads to the same diameter as the cutting to be
frustration and, more importantly, delays that planted.
will reduce the probability of success. Although many people will use a kitchen
Most important of the gardener's special table, drain-board or greenhouse bench,
tools and equipment for plant propagation the most suitable place to make cuttings,
are a sharp knife, a pair of shears, a dibble, graft or sow seeds is a bench in the garden
suitable compost and a selection of pots and shed with a convenient shelf for all the bits
seed trays. Not all tools or fancy bits of equip- and pieces of equipment, tools, rooting pow-
ment will necessarily enhance the success of ders, etc. The height of the bench will be a
propagation, but the important ones will critical factor to the comfort of the gardener
because they make the gardener's job easier, if considerable time is to be spent propagat-
and if the job is easier it often succeeds more ing or potting plants. Incorrectly sited benches
readily. will encourage or enhance backaches and
The use of suitable tools gives the plant cricks in the neck. It is also important to have
material the very best start. To avoid tearing good lighting placed directly over the work-
and crushing, for example, always use a sharp bench itself.
knife or razor blade and a clean sheet of glass Plant propagation in many ways is akin to
when preparing a softwood cutting for plant- surgery, and nowhere is there more routine
ing. If the plant material is damaged, it will die and standardized procedure than in an
and become a site for possible rots to infect operating theater—where all concentration
the cutting. By the same token it is important is centered on the patient.
Therefore the secret of success for a
Basic tools and equipment gardener lies in having all the required tools
Knives (1), safety razor blades (2) and equipment readily to hand and clean and
and shears (3) in good working order, so that any technique
Sharpening stone (4) of propagation can proceed smoothly and all
Oil for lubrication (5) concentration can be centered on the plant
Cleaning rags (6), solvent (7) and material.
emery paper (8) After use it is important to clean, service
Pressers (various) for firming and restore all equipment to its correct place
compost (9) so that it is readily accessible.
Dibbles (10)
Sieve 1/8in mesh) (11)
Labels and soft lead pencil (12)
Notebook for records (13)
Polyethylene bags and tape (14)
Raffia, twine, etc. (15)
Split canes 12 in or 15 in (16)
Hand sprayer (17)
Watering can (18)
Fungicides (19)
Pesticides (20)
Rooting powders (21)
Panes of glass for covering
seed trays (22)
Panes of glass for cutting (23)
Pots (24) and seed trays (25)
Composts (26) and fertilizer (27)
The main problem in propagation is to ensure Cold frames Greenhouses Propagators
survival of the propagated material (be it To provide initial control over the environ- The next step in the sequence of environ- The alternative compromise is the so-called
seed, cutting or graft) until it establishes as ment, place a box with a lid of glass on mental control is the greenhouse, where "propagator." This is a portable unit and can
a new young plant. If the correct material has ordinary soil. This cold frame environment slightly more sophisticated pieces of equip- be used either in the greenhouse or indoors
been used at the start, and as long as any helps to increase soil temperatures, reduce ment for environmental control can be used. provided that adequate light is available. It
treatments or cuts have been made correctly, temperature fluctuation, maintain humidity Greenhouses can, of course, be of a wide consists of a fiberglass base fitted with a
then success is directly related to the control and allow light penetration, and it can be used variety of shapes and sizes. Wooden-framed thermostat and heating cables and a Plexi-
of the environment. The quicker the regenera- for the propagation of a wide range of hardy greenhouses are expensive to purchase, glas-type dome, which provides the closed
tive processes can be induced the less chance plants. Its main disadvantage, which is shared maintain and keep clean. Metal greenhouses environment. All sorts of variations are
there is for things to go wrong. with all enclosed environments, is that air are less expensive, cheaper to maintain and available so make sure that the propagator
In plant propagation there are t w o environ- temperatures build up when conditions are easier to keep clean, but unless they have an you buy is sufficiently large for your needs.
ments: the aerial environment, which can be sunny. This necessitates either airing the adequate internal structure they are subject
broken down into humidity, temperature, frame to reduce the temperature, and thereby to considerable distortion and damage if
gaseous balance and light transmission; and losing humidity, or shading the glass to cut exposed to high-velocity winds.
the environment of the medium (soil and down the light input, and so reducing photo- A closed case, which is a frame with a lid
compost), which covers temperature, moist- synthesis. of glass in a greenhouse, provides a high-
ure status, aeration and its reaction (acidity/ There are many plastics substitutes used in temperature system for propagation of house
alkalinity). Any equipment therefore should place of glass, but because of their heat/light plants and less hardy subjects. Accurate
be measured in relation to the effect it has transmission characteristics they are less control of temperature can be attained by
on these factors. satisfactory in the late autumn to spring installing a thermostatically controlled soil-
An ideal environment is one that allows period as they do not conserve heat so heating cable, which will provide bottom
minimum water loss from the plant material, effectively as glass. heat, into some sand at the base of the closed
cool air temperatures, adequate light pene- The most manageable cold frame to con- case.
tration for photosynthesis, a normal atmo- struct is made with "Dutch lights," which are
spheric balance between compost and air, single panes of glass held in separate wooden Mist propagation units
good drainage and warm soil/compost t e m - frames 4 ft 11 in long by 2 ft 6 | i n wide. These The ultimate environmental control is pro-
peratures with a neutral acidity/alkalinity can be laid side by side across a base frame vided by a mist unit. This is an open system Polyethylene tents and tunnels
reaction. The degree to which a particular with a distance between backboard and front- that automatically maintains the moisture At the other extreme is a cheap and simple
system of environmental control operates board of 4 f t 9 in. For propagation the back- level while allowing the full penetration of arrangement that provides a sufficiently
will limit the propagation techniques that can board is best made at a height of about 12 in light and the use of b o t t o m heat without an effective closed environment for easily propa-
be used successfully within it. In general, the and the frontboard at 9 in. The slope of the increase in air temperature. However, such a gated plants. Place a polyethylene bag over
"softer" or less hardy the plant material the roof should be pitched in a southerly direction. system requires both electricity and water in the top of a pot or tray, and support it either
greater will be the degree of environmental The cold frame can be made more reliable by the greenhouse. by one or t w o bamboo rods or by a loop of
control needed to achieve success. The improved sealing of any cracks in the structure wire with an end stuck in the compost; seal
vagaries of the normal climate are too great and by double glazing with t w o layers of with a rubber band. Make a tunnel over plants
for all but the easiest and hardiest plants to be "lights"—the lid of a cold frame being called outdoors by supporting polyethylene sheeting
propagated successfully outdoors. a "light." with wire and then sealing the ends.
Without doubt the most important piece of suitable for plant propagation. It is also 1,001 other jobs for which an ordinary pen- Sharpening a knife
equipment needed by a gardener wishing to extremely difficult to sharpen. knife is more than suitable. To sharpen a knife successfully is often re-
propagate plants is a knife. Choosing it is per- A knife should always be easy to open and Cut soft wood against a clean pane of glass garded as a difficult and specialist job, but in
haps one of the most difficult decisions to comfortable to hold when in use. Especially on the bench in the potting shed. Hard wood fact if a few basic rules are observed it is
make, as so much depends on what sort of with knives that may be required to cut should be cut by holding the plant material relatively simple provided that a straight-
work it will be required to carry out. tough material, the blade when opened should in the left hand. With the knife blade below bladed knife is used and that the sharpening
For most tasks, a medium-weight knife be set back into the handle. This avoids the stem and the right thumb above, make a is carried out on a broad, flat Carborundum
with a sharp carbon-steel blade is best. For excessive play from side to side so that the shallow angled slice from beneath, drawing stone with a coarse and fine side. The stone
grafting, select a fairly heavy knife. blade does not loosen. the right forearm backward and maintaining should be slightly lubricated with a light oil to
A budding knife has a spatula end for Knife blades are either hollow ground on the gap between the right thumb and the aid easy movement.
prying open flaps of bark. It is a useful luxury— both sides or on one side only: both types are blade. Never attempt to cut by pressing the Push the blade gently along the coarse side
an ordinary propagation knife is really quite equally efficient. One-sided knives are usually blade toward the thumb—it can have of the stone; then repeat the movement.
adequate. For very soft cuttings from plants made in both right-handed and left-handed disastrous consequences. Give a final "rub" on its fine side. After several
such as dahlias, chrysanthemums and pen- patterns. As a general rule the more expensive When using a knife for cutting plant turns, repeat the operation on the other side
stemons the best tool is a single-edged razor a knife is, the better is the quality of blade and material the blade will inevitably become of the blade. Always traverse the entire length
blade (that is, a one-sided blade with a thick overall design. A good-quaiity steel blade will clogged with resins and plant juices, and these of the stone so that it does not become
metal-covered edge on the opposite side). maintain its sharp cutting edge considerably will impair the cutting efficiency. Therefore unevenly worn.
Most gardeners use a knife with a straight longer than one of poorer quality and is well after use clean the blade either with a rag All sorts of curved and small sharpening
cutting blade, which is easy to sharpen, but worth the extra investment. dipped in a solvent such as gasoline or carbon stones are available, but for someone not
some prefer a slightly curved blade. A knife Keep a knife just for propagation and do tetrachloride or by rubbing the blade with a used to sharpening knives they are difficult to
with a very curved or hooked blade is not not use it for pruning, cutting string or the fine grade of emery paper. handle and use effectively.
Although a sharp knife has always been Care and maintenance rather than sharpened. Always keep the
regarded as the gardener's main cutting Shears, more than most tools, require leaflet that accompanies the tool and follow
instrument for propagation, modern practice constant maintenance if they are to remain the manufacturer's instructions carefully. If
makes just as much use of a suitably designed effective. After each session wipe the blades no instructions are supplied, take the shears
pair of shears; and where these can be w i t h a solvent such as gasoline or carbon tetra- to an expert for sharpening.
used, they are much more effective than a chloride and/or fine emery paper to clean off
knife because they are quick and easy to use resins, plant juices and residues that other- Making a clean cut
and because they are also less liable to cause wise may quickly impair the cutting edges. When using shears it is important to notice
injury to the plant material. Then wipe the blades with light oil to prevent where the cut is actually being made; the
A pair of shears can not only cope with rusting, and similarly oil all the moving parts anvil blade is often quite thick and it is not
the final cut on any stem that is firm and hard to keep them in good working order. always possible to see the actual cut when
enough to cut cleanly but can also be used The cutting blade will need periodical making it. Also, ensure that any cut is made
for the initial cutting of softer stems, which sharpening to maintain its edge, but this will with the anvil blade away from the proposed
may at the final stage need to be trimmed be fairly infrequent if a good-quaiity pair was cut surface so any bruising is not incorporated
carefully with a knife or razor blade. obtained initially and the blades are kept in the propagated material.
There are two basic shear designs: the clean. Usually, good-quaiity shears are also To make a clean cut, decisively squeeze
"anvil" type and the "scissor" type. Anvil marginally adjustable to maintain a good the shear blades together. Never force
shears have one sharp blade, usually cutting action. shears to make a cut as this merely bends
hollow ground on both sides, which cuts The method of sharpening varies, but the blades, damages the hinge and probably
through the stem by "crushing" it against a usually the shears are dismantled and the the plant material as well. When dealing with
broad flat surface (the anvil). Scissor shears blade portion sharpened like a knife. In some a thick, hard stem move the blades round a
also have one sharpened blade, but normally makes the blade is disposable and is replaced bit after each cut until they cut through it.
only the internal surface is ground flat. This
blade cuts by rotating past the anvil blade as
in a conventional pair of scissors. The scissor
types are preferable simply because they
make a cleaner cut and cause less crushing
and bruising in the region of the cut. Other
shear designs such as those with a ratchet
action are not necessary for propagation.
W h e n choosing a pair of shears ensure
that their size is convenient, the handles feel
comfortable, and that they are easy to
operate. It is best to choose a spring-loaded
pair so that they reopen automatically after
each cut—it is tedious to have to keep open-
ing the blades for each incision. Select a pair
with a catch that keeps the shears closed
when out of use so they are not dangerous
and the cutting edge is protected. Some types
of shears have a sap groove, which helps
to prevent the blades sticking. Like all tools
for propagation, a pair of shears should
ideally be kept only for this purpose to pre-
vent the blades becoming prematurely blunt
and ineffective.
As with knives it is usually possible to judge
shears on the basis of cost: expensive
types are normally well designed, easy to
dismantle and reassemble and have good-
quaiity steel blades that retain their cutting
edge for a long period.
Normally a pot is as deep as it is broad, compost as a 2 3/4|in square pot. However, scrubbing and sterilizing between use, which
but both three-quarter pots and half (or square pots are a nuisance to fill as the is time consuming. Because clay pots are
dwarf) pots—sometimes called pans—are gardener must be sure that the compost is porous, the compost dries out more quickly
available. At the other extreme particularly pushed well into the corners. than it would in plastic pots, and so more
deep pots called "Long Toms" are obtainable. Another major initial consideration is day-to-day management is needed.
Select a container that holds only sufficient whether to use rigid or nonrigid containers. Broad pots have greater stability, so, where
compost for the task in hand. Pots with rims tend to be more rigid than a choice is available, look for a pot with a
those without, and they are easier to stack. broad base and almost vertical sides. This
For propagation there is no substitute for shape also allows a greater volume of com-
rigidity, although nonrigid containers such as post within the pot and therefore a more
black polyethylene sleeve pots may be used usable surface area.
at the potting-on stage. The problem with
nonrigid containers is that their tendency to
sag makes them a nuisance to fill.
The material from which a pot is made is
also important. Traditionally, pots were always
A vital consideration when choosing a pot made of clay, but considerations of cost,
is its capacity for drainage. It is not necessary durability and weight (in that order) have
to crock pots if a well-drained compost is now reduced their use. Nowadays most
used, but the base of the pot must contain rigid pots are made of some form of plastics Because of the problems of cost many
adequate drainage holes; by the same token and these have the advantage of being cheap, gardeners use yoghurt cartons, vending
if a capillary watering system is used then lightweight and durable. Some plastic pots, machine cups, and cream and cheese con-
there must be adequate holes for the however, become brittle in time with exposure tainers instead of "proper" pots. These are
moisture to rise up into the compost from to ultraviolet light. Polypropylene pots of quite satisfactory provided they are clean,
the capillary medium, be it sand or matting. heavy quality will generally provide best value. have adequate drainage holes, and are used
Only the pot shown below left has adequate Plastic pots are also easily washed and in conjunction with a suitable compost and
drainage. stored, whereas clay pots require soaking. management system.

Square pots make better use of space than


round ones as they can be fitted together
exactly to cover an area without any waste
of bench or ground space. They also generally
contain a greater volume of compost relative
to their surface area—a conventional 31/2 in
diameter round pot only contains as much

Pots
A plant pot is perhaps the commonest piece
of equipment that the gardener will need for
propagation. By choosing only three or four
sizes in the same pot range, tasks such as
watering and day-to-day management
become standardized and are thus easier.
Seed trays There are many other materials such as minimum, which means the growth of the
W h e n dealing with relatively large numbers compressed peat, processed paper and ex- young plants is not checked when they are
of seedlings or cuttings, as happens often in panded polystyrene used for seed trays, but transplanted.
the production of bedding plants, a tray may they tend to require careful handling. Some The compressed peat pellets as typified by
be a more suitable container than a pot. trays are disposable, which overcomes the the "Jiffy 7" are expensive but seem to work
Traditionally a seed tray is made of softwood hygiene problem but inevitably increases the very well, and if used for small seedlings or
and its dimensions are 14 in by 81/2 in and, cost factor. Expanded polystyrene trays' with sturdy cuttings appear almost to enhance
according to its required usage, either 2 in or individual growing compartments for each rooting.
21/2 in deep. These trays are now relatively seed or cutting retain warmth and so pro- The high initial cost of purchasing a soil
expensive to purchase and their expected mote rapid growth. block mold may deter many gardeners who
life is fairly short as they rot easily. However, As with pots, many containers such as do not propagate large quantities of cuttings
they have the distinct advantage of being wooden " D u t c h " t o m a t o trays, fish boxes and and seedlings. It is best to make hexagonal
firm and rigid. molded polystyrene packaging can be sub- soil blocks as they do not dry out so readily
Plastic seed trays of the same basic stituted for conventional seed trays provided provided their sides touch each other. To
dimensions are currently available in many they have adequate drainage and they are make a soil block successfully it is important
different patterns. The most important charac- properly cleaned before use. to ensure that the compost has the correct
teristic is the degree of drainage permitted level of dampness. To test this, take a handful
in these, and it is of paramount importance Peat pellets and soil blocks of moist compost. Squeeze gently but firmly;
to ensure that this is adequate. The quality As an alternative to pots and trays it is the compost should tend to crumble. If it
and variety of plastics used for making seed possible to substitute a system that obviates falls apart, the material is too dry; if it does
trays is extraordinarily variable; the best their use: the idea simply being to plant out not start to crumble, it is too moist.
trays are those of a sufficiently thick quality or pot on the entire unit. This is achieved by Fill the mold with the compost, com-
to keep their shape when picked up at a eliminating a pot altogether, either by using a pressing it only until the particles form a
corner and of a type not to become brittle peat compost, compressed into a pellet and block. Place the soil block on a tray and leave
on exposure to ultraviolet light. The advantage contained within a net, that swells up when it to consolidate for 24 hours before inserting
of plastics is, of course, their durability and soaked with water, or by compressing the a seed or cutting. As the plant grows the
that they can be readily cleaned. Plastic seed compost into blocks. roots hold the block together. Plant out as
trays are also made in "half-tray" sizes These systems are useful, very effective and soon as the roots emerge through the sides
measuring 6 in by 81/2 in and 2 in deep. reduce the ultimate root disturbance to a of the soil block.
Basically a compost is a soil substitute for physical properties, and that is chemically sterilized loam. The recommendation of loam
propagating and establishing plants. To carry inactive and biologically more or less sterile. as a base for composts has had to be dis-
out this function a compost requires certain Cuttings composts are usually formulated continued because it is no longer feasible to
properties—to be well aerated, to retain by evenly mixing equal parts by volume of obtain a standard material on which a recipe
water, to hold nutrients and to conduct peat and grit, although it is often difficult can be formulated. Peat is capable of being
warmth. Thus in constituting a compost the to assess how much sieved peat there is in relatively standardized and so currently forms
components used should be chosen to a particular mix. In the end there is no sub- the basis. It is important, however, to realize
establish these particular conditions as well stitute to determining the "feel" of the c o m - that loam has a steadying and controlling
as maintaining them throughout the life of post and whether it has the right properties. influence on both water and nutrient avail-
the compost. In order to prevent the occur- ability that peat does not provide, and so
rence of pests, diseases and weeds the Compost for germinating seedlings peat-based (that is, loamless) composts re-
component materials should also be sterile. The composition of a compost for seedling quire a higher degree of management and
The only component of a compost that is germination does not differ greatly from that maintenance. Therefore it is prudent to use
not initially sterile is the loam. To sterilize it produced for cuttings, except that a little loam as a minor component merely to pro-
place the loam in a broad, flat container such more attention needs to be paid to the vide the buffering action and so ease manage-
as a meat tin and put in the oven at 82°C/ nutrient and chemical aspects. ment. In practice the aim is to produce a
180°F for 30 minutes. Best results are obtained The basic components are peat and sand loamless compost with added l o a m !
if the loam is dryish and if the tin is covered and for germination pure and simple this is Young plants also need nutrient in the
with foil so that the steam generated en- sufficient. However if the seedlings are to compost and this should be added at the
courages the sterilizing effect. Cool and remain in the compost for some time, add rate of 4 oz fertilizer base per bushel of
riddle the loam before use. loam to act as a buffer in holding nutrients compost unless the manufacturer recom-
and controlling drying out. The amount of mends otherwise.
Cuttings compost sterilized loam required need not be great: a There are, of course, many available pro-
The formulation of a compost for rooting formula of 2 parts by volume peat, 2 parts prietary brands of peat-based composts, all
cuttings really only requires t w o consider- sand and 1 part loam is satisfactory. of which have been tried and tested success-
ations: the retention of sufficient moisture to As seeds are much more sensitive to the fully. Their main disadvantage is their capacity
help prevent desiccation of the cutting, and acidity in such a compost, lime in the form for drying out and the difficulty of rewetting
the provision of an aerating agent so that air of ground limestone should be mixed in with a dried compost, although this latter factor
can always circulate within the medium. the sand at the rate of 11/2 oz per bushel of is less of a problem if a wetting agent has
Conventionally, peat has been used as the compost. been incorporated. Their chief advantage is
water-retentive component and, although Although it is not usual to include compli- that they are ready mixed and come packed
various peats are available, sphagnum moss cated nutrient mixes in seed composts, it is in handy-sized plastic bags.
peat is best as it retains a good structure for a important to ensure that sufficient phosphate If a peat-based compost proves difficult
long period. For most reliable use and to is available. Therefore also mix 3/4oz super- to rewet, then add a small quantity of wetting
achieve uniformity it should be riddled phosphate per bushel of compost in with the agent or spreader such as soft soap. Do not
through a 1/4in sieve. sand. use wash-up liquids.
Sand is used as the aerating agent, and it
also allows adequate drainage—peat by itself Potting composts for growing on young How to mix composts
tending to become waterlogged. In horti- plants The important aspect of mixing compost is
cultural parlance sand usually means grit, and The formulation of composts for the establish- to obtain an even and uniform end product.
for these purposes a washed and crushed ment and growing on of young plants follows Thorough mixing of the ingredients is essen-
lime-free grit providing a particle size of on from seed composts in much the same tial. It is also easier if you have a bushel or
between 1/8in and 1/16 in across is the most pattern. It is necessary to prepare a compost half-bushel box on which to base the formula
desirable. The particles should also be that allows the development of a root as lime and fertilizers are normally added at a
"sharp," that is they should not be rounded system; contains adequate water to support bushel rate. (A bushel is the amount that will
but have points and corners and thus be the plants and sufficient nutrients not to fit into a box 22 in x 10 in x 10 in without
irregular in shape. check g r o w t h ; has a suitable acidity/ compacting.)
Although these t w o components provide alkalinity status; and does not dry out too Evenly layer the ingredients into a pile
the basic compost they can be substituted easily. on a clean concrete floor. The lime and
with such items as sedge peat, well-weathered Nowadays such composts are based on the fertilizers should be sprinkled into each sand
sawdust, perlite, vermiculite and graded coal use of peat, although traditionally the John layer. The whole should then be well mixed
dust—in fact by any material that has suitable Innes concepts were based on the use of with a clean shovel.
Certain chemicals will promote or regulate dissolved either in water or in an organic
growth responses in plants when used in solvent such as alcohol.
minute dosages, and they are used by It is important to emphasize that these
gardeners not only for plant propagation but hormones should not be used on either leaf
also to achieve a variety of other responses, or root cuttings. For these cuttings chemicals
such as encouraging fruit trusses to set. are not yet commercially available to aid
These plant-growth-regulating substances regeneration.
work at very low concentrations and within
very critical limits; a substance that sets How to apply rooting hormones
fruits at one concentration and produces In order to know how to apply rooting
roots on stem cuttings at another may be hormones, it is important to understand one
used as a weedkiller at yet another. Thus it is or t w o basic premises. First, that the con-
exceedingly important to follow dosage centration of hormone applied to induce
instructions exactly in order to obtain the root formation is not the best concentration
desired results. to cause root development. Second, al-
It is also important to realize that these though the hormone may be absorbed
chemicals do not constitute a panacea for through the bark, most of the hormone will
success: they will not induce rooting re- be taken up through the cut base of the stem
sponses if the inherent ability of the stem to cutting.
produce roots is not present. Their action is In actually applying the hormone therefore
merely to enhance the innate capacity of the take care to touch only the basal cut surface
stem to produce its roots both in greater onto the powder so that no powder adheres
quantities and quicker than might otherwise to the outside of the stem; do not dip the
have been the case. If the stem cutting is cutting even as deep as 1 in. W O U N D I N G STEM CUTTINGS knife so that the wood tissues are just
propagated from a healthy plant and at the By applying the hormone the roots are in- Since certain chemicals are capable of exposed. Alternatively make three or four
correct season, then the use of such hormones duced to form, but if they emerge and come enhancing root production on a stem 1 in long incisions in the bark at the base
is usually of no advantage whatsoever. They into contact with the hormone still on the cutting, it is possible that other techniques of the cutting as deep as the wood tissues.
should be used with knowledge, and only as bark this may cause the roots to die off. In may also cause a surge in natural hormone The technique of wounding can be very
and when they are likely to achieve an effect. many cases this does not happen totally, but production that could improve rooting. effective with rhododendron, daphne and
The majority of rooting hormones available it may cause losses in some plants or under In some plants there exists in the stem juniper, but it is unwise to use it as a
on the market are constituted as powders, certain conditions; it is prudent to adopt a between the bark tissues and the w o o d matter of course as it provides another
the base simply being finely ground talc. system that is suitable for all plants. tissues a sheath of material that is capable possible site for infection and rotting. It
Talcum powder is used because it is extremely If there is difficulty in getting sufficient of inhibiting root development. However, may only be necessary on older, hardwood
soft and it lacks an abrasive quality, so hormone powder to adhere to the cut when part of this sheath is damaged, then cuttings; softwood cuttings do not normally
causing no damage to the cutting. Mixed in surface at the base of the cutting then the roots will be produced normally. This require wounding. The need to wound a
with the talcum powder is the rooting cutting should first be dipped in water. This damage is achieved by a technique known cutting will only be discovered in the light
hormone. Normally this is a chemical, is an especially valuable hint with softwood as wounding. of experience—a continued failure to
B-indolyl-butyric acid, known as IBA. Occa- cuttings, which will benefit from the water The commonest method of wounding is root a cutting, which cannot be attributed
sionally either IAA (B-indolyl-acetic acid) or anyway. to remove a slice of bark from the b o t t o m to any other cause, may then suggest that
NAA (naphthoxy-acetic acid) is substituted. Make up water-based formulations by inch or so of the cutting, using a sharp the cutting may respond to wounding.
The concentration for hardwood cutting dissolving a pill in a specified amount of water.
propagation is normally 0.8 percent IBA in Then stand the base of the cutting in the
talc; softwood concentrations are usually solution for 12-24 hours. As the concentration
much less—about a quarter of this figure. of water-based rooting hormones is much
All-purpose hormone powders are usually lower than powder-based ones, the bark is
based on NAA. not adversely affected and so the cutting
In many cases fungicidal chemicals are can be left standing in any depth of the
also incorporated into the powders, so helping solution.
against any rots that may develop in the If an alcohol-based solution is used, dip
cuttings. the base of the cutting in solution and allow
Rooting hormones are also made up in to drain so that the alcohol can evaporate,
liquid formulations, where the chemicals are leaving the hormone on the cuttings.
The use of water to maintain growth in applied. To gain experience use a minimum pour water over it. The holes will ensure the If a compost is overwatered, allow it to
potted plants is seldom efficient. The main number of pot types and sizes, and as far as water does not reach higher than 1/2 in below dry out before watering again.
difficulty is that the gardener is unable to possible stick to one compost formula so the surface level of the sand. Should a peat-based compost dry out and
water as regularly, and in the correct that experience of these limited conditions Make sure that any containers are set prove difficult to rewet, then add a drop or
quantities, as the plants ideally need. A will improve watering technique. firmly onto the capillary bed so that the t w o of soft soap to the water to improve
number of automatic and semiautomatic Watering from above with a rose, attached water can pass into the pot or seed tray water penetration. In many peat-based com-
systems are available, but their operation is either to a watering can or a hose, will give without undue hindrance from air space posts a wetting agent is incorporated and a
only as effective as the equipment and its a light rate of application. This helps prevent between bed and compost. rewetting problem should not arise.
setup. severe caking of the compost and so en-
For propagation, water is necessary for hances penetration and free drainage. Water
evaporation, so increasing the level of little and often, allowing the water to drain
humidity; it is also required to maintain the each time it reaches the rim of the pot or seed
turgidity both of a cutting without roots and tray.
of a plant by normal uptake by the roots. Watering by a capillary system is usually an
Moisten freshly potted seedlings and rooted advantage to the gardener because it is
cuttings with tepid water. Avoid cold water, difficult to overwater, although undue drying
which will only check growth and lower soil due to poor capillary contact may prove a
temperatures. If the local water is hard, it is problem until experience is gained.
better for the plants to use rainwater. Capillary systems depend either on a pro-
Place a tank of water in a greenhouse where prietary matting, usually made of felt or fiber-
it will be warmed to the ambient temperature. glass, or on a sand base. The former is
The tank of water has the further advantage easier to set up, but sand provides a more
of providing an evaporating surface, which reliable contact. Line a tray that has raised
will help to maintain high levels of humidity sides with polyethylene sheeting. Puncture
in the greenhouse. the polyethylene several times in a line
The biggest problem facing the gardener is around the sides within 1/2 in of the required
knowing when sufficient water has been surface level. Fill the recess with fine sand and
There is much misunderstanding of the role component of those very specialized proteins nutrient, and not one with only that nutrient
that plant nutrients play in the growth of that constitute the chromosomes. Second in it, and use it as recommended.
the plant and hence they are often misused it is the basis on which the energy needed for Organic fertilizers such as bonemeal and
in the propagation and establishment phases plant growth and development is collected, dried blood are too slow acting to have any
of plant production. transported and released within the various real beneficial effect on a plant with a nutrient
t h e three so-called major elements that chemical reactions of the plant. A phosphate deficiency.
are required for successful plant growth are shortage is much more difficult and un- In the closed environment of pot or seed
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. These certain to describe especially when it is only tray, inorganic fertilizers such as nitrate of
materials are needed in addition to carbon, a marginal amount, but generally stunted soda, sulfate of ammonia, sulfate of iron,
hydrogen and oxygen as the basic building growth associated with a purple or red leaf sulfate of potash and superphosphate
blocks of plant material. At a secondary discoloration is a typical s y m p t o m ; however should also be avoided as they may have too
level elements such as calcium, sulfur and a similar situation often arises with root drastic a chemical effect on the plant and
magnesium are needed in fair quantities, damage caused by pests or rots. also upset the balance of the other nutrients.
while trace elements, which include iron, Most other plant nutrients occur in suf- If the gardener is plagued with regular
manganese, boron, molybdenum and cobalt, ficient quantities as minor components or magnesium deficiency substitute magnesian
are used by the plant in small to minute impurities in the main fertilizers, and they do limestone (Dolomite limestone) for ordinary
quantities. not specifically need to be applied as in- limestone in the compost.
Nitrogen is required wherever and when- dividual fertilizers. Acid-loving plants and ericaceous ones
ever plant growth is anticipated. A shortage The only two nutrients that may cause such as heathers and rhododendrons are
of available nitrogen is typified by the slow, problems are magnesium and iron. The prime liable to have an iron shortage and this can
stunted development of the plant and pale role of magnesium is in the formation of be treated with a chelated iron compound
green leaves. It is usually taken up by the chlorophyll, the green coloring in the plant. either in the compost or as a foliar feed.
plant in the form of either nitrate or ammo- A lack of it is typified by a yellowing of the W h e n applying a foliar fertilizer, always
nium salts. Nitrogen's role in the plant is older leaves as the plant transfers magnesium follow the manufacturer's instructions exactly.
predominantly as a basic ingredient of from its older parts to its newly created parts Water the nutrients over the plant's leaves
protein and it is thus a necessary feature of so causing the "chlorosis" in the old leaves. using a fine rose.
developing new plant tissue. Often it is Iron has a similar function to magnesium
referred to as being "important for leafy but it is not reusable in the plant. Its de-
growth," which is essentially true because ficiency causes the young leaves to turn
leaves constitute a major part of plant yellow although the veins remain green, and
tissue; however it is equally a necessary by this characteristic it is possible to dis-
component of stem, root, flower and seed tinguish a shortage of this element from a
production. As a protein component it is also magnesium deficiency.
a vital feature of chromosome development.
The role of potassium in the plant is The correct use of fertilizer
rather less easily explained. Potash, as it is It is important to ensure that sufficient
commonly called, is needed as a catalyst nutrients are available to young plants. If
wherever chemical reactions occur. It is composts are correctly formulated they
especially associated with the food-making should contain an adequate amount. How-
process of photosynthesis and with supplying ever, seedlings, for example, are germinated
nourishment around the plant. This again in a compost containing only phosphate; as
explains its general association with "leafy soon as they begin to show green leaves they
growth." However potash is equally important will benefit from feeding with nitrogen and
in virtually all parts of the plant where potash to encourage growth.
chemical reactions are occurring. Potassium Although it is possible for the gardener
deficiency in plants is usually manifest when to make up his own soluble feed it is far
the edges of the leaves turn pale yellow, and simpler and much more reliable to use one
as this discoloration moves inward the of the several proprietary brands of liquid
outer edges turn brown and appear scorched. feeds that are readily available. If a plant
Phosphorus, which is normally used in the shows signs of, for example, potash deficiency,
form of phosphate, has two major roles to buy a proprietary brand of liquid fertilizer
fulfil in plant growth. First it is an essential with a high balance of that particular
The greatest stumbling block to successful wooden-structured greenhouse, so take elements they can no longer be considered
plant propagation is the loss of cuttings and extra trouble when cleaning the latter. The to be sterile. All composts and their c o m -
seedlings from the action of various pests and best time to do this is in the early winter, ponents should be kept bagged and covered
diseases. In many cases this occurs because when the gardener's other activities in terms to maintain their reliability. Incidentally, do
the gardener has failed to maintain good of propagation are at their lowest ebb. not attempt to reuse spent compost, even
hygienic standards. Once clean, any remaining problems can be if sterilized, as the chemical balances will be
A system for successful propagation must controlled by the routine use of various out of proportion.
be based on regular prevention and control fungicide and pesticide smoke canisters, The plant material itself must also be free
of all possible pathogens. It is not just a which will permeate throughout the green- of infection—do not use diseased cuttings or
question of keeping the cuttings or seedlings house. At this stage, especial attention, by grafting scions for propagation. As a pre-
free of such agencies; it is also necessary to the use of the requisite chemical, should be caution against disease, dip leafy cuttings in
practice good standards of hygiene in the paid to the control of such agents as red a dilute solution of fungicide such as Captan
potting and propagation environment, the spider mite, whitefly, sciarid flies, mildews and or Benlate. After they have been planted, it
containers and tools used for propagation, damping-off fungi. is a good precaution to water with another
the composts, the propagating material itself In order to avoid cross-infection in a dilute solution of fungicide. Similarly, germin-
and the subsequent husbandry practiced. propagating area, at the earliest opportunity ating seeds should be sprayed with Captan or
Always keep a scrupulously clean and tidy always remove containers and spent compost a copper fungicide in an attempt to reduce
workbench in the potting shed. Before that are not in use. Spent compost will provide damping-off diseases to a minimum.
leaving plants to propagate in a greenhouse, a splendid home for the multiplication of As cuttings and seedlings develop, regu-
scrub out all of the nooks and crannies with both damping-off fungi and sciarid flies. larly use aerosol sprays or smoke canisters of
a solution of disinfectant so all residual in- Perhaps the chief cause of infection of fungicides and pesticides as a routine pre-
fection is eliminated. It is considerably easier compost-borne rots is in the use of dirty caution against possible infections of damping-
to do this job effectively in a modern metal- containers for propagation. It is of paramount off diseases and mildews, and infestations of
structured greenhouse than in a traditional importance to ensure that the containers red spider mite, whitefly and sciarid flies.
are clean, not only of fungal spores but
especially of weed seeds such as chickweed,
bittercress and annual meadow grass. Their
source of infection usually occurs in the
"crusty" layer of soil and chemicals that
occurs as a tidemark on pots and seed trays.
Hence the containers should be scrubbed
and washed with soap solution so that they
are completely clean. Clay pots will also need
soaking to ensure their cleanliness. It is
important to wipe all tools absolutely clean
after use to ensure they do not become a
potential source of infection.
The compost used for propagation must
be sterile. Usually this is achieved by making
up the compost from sterile ingredients.
Peat, by its nature, is highly acidic and
consequently to all intents and purposes is
sterile. Sand should already be sterile, as will
be the chemical additives. The only compo-
nent that may have to be sterilized is the
loam and this can be done in an oven at
82°C/180°F in a broad, flat container covered
with foil so that the steam generated en-
courages the sterilizing process.
It is important however to remember that
while all these components are sterile when
fresh, if they are left lying about open to the
Various pests may cause problems when Red spider mites posts. The adults are attracted by peat, hatch by routinely incorporating a powder
propagating, but as they attack a wide range These are not, in fact, insects but are related especially when it is wet, and they will lay insecticide in the compost when sowing and
of host plants they need only be considered to the spider. They have eight legs and are their eggs in it. The small white grubs that potting. The most effective insecticides are
in a general way so that the gardener can capable of spinning webs. Most of them are hatch then proceed to eat whatever is those containing BHC.
recognize t h e m and treat them appropriately. minute and are comparatively difficult to see, available — in this situation usually the young,
W h e n infested propagating material, or a but because they normally occur in such vast freshly succulent roots of a cutting or seedling.
plant, is placed in a propagating environment, quantities their collective action is readily Most damage is caused when the compost is
the increased levels of temperature and apparent. overwatered, so more eggs are laid and more
humidity often cause a population explosion. A typical sign of their presence is for a roots are consumed. Therefore to control
It is important, therefore, to propagate, yellow mottling to appear on some leaves. infestation of sciarid flies do not allow the
whenever possible, from material that ap- This discoloration gradually turns a rusty compost to be continually soaked. Water
pears to be free of pests. It is safer, and often brown and is followed by a grayish sheen of little and often.
easier, to control pests on stock plants before web formation. Chemical control is not easy. The adults
taking cuttings rather than to treat the cut- It is in the propagating environment with because of their mobility are virtually im-
tings later before they have established its increased temperatures that populations possible to kill, and control is therefore limited
themselves as plants. This is not always of red spider mites can build up unchecked, to an attempt to eliminate the larvae. The
possible, however, and routine pest control and they can cause problems on plants as incorporation of a granular insecticide in the
measures should always be taken in the diverse as cucumber, cyclamen, dahlia and compost will have some effect as a pre-
propagating area to combat invasions of conifers. ventative. If an infestation occurs, the best
pests from infected plants elsewhere in the Available methods of control are not results are achieved by drenching the com-
greenhouse or garden. always effective as the most useful materials post, preferably with BHC. Glasshouse whiteflies
are also dangerous to humans. The easiest These are one of the most troublesome pests
Aphids system is simply to keep populations to a of plants grown under glass. The small, white,
Insects, such as greenfly and blackfly, are minimum by reducing the mites' hibernation mothlike adults and the greenish-white
invariably present in small populations on stage by routinely scrubbing down all propa- scalelike larvae that occur on lower leaf
almost all plants during the growing season, gating areas during the winter. However, out- surfaces both feed by sucking sap, and they
and it is important to control them not only breaks will occur, and spraying at regular excrete a sugary substance known as honey-
because they can debilitate plant material intervals with chemicals containing dimetho- dew. This makes the foliage sticky and allows
very quickly with a rapid population build-up ate and malathion, or the use of Derris in the growth of a black, sooty mold. The
but also because they may carry virus diseases. liquid formulation, will reduce the infestation. larvae are fairly tolerant of most insecticides,
In a propagating area the most useful unlike the adults which can be controlled by
method of applying insecticides is by using insecticides containing pyrethrum, biores-
aerosols, preferably in the evening. The most methrin or resmethrin.
effective are those containing pirimicarb,
pyrethrum, bioresmethrin or malathion. Do Slugs and snails
not spray with these chemicals when the Vine weevils Slugs and snails feed on the seedlings of many
plants are exposed to direct sunlight. The larvae of the vine weevil do much more crops. Routine use of slug bait should keep
damage than is suspected, and although they damage to a minimum. If there is a sudden
are obviously not just pests of propagation infestation treat with metaldehyde.
areas they can nevertheless cause havoc in
newly potted young plants. If any seedlings
or young plants collapse suddenly, they have
most likely been attacked by vine weevils.
The adult weevil lays its eggs in soil or c o m -
post. The grubs that hatch are white with a
brown head, and they feed on nearby roots.
Sciarid flies In recent years vine weevils have become
The movement of these very small black- more of a problem as they no longer show the
bodied flies is more eye-catching than the pronounced seasonality in their life cycle
flies themselves. They are a relatively new that had previously been assumed.
phenomenon and are probably associated The only satisfactory method of control is
with the increasing use of peat-based c o m - to attempt to kill the grubs just after they
A propagating environment often provides when threads of the fungus, which resemble Rhizoctonia Unfortunately it is not possible for gardeners
suitable conditions for the establishment and fine cotton wool, spread rapidly in the soil or This particular fungus may cause many prob- to reduce or eliminate the disease from a
spread of certain diseases, but these should over the compost surface. As it comes into lems in horticulture. It is essentially a fungus virus-infected plant. All that can be done is to
not become a major problem provided that contact with seedlings the parasitic fungus that survives in the compost and infects and attempt to prevent the spread of the disease
correct hygienic procedures are followed. It is penetrates the tissues, which then die. The destroys plant material where the humidity is by digging up and burning the whole of the
important for the gardener to recognize the problem is particularly acute as these fungi too high and the conditions t o o warm. In infected plant.
symptoms of these diseases and to know how are always present in soil or compost and are plant propagation the disease normally affects Some virus diseases are carried by aphids
to apply the appropriate control measures. capable of survival without parasitism. Old cuttings inserted in mist propagators, closed that infect other plants when feeding; the
soil or compost, therefore, provides a source cases or in pots under polyethylene bags. It spread of virus diseases to uninfected plants
Gray mold of infection and should never be reused for causes basal rot of the cuttings, and it is by no is therefore best controlled by the routine
This disease is caused by a fungus called seed sowing or cuttings. The effects are means easy to control once it has established use of pesticide smoke canisters or sprays.
Botrytis cinerea, from which it obtains its other compounded when seedling densities are itself in the propagating area. Virus diseases can also be spread by eel-
common name, botrytis. It is an organism of high; if temperature conditions are too hot To prevent initial establishment of rhizoc- worms in unsterilized soil, or merely by con-
general occurrence and is capable of varying or too cold for strong seedling development; tonia, once or twice a year sterilize the tact from, for example, a propagation knife,
degrees of parasitism. It thrives in cold, damp if ventilation is poor and the soil too d a m p ; propagating area. Always use equipment and After cutting virus-infected plants a knife will
conditions, and it can be recognized by a and if the seedlings or cuttings suffer frost containers that have been thoroughly cleaned be a fertile area for infection. Always disinfect
brown area of rotting anywhere on a seedling damage. when propagating and ensure the compost is propagation tools and your hands if virus
or cutting, which eventually grows a cover- The disease can be recognized when seed- fresh and sterile. diseases are suspected.
ing of grayish mold. Once it obtains a foot- lings or cuttings suddenly die in patches. If the infection does appear, pick out and The only satisfactory way to avoid trouble
hold it is by no means easy to control its To avoid damping-off disease sow seeds at destroy the diseased plants. when propagating is by using plant material
spread. To avoid an outbreak of gray mold, a correct density so that the seedlings are that is virus free. This is a counsel of perfection
place any seedlings and cuttings in a well- not overcrowded; give them plenty of light, as it is not easy for the gardener to recognize
ventilated warm atmosphere and maintain air and warmth, and do not overwater. Spray with certainty virus symptoms in many
strict levels of hygiene. If an infection occurs, the seedling area before germination with a plants. Although viruses may be passed on
the affected plants should be picked out solution of Captan or a copper fungicide. through the seed it is possible to raise fresh
carefully and destroyed. The remaining plants Further control may also be achieved after virus-free stock of certain plants, such as
should then be sprayed with Captan, benomyl the seeds have emerged by spraying again Daphne mezereum, where viruses do not
or thiophanate-methyl to cut down any with Captan or zineb. appear to be transmitted by seed. Virus-free
further spread of the disease, but too regular If damping-off diseases do become estab- rootstocks are labelled EMIA, and they are
use of the latter t w o fungicides could lead to lished, the seedlings or cuttings should be available for some fruit trees and a few orna-
the buildup of resistant strains of the fungus. sprayed with Captan, which will limit the mental crabs and cherries.
disease, or with a copper fungicide, which will Virus diseases Some virus diseases, such as Daphne
usually kill it off. Unfortunately copper is Plants suffer from many diseases caused by mosaic, can be recognized by holding the
toxic to some plants, so check the instructions minute living organisms called viruses. In leaf up to the light and by identifying the
carefully before applying a fungicide con- most cases the plant merely tolerates the mosaic pattern of lighter yellow color. Others
taining copper. presence of the virus and exhibits certain are more difficult to recognize and may
symptoms indicating its presence—usually frequently be confused with mineral de-
these symptoms are typified by a yellow ficiency symptoms or even pest damage.
mottling or mosaic effect on the leaves. These
symptoms, however, should not be confused
with the yellowing caused by magnesium or
iron deficiencies (see page 15).
The effect of virus diseases is usually simply
to reduce the vigor of the plant. This re-
duction in vigor sometimes means that a
plant produces very little suitable propa-
gating material as its growth is weaker than
Damping-off diseases that of a virus-free plant of the same species
These are usually caused by a group of closely or variety. It is, however, unwise to propagate
related fungi, although certain other organ- from any plant that you suspect is affected by
isms can cause damping-off. These fungi virus as the virus will be passed on to any
cause problems to germinating seedlings vegetatively propagated offspring.
The successful propagation of plants from embryos are given below: one has the food Survival of drying, however, is not just a
seeds is a highly improbable process con- stored in the endosperm; the other has the function of the stored f o o d ; it also reflects
sidering the vast number of seeds produced cotyledons adapted for food storage. the condition of the seed coat and its ability
by the parent plant and the relatively small to protect the seed. Plants, such as willows,
number of plants that survive to maturity with very poorly developed seed coats survive
under natural circumstances. The gardener, for only very short periods, while those
therefore, must recognize all the possible plants, such as sweet peas, laburnum and
limitations to success, and attempt to reduce lupine, with very hard, impermeable seed
or eliminate these and so produce an accept- coats usually survive for considerable periods
able crop. in a wide variety of conditions. The seeds of
Nevertheless, for the gardener, the tech- the Indian lotus {Nelumbo nucifera) are
nique of propagating plants from seed is a reputed to have retained viability in a peat
very worthwhile and satisfying exercise as it bog for over one thousand years.
can be a prolific method of plant production. factorily, and as a general rule establish well. The variation in characteristics of the seed,
It is also gratifying to collect the bewildering Dustlike seeds, such as those from rhodo- and more often the fruit, are endless; some
variety of seeds in the garden w i t h o u t causing dendrons and lobelia, have a low germination seeds and fruits have large wings, hooks
injury to the plants—an inevitable con- and survival rate. or other projections that provide an aid to
sequence of vegetative propagation. Seeds also vary greatly in the materials dispersal, and these can easily be trimmed
A seed is produced from the fertilization that they use as food reserves—that is the or rubbed off. The shape of a seed is designed
of the female part of a flower by pollen from stored food in the seed. Those plants that so that, when it is dispersed, it will fall to the
the male section. Seed is the end product of store food as carbohydrates, such as elder- ground and lie in the best position for germin-
the sexual process and as such produces a berries, marigolds and laburnum, are generally ation. Altering its shape may affect this
population of plants that exhibit variable stable and long-lived, and will withstand characteristic, and so, when planting, try not
characteristics. By a controlled breeding drying. Seeds that store food as fats or oils, to place a seed upside down. If incorrectly
program, it is possible to eliminate the for example peony, magnolia and chestnut positioned the stem of the germinating seed
greater proportion of this variation and seeds, deteriorate both with time and drying may produce a kink.
produce a population of seedlings that to all and so present problems of storage and
intents and purposes are similar. This is the survival. It is better to allow these seeds to
usual practice in the production of bedding mature on the plant and collect them just
plants, vegetables and flower crops—that is before dispersal.
those plants with a short enough life cycle to
allow an intensive breeding program.
W o o d y plant seedlings are more variable
because of their longer life cycle and their There are a number of distinctions that
tendency to cross-pollinate in their natural can be made within seeds as a group.
habitat. The enormous variation in the size of seeds
Seeds are a resting and survival stage in will inevitably influence the success with
the continuance of a plant's existence. which they are propagated. Large seeds,
Basically a seed consists of an embryo, which such as acorns, chestnuts and hazelnuts, are Commercial seeds
is the young plant at its most immature and in produced in small numbers, germinate satis- As well as being sold loose in packets, seeds
its simplest components; a food supply, are now available commercially in other
which maintains the embryo throughout the forms that make sowing easier and more
resting period and provides the basis for accurate. Pelleted seeds are coated with de-
further development when germination gets composable material which disintegrates
under way; and a seed coat, which acts as when in contact with moisture. It is especially
the protective component. The embryo convenient to buy small seeds in this form
consists of the young root system, or radicle; as they are much easier to handle and sow.
the young stem system, or plumule, which Seeds can also be purchased evenly spaced
carries the seed leaves, or cotyledons (which on a tape of decomposable paper or plastic.
may be adapted for food storage); and the Just cut the tape to the required length and
hypocotyl, which is the junction between the place it in a furrow 1/2in deep and then cover
root and shoot system. Examples of different with soil.
Although it is usual to buy seeds it is often This requires careful observation. If they are Storing seeds
quite possible for the gardener to collect, enclosed in some form of fruit, the job The longer a seed is stored the more food is GENETICS
extract and store his own seeds. This is becomes much easier, because the seed is used in its survival; thus less food is available Plants grown from the seed of species or
especially satisfactory with seeds from trees actually completed before the fruit matures for the embryo at germination, and so germin- stable variants will come "true," that is be
and shrubs, which are dealt with separately on to a stage of dispersal. The only problem then ation becomes progressively less vigorous. similar to the parents. If, however, one
pages 28-32. is to separate the seeds from the fruit. In Storage conditions should keep activity to a parent is unstable or normally propagated
It is important to label each stock of seed most cases this involves drying, either in the minimum. vegetatively, then the offspring will in all
at all stages. Unidentifiable seeds will be of sun, in a dry atmosphere or in an airing Seeds should be stored dry in linen bags, probability be of the normal forms of
little use, so write a nonperishable label and cabinet. paper bags or packets, or cellophane en- species and not of the variant.
make sure it accompanies the seed lot If fruits are collected individually, they velopes; plastics such as polyethylene are not In plant breeding there is much use of
through to packeting and sowing. should be broken open and then spread on advisable for flower and vegetable seeds as the technique known as F1 hybridization.
Annual bedding plants are selected strains tissue paper in a shallow box or tray and left they tend to conserve dampness if it is This is an involved process in which two
that have been line-bred to come true from to dry. If whole flower heads are collected, present. For storage of seeds from trees and true-breeding species, or stable variants of
seed. The problem in collecting seed to come bunch a few stems together and hang them shrubs see page 32. the species, are crossed to produce a
true is that a plant may have been chance- up to dry with their heads enclosed in a Always keep seeds dry and store them in hybrid generation (the first filial or F1
pollinated by a different variety or species, and brown paper bag that is lightly tied round the a cool place such as a loft, cellar or possibly generation). The advantage of these hy-
so hybrid, atypical plants will be produced. stems. As they dry, occasionally shake the a refrigerator. If there is a danger of dampness brids is that they are often more vigorous
Commercially, the seed is kept true to type bag so the seeds drop into it. W i t h small from the environment, place the packets in a than their parents and may have charac-
by growing the parent plants in large isolated flower heads leave the neck of the brown polyethylene bag for protection. teristics of height, form and color that
blocks. Certain plants, such as pansies, are paper bag open. Place them in a warm If properly dried, most flower and vegetable make them more desirable.
self-pollinating and their seed can be collected (21°C'70°F) environment. seeds can be stored for t w o or three years at If these F1 hybrids cross, then their
with confidence that they will come true. After drying, break up the seed capsules least, because they store their foods as carbo- offspring, the F2 generation, will not be
to free all the seed ana clean the seed lot; hydrates. Fleshy seeds, however, store their like the F1 hybrids but will revert to many
Collecting and drying flower seeds depending on its size it can be picked over, foods as oils or fats and are, therefore, characteristics of the original true-breeding,
Except for those seeds that are collected and put through a sieve, or winnowed in a breeze. short-lived even under the best conditions: parents. Hence the F2 generation will not
sown "green," such as snowdrops and Large fleshy seeds such as those from do not expect them to survive for more than possess all the desirable characteristics
anemones, the majority of herbaceous plants cyclamen, lilies and hellebores will not usually twelve months. It is probably best to store that were present in the F1 generation and
are collected, dried and extracted, and stored. respond well to drying, and it is better to these seeds at the moisture content at which it is therefore necessary to produce F1 seed
Their seeds should be collected as they allow them to mature on the plant and they are dispersed, so place them in a afresh each year.
become ripe and before they are dispersed. collect them just before dispersal. polyethylene bag in a refrigerator.
To assist with germination and the establish- the corners and base using the fingers. Do very fine it is easier to distribute them evenly, in so much water that it overflows the rim
ment of a new plant, it is often helpful to not compact the compost. and see where they are sown, if they are onto the seeds and compost. After watering
soak seeds in water for 12-24 hours before Using a sawing action, strike off the c o m - mixed thoroughly with some dry fine sand. stand out to drain.
being sown in a compost that will provide post with a presser board or other piece of Sow the seeds by shaking across the con- Alternatively water the compost from
adequate aeration, sufficient water-holding w o o d so that it is level with the top of the tainer, using about half the seeds; then turn above, using a watering can with a fine rose.
capacity, a neutral acidity/alkalinity reaction container. Then with a presser board that fits the container through 90 degrees and sow Start pouring the water away from the
and sufficient phosphate. Thus a "sowing" or into the container, lightly and evenly firm the the rest of the seeds in the same way. container and once an even flow is attained
"seed" compost should be used. compost to 1/4-3/8 in below the rim, ensuring Gently shake some compost over the direct it over the seeds; similarly, to stop,
Before choosing a pot, pan or tray decide that the surface is level. container through a 1/8in sieve so that an move the water away from the container and
how much seed is to be sown; the container The container is now prepared for sowing. even and uniform layer covers the seeds. As a then stop the flow, so that no drops fall on to
should be large enough to allow the seedlings The seeds should be sown evenly over the general rule seeds do not need to be covered the compost.
space to develop to the size at which they surface either by sowing large seeds one by by compost deeper than their own thickness. Cover the container with a piece of glass
are to be pricked out. one or gently shaking small seeds direct from Finally label the seeds and water them in and place in a warm dark place, for example
Heap the container with compost and the packet. W h e n shaking, keep the packet by standing the container in a shallow bath an airing cabinet. Otherwise, cover with
then, to ensure it is evenly distributed and low over the compost to prevent the seeds of water so that the water moves up by glass and a sheet of paper and leave in any
there are no air locks, very lightly firm it to being unevenly distributed. If the seeds are capillary action. Do not stand the container warm (2T'C/'70'F) environment.
Germination requirement, which can only be satisfied by a germinate. For germination of tree and shrub
The germination of seeds covers the entire well-aerated environment within the compost. seeds see page 35.
process, from subjecting a resting seed to All growth processes within the seed are To keep seeds moist and warm, cover the
suitable conditions to cause it to develop chemical reactions activated by the addition container with a sheet of glass so that water
to the stage at which the seedling produces of water. To develop successfully, the seed condenses on the glass and falls back into
true leaves and establishes as a young plant. needs an increasing quantity of water, and the compost. To minimize temperature fluc-
If a seed is subjected to the conditions re- the compost must be capable of holding these tuations cover the glass with a sheet of paper.
quired for germination, and it fails to germin- amounts. As soon as the seedlings emerge, both
ate, despite the fact that it is alive, then the As all the processes involved are basically paper and glass should be removed. Spray
seed is described as being dormant (see chemical reactions they will obey normal the seedlings regularly with water and place
pages 28-9). physical rules, the simplest of which implies them in a well-lit area, out of strong direct
Water is vital to allow plant growth to get that the higher the temperature is raised, the sunlight to avoid scorching.
under way. So, if the seed has not been faster will be the rate of the reaction. In Spray germinating seeds with Captan or
soaked before sowing, it is important that the practice, this means that the warmer seeds copper fungicides regularly or they may
compost should be watered immediately are kept, the quicker they will germinate. As succumb to damping-off diseases.
after sowing. all these reactions are taking place in a If the seedlings are to be kept in their
Once the seed has sufficiently imbibed, biological context, there are biological limi- container for some time they should be given
the embryo inside the seed begins to produce tations as to how high the temperature can a liquid fertilizer diluted according to manu-
root and stem systems, which eventually be raised. In practice there are also economic facturer's instructions, because many seed
break out of the seed. considerations, because high temperatures composts contain only a phosphate fertilizer.
To grow, the embryo uses its food reserves. are costly to maintain. Experience suggests
W h e n oxygen is combined with carbohy- that a germination temperature of 2T^C/70°F Pricking out
drates in these food reserves, the energy is a reasonable compromise for most flower As soon as seedlings can be handled, trans-
necessary for growth is produced. Thus the and vegetable seeds, and this is why an airing plant them into a more suitable compost,
germinating seed will have a massive oxygen cabinet is an excellent place for seeds to leaving enough space for unrestricted
development of the young plants. This is Hardening off so more day-to-day care and attention are logging. Under these cooler conditions wet
known as pricking out or potting on. After the seedlings have been pricked out, needed, which is of course time consuming. composts are increasingly susceptible to
Fill a container with John Innes No. 1 they have to be gradually weaned to a stage Once the pricked-out seedlings have re- fungal root rots. Similarly, the close density of
compost or a compost of similar structure at which they can be planted out and survive established, move them to a cooler environ- plants creates conditions under which leaf
(see page 12), and firm to the base with the cool temperatures, fluctuating water con- ment. For this purpose there is no real diseases are capable of taking hold. It is,
tips of the fingers. Strike off compost level ditions and the effects of wind without their substitute for a cold frame, which should be therefore, important that all plants in the
with the rim. Lightly firm w i t h presser board growth rate being affected. In the plant world kept firmly closed. Over the course of a few frame are sprayed regularly with a fungicide,
so that the compost is 1/4-3/8in below the rim this process is generally referred to as weeks increasingly air the frame during the either Captan, which will prevent the diseases
of the container, which is now prepared. hardening off. day by raising the lid, until the frame is spreading, or a systemic fungicide such as
Water the seedlings; then loosen them by Most seedlings will have been germinated continually aired during the day and night: Benlate, which should prevent an outbreak of
knocking the old container so that the c o m - in a protected environment during the early indeed the lid may be completely removed the diseases.
post comes away from the sides. Hold a part of the year to produce a plant of during the day if it is warm. Eventually the lid Another aspect of seedling management is
seedling by its seed leaf and gently lift with sufficient size to be planted out as soon as can be discarded altogether. the necessity for feeding. Many pricked-out
the aid of a dibble, keeping its root system the danger of frost is passed. Because so many Frosts as severe as — 4°C/25 F are sufficient seedlings will spend several weeks in the
intact. Never hold the seedling by its stem. seedlings are produced in the early part of to penetrate into the cold frame, so, if potting compost before being finally trans-
W i t h the dibble, make a hole in the fresh the year, and they are not hardy, and in most this level of cold is expected, provide some planted, and there is no point in starving them
compost big enough to take the roots. Drop gardens there is a premium on any space that insulation to protect half-hardy plants. The and preventing them developing to an
in the seedling and gently firm the compost provides sufficient protection, plants tend to best and most easily manageable insulation adequate size. Thus the seedlings should be
back round the roots with the dibble. Repeat be grown at a high density. should be light yet thick; fibrous matting and regularly fed using a proprietary liquid fer-
this operation for each seedling, spacing The problem with crowding plants together similar materials are useful and effective. tilizer at the intervals stated on the manu-
at 24-40 seedlings per tray. is that an increase in fungal diseases both on Regularly check the seedlings in the frame facturer's instructions. Avoid excessive feed-
After the tray has been filled, water in the the stems and leaves and in the compost is to ensure that they are not drying out ex- ing as it will produce overvigorous plants
seedlings and return them to the warm en- likely to result; the plants tend to become cessively. They should not however receive that will check their growth on transplanting;
vironment (21°C/70'T) so that they can re- spindly as they compete for light; and the too much water. If anything it is better to err it will also increase the risk of disease in the
establish as quickly as possible. varying plants have different watering needs on the side of dryness rather than risk water- cold frame.
The sowing of bedding plant seeds is a at the requisite size for planting out so that —although it is important to remember that post over the seeds to make an even cover.
relatively simple procedure and can be they will make a significant impact when in in the very early part of the year light Label the container and water the seeds either
guaranteed, within reason, to produce a flower. intensity is usually poor and growth rates of by using a fine rose on a watering can or by
reliable and uniform crop of seedlings. The sequence of bedding plant sowing is seedlings will be proportionately depressed. standing the container in a basin of water.
The main stumbling block that the governed primarily by the speed of germin- Sow bedding plant seeds in a pan (dwarf Add a fungicide such as Captan to the water.
gardener will experience is knowing when to ation and subsequently by the growth rate pot) or a seed tray depending on the quantity Cover with a sheet of glass to conserve
sow particular plants. The object is to of the seedlings of each species. Thus slow- of seed used. Because the seeds germinate moisture and place in a warm environment
produce, at the same time, all bedding plants developing plants are sown early in the year relatively rapidly at warm temperatures, peat- (21°C/70°F) to promote germination; at this
based composts are quite satisfactory, and stage light is not important.
there are many proprietary brands available. As soon as the seedlings emerge, place
Fill the container with compost, but keep it them in the light to encourage growth and
light and uncompacted so that drainage is remove the cover because excessive humidity
maintained. The main problem with peat- among seedlings at this stage will lead to
based composts is that they tend to waterlog damping off.
easily, causing both death of the seeds and The temperature, however, should still be
poor seedling development—symptoms often maintained at as warm a level as possible to
associated with damping-off diseases and encourage quick growth to a size at which
sciarid fly attacks. the seedlings can be pricked out.
Many bedding plants, for example lobelia As soon as the seedlings are large enough
and Begonia semperflorens, have incredibly to handle, prick them out into individual pots
small, almost dustlike, seeds that are or seed trays. Their growth will inevitably be
difficult to sow evenly and at a sufficiently low checked when they are transplanted, but the
density. These should be thoroughly mixed smaller and less branched the root system is,
with some dry, fine sand, so that an even the less damage and therefore check will be
distribution can be achieved. Covering with experienced.
compost is not then necessary. The main problem will be the likelihood of
W i t h the seed packet close to the container damping-off diseases. This can only be
sprinkle the seeds evenly over the compost. avoided by scrupulous hygiene, light sowing
Sow thinly to avoid having overcrowded densities and regular sprays with fungicides
seedlings later on. Sift just sufficient c o m - such as Captan or copper-based chemicals.
The growing of herbaceous plants from seed so that water can get in; alternatively, rub the W i t h a presser board, firm the compost to chilling. Otherwise place container in a warm
is by no means as widely practiced as the seeds with a coarse emery paper or similar 1/4-3/8in below the rim. If seeds are large, (21°C/70°F) environment.
growing of bedding plants or even alpines abrasive until the seed coat is sufficiently individually sow at recommended spacing. Seedlings of herbaceous plants are sus-
from seed. This is largely because most reduced to allow water uptake. Otherwise, broadcast sow the seeds. After ceptible to the various damping-off diseases.
herbaceous plants are selected forms that Some herbaceous plants such as some lilies sowing, firm them into contact with the c o m - It is therefore important to water the emerging
require vegetative methods of propagation. and peonies exhibit an unusual dormancy post; then cover with grit if they are to stand seedlings at regular intervals with a dilute
However, there are many herbaceous plants, condition that delays seedling emergence. out for the winter, or with sifted compost if solution of Captan or a copper fungicide.
such as delphiniums and lupines, that can If the seeds are sown in the winter/spring germination will occur quickly. Label the As soon as herbaceous plant seedlings are
be grown successfully from seed. period, the seeds germinate as the tempera- container and water in the seeds. Stand out large enough to handle prick off into in-
Most hardy herbaceous plants, and es- ture warms up, but only a root system on any well-drained surface, if the seeds need dividual pots.
pecially those that disperse their seeds in emerges. Exposure to a further winter's cold
the late summer and autumn, will produce is necessary for the stem to develop. There-
seeds that require a period of exposure to the fore it is not until the second spring that the
cold to break their dormancy. Their seed is seedlings appear. For these plants failure
sown in autumn or winter in containers that should not be accepted until after the second
are then left outdoors; germination should spring; do not be tempted to throw them
occur in the spring. out if germination does not occur in the first
Those plants that disperse their seeds in season.
summer, after an early spring flowering, often
do not show any dormancy conditions, Sowing herbaceous seeds
especially if they are collected and sown Seeds should be sown in pans (dwarf pots)
slightly green. This kind of plant will then or seed trays, depending on the quantity of
germinate quickly and establish a seedling seed available. If the seeds are slow to
before the onset of winter. germinate, fill the container with a loam-
Some herbaceous plants, and particularly based compost, which will maintain its
members of the legume family, such as structure over a long period despite being
lupines, produce seed with a hard seed coat. exposed to natural weather conditions. Peat-
This prevents the seed germinating until it based compost will suffice for seeds sown in
decomposes sufficiently to allow the seed to spring.
take up water. To speed up germination, chip Firm the compost to the corners and the
the seed coat with a single-edged razor blade base of container; then strike off the compost.
The propagation of trees and shrubs from Tree and shrub seeds are extraordinarily or shrub producing a crop of seeds. Gardeners
seed is rewarding as it allows the gardener diverse in their shape and size—varying from are usually very generous with their plants
to practice a wide range of techniques that, the fine dustlike seeds of rhododendron to and, if asked, will frequently be only too
if successful, produce something that has a the large nutlike seeds of the horse chestnut willing to give some seeds or cuttings.
long-lasting place in the garden or landscape. or the oak, from the flat disks of wisteria to
Although it is possible to purchase some the hairy "parachutes" of clematis. All these Dormancy
tree and shrub seeds, these are limited to considerations have a bearing on an individual If a seed is subjected to the conditions
those kinds that can be successfully dried, so plant's ability to survive and germinate: large required for germination and it fails to ger-
in most cases it is necessary for the gardener seeds with a large embryo should have a much minate, despite the fact that it is alive, then
to collect his o w n seeds. greater chance of successfully germinating the seed is described as being dormant.
It is important to emphasize that the seeds than small seeds, as they have a larger food Seed dispersed in the late summer or
used for propagation will only produce the reserve, and therefore more small seeds than autumn, without an inbuilt dormancy control,
kind of offspring that their heredity warrants. large seeds need to be collected. would normally germinate. The seedling
Seeds collected from species will probably Also affecting the quantity of seed to be would then have to survive unfavorable
come true; if collected from selected varieties collected will be the availability of seed from climatic conditions that more often than
then the seedlings will normally be of the year to year. If this can be noted on a regular not would kill it. The plant has, therefore,
species, unless of hybrid origin (see page 20). basis, it may give a guide for any storage developed a control mechanism that pre-
For this reason all fruit trees, which are highly requirements. Beech is an extreme example as vents the seed germinating until the onset
specialized forms, should not be propagated it is reputed to produce good seed only once of favorable conditions for germination and
by seed but must be increased vegetatively. in "seven years"; other plants also have subsequent establishment. Although these
The chief problem associated with tree and definite periodic responses. controls benefit the plant and enhance the
shrub seeds is the presence of various kinds The gardener can either purchase his tree chances of successful seedling production,
of dormancy, which in the extreme are some- and shrub seeds from a reliable seedsman or they present a very real problem to the
times combined and so present particular he can visit gardens, parks and arboreta in gardener, who either has to wait for the
difficulties in getting the seeds to germinate. the hope of coming upon some unusual tree dormancy to be broken naturally, which can
take a long time, or has to attempt to over- that neutralizes the inhibitor chemical and into the condition suitable for dispersal. It
come the problem artificially, which may be so allows germination to proceed as soon as would appear that the dormancy controls
difficult and complex. environmental conditions are suitable. develop at this stage.
In woody plants there are three different If only one of these kinds of dormancy By collecting the seed when it is anatom-
kinds of dormancy. occurred in a seed then overcoming it, ically complete with its food reserves finished
The simplest is that caused by the seed although a problem, would be comparatively but before dormancy becomes built in,
coat, which has thickened and hardened simple. Many plants, however, exhibit c o m - the hard seed coat is avoided and the chilling
during the maturation of the seed. Its hardness binations of these dormancy controls so that requirement is at a minimum (just enough to
stops water being taken up by the seed; overcoming them is complicated and time- prevent germination until the spring). Thus
therefore the embryo cannot imbibe and consuming (see pages 32-3). for germination to occur in spring, the fruits
germination is prevented. In nature, this kind Seeds that are obtained from sources other of Daphne mezereum should be collected
of dormancy is gradually reduced by bacteria than the gardener's own collections are not in September but in early June, when they
and fungi in the soil decomposing the seed almost invariably dried; the process of are small, hard and green. Complicated
coat until it is no longer effective and water ripening is fully complete and all the dormancy dormancy patterns which take a long time to
can be taken up. controls are inbuilt, so germination cannot overcome or require a complex artificial
Dormancy may also be caused by an proceed until these problems have been procedure can then be avoided. However, it
immature embryo, which requires a warm eliminated. is easy to gather seed that is too immature,
temperature in which to develop to a stage However, for the gardener who is collecting which will prove disastrous.
where germination can proceed. his own seed it is possible to avoid the Once dormancy conditions are removed,
The commonest form of dormancy in the development of dormancy by collecting the seed will germinate, provided that suitable
seeds of plants from temperate climates is a immature seed and preventing further drying. conditions are maintained. A change in con-
chemical inhibition to the embryo develop- To do this, collect the seed when it is green ditions, such as excessive heat or drying or a
ment. In nature, this dormancy is broken by to yellow to buff colored, and fruit as it just continued shortage of oxygen, will cause the
normal exposure of a seed in the soil to turns yellow. At this stage the seed coat and development of secondary dormancy, which
winter's cold. This initiates a chain of events fruit are beginning to dry out and so develop is extremely difficult to break down.
Buying seeds reliable and which are capable of surviving —a situation that is of critical importance transferred to a permanent label. Always
W h e n purchasing tree and shrub seeds there the drying processes without any detriment when green seeds are being collected to write labels with indelible ink.
are few regulations which ensure the same to their condition. The gardener can only avoid a dormancy condition. Seeds that are green or bulky should not
degree of certainty in production that can be learn by experience how drying affects Seeds that have been collected, processed be collected in large batches or be kept in the
attributed to vegetable and flower seeds. different seeds. In many cases seedsmen do and sown without drying will not suffer losses containers for too long as they are very prone
Virtually no guarantees are available because not even bother to offer seeds where there is in viability. to "heat u p " and this can very easily cause
the seedsmen themselves have often collected doubt about their ability to survive the drying Finally the gardener has the advantage of the embryo to die. These seeds and fruits
the seeds from the wild and they may be in- process. choosing where he collects his seeds, and he should, therefore, be stored in small batches in
correctly labeled. Occasionally seed is should take them from those specimens polyethylene bags and kept cool in a refrig-
collected which is void and so contains no Collecting seeds which are regarded as desirable forms and are erator. Process and sow as quickly as possible.
embryo, even though the seed and fruit is The collection of seeds from trees and shrubs free from pests and diseases. Because the Large cones should be cut one at a time.
perfectly formed when viewed externally. by the gardener has a number of advantages seeds may be the result of a chance pollina- W h e n collecting seeds it is useful to have
Seed collectors and wholesalers usually over buying seeds. tion, it is not possible to expect seeds to come both hands free, especially if it is necessary
process seeds by drying them. This has t w o The gardener knows the identity of the true, but at least, by attempting to provide a to stretch into trees. For this purpose a
distinct disadvantages. First, the drying plant and that it is reasonably hardy, and better genetic base, good forms have an collecting bag is invaluable. This can be made
processes enhance the maturation of the seed he can have a clear idea of what conditions increased chance of being produced. very simply by cutting off the top half from a
and so produce deeper dormancy effects. suit a particular species, having seen it Seeds or fruits should always be collected plastic fertilizer or compost sack. Tie t w o
Second, for those seeds that store their food growing. As so many aliens and exotics are in prime condition, and at all stages it is pieces of string to the upper corners of the
reserves as oils or fats, the drying degenerates of doubtful hardiness this is a worthwhile important to be able to identify the seeds. remaining bottom half and then secure this
the food reserves and so produces a loss of consideration, especially as purchased seeds Therefore label all containers used for around the waist. This kind of collecting bag
viability. The extent to which viability is lost probably come from a more southerly collecting, recording not only the name of the is far superior to a basket or bucket as it is
will depend on how much food is stored as collection. A hardy parent does not necess- parent plant but also the place of origin and not bulky and will not get in the way. Do not
oils or fats. Most nut seeds fall into this arily produce hardy offspring, but it is more the date of collection so that this information substitute a burlap sack because squashy
category. likely. may be used for comparisons. The label and fleshy fruits may soak through the burlap
Despite these drawbacks, there are many Another advantage is that the gardener can should always accompany a seed lot until it into the gardener's clothing—an unpleasant
seeds offered by seedsmen which are entirely collect seeds at the moment he deems correct is sown, when the information should be and (literally) irritating experience.
Some seeds from trees and shrubs will have The extraction of seeds from berries or Some cones, such as those from silver fir die. Some cones, such as those from cedars,
to be separated from their fruit component fleshy fruits depends on the size of the disintegrate and then the scales have to be do not open readily in response to drying;
in order to facilitate sowing and storage. In individual seeds and the texture of the flesh. separated. The gardener should never open instead put them in a saucepan containing
certain cases it is also necessary to store seed Pome fruits such as crab apples, pears, cones by placing them in the oven as exces- hot water (7r-82°C/160°-180°F) and maintain
either from collection to sowing or from year medlars and quinces should have the flesh sive drying can very easily cause the seeds to this temperature until the scales open up.
to year. Both these factors have a bearing on pared away before any attempt to extract the
a seed's viability, that is the proportion of a seeds is made.
seed sample w h i c h is alive at any time. Separate relatively large seeds with soft
The cleaning and extraction of seed from flesh, for example berberis, by squashing with
the fruit is often a tedious and time-consuming a presser board and then swirling the material
business, but it is necessary if seed is to be and some water around a shallow dish. The
sown evenly. seeds will tend to gravitate to the middle and
Large dry fruits in capsules should be sifted the flesh to the outside. Then pick off any
to separate the individual seeds from the berry skin that remains with the seeds.
capsules. Seeds that are shed direct from Very fleshy fruits should also be macerated
the fruits, as happens with many nut seeds with a presser board before being left in a jar
such as oaks, chestnuts, hazelnuts, horse of warm water to ferment; keep in a warm
chestnuts and beech, are ready for sowing. It place for a few days until the flesh ferments.
is simply a matter of picking them up. Decant off any flesh that is floating, leaving
Winged fruits should be dried sufficiently seeds untouched in the bottom of the jar.
to separate the wings, unless, as with maple, Change the water two or three times to
each wing has its own seed. Where the wing remove all the flesh. Then pick off any skin.
encloses the seed or seeds, such as w i t h Cones of conifers are one of the most
cryptic fruited plants like hornbeam, then satisfying fruits to deal with. Collect the cones
either each seed has to be picked out or the before they begin to shed their seeds, and
whole fruit has to be dried and the seed place t h e m in a paper bag in the airing cabi-
separated by rubbing and winnowing. net. Shake regularly to separate the seeds.
Scarification have their seed coats reduced by scarification.
STORAGE a polyethylene bag to maintain the moist- Before sowing it is necessary to break the This is a fairly simple process in which the
The t w o main considerations concerning ure content at which they were extracted dormancy of seeds with hard seed coats, and seeds are rubbed with an abrasive substance
the storage of seeds from trees and shrubs or collected. This is especially relevant for this can be done artificially by the gardener until the seed coat is eventually worn down
are moisture content and temperature of plants that store their food as fats and oils. so that germination will occur as soon as to a level at which water will enter. Possibly
storage. The cooler the seeds are kept the longer conditions are suitable. the easiest way to scarify seeds is to take a jar
As it is not always possible for the they remain alive and vigorous. So, for Commercially, the dormancy period is re- w i t h a screw lid and line it with sandpaper.
gardener, without detailed information, to long-term storage, put the seeds in a duced by adding, concentrated acid to the Place the seeds in the jar and then shake until
know which seeds fall into which groups, polyethylene bag, label them, and then seed coat, which then disintegrates. Simpler the seed coat is sufficiently abraded to allow
all seeds should be treated similarly as a place them in a domestic refrigerator near and safer methods are to be preferred, how- water uptake.
standard procedure. Surface dry all ex- the spot where it is coolest. The lower the ever. Seeds of a sufficient size to be handled Often a seed with a hard seed coat also
tracted seed to avoid moisture between temperature the more effective is storage, individually can be chipped by cutting a needs to be chilled to break dormancy. In
the seeds encouraging fungal rots. as long as the seeds are not frozen. Under portion of the hard seed coat away to expose this case the seed is subjected to a warm
If the seeds are to be used within a couple these conditions seeds can be stored for the seed itself. It is not necessary to reduce or temperature to reduce the,seed coat before
of days, store them at room temperature in several weeks. cut away all the seed coat but merely to allow being stratified (see page 33). As most seeds
enough to be removed so that water can are shed in the autumn, this means that such
enter. The seed will then swell and rupture seeds should be stored dry over winter in a
the remainder of the hard seed coat. warm environment, stratified in early summer
Smaller seeds and seeds with coats that and chilled during the following winter before
do not lend themselves easily to chipping can being sown in the spring.
Stratification squeezed lightly in the hand. Then mix 4
One of the commonest forms of dormancy volumes of this damp peat to 1 volume of
found in seeds of trees, shrubs and flowers seeds to give the seeds plenty of moisture. If
from the temperate regions is a biochemical the mixture looks compact, add 1 volume of
control of embryo development, which has grit to improve aeration. Place the mixture in
to be overcome by chilling. a polyethylene bag and tie a label on the out-
There are t w o parts to this process: the side. Leave for t w o or three days in warmth
imbibition of the seed, and then its exposure while the seeds take up water and swell. The
to a period of cold. The simplest way to deal seeds are now ready for chilling. Place the bag
with the problem is to sow these seeds in in the refrigerator in the meat drawer, where
the open ground, where they will receive the temperature will be lowest (but not
natural chilling. In a mild winter, however, freezing). Turn and shake the bag every week
there will be insufficient cold to overcome to prevent compaction and to maintain
the dormancy controls, and so germination aeration around the seeds.
will be delayed for twelve months following a The time needed for the seeds to chill is
further winter's cold. extraordinarily different and may vary from
Thus to be sure of germination an artificial three to four weeks to 16 to 18 weeks depend-
treatment known as stratification is required ing on the species.
to complete the chilling process. Many seeds will not be bothered by an
To obtain a suitable medium for stratifi- excess of chilling period as they simply sit
cation, first sift dry sphagnum moss peat and wait for the right conditions for germin-
through a 1/4in sieve. Mix about 4 volumes ation in the spring, but some begin to
of this peat with 1 volume of water to produce germinate regardless of temperature once
damp peat that just exudes water when the required chilling period is complete.

HOT WATER TREATMENT dish and pour water that has just gone off
Some seeds with hard or impermeable the boil over them. Do not use more than
seed coats can be prepared for sowing by this ratio of water otherwise the temper-
treating the seeds with hot water. This ature will be too high for too long and this
extracts sufficient "waterproofing" and may cause damage to the embryo. Place
allows the seed to take up water and swell. the dish in a warm environment; leave for
Using a ratio of 3 volumes water to 1 24 hours. If the seeds do not swell, repeat
volume seeds, place the seeds in a shallow the exercise.
An open ground seedbed is best for tree and per square foot; and conifers at 50 to 70 Thoroughly dig the seedbed with a spade seedbed with sufficient supplies of water and
shrub seedling propagation. Although it is plants per square foot. to a spit deep, incorporating peat and, if a warm environment.
quite possible to sow seeds in seed trays or The root system of many trees and shrubs possible, leaf mould. If the soil is particularly Germination is primarily dependent on
pans (dwarf pots) containing compost, the is modified to live in association with a heavy, also add grit. water, and the seed must swell and become
quality of the compost will inevitably de- fungus that fulfills many of the functions In spring, knock the seedbed down to a completely imbibed before biological activity
teriorate and germination may be impaired of the root in exchange for food: this associ- rough tilth. This encourages weed seeds to can begin. After this stage, water is still all-
after a considerable time outdoors. After ation is often obligatory on the plant and is germinate. These can then be sprayed or important as it forms the basis of all living
germination, the seedlings should be left to necessary from an early stage for normal hoed off, so reducing the problem of weeds processes causing germination. The seedbed,
establish for a growing season before trans- development. It is therefore important to later on. however, must not become waterlogged. Air,
planting, and the restrictive volume of a ensure the presence of these fungi in the Prior to sowing, rake in a phosphate which contains oxygen, is also essential
seed tray or pan may not allow adequate seedbed at germination, and leaf mold is a fertilizer at the rate of 4 oz to the square around the seed. Energy is necessary for
space for root or seedling development. good source. yard. Ensure the seedbed is level in order to growth, and it is produced when oxygen is
Another drawback is that more day-to-day The preparation of the seedbed should be facilitate sowing, and more especially seedbed used in the breakdown of the carbohydrate
management is required for seedlings in carried out in winter so that the soil can be watering. It also makes the depth of seed reserves of the seed. Thus, if conditions reduce
seed trays and pans to ensure that watering left rough and allowed to weather. In order cover more easy to assess. available oxygen, germination is retarded.
is not substandard and that the seedlings to improve drainage, soil conditions, seed The other major factor that affects ger-
have adequate nutrients. covering and ease of seedling maintenance, Ideal sowing conditions mination is temperature. All growth processes
The advantage of the open ground seedbed the level of the seedbed should be raised The process of germination in tree and shrub are chemical reactions and as such their
is that it is self-sufficient and encourages above the surrounding soil. Set up boards seeds, as with any other seeds, should be rate is a function of temperature: the
unrestricted growth of seedlings. Nor does it 8-9 in high round the proposed seedbed. Keep encouraged to take place as quickly as warmer the conditions, the faster the reaction.
need to be extensive as most seedlings can the width of the seedbed relatively narrow possible so that the best use can be made of Thus the rate of germination is directly
be intensively grown on a relatively small (say 3 ft) so that seeds can be sown evenly the available food reserves. Thus, tree and affected by the seedbed temperature, and it
area: oaks and chestnuts at ten to twelve across it. At this width, covering the seeds and shrub seeds should be sown under the best is best to sow seeds when soil temperatures
plants per square f o o t ; magnolias at 25 plants general maintenance is much easier. possible conditions in a well-drained, aerated are warming up in the spring.
Sowing densities the seeds—that is the number of seeds that and then retract it quickly, leaving the grit on As soon as the seedlings emerge and
Before sowing, it is necessary to discover the are alive and capable of producing new plants. the seedbed. This method reduces the produce green leaves, they will need feeding
correct sowing density for the seeds to Take a few seeds and, if possible, cut them possibility of the seeds bouncing. The grit, with nitrogen and potash to supplement the
germinate and establish as healthy plants. It open to see what percentage are viable. The which should be about 1/2in deep, will provide phosphate already in the seedbed. Although
is as useless to sow too thinly and so waste second consideration that will affect the a well-drained surface that will allow even these nutrients can be supplied by top-
space as it is to sow too thickly and have sowing density is a survival factor. As it is percolation of water through to the soil and dressing with a granular fertilizer, it is better
very small, useless seedlings that are liable unlikely that all the live seeds will germinate absorb the impact of raindrops without regularly to use a proprietary brand of liquid
to damp off. A desirable population will and establish as seedlings, an estimate must caking and splashing; it will also keep the fertilizer at the recommended rate, applying
depend on the particular plant grown and be made of the likely losses, which may be seeds well aerated and make it easy to remove a small amount frequently.
its vigor. caused by poor germination conditions, rots, weeds. free and shrub seedlings are extremely
Once the desired seedling density has been pests and frost. In general, the larger the Finally, level the grit with the back of a susceptible to damage from frost. In their
decided, this figure is modified by two factors seed and the shorter the period between rake, clearly label the seedbed and water in natural habitat they would be protected by
which will then determine the number of sowing and germination the greater chance if conditions are dry. the woodland or scrub canopy, but in the
seeds to be sown. The first is the viability of it has of survival. This seedbed with its grit covering will seedbed they are completely exposed. Until
maintain the seeds for an extensive period the danger of frost damage is passed, there-
Sowing in a seedbed despite exposure to all sorts of weather fore, they must be protected either by
Having arrived at a sowing rate and preferably conditions. stretching netting with very small holes above
on a still day, sow the seeds in the fine tilth of the seedlings on a semipermanent basis or by
a well-prepared seedbed. Protecting the seedlings spreading newspaper on top of the seedlings
Spot sow seeds that are large enough to W h e n seeds germinate they will be exposed on those nights when frost is anticipated.
be handled individually, spacing them evenly. to a number of deleterious influences which In addition, it is vital to control pests and
To achieve an even distribution with smaller may reduce growth or even cause death. The diseases such as greenfly, damping-off fungi
seeds, broadcast sow with your hand held chief of these ill-effects is wind, which causes and various mildews by spraying regularly
just above the soil level so that bouncing is stress in seedlings, reducing growth con- with fungicides and pesticides.
minimized. Once the seeds are sown, firm siderably. Watering will not necessarily allevi- If the seedbed has been prepared ade-
them into the seedbed so that there is ate the situation as the seedlings may not be quately then few weeds should be present in
intimate contact between seeds and soil and able to take up water quickly enough to the bed. Windblown weed seeds, however,
water uptake is enhanced. Then cover the compensate for water lost. Therefore, shelter will appear and germinate in the grit. Pull
seeds with grit, a shovelful at a time. Place the seeds from wind by putting some 50 these out while they are still small and their
the shovel as low over the seeds as possible. percent permeable mesh round the seedbed. roots are in the grit rather than the soil.
The propagation of plants from roots is a and spring, these roots will, if the plant is Ailanthus, Rubus and Chaenomeles. However,
simple and rapid process that has on the capable, develop suckers. These suckers, if most plants that regenerate in this way are
whole been neglected. left to establish, can then be lifted and re- also fairly easily propagated from root cuttings
As long ago as 1662, John Evelyn wrote in planted at the end of the growing season. and, as the latter method makes better use of
his famous book Silva of the possibility, when Plants that are sometimes propagated this space, the former technique is not widely
a tree was dug up, of leaving some of its way include Rhus (the sumacs), Robinia, employed.
roots in situ to develop as new trees. By 1731
Philip Miller, in The Gardener's Dictionary,
NATURAL SUCKERING
was describing the propagation of certain
trees from root cuttings as an established Natural suckering occurs in some plants
practice amongst gardeners. such as lilacs and cherries. The plants send
Since then, although it has been demon- up isolated shoots that develop their own
strated that it is possible to propagate in this root system.
way, the technique has never become Toward the end of the growing season,
standard, except in the case of a small sever the roots of a sucker from the
number of mainly herbaceous plants. It parent plant and leave it to establish.
appears to have been ignored largely because After a few weeks, lift the sucker and
of the aura of uncertainty associated with the transplant.
success of this technique. Such a technique, If a grafted plant such as a rose sends
however, should be popular because large up a sucker, it should be completely
quantities of plants can be produced from a removed immediately. If this is not done,
very small amount of propagating material. the grafted plant will be weakened as the
Therefore, it is necessary to sort out the sucker is from the rootstock and not f r o m .
relevant features involved in this kind of the cultivated variety.
regeneration and determine a system that
eliminates the greater proportion of the
uncertainty.
Initially, it is important to divide plants into
two categories: those that will propagate
from roots; and those (apparently) that will
not. A plant that can produce adventitious
shoot buds on its roots should be suitable
for propagation from root cuttings, although
ultimately this is not necessarily an indication
of its ability to regenerate a completely new
plant.
W h e n the various plants capable of pro-
ducing adventitious buds on their roots are
categorized, it will be seen that the responses
vary: some plants produce buds on their roots
as a natural growth process, whereas others
require some other agency to stimulate bud
initiation. Some of them have buds that
elongate and develop as shoots; others do
not grow in this way.
There are three relevant methods of
propagating from roots: natural suckering
and division; suckers from undisturbed, but
isolated, roots; and root cuttings.
W h e n a plant is lifted, inevitably some
roots are severed and remain undisturbed in
the soil. During the subsequent late winter
When to take root cuttings experience has shown that this has met with season, which is in the late summer and equilibrium between root and shoot. As a
W h e n propagating plants from root cuttings little success; although results sometimes early autumn. result of this treatment the vigorous, quickly
it is vital to understand how seasonality improved if cuttings were taken very early or Although propagation from root cuttings grown roots will exhibit a very high level of
affects the capacity of root cuttings to very late in the season. is likely to succeed throughout a plant's ability to develop stem buds.
produce stem buds. A few plants can produce new plants dormant season, it is best to keep to the mid- The roots will have developed fastest at
The subject of " o n " and "off" seasons equally well at any time of the year, but these part of that season, as a maximum response the beginning of the season, and the rate
appears to have been virtually unconsidered are relatively u n c o m m o n . Perhaps the best may not exist while the dormancy is still will gradually have declined as the season
until the mid-twentieth century. However, example is the horseradish, which can make developing or once it is phasing out. progressed until, as the dormant season
recent research has established that fluctu- itself into a pernicious weed by virtue of this approached, growth will have ceased alto-
ations in the ability of roots to produce stem characteristic: when the roots are broken, Preparing the plant gether. At the point where any root started
buds do exist and that it is pointless to it is capable of establishing itself as a new Before propagating from root cuttings, it is its growth in the spring, and where it grew
propagate while the plant's response is plant from each root piece. preferable to prepare the parent plant itself fastest, will also be where it has the greatest
inhibited by adverse seasonal influences. Virtually all other plants demonstrate a so that it will develop roots that will have a capacity to produce buds; in other words,
It is this fluctuation in the capacity to seasonal response. Early observations sug- high capacity to regenerate stem buds and there is a direct correlation between the rate
propagate that has probably produced the gested that plants propagated most success- so produce new plants. at which a root grows and its ability to
uncertainty which has led to the propagation fully during the winter, but experience has This ability to produce adventitious stem produce stem buds. If, therefore, plenty of
of plants from root cuttings being virtually shown that, although this is typically true for buds on a severed root is already present root material is available, it is best to take a
ignored by nearly all gardeners. woody plants, the real feature is not the in most plants, but it can be enhanced. Lift root cutting only from the top of the root
It is therefore necessary to determine winter but the dormant season. Many her- a healthy plant prior to the growing season where it began its development in the early
whether the plant from which root cuttings baceous plants and more especially alpine and shorten any top growth. Reduce its root spring.
are required does have different seasonal plants are not necessarily dormant during system by cutting off the roots close to the In order to obtain cutting material, lift the
responses, and, if so, what is the best time the winter. Some alpines, for example the crown of the plant, using a knife. Then return parent plant and shorten any top growth.
to take cuttings. Pasque flower {Pulsatilla vulgaris), start growing the plant to the ground. The pruning upsets Wash it free of soil either in a bucket of water,
W i t h o u t prior guidance, the natural in- in the new year and if root cuttings are made the natural root/shoot balance of the plant, or by hosing it down. It is then possible to
clination for the gardener would be to take after this period they do not respond; and it will grow quickly during the following distinguish the young roots which are suitable
such cuttings in the growing season, but success is only achieved during their dormant season to bring the plant back to its normal for propagation. Cut these close to the crown
of the plant, at right angles to the root. leaves and can begin to support itself. As a plant's roots will have been pruned made in such a way that the top and bottom
Return the parent plant to the garden. Second, the cutting requires sufficient food a year before the cuttings are taken, all cannot be recognized, and there is no other
Discard the thin root end by slicing with reserves to support itself while this regener- roots will show one year's growth and way in which polarity can be recognized
a sloping cut. Slice off any fibrous lateral roots ative process is going on. therefore be approximately the same thick- because roots have no leaves and axillary
on the cutting to ease handling and planting The size of the cutting, therefore, is made ness. Thus the cutting length is unaffected. buds. However, stem cuttings are not planted
later on. up of the regenerative portion and the sur- An open-ground cutting should be at least on their side, so it is unreasonable to expect
The removal of roots from the parent plant vival portion. The size of the survival portion 4 in long as it will need to survive for some root cuttings to be, no matter in what
for propagation will have had the additional depends on how long the cutting will take to 16 weeks. A cold frame/cold greenhouse direction their roots subsequently grow.
effect of root pruning and so will cause the regenerate, and this is reliant on the tempera- provides a warmer environment, and regener- Cuttings planted vertically and the correct
development of further roots for propagation ture in which the cutting is propagated: the ation will occur in about eight weeks and so a way up will usually develop to a maximum
in the ensuing propagating season. warmer the environment the quicker the smaller survival portion is required and the level provided that the cuttings were taken
stem will develop. A root cutting taken and cuttings need only be just over 2 in long. In from a healthy plant and they were given
Size of a root cutting planted in the open ground during the a warm (18°-24°C/65°-75°F) greenhouse or suitable conditions (see page 40). Cuttings
The size of a root cutting may not be critical winter may not produce a shoot until May, propagator, regeneration time is reduced to planted on their side rarely achieve more
if only one cutting is made from each root, but if it had been placed in a propagator in a four weeks, halving the survival time and than a 40 percent success rate.
but, with roots that regenerate readily and temperature of 18°-24°C/65°-75°F, it might the required food reserve once again so that In order to recognize the top of a root
from which it is possible to make more than well have regenerated in about four weeks. in this environment root cuttings need only (that is, the end nearest the crown of the
one cutting, the optimum size of a root The amount of food reserve required for be about 1 in long. plant) so it can be planted the right way up,
cutting becomes very important. It is there- survival between these t w o temperature make a flat cut at right angles to the root
fore necessary to determine the minimum environments is dramatically different. Recognizing the top of a root cutting where it was severed from its parent; at the
size for a root cutting so that maximum use The size of the regenerative portion needed, W h e n propagating plants from root cuttings bottom end cut away the thin portion using
can be made of the available root. however, will remain constant whatever the it is very important to notice the "polarity" a sloping cut. Always cut roots in this way
The size of the root cutting depends on temperature of the propagating environment, of the cutting—that it has a top and a bottom so, whatever subsequently happens to the
two factors. First, the cutting requires so a rule of t h u m b measurement for the size and therefore a "right way up." Most people root cutting, it will be possible to recognize
sufficient food to initiate and develop a stem of a root cutting is based on the variable suggest that root cuttings should be planted its correct polarity and so ensure that it is
bud to the stage at which it produces green factor—temperature. horizontally because the cuttings have been planted the right way up.
Treatment cuttings. "Balloon" the bag by twisting the container with a peat-based compost con- roots disturbed. Therefore, place only one or
After all the initial aspects have been c o n - top and then shake it vigorously. Once the taining loam, which will act as a buffer to t w o of their root cuttings in a small pot and
sidered and the root cutting has been made, cuttings are coated with a powder film, they prevent excessive drying and will maintain treat as one plant, disturbing their roots as
the next step is to consider the question of are ready for planting. an even level of nutrients. Strike off the little as possible when transplanting them
what treatment the cutting may need in It will be apparent why it is important to compost with a presser board so that it is once they are established.
order to enhance its chances of producing be able to recognize the top and bottom of level with the rim. Then press the soil down
a stem bud and then surviving until the bud the cuttings after such processing. to at least f in below the rim of the container. Aftercare
develops and establishes as a new plant. At Make a hole in the compost with a dibble Keep watering to a minimum to maintain a
present there are no growth-promoting sub- Planting and then plant the root cutting. Place the well-aerated compost, which encourages bud
stances available for root cuttings, so that it Root cuttings need to be planted in a medium top of the cutting just level with the t o p of development and reduces the likelihood of
is not possible to enhance bud production that will support them, prevent them the compost. Firm back the compost around rotting. In fact there is probably no need
in this way. The special powders produced drying out, allow adequate aeration and, the cutting. Space the remaining root cut- to water at all if the root cuttings were
for inducing roots on stems should not be when regeneration starts, provide basic tings evenly round the container. initially planted in a reasonably moist com-
used on root cuttings as they will actually nutrients. All these features can be found Cover the cuttings with grit. Strike off with post and a humid environment is maintained.
depress bud production. in the ground outdoors and the root cuttings a presser board until the grit is level with the Very often when the bud first develops,
The best way to protect a root cutting is will do well there provided that the soil is rim of the container. This weight of grit tends it produces a stem and green leaves but no
to treat it with a thin powder film of fungicide reasonably light or they are placed under a to compress the compost slightly so causing root system. This will grow later from the base
such as Captan. The root cutting, when cold frame in soil to which peat and grit have the tops of the cuttings to be pushed farther of the new stem. Even if the new roots do
planted, will be more or less completely been added. However, except perhaps for a up into the grit. This will provide almost develop from the cutting, they too will not
surrounded by soil or compost and as such few very vigorous herbaceous perennials, it perfect aeration for the bud that will develop appear until after the stem and green leaves
could easily become waterlogged and so is more convenient to plant root cuttings in a at the top of the root cutting. Do not water. have grown. Do not water until the roots
subject to all sorts of fungal rots. The survival container and then plant them out just as Label the container and stand it in an environ- appear as the cutting is still liable to rot.
of the cutting will very much depend on soon as they are established. ment (propagator, cold frame, etc.) that is Place in a well-lit area once the stem appears.
protecting it against this possibility. Select a container of suitable size for the appropriate to the size of the root cutting Harden off any young plants propagated in a
Place the cuttings in a polyethylene bag, number of root cuttings to be propagated, (see page 39). warm (2TC/70°F) environment before planting
add some fungicidal powder, using about one allowing 1-11/2 in for each cutting. For example, Some plants, for example Romneya coulteri, out or potting up. Apply a liquid fertilizer,
teaspoonful of Captan for every 100 1 in plant seven cuttings in a 31/2 in pot. Fill the do not like being dug up and having their according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Some herbaceous perennial plants die back The division of tuberous roots is not a
to a crown of buds each dormant season, and widely used technique as many plants with
their roots are modified to store food. These tuberous roots can be propagated more
specialized swollen roots are described as satisfactorily by stem, leaf and leaf bud
tuberous roots. They can be distinguished cuttings. Success depends on how well the
from modified stems by their structure and roots are stored. Lift the plant at the end of
from root cuttings by their inability to pro- the growing season. Clean the crowns and
duce adventitious buds on isolated roots and dust with a fungicide. Wrap each plant in
so grow a new plant. thick newspaper and place in a frost-free
There are t w o basic kinds of tuberous environment, below 5°C/42°F.
roots: those that develop annually, such as Just before the growing season, divide the
on dahlias, and those that are perennial and tuberous roots into portions, each with
simply increase in size, such as on begonias. at least one crown bud, from which the new
Annual tuberous roots develop from lateral stem will develop. Protect all cut surfaces
roots at the crown of the plant. During the from rotting by dusting with a powder
growing season, certain of these develop as fungicide such as Thiram or Captan. Then
food stores, swelling up and producing a place the divisions in a warm (21C/70"F), dry,
cluster of such roots. Each year the new airy area for a couple of days so that the cut
shoot system develops at the expense of the surfaces seal themselves quickly by develop-
food store in the tuberous roots, which ing a corky layer of tissue, to give added
eventually die and disintegrate. protection. Pot up the divisions in John
Perennial tuberous roots are much simpler Innes No. 1 compost if they are to be trans-
in their development. Usually the emerging planted within a month or so; otherwise
radicle of the seedling begins to modify as plant them in John Innes No. 2 compost. Label
a food storage organ, and this increases in t h e m ; do not water. Place in a frost-free
size as and when food is available. area. Set in the light once a shoot appears.
A modified stem is an organ that stores food, The stem is modified from the normal in A corm is the swollen base of a solid stem An offset is a lateral shoot that develops
which the plant can then use to survive its that it may not necessarily be above ground, which is surrounded by scale leaves. These from a leaf axil at the crown of a plant. This
dormancy period. Also, it is often the means it often grows more or less horizontally, and are attached to the stem at distinct nodes lateral shoot usually has only one bud, which
by which a plant can spread and produce new it usually acts as a food storage organ. which have a bud in each axil. At the apex develops into a plantlet with its own root and
plants. There are basically only six kinds of of the corm is a bud that will develop into growing point.
To be classed among this group a modified modified stem, all with distinct habits and the leaves and the flowering shoot.
stem must exhibit all the characteristics of growth patterns. These are tubers, rhizomes,
a stem. It must have a stem structure: that corms, bulbs, offsets and runners. They should
is it will have an apical growing point; the not be confused with modified root systems,
stem itself will carry leaves with buds in which do not possess all the features asso-
their axils; and the arrangement of the leaves ciated with a stem.
will be spiral, alternate or opposite each other. A tuber, for example, has "eyes," which
have a cluster of buds and a leaf scar. These
are the nodes of a typical stem. They are
arranged in a spiral, alternately or opposite
each other beginning from the apical bud
on the end opposite the scar where the tuber
was attached to the parent plant.

A runner also develops from the leaf axil


at the crown of a plant. It grows horizontally
A bulb, on the other hand, has a short, and, at several of its nodes, forms new plantlets
fleshy, usually vertical stem which, at its from the lateral buds. These new plants will
apex, has a growing point enclosed by thick, develop a flowering point and also send out
fleshy scale leaves. New bulbs develop in their own runners once they have established
the axil of these scale leaves. The flower bud themselves.
and foliage leaves grow up from the center
of the bulb.
A rhizome is a specialized stem that grows
horizontally just below the ground or on the
surface. The stem appears segmented as it is
composed of nodes and internodes, the
leaves and flower bud developing from
apical or lateral buds on the stem. Roots and
a lateral shoot also grow from these points.

Frequently, modified stems are referred to


as stolons, but this term has purposely been
avoided in this book as it has a multiplicity
of meanings.
The name "tuber" in horticultural terms has Any increase in numbers must be achieved
been much misused and has on occasions artificially. As the tuber is normally an organ
covered almost any swollen food storage that allows a plant to survive its dormant
organ that is chiefly underground. period, the season to propagate tubers by
A tuber is, in fact, a swollen underground artificial division should be just before growth
stem, modified as a food storage organ. It , would commence in the spring.
often is of roundish (usually terminating) Cut the tuber with a sharp knife so that
growth and is normally annual. The leaves are each piece has at least one good dominant
scaly and membranous, and the axillary buds bud or "eye." Then dust all the cut surfaces
provide the following year's shoots. with a fungicide such as Captan to reduce
Within these limitations the number of the possibility of fungal infection. Stand the
plants producing true tubers is not very pieces on a wire tray and keep in a warm
great. The commonest is the potato. Those (21°C/70°F), dry environment, for example an
plants, such as Jerusalem artichokes, that airing cabinet, for a couple of days. A
produce opposite rather than spirally arranged protective corky layer, which enhances their
buds, such as potatoes, often have a knobby survival, will then develop. These tuber
shape. Some water lilies [Nymphaea sp.) "seeds" should not be kept in the dry for any
produce small tuberlike structures that longer than necessary, otherwise the tuber
develop from the main rootstock toward the itself will desiccate.
end of the growing season. Therefore plant them out immediately in A potato tuber is marked by a scar at one
Although potatoes are prolific producers a hole twice their depth. They will then end, where it was attached to the parent
of tubers, this is unusual. Normally, plants quickly produce roots and shoots and estab- plant, and by "eyes," or nodes, placed
that develop tubers do so only in very small lish as a new plant. Label them clearly at all spirally over its surface.
numbers. stages of propagation.
A rhizome is a stem that grows laterally at crabgrass, make rapid and continuous
or above the soil surface, although in some growth and spread over large areas of C R O W N RHIZOMES divisions, unless quick bulking-up is
plants it is underground. Normally, a rhizome ground in a relatively short time. Less easy to propagate are the " c r o w n " essential, when it is better to plant small
stores food, but the degree to which it does Perhaps the most prolific of garden plants rhizomes, such as peony and asparagus, divisions in pots filled with John Innes
this varies from species to species. to be propagated using rhizomes are bearded which have what is traditionally referred No. 1 compost or similar (see page 12) in
A rhizome is a perennial, and it is propa- irises. The best time to divide their rhizomes to as herbaceous perennial rootstock. order to give them good conditions in
gated artificially by division at an opportune and establish new plants is immediately Fairly massive cuts are needed to divide which to become established. Dust the
season of the year: in most cases this is after flowering, when the old root system such rootstock into suitable pieces for cut surfaces thoroughly with a fungicide
after flowering, when the rhizome is about dies down and a new root system begins to propagation: each piece requiring at least to prevent bacterial and fungal rots.
to extend and produce new roots. develop. Lift the clump of rhizomes with a one well-developed bud. Leave them in a warm (21°C/70°F), dry
It has t w o ways of growing. In one, typified fork and knock off as much soil as possible. Divide crown rhizomes in late winter atmosphere for the surface to dry out and
by the German or bearded iris, a terminal bud Cut away and discard any old rhizomes, just before the buds enlarge and before the develop the beginnings of a protective
develops and flowers; the plant sends out leaving the current season's flushes of growth. new season's root system begins to corky layer. Then plant out the divisions.
extension growth through a lateral bud. The Cut back their roots to 2-3 in, and shorten develop. Make a few relatively large Label them clearly.
following season, this extension growth de- the leaf blades to reduce water loss before
velops its own terminal bud, which flowers, the new root systems develop. The prepared
and the plant continues to extend through rhizomes are now ready for planting.
its lateral buds. In the other way of growing, As a general rule, a rhizome should be
typified by mint and couch grass, its extension replanted at the same depth as it was grow-
growth develops continuously from the ing; for irises this is more or less in the surface
terminal bud and occasionally from a lateral soil. Usually, a rhizome has two rows of
bud, which usually produces flower spikes. roots longitudinally on each side underneath.
In habit, rhizomes may also vary: " c r o w n " Therefore, when replanting, dig out t w o
rhizomes, such as asparagus, have virtually linear shallow trenches and place the roots
no extension growth annually and develop as in these. Firm back the soil over these roots
a spreading crown, whereas other kinds of and label the rhizome clearly. If necessary,
rhizomes, such as mint, couch grass and settle in by watering.
Corms look very similar to bulbs and are directly related to the number of stems
often confused w i t h them. However, struc- produced by a corm. Normally, most plants
turally they are very different. A corm consists developing corms will propagate naturally
of a stem that is swollen as a food store and to give a sufficient increase, but should it be
that is shorter and broader than a bulb. The necessary to bulk up supplies more quickly
leaves of the stem are modified as thin, dry then an artificial technique should be used.
membranes that enclose the corm and Always buy corms from a reputable special-
protect it against injury and drying. Each leaf ized grower, because it is vital to propagate
has a bud in its axil, the top of the stem from disease-free corms.
usually develops as a flowering stem, and the Cut a large, healthy corm into several
roots are produced from the corm's base, pieces just prior to the season for planting
which is often concave. In some kinds of and ensure each piece has at least one bud.
corm, several buds at the top of the stem may Dust the cut surfaces with a fungicidal powder
grow out and flower. such as Captan or Thiram, in order to reduce
Each year a new corm develops around the the risk of rotting. Set the pieces on a wire
base of each stem. Increase, therefore, is cake-tray and place in a warm, dry environ-
ment, such as an airing cabinet, for 48 hours.
This will cause the cut surfaces to seal. Then
plant singly in a pot or in the ground, and
label clearly.
If the corm is too small to cut up satis-
factorily, then the lateral buds can be
induced to develop more readily by removing
the main stem either by snapping it off or
digging it out with a knife. Then dust the cut
surface with fungicidal powder and plant out
the corm in the ground. During the growing
season it will produce several shoots, which
will eventually become new plants.

Cormels are miniature corms that are


produced as offsets between the new
corm and the old disintegrating corm. The
quantity produced is very much a varietal
feature—gladiolus developing up to about
50 cormels.
The level of cormel production will be
influenced by the depth at which the main
corm is planted; the deeper the corm is
in the ground, the more cormels produced.
Collect the cormels when the corm is
lifted from the ground before winter and
store them below 5°C/41°F in a dry,
frost-free environment with air circulating
round them. Soak any cormels that
become dry in tepid water for 24 hours
before planting the following season.
Plant them outdoors close together and
label. They will normally take t w o years to
reach flowering size.
Bulbs are modified stems in which the scale fleshy, but are often relatively narrow. The eventually starts flowering. In some plants, Bulbils are tiny bulbs that grow in the leaf
leaves are modified for food storage. There roots are produced in midsummer or later, notably tulips and bulbous irises (see below), axils of stems, which are above ground, of
are two kinds of bulbs, tunicate and scaly, and persist through to the following year. the original bulb disintegrates after flowering, certain species of lily such as L tigrinum.
and they differ in the development of their leaving a cluster of small bulbs as well as a After flowering time, collect the bulbils
scale leaves. new flowering bulb. In autumn, pull these off the plant as they mature. Set them 1 in
apart and plant out at twice their own apart in a pot filled with John Innes No. 1
Tunicate bulbs depth. compost or similar (see page 12). Cover with
Tunicate bulbs, such as daffodils and tulips grit and place in a cold frame. In autumn of
(see below), have fleshy, very broad scale the following year, transplant the bulbils into
leaves, more or less surrounding the previous the ground.
leaf so that the leaves make nearly complete
concentric rings around the growing point.
Each scale leaf has an axillary bud. The
outer scale leaves become dry and m e m -
branous and give the bulb good protection
against drying and injury. The roots of a
tunicate bulb develop at the beginning of its
growing season on the outside edge of the
basal plate.

Bulblets are offsets that develop on some


lilies, such as Lilium longiflorum and L
bulbiferum, just below ground level either
above or below the main bulb.
In late summer, gently detach any bulblets
Natural bulb reproduction and plant the bulb and bulblets straight into
Bulbs propagate naturally by division and for the ground at twice their own depth.
some this is the only way they can be prop- Unfortunately, only a few species naturally
agated. In the annual growth cycle the apical grow bulblets in any quantity, although some
bud develops and produces a new bulb other important species, such as L auratum,
during the growing season. If an axillary bud L speciosum and L tigrinum, do produce a
develops into an active growing point, then small number.
this also develops as a bulb that may take a
year or t w o of further growth before it sepa-
rates from its original parent (see below) and

Scaly bulbs
Scaly bulbs, such as fritillaries, nomocharis
and lilies (see below), do not develop a dry,
membranous covering and are very much
more susceptible to drying than tunicate
bulbs. The leaves are normally scaly and very
To increase a particular variety of bulb a hole around the bulb, break off some scales As soon as these bulblets appear, remove grit and label. Water sparingly. Keep the new
rapidly it is necessary to use artificial tech- and replace the soil round the bulb. the scale leaves from their bag and plant plants in a warm (21" C/70"F), light environment.
niques, because the natural rate of increase, Any scale leaves will carry potential rotting them vertically in John Innes No. 1 potting In early spring the bulblets will produce leaves
although steady, is generally slow. agents and so they must be protected. Place compost or equivalent (see page 12). They above the compost. In summer, harden off
O n e technique is to take leaf cuttings, the scales in a polyethylene bag filled with a can either be planted singly in a 3-31/2in pot the plants.
although, with bulbs, these leaves are modified fungicidal powder such as Captan. Shake or lined out into a deep tray, depending on At the end of the season, when the leaves
in the form of bulb scales and the technique the bag vigorously until the scale leaves are numbers. Ensure the tips of the scales are have died down, lift and separate the new
is known as bulb scaling. completely covered with a thin film of just visible above the compost. Cover with young bulbs. Replant immediately.
Scaly bulbs, such as lilies and fritillaries, fungicide.
have relatively small, narrow scale leaves Mix the scale leaves with four times their
which can readily be pulled off the basal volume of an extending medium, which will
plate of the bulbs. W h e n they can best be allow them to develop in a damp, well-
propagated depends on the availability of aerated environment. Various materials, such
bulbs. Ideally, it is easier to deal with fresh as damp vermiculite, can be used very
bulbs, and these are normally available in successfully, but, provided that it is adequately
October/November. Imported bulbs are not sterile, a mixture of equal proportions of
usually available until January/March, and damp peat and grit is just as suitable. Place
these will invariably have wilted slightly, the mixture and a label in a polyethylene bag.
which makes t h e m less than ideal as propa- Blow into the bag; when fully expanded, tie
gating material. its neck. Store in a warm (21°C/70°F) place,
Take cuttings from a fresh bulb in a turgid such as an airing cabinet, so that new plant-
condition by pressing the scale leaves out- lets can develop.
wards until they snap off close to the basal The rate at which regeneration occurs is
plate of the bulb. W i t h a flaccid bulb, cut the related chiefly to temperature, but is also
scale leaves as close to the basal plate as a varietal characteristic—some being quicker
possible, using a sharp knife. to propagate than others. Generally activity
To propagate from one bulb, cut off only may be expected in about six to eight weeks.
a few scale leaves from the outside of the The new plant will initially take the form
bulb. Some bulbs, for example lilies, do not of a bulblet and will develop on the broken
like being lifted and replanted; therefore dig surface at the base of the scale leaf.
Some tunicate bulbs, such as hyacinth, grow Set the bulb upside down, with the scale The process follows exactly the same Then place the scored bulb in a warm
larger each year and propagate very slowly leaf bases exposed, on a wire tray or in a tray pattern as for scooping except that, instead (21C/70°F), dry environment for a day; this
by natural division of the bulb. They therefore containing dry sand. Place in a temperature of cutting away the basal plate of the bulb, will cause the cuts to open out. Dust the cut
have to be propagated artificially if a signifi- of at least 21°C/70°F to encourage calluses the basal plate is scored with a sharp knife. surface with a fungicide such as Captan.
cant increase in numbers is required. to form on the scale leaf bases and so further Cut through the basal plate of a tunicate bulb Subsequently, the treatment is the same as
The scale leaves of tunicate bulbs are large combat any chance of infection. At the same until the scale leaves are scored to a depth for scooped bulbs.
and encircle the bulb; they are not as readily time, the bulb should be kept as dry as of about 1/4in. Make four equally spaced The bulblets produced in this way usually
removed from the basal plate as the leaves possible, but ensure that the scale leaves do scores if the bulb is large; on smaller bulbs only require a further t w o or three years to
of scaly bulbs. It is therefore necessary to not desiccate. An airing cabinet is probably t w o scores at right angles will suffice. reach flowering size.
leave their cut scale leaves in situ while a suitable environment, but dampen the
inducing them to produce plantlets. There sand occasionally.
are t w o ways of doing this: scooping and In about t w o to three months the new
scoring. bulblets will develop on the cut surfaces of
the scale leaves. Plant the bulb in a pot, still
Scooping placing it upside down so that the bulblets
This is carried out toward the end of the are just below the surface of the compost.
bulb's dormant season. To scoop the bulb Label clearly. Harden off and then leave in a
successfully, and with minimum damage, cold frame.
requires a special t o o l : an old teaspoon with In spring, the bulblets will grow and produce
one sharpened edge is excellent. Use it to leaves and the old bulb will gradually dis-
cut out the basal plate in one scooping integrate. At the end of the season lift and
movement, leaving the rest of the bulb separate the bulblets, and replant. They will
undisturbed and the cut surfaces of all the normally take a further three or four years
scale leaves exposed. Although it is possible before flowering size is reached.
to do this with a knife, it is inadvisable as the
center of the bulb may become macerated Scoring
and subject to rotting. Once the basal plate Flowering bulbs can be produced in a shorter
has been removed, dust the cut scale leaf time by using a similar technique called
surfaces liberally with a fungicidal powder to scoring, which makes fewer, larger bulblets
minimize potential rotting. as there are less cut scale leaf surfaces.
Dividing a plant is a c o m m o n way to propagate opportune time to divide such plants is
many herbaceous perennials, and it is also directly after flowering, as this is when the
used to rejuvenate favorite plants and keep new vegetative shoots are being produced and
them in a vigorous condition. Propagation the new root system is developing. In very
by division is also successful with shrubs, such late-flowering subjects, this would be the
as sumac, that produce suckers; with semi- following spring.
woody perennials, such as New Zealand flax, Lift the parent plant and shake off as much
that produce a crown of offset shoots; and soil as possible. Then wash the crown in a
with most plants with modified stems, such as bucket, or hose it clean of any residual soil.
bearded iris (see pages 42-9). The plant can be divided without this pre-
liminary preparation, but it is much easier to
Herbaceous plants with fibrous crowns deal with clean plants, especially if the soil is
The commonest method of propagating wet and muddy. Shorten any tall stems above
plants by division is that used for herbaceous the ground to prevent unnecessary water
perennials, such as chrysanthemums, with loss, especially if the division takes place in
fibrous roots and a relatively loose crown. summer. Break off a piece with at least one
Normally, the central part of the crown good "eye" from the periphery of the crown,
becomes woody over the course of two or where the young shoots are generally pro-
three years. As this woody area does not duced; avoid the central woody crown, which
produce many shoots and generally loses is of no value and should be discarded. If the
vigor, it is discarded and the remainder of piece proves rather intractable to remove,
the clump is divided into suitable-sized cut it off, using an old carving knife or similar
portions for planting out and reestablishing blade. Plant out the new clump as quickly as
a new crown. possible to the same depth as it was growing
The only variable feature of this form of previously. W h e n replanted it should be
propagation is the time at which division is labelled and watered in—indeed "puddled"
carried out. As a general rule, the most in would be more appropriate.
Herbaceous plants with fleshy crowns separate naturally into individual new plant- and replant- the divisions fairly quickly to
Many herbaceous plants, such as hostas, lets each season. avoid the roots drying.
develop a compact, fleshy crown that is not After flowering, or in the spring if the
easy to pull apart. plant flowers in the autumn, as does Gentiana Woody shrubs
The best way to propagate these plants sino-ornata, lift the plant and tease apart There are a few woody shrubs, such as black-
is by division toward the end of their dormant the divisions. Replant as soon as possible. thorn, that produce suckers, which then
season, when buds will begin to shoot, in- Label and water in well. develop into individual clumps of stems.
dicating the most vigorous areas. This is a very simple but effective system Lift these plants in the dormant season and
Lift the parent plant and shake off as much of increasing plants. If the crowns are lifted wash thoroughly. Divide the clump of stems
soil as possible. Wash the crown thoroughly. and divided fairly frequently the rate of into convenient-sized portions. Normally the
W i t h a convenient-sized knife, cut the crown increase can be quite dramatic. However, main core of the clump will be woody and
into pieces. The size of divisions will depend plants left in situ for a long period tend will carry few roots. This will be of little value
on preference, but must include at least one to produce only a few large divisions. for propagation, purposes, so take the new
developed shoot. Avoid latent buds, which pieces from the younger, more vigorous
do not always develop satisfactorily. Dust Semiwoody herbaceous plants growth on the outside of the clump.
the cut surfaces with fungicidal powder to Some perennials with upright, swordlike Cut back the branches fairly drastically to
reduce the chances of fungal rots. Do not leaves, for example Phormium, increase in reduce water loss, as the buds will break in
allow the divisions, especially from really size by producing a sort of offset that develops the spring before sufficient roots have been
fleshy rooted plants such as hostas, to dry into a large crown of individual shoots, each produced. Replant the divisions back in the Plants, such as Michaelmas daisies, that
excessively. Therefore replant the divisions with its own root system. ground as soon as possible and label. produce particularly loose crowns can
either in the ground or in a pot as quickly as To propagate these plants, it is best to Lift relatively isolated suckers individually be propagated by separating off single
is feasible. Label them clearly. divide them in the spring, although it can in the dormant season and use to establish stems on the periphery of the crown so
be done at any time of the year. Lift them and new plants. that each has an adventitious root
Naturally dividing alpines shake out the .soil, if necessary hosing or If the plant has been grafted—as may system. These single stem portions are
There are a number of alpine plants, such washing the crown clean. Pull the various happen with Japanese quinces—then it is described as "Irishman's cuttings," and
as campanulas, which lend themselves to pieces apart. Cut the clump with a spade or the rootstock, not the cultivated variety, they should be planted at once.
propagation by division because their crowns hatchet if it is hard and woody in the middle. that is divided.
Offsets Although the term offset is normally used
An offset is a plantlet that has developed for a plantlet that is separated from its
laterally on a stem either above or below parent during the growing season, it is also
ground: the stem arises from a crown bud used to describe slower-developing shoots
and usually carries no other buds. that are produced by mainly monocotyledo-
Most plants, such as sempervivums, that nous plants such as yuccas. Eventually these
produce offsets first grow a miniature plant shoots should be sufficiently mature to be
with only minimal roots. A root system will separated from the parent and planted on.
not fully develop until late in the growing A pineapple plant produces offsets that
season. can be used for propagation once its fruit is
To speed up this process of propagation, nearly mature. These offsets are variously
pull away the offset from its parent, usually described as slips, ratoons or suckers. Cut
in spring. Either plant out in the garden or them off the plant close to the crown and
pot it up, using a cuttings compost with plant out.
added grit, which will drain freely and so Many corm and bulb plants, such as
ensure good root development. fritillarias, each year produce miniature repro-
Where offset development is poor, it is ductions of themselves from the bases of the
possible to stimulate offsets by removing newly developing corms or bulbs. These are
the plant's growing tip. This has the same known as cormels (see page 45) and bulbils
effect as removing a terminal bud. and bulblets (see page 47).

Runners example of this kind of natural vegetative To produce large, well-established indi- These are obtained by placing a pot under
A runner is a more or less horizontal stem reproduction occurs in the strawberry plant. vidual plants, dig in plenty of good compost each runner.
that arises from a crown bud and creeps New plantlets usually root down and for rooting; in early summer, thin out some Dig a hole in the ground beneath a develop-
overground. The leaves are normally scale- produce new plants quite successfully. How- of the runners, and pin down the rest into ing plantlet. Set a pot containing good
like, and rooting may occur at the nodes. The ever, unless controlled, a mat of new plants the compost, evenly radiating them around compost into it and then push back the soil to
lateral buds develop as new plants, and tends to develop, and these are not easily the plant. This method will induce early keep the pot in position. Pin down the runner,
eventually the stem of the runner deteriorates, lifted and separated without damage, so thin rooting, but the rate of development will using wire bent in the shape of a staple, so
leaving a new isolated plant. The classic out the runners regularly. not be quite as fast as for pot-grown runners. that the plantlet will root in the pot.
The propagation of plants from stems is one to develop roots. W i t h this method, it is seeds, as it is not sexually mature. Therefore recently, it should root from its stems quite
of the most widely practiced techniques of difficult to keep the cutting alive until its it is described as being juvenile, and the only readily, but this is not always so. Many plants,
vegetative propagation. roots have grown and established. Its ad- way it can reproduce is asexually, from however recently they were vegetatively
The technique involves initiating, develop- vantage is that, usually, it takes up much less vegetative parts. Many juvenile plants have propagated, may in fact be quite old! If the
ing and establishing a root system on a stem space than propagating by layering. a very high capacity to regenerate vegetat- original plant was grown from seed and
either before or after that stem has been Always propagate from stems that have a ively. The juvenile stage is not transient but displayed attractive ornamental character-
removed from the parent plant, and this can high capacity to produce roots. The gardener fixed in some ornamental plants, such as istics, it would always have been propagated
be done in t w o ways: by layering and by stem must learn to judge this capacity in plants, some varieties of ivy {Hedera helix) and the vegetatively to maintain those character-
cuttings. as it has a significant effect on the eventual Lawson's cypress varieties 'Ellwoodii' and istics in subsequent generations, but its
W i t h layering, the stem is encouraged to success of the layer or cutting. 'Fletcheri,' and these have a greater capacity inherent capacity to produce roots on stems
produce roots before it is severed from the The age of the parent plant, as well as that than their adult varieties to produce roots will have declined, despite a temporary
parent plant. The main problem is to establish of the actual stem to be propagated, both on stems. resurgence after pruning.
the rooted layer after it has been removed have major influences on the capacity of a Juvenile plants, however, do not have Thus new (that is, young) varieties are
from the parent. stem to produce roots. much value in the garden as they do not generally easier to propagate from stems
W i t h stem cuttings, the stem is removed A seedling that has recently germinated flower and produce seed. Most of them will than older varieties. This is particularly
from the parent plant before it is encouraged cannot immediately flower and produce eventually mature into adult plants, when evident with plants such as deciduous
they will flower. In this condition a plant is azaleas, in which the old Ghent varieties are
sexually mature, capable of regenerating by over 140 years old, the newer Ham varieties
producing seeds, and so it does not need to are only 20 years old, and the Exbury
reproduce vegetatively. varieties are 40 years old. The last t w o
A plant's capacity to regenerate from groups are relatively easy to propagate
vegetative parts declines with age. Thus the from stems.
gardener wishing to propagate vegetatively Before propagating from stems, it is also
from a mature plant encounters a problem. necessary to consider whether there is a best
This can be overcome by growing a mature time of year in which to propagate a particular
plant that does not produce flowers, so that plant by a particular technique, as it is point-
its capacity to regenerate vegetatively may less to do so in the wrong season. The
be increased, and thus the rooting capacity of capacity of many plants to produce roots on
its stems. stems varies considerably during the different
To prevent the plant, or at least the stems seasons, whereas in others there is no distinct
used for propagation, from flowering, prune seasonal variation. The index at the back of
them rigorously so that strong, vegetative this book will tell the gardener when, where
(that is nonflowering) shoots are produced. and how to propagate a particular plant.
The harder the stems are pruned, the faster
they will grow and the more they will produce
roots. The first flush of growth on a stem
always has the greatest capacity to develop
roots. Really fast growth is achieved by a
combination of hard pruning and forcing the
plant in a high temperature, at least 16°C/
60"F. Under these conditions, roots may be
induced on otherwise quite intractable stems.
The capacity of a stem to root will also be
dependent on the age of the parent plant.
The older the plant, the less it will be able to
produce roots on stems, even if the stem to
be propagated has been severely pruned. If
the plant has been grown from a seed by the
gardener, then he will know how old it is, and
if he can successfully propagate from it.
If the plant to be propagated has been
produced by a vegetative technique quite
Layering is one of the oldest techniques used are to be layered in an ordinary garden Layering is normally done in late winter/ right angle. However, in plants that are
by gardeners to propagate woody plants. A border as opposed to a purpose-developed early spring, as soon as the soil can be worked particularly difficult to root, the stem should
stem is encouraged to develop roots before layer bed, the soil must be dug deeply to down to a tilth. first be girdled by cutting into the stem with a
it is removed from the parent plant. This provide good drainage and so reduce the As the technique is likely to be carried out knife or by binding the stem tightly with a
method is easy as it avoids any complicated chances of waterlogging. It can be further in the garden and not in a purpose-prepared piece of copper wire at the bend.
environmental control to ensure the stem lightened and improved by the addition of nursery bed, it is important to prepare the Bend the stem at right angles 9 in behind its
survives while the root system is developing. peat and/or grit, depending on the heaviness soil both thoroughly and effectively. Dig as tip and set it in the trench against the straight
The early gardeners had probably observed of the soil. deeply as possible. Then add peat and grit in side with its tip exposed above the trench. If
this process when it occurred naturally under W a r m t h will improve rooting, so ensure the sufficient quantities to convert the existing the stem is whippy, peg it down with heavy
certain conditions. To do it artificially they layered stem and soil are placed where they soil into a rooting medium with good water- wire staples. Bury the stem with soil, firm in
just repeated the conditions and modified will receive adequate sunlight. However, holding capacity, good aeration and adequate and water well.
the technique. warmth will only be effective if the soil is drainage. Keep the soil reasonably moist, especially
As with any method of propagation, it is moist, so water the layered stems during dry Trim a rapidly grown stem of side-shoots in dry periods. Rooting will normally occur
necessary to consider both the stem from periods. and leaves for about 4-24 in behind the tip. during the growing season,
which the layer is to be made and what soil In most methods of layering, the soil should Pull the stem to ground level and mark its In autumn, sever the layered stem from the
is suitable to encourage rooting. be carefully forked away from the layer once position on the soil 9 in behind its tip. Dig a parent plant so that the new plant can
The condition of the stem will have a it has rooted, so it can be lifted. Do not allow trench from that point, with one straight side .accustom itself to an independent existence.
significant effect on the eventual success of the roots to dry out, otherwise they will die. about 4 - 6 in deep and the other sloping up About three to four weeks later, cut off the
propagating by layering. For greatest success, Layers that may have difficulty rooting to ground level near the parent plant. growing tip to encourage the roots to
the gardener should develop vigorous, rapidly successfully should be well established before The secret of inducing root formation is to establish. Pot up or plant out the layer and
grown stems with their high capacity -to they are lifted. To encourage this, sever the restrict movement of food and hormones in label it. If rooting is not well advanced by
produce roots. Certain methods of layering, newly rooted layers from the parent plant the tissues of the stem: this is usually autumn, leave the layer to establish for a
such as stooling, encourage this capacity in about three to four weeks prior to lifting and achieved by bending the stem at least at a further year before lifting and transplanting it.
stems as part of the normal system of replanting.
management, but in others, such as simple This weaning can be further enhanced by
layering, it is necessary to prepare the stems pruning the stems so that there is a greater
by pruning the parent plant well before balance of root to stem.
propagation can take place. W h e n pruning
bear in mind that, with most methods of Simple layering
layering, the branches to be layered will have Simple layering is perhaps the easiest and
to be brought down to ground level. most effective method of layering a wide
The soil around the parent plant will also variety of woody plants, and it is a technique
require preparation so that it will induce the that can be carried out with minimum dis-
stem to form roots. Rooting will be encouraged turbance to the parent plant.
primarily by the exclusion of light, but also by A stem is buried in the soil behind its tip
the availability of oxygen and the presence so that roots are induced in this area. Once
of sufficient moisture and warmth. the root system is established, the stem can
The exclusion of light from the stem, that be severed from the parent. The roots are
is blanching it, is extremely important when encouraged to develop because the plant
encouraging roots to start growing. The foods and hormones are restricted where the
sooner light is excluded from the stem, the stem is buried. To be successful, the gardener
more effective is the response. So, the must use stems that have a high capacity to
earlier a stem is buried or earthed up the produce roots, and they should also be near
more likely it is to root. This effect cannot ground level.
be overemphasized, as lateness in earthing Twelve or more months before layering,
up is probably the commonest reason why rigorously prune a low branch or branches
a stem fails to produce roots, provided that on the parent plant so that young, rapidly
it is basically vigorous and capable of pro- grown shoots are produced. These will be
ducing roots. more amenable to the bending and manipu-
The soil for layering must have a good lation involved in the actual layering oper-
water-holding capacity, good aeration and ation, and because of their rapid growth will
adequate drainage. Thus, especially if plants have the required capacity to produce roots.
Air layering is one of the oldest artificial Then girdle the stem (see page 54) so that Prune back any new growth on the rooted similar (see page 12). Slightly loosen the moss
techniques of vegetative propagation. More food and hormones build up in the region layer toward the end of the dormant season. ball and roots. Place the rooted layer in the
than 4,000 years ago, it was tried in China where rooting is required—usually about 9 in Then cut off the stem with shears just below pot. Firm so the roots are in contact with the
and, because of its continued use in that behind the tip. Treat the stem or the cut the point of layering and remove the black compost. Do not firm too heavily and so
country, it has traditionally been called surfaces with hormone powder to improve polyethylene square. compress the moss ball and roots. Label and
Chinese layering. It is also sometimes referred rooting. The most critical stage when air layering place in a protected environment until
to as marcottage from the great era of French The most effective rooting medium is is to establish the rooted layer successfully. further root growth develops and the new
gardening in the late seventeenth and sphagnum moss as it holds water, is well Fill a pot with John Innes No. 1 compost or plant is established.
eighteenth centuries. aerated and is readily manipulated. Soak the
An unpruned stem on a normally growing moss overnight so that it is completely moist.
woody plant is induced to develop roots by Take t w o large handfuls of moss and squeeze
restricting the stem about 6-9 in behind its it, then work it into a ball so that all the fibers
growing tip and then excluding light. This are interwoven. W h e n it reaches about 21/2 in
combination will cause the initiation of roots, in diameter, split it in half, using the thumbs
and, if the roots are surrounded by moist, in the same way that an orange is divided.
warm soil, then they will develop. The stem Place the t w o halves around the treated area
is then severed from the parent and estab- of the stem and knead them together again
lished as a new plant. so that the moss stays firm.
As a technique, air layering can be used on Hold the moss in place with a square of
a wide range of plants that have w o o d y black polyethylene, and secure it to the stem
stems, and it is a useful way of producing with sticky insulating tape. It is important to
plants without specialized equipment or ensure that moisture cannot run down into
disturbing them unduly. It is carried out either the moss and so waterlog it. So, turn the tape
in spring on the matured w o o d of the previous spirally round the ends of the polyethylene,
season, in which case layering is close behind overlapping it until it covers part of the stem.
the growing point, or in the late summer on The black polyethylene will retain moisture,
the hardening shoots of that season's growth. maintain a warm environment, exclude light
Select a stem of the current year's growth. and allow gases to permeate the moss.
Trim any side-shoots off the stem for about The layered stem will usually take at least
6-12 in behind the tip. a growing season to produce adequate roots.
Tip layering is a specialized technique used Select a new strong stem as it develops Dig and cultivate the soil thoroughly, if In about three weeks, shoots should appear
for the various members of the genus Rubus, from the crown of the plant during the spring. possible dig in a deep layer of organic matter above ground level.
such as blackberries and loganberries. If the As soon as it reaches 15-18 in long, pinch out to conserve moisture and prevent the roots In September cut back the original stem
growing tip of such a plant is buried in the the tip to encourage branching. The growth drying. Improve the top 6 in by adding some at the crown of the parent plant, so that the
soil, it will naturally swell, develop roots and of these stems is rapid and vigorous, and peat and grit. layer can establish as an independent plant.
establish itself. This phenomenon is modified soon the stems can be pinched out again. Pull down a stem and make a mark where Cut off the rest of the original stem and
to suit the gardener. Continue to do this until midsummer, when its tip touches the ground. Start digging a shorten the growing tip before lifting the
Tip layering is an invaluable technique for about six to eight tips should be well trench at this spot, making it 4 in deep. Give rooted layer in autumn after leaf fall. Replant
propagating a few plants, as it can be carried developed. it smoothed vertical sides except for one the layer immediately and label it.
out in the garden on one part of a plant It is at this stage that the stems can be which should be sloped toward the parent Protect any layers that cannot be replanted
without disturbing the flowering or fruiting layered. However, as the roots of these plant. Smoothed vertical sides will help any straight away by wrapping their roots in
ability of the rest of it. particular plants are fine, fibrous and easily shoots to grow vertically and so produce a damp newspaper, which is then placed in a
The members of the genus Rubus, es- damaged, the soil for layering should be well manageable plant. plastic bag. Close the bag and tie the neck
pecially the fruiting varieties, are prone to prepared so that once the layers have rooted Place the tip in the deepest part of the tightly so the roots will,not dry out.
virus infections, and they should be propa- they can be lifted with minimum damage to trench and pin it down with a heavy wire Propagation by tip layering in this way can
gated only from known virus-free stocks. their root system. staple. Replace the soil, firm and water. be repeated each year.
Stooling is an entirely artificial system of As the shoots grow, continue to earth them
propagating plants by layering, because a up until each shoot is buried to about 9 in.
plant is grown just to develop new plants, No further action will now be necessary,
which it will do year after year. unless the summer is particularly dry, when
It is a technique that is principally used to the soil should be watered to encourage the
produce specialized rootstocks that control roots to develop. Just keep the soil around
the vigor and size of a tree, especially fruit the stems warm and moist. Too much water
trees. However it can be employed on any will depress temperatures.
plant that will respond to severe annual In early winter, after the leaves have fallen
pruning. and the shoots are fully dormant, gently fork
Plant a rooted layer, cutting or seedling in away the soil back down to the original level,
well-cultivated ground and label it. Establish so exposing the stool and its shoots. The base
for one growing season. Never use a plant of each shoot should have produced roots.
that has been grafted as it will reproduce the Remove these rooted layers from the
rootstock and not the grafted variety. All parent stool. W i t h a pair of shears cut
clonal fruit-tree rootstocks should be desig- them flush with the stool, so that no stub
nated EMLA, which indicates they are free remains. Replant them immediately and label
from virus disease. During the early part of them clearly.
the dormant season, cut back the rootstock, After removing and replanting the rooted
leaving about 1-2 in of the stem above ground layers, cultivate the soil around the stool and
level. clean off any residual earth on the stool
In the following spring, earth up any shoots itself so that it is fully exposed to the elements.
as soon as they are about 6 in long, so that This is necessary to ensure that the buds
the whole plant is covered. W o r k the soil receive adequate winter chilling and will
down between the shoots so that each shoot therefore break evenly the following spring,
is completely surrounded by soil. Do not when the whole process is repeated, except
delay earthing up as one of the most critical that a general fertilizer is added at about
factors in stooling is excluding light from the 4 oz to the square yard. Successful production
plant at an early stage. will depend on looking after the stool.
French layering is an extension of stooling Leave the plant to grow undisturbed during ground. Space out the stems evenly in a star that will provide the next year's stems for
and, as such, it also requires a specially grown the following growing season. arrangement around the stool, and make a pegging down.
plant from which new plants can develop. After the leaves have dropped, reduce any trench 2 in deep under each stem. Drop each Gently fork away the soil mounds, after
Like stooling, it produces an annual crop of shoots to a manageable number—say, at the stem into its trench and cover it until only the leaf fall. Cut away the rooted stems flush with
rooted layers, but initially it takes longer for most, eight strong shoots. Cut back their tips tips of the new shoots are exposed. the stool, avoiding the current year's growth.
the sequence to become established. so that each stem is the same length; then Earth up the new shoots as they grow, Divide each stem into individual plants with
Cultivate some ground by digging deeply peg them down horizontally over the ground. always keeping the tips exposed, until the their own root systems. Plant these out
and adding some organic matter, peat and By positioning the stems horizontally early in mound is about 6 in above ground level. Water immediately; label and water in.
grit. Plant a rooted layer and label it. Allow the winter, the buds will break evenly along the layers only if the weather is particularly Reduce the current year's growth on the
it to establish for a growing season. During the entire length of the shoots in spring. dry. Do not overwater. stool to, say, eight strong shoots, and prune
the early part of the dormant season, cut it In spring, unpeg the stems when their The central stool meanwhile will be pro- to an equal length. Peg these down on the
back to 1-2 in above ground level. shoots are about 2-3 in long. Cultivate the ducing a fresh crop of shoots, and it is these ground so that the sequence can continue.
This technique is used to propagate numerous Cultivate some soil and incorporate peat
heaths and heathers, dwarf rhododendrons and grit if the soil is heavy and likely to WAYS TO BURY A PLANT In those plants with brittle branches,
and other related plants, and any shrub of become waterlogged. This will lighten it and Compress the branches into a single row work the soil down among them so that
suitable habit that is not readily propagated improve aeration. towards the middle of the plant if the each stem is surrounded. This pattern is
by other methods. Excavate a hole large enough for the whole branching is sparse. This pattern saves more difficult to keep weed free.
A plant that is already mature, and possibly plant to be " d r o p p e d " into it, leaving only the space and makes weeding easy. It should The traditional pattern is to excavate a
even straggly, is dug up with a reasonably tips of the stems visible. Dig the base of the not be done if the plant produces a thick bowl-shaped hole and to push out all the
sized root ball. It is then completely buried so hole well to allow efficient drainage, other- mass of stems as rooting will not be branches to the perimeter, and fill in the
only the tips of the branches show. These wise waterlogging will discourage successful satisfactory if there is insufficient room for middle of the hole with soil. This pattern
branches will root, and they are then lifted, rooting. the roots to develop. is easy to weed but is wasteful of space.
separated, and planted out to establish as Lift the plant with as complete a root ball
new plants. as possible. Place it in the hole and arrange
Dropping is not necessarily the most its branches in any of three different patterns
desirable method of propagating plants as within the hole; the choice will depend upon
often the resulting layers are less shapely than the habit of the plant under consideration.
those produced by cuttings, but it is easy and Whichever pattern of dropping is used,
simple to follow. ensure that only 1 in or so of the stem tips are
Prepare a plant in the dormant season by exposed: greater exposure of stem will cause
pruning it rigorously to encourage new, the new growth to be leggy. Cover the plant
strong-growing stems with a high capacity to with soil, firm in and label.
produce roots. Older, nonpruned stems will Water during the growing season if the soil
respond less satisfactorily to propagation but dries.
will nevertheless usually regenerate. Lift the whole plant in autumn. The
Dropping is normally done in spring before branches will have rooted, usually fairly
growth begins, but once the ground is no close to the soil surface. Cut away each
longer frozen, so the soil can be broken down division and plant it out or pot it up. Label
to a tilth. clearly. Discard the old stool.
Growing plants from stem cuttings is by far w o o d stem is still immature, it is more unit is ideal Hardwood cuttings, on the other they have grown extremely rapidly; and they
the most popular method of vegetative susceptible to water loss, rot and disease, and hand, are propagated outdoors where the soil require sophisticated environmental con-
propagation. However, only in the last 150 it therefore requires a highly controlled is quite warm enough and the air, even when trols to minimize water loss and so ensure
years, since the availability of cheap materials environment in which to develop. frosty, is not too cool. Greenwood, semiripe their survival until they become established.
and the development of greenhouses, cold A stem cutting's food reserve is used not and evergreen cuttings need a warm, humid Greenwood cuttings are made from the
frames, etc., has it played a significant part in only to initiate roots but also to maintain the environment. This can be supplied by placing tips of the leafy stems during early to mid-
vegetative propagation. cutting until it is fully established as a new a small pot filled with water inside a pot that summer. Their stems are soft, although
The main difficulty about taking stem plant. The size of the reserve depends on the has the cuttings and compost in it and harder than softwood cuttings, and they
cuttings is that a stem, separated from its condition of the stem: a cutting from a putting them under a polyethylene tent, or by should be propagated in a controlled en-
parent plant, has to survive while it initiates mature (hardwood) stem will be able to placing the pot that has the cuttings and vironment, such as a closed case.
and develops roots and establishes itself as a survive much longer than an immature (soft- compost in it inside a larger pot filled with Semiripe cuttings are made in late summer
new plant. This distinguishes the technique wood) cutting. A cutting should therefore be moist peat and putting them under a poly- from stem growth that has slowed and
from layering (see page 54), in which the stem encouraged to develop roots as quickly as ethylene tent. However, the main disadvant- hardened but is still actively growing. Al-
is not separated from the parent plant until possible to avoid exhausting its food reserve. age of these t w o environments is that it is easy though these leafy stems are subject to water
after a new root system is produced. It should also be exposed as little as possible for the gardener to overwater and so kill the loss, they can survive under less rigorous
Because a stem cutting has no support to variable weather conditions to prevent it cuttings through rotting and fungal diseases environmental controls than softer w o o d
system from the parent plant, it is necessary drying out—leafy cuttings being particularly unless extreme care is taken. Cold frames, cuttings.
for the gardener to supply this himself. He prone to water loss. closed cases and polyethylene tunnels are Ripewood cuttings are stems taken from
should ensure that the propagating environ- A cutting should be taken from a fast- therefore preferable. evergreen plants during winter. They have
ment will not only enhance root development growing stem from the current year's growth almost hardwood stems but, because they are
but also maintain the cutting until it is at the correct season for the condition of the Different stem conditions leafy, they are not entirely dormant and will
self-supporting. stem (for example, green w o o d in early A stem cutting can be divided into five w o o d require some degree of environmental control.
summer, hard wood during the dormant conditions for the purposes of propagation. Hardwood cuttings are made from leafless
Selecting a suitable stem season). It should then produce roots quite Softwood cuttings have leaves and are dormant stems of deciduous plants. They
The ability of a stem to produce roots will be readily, without the artificial aid of rooting made from the first flush of growth in spring. require minimal environmental control for
dependent on the age of the parent plant and hormones; if it is dipped in hormone, the Their stems are normally very soft because survival.
its particular variety, and on the stem to be treatment is likely to have little or no effect.
propagated (see page 53). The gardener However for plants that are difficult to root,
should try to propagate from a plant that dip stem cuttings into a rooting hormone, or WHERE TO CUT A STEM
has recently matured and is a relatively new wound them, to stimulate the roots. A nodal cutting has its
variety rather than an old plant or old variety basal cut just (-1/8in) below a
of plant. Environmental control bud, or node. It is the
The parent plant should be pruned rigor- The rate at which a stem cutting develops traditional place to cut soft,
ously to encourage it to produce fast-growing its roots is dependent on the temperature immature stems as a stem
vegetative shoots from which stem cuttings around it. The processes controlling root just below a node is harder
will be made, as these shoots are most likely initiation are essentially chemical; the higher and more resistant to
to produce roots. The harder the plant is the temperature the faster the chemical fungal rots than a stem
pruned, the faster will be the new growth. reaction and thus root production. However, cut further away from the
The whole success of propagation by stem if a whole cutting is kept warm, its tip will nodes. This latter cut is
cuttings depends on the ability of the stem grow and food will be diverted from the known as an internodal
to produce roots—and if this is absent or at important function of forming roots. Its food cut, and it is used mainly
a very low level, then the stem should be reserves may then be used up before the for more mature, woodier
discarded. cutting has become self-supporting. There- stems.
A stem's ability to produce roots may have fore, a cutting requires t w o temperatures: a Other methods of taking
seasonal fluctuations, but this depends on the cool, aerial environment to keep tip growth a cutting are leaf bud, heel
condition of the stem, that is whether it is to a minimum, and warmth below to en- or mallet cuttings (see
soft w o o d , hard w o o d , etc. A softwood courage root production. pages 62-3) or vine eye
cutting is taken soon after the buds have The exact temperatures vary with the cuttings (see page 73). The
started growing in spring, and it has a greater condition of the stem and how susceptible it index at the back of the
ability to produce roots than a hardwood is to water loss. Softwood cuttings require book will refer to these
cutting, which is taken at the end of the bottom heat of about 21°C/70°F and as cool methods when appropriate.
growing season. However, because the soft- an aerial temperature as practical—a mist
Leaf bud cuttings Make the cuttings with a razor blade, knife
Leaf bud cuttings can be taken from any type or shears, depending on the hardness of
of stem—soft w o o d , green w o o d , semiripe the stem. Cut close above the bud so that as
wood, hard w o o d or evergreen. Each cutting small a snag as possible is left. This minimizes
consists of a leaf, a bud in its leaf axil and a the likelihood of rotting and die-back, which
very short piece of stem. The leaf supplies might endanger the bud.
food to support the cutting and the re- Make the basal cut about 1-11/2 in below the
generative processes; the bud provides the top cut so that sufficient stem is available to
basis for the new stem system; and the piece anchor the cutting firmly in the cuttings
of stem is where the first roots are produced. compost. This is especially important with
To be successful, the gardener must use plants that have big leaves and are liable
stems that have a high capacity to produce to rot.
roots. Therefore, prune the parent plant Plants with big leaves are also difficult to
rigorously should it be a woody plant. This plant at a realistic spacing, so reduce their
will encourage new stems, which will grow leaf area either by removing some of the leaf
rapidly and so have a high rooting potential. or by rolling the leaf and placing a rubber
For leaf bud cuttings, select one of these band round it so that it takes up less room.
new stems with an undamaged leaf that is Dip the cutting in a rooting hormone.
fully expanded and mature, if the leaf is In a pot filled w i t h cuttings compost make
immature, the cutting will complete leaf a hole with a dibble. Plant the cutting with its
growth before it starts producing roots, and bud about level with the compost surface.
this increases the chances of peripheral Firm sufficiently to prevent rocking. Label and
problems, such as rotting. Also, ensure that water in with a fungicide. Place hardy
there is a viable bud in the leaf axil. (For cuttings in a cold frame and less hardy
example, some Virginia creepers do not have cuttings in a well-lit, more protected environ-
a bud in every leaf axil.) ment, such as a mist unit or closed case.
Heel cuttings roots, for example those that are planted in Plant hardwood cuttings straight into the Take mallet cuttings from these new stems
The taking of heel cuttings is a traditional autumn and have to survive through the ground; semiripe and subshrub cuttings in in the later part of the growing season.
way to propagate plants from stem cuttings. winter before rooting, or those hardwood a cold frame; and less hardy cuttings in the Cut horizontally with scissor-type shears
It is a widely used method of removing a stem cuttings that are planted in a cold frame. protected environment of a propagator. across the parent stem immediately above a
cutting from a plant, and it is quite possible Heel cuttings are also made from softwood Label and water them in with a fungicide. suitable side-shoot. It is important to make
to make heel cuttings of softwood, green- and greenwood stems that are left to develop this top cut as close to the side-shoot as
wood, semiripe, hardwood or evergreen in partially controlled environments, such as a Mallet cuttings possible because the longer the snag the
stems. propagator. Heel cuttings can be taken at Mallet cuttings have a hardwood plug at the greater the likelihood of die-back and hence
A young side-shoot is stripped away from any time of year. base of each cutting to guard against rotting potential rotting.
its parent stem so that a heel, that is a thin Hold the bottom of the side-shoot between organisms. Their use is restricted to semiripe Make a further horizontal cut about 3/4 in
sliver of bark and w o o d from the old stem, the t h u m b and forefinger and pull down and hardwood cuttings, and they are es- below the top cut so that the side-shoot is
also comes away at the base of the cutting. sharply so it comes away with a long tail. pecially successful for many Berberis when isolated with a small "mallet" of parent stem.
The reason for taking a stem cutting with If the side-shoot does not pull off readily, , propagated in the autumn and planted in Split this piece of mallet with a knife if it is
a heel is to give the cutting a firm base so place a knife blade in the angle close against cold frames. thick. Trim any leaves at the bottom.
that it is well protected against possible rots. the parent stem and cut away the side-shoot Mallet cuttings are most successfully made Dip the base of the mallet stem in a root-
It also exposes the swollen base of the with a heel. from stems with a feathered habit, that is ing hormone. Make a hole large enough to
current season's growth, which has a very Trim the tail on the heel and any leaves near from a stem with small side-shoots. take all the mallet and part of the side-shoot
high capacity to produce roots. it. Remove some of the tip on semiripe and Prune back the parent plant in winter to with a dibble. Plant semiripe cuttings in a cold
Heel cuttings are often used for stem hardwood cuttings. Dip the cutting in a encourage vigorous stem growth, which has frame and hardwood cuttings in the open
cuttings that take some time to develop rooting hormone. a high capacity to produce roots. ground. Label and water with a fungicide.
Soft wood is the most immature part of a as there is sufficient growth, the highest g r o w t h ; by increasing the temperature Take a cutting in early morning when the
stem, and, when propagating, it is the most rooting potential will be available. Tips of around the plant in spring; and by then stem is fully turgid. By midafternoon normal
difficult kind of cutting to keep alive. How- plants taken slightly later in the season, taking the cutting as soon as sufficient tip water loss from the plant will exceed uptake,
ever, soft w o o d does have the highest around the beginning of June, will be slower growth is available. and the plant will be under water stress.
capacity of all kinds of stems to produce growing, more mature and have a lower Softwood cuttings are extremely suscep- If the stem has grown less than 4 in since
roots: the younger and the more immature capacity to root, and they are referred to as tible to water loss. Their immature leaves have bud-break, remove it with a heel, that is with
the cutting, the greater will be its ability to greenwood cuttings. not fully expanded and so have not c o m - the swollen portion at the base of the stem
develop roots, and so propagate successfully. It is possible to obtain softwood cuttings pletely developed their own mechanisms for that had the very fastest growth when the
Soft stem growth is produced continuously later in the season by forcing the plant, that reducing water loss. Even a relatively minor new stem started to develop at bud-break.
at the tip of any stem during the growing is by increasing temperatures well above the water loss will hinder the roots developing. Place the cutting in a polyethylene bag or a
season. As it matures, the stem gradually norm, which will accelerate growth. This can By the time a cutting is wilting all root bucket of water immediately. Keep the poly-
hardens and becomes woody. The faster the be done, for example, by placing deciduous development will have ceased. ethylene bag shaded to avoid "cooking" the
growth at the tip, the more stem without outdoor plants in the warmth of a green- The secret of success is to collect the cutting—a major cause of failure.
w o o d will be present. house, or by placing houseplants in a cuttings in small batches and to maintain Plant the cutting as soon as possible. If it
Softwood cuttings, then, are taken in temperature of about 29°C/85°F. The very them in a fully turgid condition before cannot be dealt with quickly, keep it cool in
spring from the fast-growing tips of plants. highest capacity to produce roots can be planting t h e m . the vegetable compartment of a domestic
Growth when the buds first break is remark- achieved by pruning the parent plant vigor- Fill a container with cuttings compost and refrigerator, where the low temperature will
ably rapid, and, if cuttings are made as soon ously in winter, which will encourage rapid firm to within f in of the rim. prevent excessive water loss.
If there is more than 4 in between the tip but the "softwood" strength (0.2 percent temperatures .are high in a closed case or longer they take to root, the greater are the
and the base of the cutting, place the cutting IBA) can be mixed in with the powder fungi- polyethylene tent. A high aerial temperature chances of them succumbing to some outside
on a sheet of glass and make a nodal c u t — cide if desired. will force the cuttings to grow upward, and influence. Thus the speed with which they
that is a cut at the base of the stem just Make a hole with a dibble and plant the food will be diverted from the important regenerate is vital. The rate of root production
(1/8 in) below a bud or leaf joint. This provides cutting up to its leaves in the compost, taking function of root initiation. If the cuttings are will be dependent on the temperature sur-
as hard and solid a surface as possible and care .not to damage the base of the cutting. shaded to reduce the aerial temperature, rounding the base of the cuttings; in general,
will help prevent rotting. Plant cuttings so their leaves do not touch. then the light intensity penetrating to the the higher the temperature, the faster the
If the cutting was taken with a heel, neaten Label and firm them in by watering from leaves of the cuttings is decreased, and this roots are produced. Best rooting will occur
the tail that will also have come away with above the compost, using a watering can with reduces food production and hence the rate with a temperature around the base of the
the stem. a fine rose; pressing by hand may damage the of regeneration. cuttings of 21-24°C/70-75°F.
Remove the leaves on the b o t t o m third of cuttings. The problem then becomes a vicious circle Spray softwood cuttings with a liquid
the cutting, which will be reliant on the Place the cuttings as quickly as possible in that is not easy to resolve without a mist fungicide at least once a week to protect
remaining leaves to produce sufficient food to a well-lit propagating environment such as a unit, which maintains both a cool, aerial them against rotting and disease.
keep it alive until its roots are fully established. mist unit, a closed case or a polyethylene tent environment and high water status within Harden off the cuttings once they have
Dip the base of the cutting in a powder that will conserve moisture within the the cuttings. rooted successfully, gradually weaning them
fungicide such as Captan to protect it cuttings. Softwood cuttings, because they are the from their controlled environment; finally
against rotting. Softwood cuttings do not The advantage of a mist unit is that it immature part of a plant, are susceptible to pot them up in John Innes No. 1 compost or
need to be treated with a rooting hormone. keeps the top of the cuttings cool, whereas air all the vagaries of their environment: so the similar (see page 12) and label.
The essential but subtle distinction between Take cuttings from these stems once their needed for root production, as the cutting has the propagating environment but keep it well
softwood cuttings and greenwood cuttings is growth rate has begun to decline, which will little or no food reserves. protected, gradually hardening it off. Then
their speed of growth. Externally they may usually be about the beginning of June for Rooting should take between three and repot in John Innes No. 1 compost or similar
appear to be very similar, but greenwood most outdoor plants. eight weeks. Take the rooted cutting out of (see page 12), and label clearly.
cuttings are taken from the soft tip of the Fill a container with cuttings compost and
stem after the spring flush of growth has firm to within 3/8 in of the rim.
slowed down. The stem is, then, slightly harder Take a cutting from a fully turgid stem with
and woodier than for softwood cuttings all its current season's growth, early in the
because the tip is not growing away from the morning. Place the cutting immediately in a
hardening stem so fast as it was in the spring. bucket of water or a polyethylene bag in a
In fact, as the season progresses greenwood shaded position, because it is vitally important
cuttings become harder and harder. How- to maintain the turgidity of a greenwood
ever, it should be emphasized that greenwood cutting. If it suffers water loss, its rooting will
cuttings require just as much environmental be hindered.
control as softwood cuttings. Place the cutting on a pane of glass and
Use greenwood cuttings to propagate a with a knife reduce the cutting to about 3-4
wide range of trees and shrubs, such as in. The cutting's length will very much depend
gooseberries, that will root easily, and the on the amount of soft growth available.
majority of herbaceous plants, such as Discard the leaves from the bottom half of
chrysanthemums. However, plants that are the cutting. Dip the base of the cutting in a
difficult to root should be propagated from rooting hormone powder of "softwood"
softwood cuttings and not from greenwood strength (0.2 percent IBA).
cuttings, which have a slightly reduced ability Make a hole in the compost and plant the
to develop roots. cutting up to the leaves. Label it and water
Prune back w o o d y plants rigorously in with a fungicide. Place in a closed case, mist
winter to encourage rapidly grown stems unit or polyethylene tent, to prevent excessive
with a high capacity to root, which can be water loss and wilting. Ensure the cutting
used for propagation in the growing season. receives adequate light to make the food
During the late summer, annual stem growth growth, that is a series of small side-shoots Insulate the frame with matting once the Leave the rooted cuttings in situ during the
slows down and plant stems become harder. growing on the main stem. leaves have fallen to protect the cuttings following growing season. Feed them regu-
Cuttings taken at this time are called semi- Remove the tip of the stem if it is soft, but against frost in winter. Once the cuttings larly with a liquid fertilizer and water when
ripe cuttings. As they are thicker and, harder leave it if the apical bud has set and growth have no leaves, light is not necessary for the dry. Remove insulation and air the cold frame
than softwood cuttings, they are more has ceased for the year. Shorten the cutting plants to manufacture food and so the by raising its lid during the day as soon as the
capable of survival. However they are still with shears to 4-6 in long, depending on the matting can be left in place all the time. danger of frost is over. Eventually remove it
susceptible to the same problems of water vigor of the particular plant. Rooting may start fairly quickly if the altogether. Lift the new plants and transplant
loss because the cuttings carry leaves. Cut off the lower leaves flush with the stem weather is mild; otherwise it will occur during them after leaf fall in the autumn. Label the
Semiripe cuttings have relatively high so that about 2 in of stem is clear at the base. the late winter or spring. new plants clearly.
levels of stored food and can therefore Treat the basal cut surface with a rooting
survive and produce roots in poor light. hormone powder. The strength for semiripe
Many deciduous plants, such as deutzias, cuttings is 0.4 percent IBA.
that root fairly easily are propagated from Make a hole with a dibble in the soil in a
semiripe cuttings, and some evergreen plants cold frame. Plant the cutting about l1/2 in
can also be increased in this way. deep, so its base just enters the soil below the
Prune the parent plant at the start of the sand layer. Space the cuttings as close as is
dormant season, so that strong, fast-grown feasible, but this is not likely to be much less
stems are available for propagation the than 3-4 in apart. Label them clearly.
following season. These will have a greater Water in the cuttings using a dilute fungi-
ability to produce roots than unpruned stems. cidal solution; this also firms the sand around
Prepare the soil in the cold frame by digging the cutting. Close the frame tightly and
deeply. Add peat and grit to improve drainage shade it to prevent the leaves from scorching.
and its water-holding capacity. Cover the Air the cold frame from the lower end if the
surface with a 1 in layer of fine (builder's) sand temperature rises above 27°C/80°F. Water
to make a better rooting medium. If only a sufficiently to rewet and develop high
few cuttings are to be taken, fill a container humidity should conditions become dry.
with cuttings compost and cover with a 1 in As semiripe cuttings are usually deciduous,
layer of fine sand. they will drop their leaves in autumn. At this
Take semiripe cuttings from a main stem stage remove all the fallen leaves from the
with all the current season's growth or from frame so that they do not rot and cause
side-shoots if the main stem has feathered disease.
The propagation of evergreen trees and up to its leaves. Allow the leaves of cuttings
shrubs from stem cuttings is a traditional and to touch but not to overlap. If leaves overlap
valuable method. Evergreen cuttings are excessively they tend to stick together with
taken from stems of very ripe w o o d , that is, a water film, and this provides an ideal place
almost hard w o o d . They cannot be regarded for rot to develop.
as hardwood cuttings as they are not leafless Label the cuttings and water them with a
and are not fully dormant because of their dilute solution of fungicide. Close the lid of
evergreen habit. Because they have leaves, the cold frame as tightly as possible. Shade
they need sufficient environmental control the frame by painting it with a proprietary
to prevent excessive water loss. lime-wash or by covering it with mesh, in
In winter, prune the parent plant from order to reduce temperature fluctuation
which the cuttings are to be made. This will during the day and so prevent scorching.
encourage the development of strong, Remove the shading once light intensity and
vigorous, fast-grown shoots that have the day length decreases during the autumn. If
required high capacity to produce roots. watering is necessary, incorporate a fungicide
Propagate evergreen cuttings during late to help control rots.
summer to early a u t u m n ; rooting will nor- Inspect the frame regularly and remove any
mally take place during winter. However, fallen leaves and dead cuttings. Cover the
evergreen plants can be propagated from frame with matting as insulation as long as
softer w o o d earlier in the growing season. there is any danger from frost.
Treat these cuttings according to the con- Leave the cuttings in situ for the whole
dition (soft w o o d , green w o o d or semiripe growing season. Transplant in autumn, taking
wood) of their stems. considerable care when lifting the cuttings as
Prepare the soil in a cold frame by digging many evergreen plants produce fairly thick,
thoroughly and mixing in grit, peat and sand. fleshy and brittle roots. Label the new plants
Evergreen cuttings taken in late summer clearly.
should be 4 - 6 in long, although their length
must be related to the normal size of the
plant and the amount of annual growth. EVERGREEN CUTTINGS IN A MIST UNIT
Cuttings from dwarf Hebe, for example, may Prune the parent plant in winter. In late
be only 11/2 in long. Take a heel with the summer, fill a container with cuttings c o m -
cutting (see page 63) if it is to be propagated post. Then take a cutting about 4 - 6 in
in unsterilized soil in a cold frame or poly- long from the current season's growth.
ethylene tunnel. Neaten any tail on the heel. Pinch out any soft growing tip. At the
Leave on the cutting any terminal bud that bottom, make a nodal cut.
may have set. If, however, growth is con- Strip any leaves off the bottom third of
tinuing, cut out the soft tip with a knife. the cutting and make a shallow vertical
Strip any leaves off the bottom third to half w o u n d on plants that are difficult to root.
of the cutting. Make a shallow vertical w o u n d Dip the cutting in a rooting hormone.
about 1 in long in the bottom of the stem of Cut down the size of large leaves. Make
plants, such as Daphne, Elaeagnus and a hole with a dibble in the compost and
Magnolia grandiflora, that are difficult to root. insert the cutting. Plant any more cuttings,
Dip the base of the cutting in a rooting allowing the leaves just to touch. Label
hormone powder of ripewood strength (0.8 and water with a fungicide. Place in a mist
percent IBA). Ensure the wound is covered unit or closed case.
with the powder. Ensure the cuttings do not become too
To make more economical use of space, wet as over the winter poor light and low
reduce the size of large leaves by cutting off temperatures do not dry out composts
up to half of each leaf blade with a sharp pair quickly. Harden them off gradually once
of scissor-type shears. the cuttings have rooted. Pot on very
Make a hole with a dibble in the prepared carefully in spring and label.
soil in the cold frame and plant the cutting
One of the easiest techniques of vegetative rate slowly declining until autumn, when ment, such as a cold frame, or very careful Hardwood cuttings, although leafless, will
propagation is to propagate plants from growth ceases altogether. Even by the end timing to avoid leaves being produced before still lose some water by evaporation from
hardwood cuttings. of the growing season, the base of a stem roots, so causing the cutting to lose water too their surface. The commonest reason why
A hardwood cutting is made during the that was produced in spring still has the quickly and die. Thus it is more satisfactory to these cuttings may fail to develop roots is
dormant season from the fully mature stem of greatest ability to develop roots, and it should take cuttings at "leaf fall," when they can be because they are allowed to dry out. To avoid
a deciduous tree or shrub. Because the be used for most hardwood cuttings. planted in the open ground. water loss, expose as little of the cutting as
cutting has no leaves, the degree of environ- Plants, such as willows, poplars and cur- Conventional "leaf fall" occurs when the possible above the ground. However, if the
mental control required for successful propa- rants, that root easily show very little decline stem, having produced a corky abscission cutting is planted too deep, the buds will not
gation is minimal. in their ability to produce roots anywhere layer to isolate each leaf, has its leaves re- grow properly. Thus it is vital to expose
As with virtually all methods of vegetative along the stem and so virtually any part of moved by rain, frost or wind. However, as far sufficient of the cutting above ground for
propagation, it is the preparation of the the stem can be made into cuttings. as the plant is concerned, a leaf is isolated as about three buds to develop. In practice the
parent plant, by pruning rigorously,a year W i t h plants, such as colored-leaf plums, soon as the corky abscission layer is c o m - third bud can be planted just below ground
before the cutting is to be taken, that is that are difficult to root include the swollen plete, and this in effect is "leaf fall." level as at that depth its growth will not be
possibly the single most important factor in base in the cutting, which should be cut flush Run a hand down the stem of a plant. If the inhibited. Therefore, for most plants, only
the ultimate success of rooting a hardwood with the stem (see page 9). leaves fall off, the corky abscission layer is 1 in or so of the cutting need be above ground.
cutting. Hard, rigorous pruning will encourage Hardwood cuttings can be taken any time complete, and the time, therefore, is right to A cutting initially develops roots both along
stems with a high capability of producing during the dormant season, but they will be take hardwood cuttings. the stem and from the cut area at its base.
roots. most successful at "leaf fall" and just before Gradually, the roots along the stem disappear
the leaf buds break; their lowest capacity to Size of a hardwood cutting and the root system of the new plant develops
Where and when to take a cutting root is in the early new year. Although traditionally hardwood cuttings are from the basal roots alone. Therefore these
A stem grows at different speeds throughout Cuttings made just before the dormant made between 10-14 in long, a shorter length basal roots should be encouraged by applying
the season. It develops fastest in spring, its buds break will need a protected environ- is much more successful. a rooting hormone to the cutting and by
maintaining good aeration around it. The to avoid snags. Make a sloping cut as close perature and less fluctuating environment of
surface layers of the soil, that is about the top as possible above the proposed top bud, a cold frame.
2 in, have most air in them. Thus ideally a remembering that the bottom part of the Just before the dormant buds break in
cutting should be planted within these layers. cutting has the greatest rooting capacity. spring, dig the propagation bed thoroughly.
However, a cutting planted 2 in deep with Make a horizontal cut exactly 6 in below the Make a furrow 5 in deep with a spade. Lift the
about 1 in exposed above ground will be too top cut ignoring the position of any buds. cuttings from the sandbox and plant them
short for survival: the cutting will dry out too Treat only the cut base of the cutting, and vertically in the furrow. Allow 4 - 6 in between
easily; it will be too short to anchor rigidly; not the stem, with a rooting hormone powder. cuttings; leave 12-15 in between rows in the
and it will be t o o small to contain sufficient The hardwood strength is 0.8 percent IBA. open ground and only 4 in between rows in a
food reserves to support it through the If suitable stems are made into cuttings at the cold frame. Firm back the soil, leaving about
dormant season. Thus the length must be correct season then the rooting hormone will 1 in of the cuttings exposed. Label each row.
increased to take account of these factors, have little affect except with plants that are Open-ground cuttings may need refirming
and 6 in is a satisfactory compromise for a difficult to root. if lifted by frost. Leave the cuttings in situ for
hardwood cutting. Bundle the cuttings made at "leaf fall" into the growing season. In autumn, lift the rooted
quantities of ten or twelve and heel them into cuttings, each of which will have produced
Propagating a hardwood cutting a sandbox, almost to their full d e p t h ; label, several stems, and transplant them to their
Prune the parent plant rigorously during the and leave for the rest of the winter. Alter- final situations in the garden.
dormant season to encourage fast-growing natively, they can be planted directly into Protect cuttings planted in a cold frame
stems. well-cultivated soil. only until they have developed some roots
At "leaf fall" cut a hardwood stem with all Easily rooted plants will readily survive in and then harden off. It becomes increasingly
the current year's growth, using a pair of the open ground, whereas less easily rooted difficult to harden them off as the growing
shears. Cut it flush with the parent stem plants will benefit from the increased t e m - season progresses.
Disbudding To produce rose rootstocks take an Sin
A plant is sometimes needed that has a single hardwood cutting and remove all but the
stem, or "leg," at the bottom and many stems, top t w o buds from plants such as Rosa laxa
or branches, farther up the plant. To grow a and Rosa multiflora 'Simplex.' This method
plant with this characteristic, a hardwood will avoid rootstock suckers.
cutting needs to be longer than the normal Seal the areas that have been disbudded
6 in and have more than 1 in exposed above to prevent rotting and disease. It is possible
the ground. However; a longer cutting may to leave them to callus over naturally, but
encourage further buds to develop lower unless this is done under fairly humid con-
down the stem, so losing the desired single ditions there is always the danger that the
stem. cuttings may desiccate.
To prevent any branching down the stem, It is better, therefore, to paint the dis-
cut out all but the top three buds at "leaf budded areas with paraffin wax or more
fall." Cut out the buds shallowly but c o m - satisfactorily with a proprietary pruning paint
pletely with a sharp knife; ensure no latent such as Arbrex.
buds or part-buds remain. It is simpler to Treat the cuttings with rooting hormone.
disbud in this way than to cut out stems at Plant the rootstock and label it. For roses,
a later date. leave the t w o top buds exposed and sufficient
Gooseberry and red currant bushes are stem above the soil level for any buds to be
normally propagated from 10-14 in hardwood grafted on later in the season.
cuttings that have been disbudded. The bush Gooseberry and red-currant cuttings
will then have a single stem at the b o t t o m , should be planted with their third top bud
which will allow free air circulation around within 2 in of the soil surface. At the end of
the bush, thus reducing the possibility of the growing season lift the cuttings and
mildew attacks. replant with much more of the stem exposed.

Soft- or hollow-pith stems This is a very satisfactory method of sealing


For many woody plants, such as forsythia, it these cuttings, but take care not to damage
is not possible to propagate hardwood the wax seal when the cuttings are bundled,
cuttings by the method described on pages heeled in and planted.
70-1 because they have a soft or hollow pith. The alternative method is to make' the
If this is exposed, it very often provides a site basal cut at a node, that is immediately below
for rots and diseases, which will then kill the a leaf joint, where the pith is generally solid.
cuttings. Make the basal cut at the node nearest to the
There are t w o ways of overcoming this normal 6 in cutting length. Plants such as
problem: either make the hardwood cutting kerria very often have long spaces between
exactly 6 in long and then seal the base of the nodes, and cuttings may then become as
cutting with paraffin wax, or make the basal much as 8 - 9 in long.
cut below a leaf bud joint. Cuttings treated It is often recommended that plants with
by either of these methods should root just a soft pith should be cut with a knife, as this
as prolifically as cuttings with a solid pith. tends to cause less damage than shears,
Melt some paraffin wax until it is liquid. which may crush the cutting. Provided, how-
Touch the base of a 6 in cutting in the wax ever, that a sharp pair of scissor-type
so. that a drop of wax attaches, cools and shears is used, it is rare for extensive damage
sets quickly, so sealing the cut. Do not over- to occur and shears are, therefore, quite
heat the wax and so damage the plant. satisfactory.
Vine eyes Place a sharp knife half-way down the stem
This technique is normally used only for on the opposite side to the bud. Make a
vines, although it is quite possible to adopt it shallow cut down to the base.
for any plant with a reasonably solid pith that Dip the basal cut surface and the w o u n d
can be propagated by hardwood cuttings. into hormone powder of a suitable strength
Vine eye cuttings are the hardwood equiv- for hardwood cuttings (0.8 percent IBA).
alent of leaf bud cuttings. Make a hole in the prepared compost with a
Prune back the plant during the dormant dibble. Plant the cutting vertically so that the
season to encourage vigorous growth. bud lies about level with the compost
Fill a small pot with cuttings compost and surface. Insert only one cutting per pot.
firm to within 3/8 in of the rim, using a presser Label the pot and stand it on a greenhouse
board. bench or in a closed case—the higher the
At "leaf fall" cut a stem with all the current temperature, the faster will be the rate of
season's growth from the parent plant. Make regeneration.
a sloping cut with a pair of shears just above Water the cutting to prevent it drying out.
a leaf bud joint, so that no snag is left Do not overwater during the winter when the
that could die back and possibly kill the bud. cutting is dormant, as the compost will
Make the basal cut horizontally across the readily waterlog, causing the cutting to rot
stem about 11/2 in below the top cut. W o u n d and die. Harden off the cutting once it has
the cutting if the plant is difficult to root. rooted, and transplant in spring. Label it.
Conifers are predominantly evergreen trees Preferably take cuttings from the top should have a softer base than those to be
and shrubs, some of which can be propagated rather than the bottom of the plant, as propagated in a cold frame; they should also
from softwood, greenwood, semiripe and cuttings from low down often develop into become established more quickly.
ripewood cuttings. In general, spruces, firs plants of atypical habit in that they may Fill a container with cuttings compost and
and pines do not respond to propagation continue to grow horizontally. firm to within f in of the rim.
from cuttings, and they should be propagated Conifers vary considerably in their pattern The tip of a conifer shoot is green; it
from seed or, if special varieties are required, of growth. There are leader shoots, which are gradually turns yellow farther down the stem,
by grafting. the growing points of the branches; lateral or and then brown.
Whether conifer cuttings are to be propa- subterminal shoots, which also increase in Remove a vigorously growing leader or
gated in a warm environment, such as a size; and feather shoots, which do not grow lateral shoot from the parent stem. Make a
closed case, or in a colder one, such as a cold larger. clean cut about 1/4 in into the brown-barked
frame, does not affect the season that they For propagation by cuttings it is important w o o d so that the cutting is predominantly
are taken. to choose shoots with a distinct growing green but has a small protective "plug" of
Take cypress cuttings in autumn or winter, point, and this is why feather shoots are hard w o o d at its base.
and yew and juniper cuttings in the new year unsatisfactory. If a growing point is not Trim the leaves off the bottom 1-11/2 in of
after the parent plants have been subjected present, bun-shaped forms will be produced, the cutting. Do not remove the growing
to a period of frost. particularly with yellow foliage forms. point. After trimming, dip the cutting in a
Select cuttings from young, actively grow- rooting hormone powder of ripewood (0.8
ing plants such as hedges that are clipped Conifer propagation in a warm environment percent IBA) strength.
regularly, and so produce strong, vigorous Conifer cuttings to be propagated in the warm Make a 1 in hole with a dibble in the com-
shoots. environment of a closed case or mist unit post and insert the cutting and firm. Leave
about 11/2-2 in between cuttings. Label the Dip the base of the cutting in a rooting
container; then water with a fine rose. Place hormone powder of ripewood strength (0.8
in a closed case or mist unit. percent IBA). Make a 1 in hole with a dibble
The cuttings will root within three to four in the cold frame soil and plant a cutting.
months. Harden off and pot on in spring. Firm the soil back round the stem. Space any
other cuttings 2 in apart and label them.
Conifers propagated in a cold frame Water with a dilute fungicidal solution and
It is easier, but slower, to propagate conifer close down the lid of the cold frame.
cuttings in a cold frame. Ensure the environment is always kept
Prepare the soil in the propagation bed absolutely clean and hygienic as the cuttings
before taking the cuttings. Raise the level of have to survive for nearly a year in the cold
the soil in the cold frame to within 6-8 in of frame. Place matting on the lid to insulate the
the lid. This will maintain an equable humidity cuttings during any cold weather. Remove it
and temperature for the cuttings. as soon as the danger of frosts has passed.
Pull a stem backward down the parent Leave the cuttings undisturbed until sum-
stem to obtain a cutting with a heel, w h i c h mer, when the frame should be aired and
can then be propagated in a cold frame. shaded to prevent scorching. This can be done
Trim the heel of the cutting with a sharp either by painting its lid with a proprietary
knife. Remove the leaves on the b o t t o m third brand of lime-wash or by covering it w i t h
of the cutting either with a knife or by hand mesh. Water the cuttings as necessary to
provided only a small scar is caused which prevent them drying out.
may actually encourage the cutting to root. Lift the cuttings in autumn. Pot on or
Do not remove the growing point. transplant to their final position in the garden.
Some woody, low-growing plants, such as September). Select nonflowering shoots if Strip the leaves from the b o t t o m half of the cidal solution of Captan or Benlate over the
Salvia, that are often treated as herbaceous possible, although with many plants, such as cutting, either by pulling very carefully or by cuttings to protect them against disease.
plants are called subshrubs. Most of t h e m lavender, these may be difficult to find. If cutting with a sharp knife. Seal the cold frame and shade it to avoid
root readily and can easily be propagated flowering shoots have to be used then cut Dip the base of the cutting into a rooting scorching. Check the cuttings regularly;
from stem cuttings taken in late summer. back the flower and its stem to the leafy part. hormone powder, preferably of a semi- water when necessary to prevent them drying
Prune the parent plant during the dormant Cut out any soft growing tip with a sharp ripewood strength (0.4-0.5 percent IBA). out. Remove the shading on the cold frame
season to encourage strong, vigorous shoots knife or pinch it out between the t h u m b and W i t h a dibble make a hole in the prepared and reduce watering as soon as light intensity
to develop. forefinger. Make the basal cut with shears soil about half the length of the cutting, that decreases. Insulate the cuttings against frost
Prepare the soil in a cold frame by digging about 4 in below the top of the cutting. A is about 2 in deep. Firm the soil around the by laying some matting over the cold frame.
deeply. Add grit if necessary to ensure it is quick and easy way to measure 4 in is to cutting. Leave about 4 in between each Remove this during the day, if possible.
free draining. hold the stem in the palm of an adult's hand. cutting and about 4 in between each row. Harden off the rooted cuttings gradually in
Cut off some shoots with all their current The stem will be approximately 4 in long Label the cuttings clearly. Using a watering spring. Then lift and transplant to their final
season's growth in late summer (usually early where it reaches the butt of the hand. can with a coarse rose, apply a dilute fungi- position in the garden. Label them clearly.
The genus rhododendron is an extremely hand. Cut the stem at the butt of the hand
large and varied group of plants that have with a sharp pair of shears. This will give a DWARF RHODODENDRONS Make a 1/2 in hole with a dibble in the
differing abilities to root from cuttings. The cutting of about 4 in long. Cut part of the These are the easiest group from which to prepared compost. Plant the cutting and
large-flowering hardy hybrids and the small- remaining leaves to reduce their leaf area and take cuttings, although some varieties, de- water with a fungicide. Label; then place
leafed dwarf rhododendrons are the most so make planting easier. pending on their parentage, are more in a well-lit humid environment with
worth while to propagate from stem cuttings. W o u n d the b o t t o m 3/8 in of the cutting by difficult than others to root successfully. bottom heat; a mist unit is ideal to produce
making a shallow score with a sharp knife. Dip Mix thoroughly equal parts lime-free these conditions. Once the cutting has
Large-flowered hardy hybrids the cut surfaces in a strong rooting hormone grit and sifted peat. Fill a container of suit- rooted, harden off gradually in spring. Pot
Prepare the compost before taking any (0.8 percent IBA). This is particularly important able size with compost—allow about 11/2 up and label.
cuttings to avoid unnecessary delay, and for varieties with 'Britannia' in their pedigree, sq. in per cutting—and firm gently.
water loss, before planting. Mix together equal as they are generally difficult to root. Select a stem of the current year's
parts lime-free grit and sifted peat. Fill a Make a hole with a dibble in the prepared growth that has set its terminal bud, which
container w i t h the compost and firm to within compost and insert the cutting. Plant any is usually in late August to September. Cut
3/8 in of the rim. further cuttings as close together as possible. back the stem with a sharp pair of shears
Take cuttings from the second flush of Label the container and place it in a well-lit to about 11/2 in from the tip. Pick or cut
growth at the end of the summer, usually in environment with bottom heat of 21°C/70°F. off any leaves on the bottom half of the
September. The second flush of growth can Control water loss by covering the container cutting.
be recognized by the umbrella of shoots that with a very thin, clear polyethylene sheet or W o u n d the cutting by making a very
does not occur on the first flush of growth. by leaving the container in a mist unit. shallow slice on the bottom 1/2 in of the
Remove all the leaves except the terminal Prevent rots by applying a dilute fungicidal cutting. This wounding is not always neces-
whorl (the group of leaves nearest the tip). solution at regular weekly intervals. sary, but many varieties do benefit, and it
Snap out the terminal bud regardless of Rooting should not be expected until well is advisable to adopt a standard procedure.
whether it is a flower or vegetative bud. into the new year. Treat the cut surfaces with rooting hor-
Place the cutting in the palm of a hand so Harden off the rooted cuttings and trans- mone powder, using the hardwood
that the top is just about level with the fore- plant in late winter/early spring and label. strength of 0.8 percent IBA.
finger and the stem is across the palm of the Place them in a cold frame to grow on.
An extremely prolific and relatively easy way Fill the container with the compost and
to propagate heathers is from cuttings. firm with a presser board to within f in of the
t h e season to do this is summer, although container rim.
the exact timing depends upon the avail- Cut off a 1-11/2 in vegetative shoot with a
ability of nonflowering shoots from which to pair of sharp scissors. Remove the leaves on
make the cuttings. the lower part of the cutting. The cutting is
Do not take cuttings from shoots with then ready to be planted as there is no need
flower buds that have set because rooting to apply a rooting hormone.
may well be slow and poor, especially for Make a hole with a thin dibble to half the
winter-flowering heathers. However summer- depth of the cutting, which is then inserted.
flowering heathers can be propagated from Plant any remaining cuttings 3/4 in apart. Label;
shoots that have already flowered, should then water with a dilute fungicidal solution,
nonflowering shoots be scarce. using a fine rose. Do not firm by hand.
Prune a plant during the dormant season Place the container of cuttings in a pro-
to encourage strong, vigorous shoots. tected environment. Quickest rooting will
Make up some cuttings compost of equal occur if there is bottom heat and high
volumes lime-free grit and sifted sphagnum humidity, for example in a mist unit. A well-
moss peat. It is imperative that the peat is sealed cold frame, shaded in the summer and
sifted and all lumps removed, otherwise later insulated with matting in the winter, will suit
on the rooted cuttings will be difficult to just as well, although rooting of late-season
separate without damage. cuttings may not occur until the spring.
Choose a container appropriate to the Harden off the rooted cuttings and pot on
number of cuttings to be taken, allowing 3/4 in in spring. Take special care when knocking
between cuttings. A separate container out the cuttings and teasing them apart, so
should be used for each variety as varieties that minimal damage is done to the roots.
will root at different rates. Label the new plants clearly.
Some plants—mostly houseplants that growing foliar embryos, or by artificially subject to rots and will produce typical propagated from leaf bud cuttings (see page
belong to Begonlaceae, Crassulaceae and induced plantlets from leaf cuttings. offspring. It should also be free from pests and 62). Other specialized kinds of leaf cuttings
Gesneriaceae—have the capacity to develop Foliar embryos are the result of a highly diseases. are bulb scaling (see page 48), and scooping
plantlets on their leaves. This is a simple and specialized process that occurs in certain Since most plants suitable for propagation and scoring bulbs (see page 49).
efficient means of propagation, and it can plants, such as the strawberry geranium and by leaf cuttings are grown indoors or under
occur in either of t w o ways: by naturally piggyback plant. In this process the plant glass, it is possible to take cuttings all year
isolates simple plant cells in small areas of its round, as long as there is a fresh, fully ex-
leaves during the course of its g r o w t h ; these panded leaf available. All that will alter is the
cells are subsequently capable of developing speed at which the plantlets develop; in
into new plants. winter, temperatures and light intensity will
The range of plants that can be propagated be lower and, as a consequence, food pro-
from leaf cuttings is relatively small, and the duction and the rate of propagation will be
success of this technique is subject to various slower.
environmental factors that are to some The leaf, when separated from its parent
extent open to manipulation by the gardener. plant, will be highly susceptible to desiccation
Leaf cuttings should be made only from and it is necessary to minimize this by
leaves that have recently expanded fully. If controlling the environment. Therefore
the leaf is still less than full size and immature, always propagate leaf cuttings in a closed
all its energy will first go toward developing case, propagator, or under a glass sheet or
and maturing. This will delay the generation polyethylene tent.
of new plant life and, since a leaf cut off from The most c o m m o n cause of failure in leaf
its parent is unsupported, the longer the propagation is the leaf rotting before it has a
propagation process takes the more likely it chance to produce a self-supporting plant.
is that problems, such as rotting, will arise. Thus it is important that all materials, con-
W h e n a leaf has recently expanded to its tainers, composts and leaves should be clean
maximum leaf area it is efficient in food and undamaged.
production and still has a full life expectancy Although many plants have leaves that are
in case regeneration should be slow. At this capable of rooting, they do not all have the
time the leaf is still young enough to have capacity to propagate from leaf cuttings.
a high capacity to propagate—a capacity Those that do not can only be successfully
that will lessen as the leaf ages.
The selected leaf should be complete,
normal and undamaged so that it will not be
The simplest and most reliable way to pro- the compost the more the air can circulate
duce new plants from leaf cuttings is to use around it, which will encourage a quick
a complete leaf with its stalk. The disadvan- response. Then firm the compost around the
tage of this method is that it develops only stalk. W h e n the cuttings are all planted, label
a few new plants from each leaf. them and water in a dilute fungicide such as
Rotting and disease are the main causes of Captan or Benlate, using a fine rose.
failure so always use clean tools, containers Place the cuttings in an environment that
and composts. maintains a steady high humidity, so that the
Leaf petiole cuttings can be taken at any cuttings do not dry out. The temperature,
time of year provided a new, fully expanded especially for houseplants, needs to be
leaf is available. relatively high, and this is best provided by
Make up a cuttings compost of equal parts using a propagator that is heated at the
sifted peat and grit. Fill a container that is bottom—ideally at about 20°C/68°F.
large enough to take the leaf petiole cuttings. Expose the cuttings to sufficient light for
Firm the compost to within 3/4 in of the rim of them to manufacture food and develop the
the container. new plantlets. Too much sunlight may scorch
Slice a suitable leaf cleanly through the the cuttings. In general, light shade is the best
leaf stalk, using a sharp knife or a single-edged compromise.
razor blade to ensure the least possible dam- The new plantlets will develop on the cut
age. Leave about 2 in of the leaf stalk attached surface of the leaf stalk within five to six
to the leaf blade. weeks, and several may appear at this point.
Make a small hole with a dibble in the Leave them until they can be handled and
compost to a depth just sufficient to hold the separated into individual plants, potted on
cutting. Plant at a shallow angle so that the and hardened off. If it is likely to be some
leaf blade is almost flat on the compost. The time before they are large enough to be
shallower the base of the stalk is planted into potted on, then liquid feed the plantlets.
A leaf midrib is the extension of a leaf stalk, Cut a suitable undamaged leaf cleanly food. Avoid direct sunlight, which may scorch Stand the container in a water bath to
and it is possible to propagate from leaf from the parent plant and place it upside the cuttings. A propagator or a closed case rewet compost that is beginning to dry out.
midrib cuttings in the same way as it is from down on a clean sheet of glass. Cut off a strip with bottom heat is ideal, although a poly- Young plantlets should appear in five to
leaf stalk (petiole) cuttings. that is not more than 2 in wide, using a single- ethylene tent supported with a cane or loop eight weeks, but they will not be big enough
Leaf midrib cuttings can be used for any edged razor blade at right angles to the mid- of wire is quite adequate protection. for transplanting for several more weeks.
leaves that have a single central vein, and it rib. Cut further strips in the same way, each
is a particularly successful technique with strip having a central rib and two wings.
Streptocarpus. Make a shallow trench in the compost and
Before taking cuttings, ensure all tools and insert the bottom of a cutting just deep
equipment are scrupulously clean. Disease enough to hold it erect. Firm gently. Plant the
can be a major problem if care is not taken remaining cuttings about 1 in apart.
when propagating. Spray the completed container with a
Leaf midrib cuttings can be taken at any fungicide such as Captan or Benlate to
time of the year provided the plant has a protect the cuttings against fungal rots.
suitable leaf, that is one that is undamaged Label the container and place it in a warm
and has recently expanded fully. (21°C/70°F), humid environment to encourage
Fill a plastic container with cuttings c o m - the cuttings to root. However, ensure there is
post. Water thoroughly and allow to drain. sufficient light for the leaves to manufacture

LEAF CUTTINGS ON LATERAL VEINS the leaf cuttings vertically in the trench
Lay a leaf upside down on a clean sheet of with the cut surfaces of the lateral veins
glass. Remove the midrib with a razor just in the compost. Firm gently; label and
blade so that the t w o halves of the leaf- place in a propagator or closed case.
blade are isolated and all the lateral veins Plantlets will develop on the cut sur-
have an exposed cut surface. faces of the lateral veins within five to
Make a shallow trench in a container eight weeks. Separate, pot on and label
filled with moist cuttings compost. Plant when they are large enough to handle.
Plants that do not have a leaf with a central Repeat this until there is one cut every square
midrib and lateral veins but possess a more inch all over the leaf.
netted veining are not easy to propagate Place the cut (or slashed) leaf, with its top
from leaf cuttings. Certain plants, however, side upward, flat on the surface of the cut-
have leaf veins that are capable of generating tings compost in a seed tray. Pin the leaf
a new plant, and these can be propagated by down with a thin wire staple if it does not lay
cutting through the veins of the leaf so that flat on the compost. Label the leaf cuttings
plantlet development is induced but the leaf clearly. Spray the seed tray with a fungicide
itself remains entire. Because of the size of to reduce the likelihood of rots, and cover
their leaves this technique is particularly with a sheet of glass.
suitable for varieties of Begonia rex. Place in the light, which is essential for food
Clean all tools and equipment thoroughly. production and so for plantlet development.
Fill a seed tray w i t h cuttings compost; then Avoid direct sunlight, which may scorch the
press it down to about 3/8 in below the rim. leaf. A closed case with bottom heat provides
Water the seed tray thoroughly and allow to the best environment for a slashed leaf to
drain. propagate.
Remove a fully expanded leaf that is The rate at which plantlets develop will be
undamaged from the parent plant. Place the dependent on the surrounding temperature:
leaf upside down on a clean sheet of glass. at 21°C/70°F, plantlets should appear in three
Cut off the leaf stalk flush with the leaf blade, to four weeks. Separate the new plants once
using a single-edged razor blade. Make a f i n they can be handled easily and pot on.
cut across a major vein, using the razor blade. Label and harden off gradually.
Any leaf that will regenerate vegetatively can about 1/2 in apart. Label the seed tray clearly.
be propagated from leaf squares, but this Spray the cuttings with a fungicide such as
method is normally used only for plants with Captan or Benlate.
big leaves and especially for Begonia rex Cover the seed tray with a clean sheet of
varieties. Its main advantage is that it pro- glass to maintain humidity. Place in a warm
duces numerous plantlets from a single leaf. (18-21°C/65-70°F) environment out of direct
This m e t h o d of propagation produces sunlight, but make sure there is sufficient
small pieces of cut leaf that are prone to light available to allow the leaves to manu-
rotting. Therefore clean, sterile tools and facture food. A closed case is ideal, although
equipment should be used at all times and a window sill in a warm room facing east or
scrupulous, hygienic measures should be west is also suitable.
observed. If the compost was thoroughly watered
Fill a clean plastic seed tray w i t h cuttings initially and the seed tray is covered, little or
compost and press the compost to give a flat no more watering will be needed. Should the
surface about f in below the rim. Water the compost dry out, rewet by standing the seed
compost thoroughly and allow to drain. tray in a water bath.
Remove a fully expanded, undamaged leaf Plantlets should appear on the cut surfaces
from the parent plant and place it face down of the larger leaf veins nearest to the leaf
on a clean sheet of glass. Take a single-edged stalk. At a temperature of 21°C/70"F, this
razor blade and ruler and cut this leaf into a should occur after about five or six weeks, but
series of 3/4 in squares, placing the ruler gently the new plants will not be big enough to pot
on the leaf to avoid crushing. Any damaged on for several more weeks. W h e n the first
squares must be discarded. leaves have opened, gradually harden off by
Lay the cuttings flat on the compost with airing the seed tray. Pot up when the plants
the top side facing upward. Place in rows are a sufficient size to handle without damage.
Monocotyledonous plants, such as snow- Ensure all tools and equipment are absol- out and wilt. Ensure the cuttings have ade-
drops and mother-in-law's tongues, have a utely clean before taking leaf cuttings. Fill a quate light to produce food, although direct
series of parallel veins running the length of container with cuttings compost, press down sunlight should be avoided otherwise scorch-
each leaf. Some of these plants can be propa- to within 3/8 in of the container rim, using a ing may occur. A polyethylene tent will pro-
gated at any time of year from leaf cuttings, presser board. Water the compost thoroughly vide these conditions quite adequately, al-
providing they have an inherent capacity to and allow to drain. though a closed case in a greenhouse will be
produce a plantlet on the cut surface of a Cut off a fully expanded, undamaged leaf the most satisfactory provided that it is kept
vein and suitable leaves are available. from the parent plant. Lay it face down on a scrupulously clean.
Cuttings from normal leaves such as Cape clean sheet of glass and cut with a single- Rewet drying compost by standing the base
cowslips {Lachenalia), snowdrops (Calanthus) edged razor blade at right angles to the veins. of the container in a water bath.
and snowflakes {Leucojum) tend to wilt Make a series of slices 1-11/4 in wide. The time taken for young plantlets to
quickly, so keep them turgid by planting as Make a shallow trench with a dibble and appear will vary with the different plants.
soon as possible. W i t h succulents, such as plant the cutting vertically with its basal cut Mother-in-law's tongues will usually regener-
mother-in-law's tongues (Sansevieria), water held firmly in the compost. Place the other ate in six to eight weeks during the summer.
loss is not so critical. cuttings 1 in apart in rows. Label the container Cape cowslips, snowdrops and hyacinths that Leaf cuttings of Heloniopsis will regen-
Leaf cuttings from bulbous plants, such as clearly. Spray the cuttings with a fungicide have been propagated in spring just as their erate from both ends. Reduce the leaf to
Hyacinthus, that have tender leaves may well such as Captan or Benlate as protection leaves mature will regenerate in four to six 11/2-2 in by cutting off the top and
rot and die unless they are handled as little against rot and disease. weeks. Repot the new plants once they are bottom. Plant the cutting in a loop, with
as possible, planted carefully and sprayed Place the container in a warm (21°C/70°F), large enough to handle and label them both ends in the compost.
regularly with fungicide. humid environment so the leaves do not dry clearly; then harden them off.
A few plants are capable of developing Although other plants such as Asplenium
isolated groups of simple cells in certain areas and Cystoperis develop foliar embryos
of their leaves. As a result these cells, or foliar naturally, it is best to remove the leaf together
embryos, are capable of developing into new with the plantlets to allow them slightly
plantlets. Given certain growing conditions longer to become established before separ-
some of these plants, such as Mitella, have ating them from the parent leaf. Place the
foliar embryos that develop naturally into leaf flat on some cuttings compost in a seed
plantlets. Other plants such as Cardamlne will tray. Pin it in position with a light wire staple
only respond in this way if the leaves are if it does not sit flat on the compost. Label and
separated from the parent plant. leave on a shaded greenhouse bench. Ensure
The position on the leaf of these embryos that the parent leaf does not become
is fixed according to each plant's charac- desiccated. Separate the plantlets and pot on
teristic and it is not influenced by the way once they have rooted and established. This
the actual plantlets develop. The plantlets should take seven to eight weeks.
in Kalanchoe leaves, for example, arise be- Some plants, such as Tiarella, will only be
tween the jagged edges of the leaves; in stimulated into developing plantlets from
Mitella and Cardamine, the plantlets appear foliar embryos if their leaves are severed. Cut
at the junction of the leaf stalk and leaf off a leaf as soon as it has expanded fully.
blade. Sedum, however, produces only one Set it on some cuttings compost in a seed
plantlet and this is at the base of each sessile tray. Label; then place in a warm (21°C/70°F),
leaf. humid, shady environment such as a poly-
Collect the plantlets from those plants that ethylene tent until the plantlets develop and
produce t h e m naturally. W i t h some of these establish (five to seven weeks); then separate
plants,, such as Kalanchoe, the plantlets fall and pot on. Succulents, such as Sedum and
off once the roots begin to develop. Plant Kalanchoe, can be left on an open bench in a
them in cuttings compost in a labeled seed greenhouse to develop their plantlets. Cer-
tray. Repot t h e m separately once they have tain Kalanchoe respond best if the leaves are
established properly. stimulated in spring to produce plantlets.
Grafting is a technique of joining t w o parts There are t w o basic grafting positions: cuttings or layering. However, some plants There are a number of problems associated
of different plants together in such a way that apical grafting, in which the top of the root- such as witch hazel are not easily propagated with grafting. The main one is ensuring two
they will unite and continue their growth as stock is removed and is replaced with the by any other vegetative method if selected plants are compatible. This limitation deter-
one plant. scion; and side grafting, in which the scion forms are required, and so they are grafted mines which variety and species of plants can
One part, called the scion, is usually a stem is grafted on to the side of the rootstock and onto rootstocks. be grafted onto which rootstocks; in general,
from the plant to be propagated. This is the rootstock above the graft is not removed Perhaps the most useful reason for grafting it is normal to graft varieties onto their own
grafted onto a root system from another until after a union is achieved. is to transfer the benefits of a particular species or very closely related ones.
plant, which is called the rootstock (also, the Because time-consuming preparation work rootstock on to another plant. Various fruit- To graft successfully, it is vitally important
stock or understock). All the various tech- is necessary before two plants can be joined, tree rootstocks, for example, have been to position the various tissues of the stem
niques of joining plants are called grafting, grafting is superficially a less attractive tech- developed to control both the size and correctly so that the stem can make a quick
although, when buds only are joined to the nique than other relatively easy methods of fruiting vigor of other varieties of fruit tree. and continuous union. The cambium is the
rootstock, it is sometimes called budding. vegetative propagation, such as taking stem Other advantages that a rootstock might actively growing part of the stem that lies just
possess are resistance to pests and diseases; under the bark. This cambium layer on both
toleration of high soil-moisture levels and the scion and the rootstpck must be pos-
salt concentrations; and toleration of high itioned so they are absolutely adjacent to
alkalinity levels in the soil. The more rootstock each other, or at least in as much contact as
incorporated into a new plant, the more possible.
influence the rootstock will have. The successful formation of a graft also
Another advantage of grafting is that more depends on making and matching cuts
than one scion can be joined onto a plant. quickly and cleanly: the cut surfaces must be
This is particularly useful with fruit trees as a placed in contact with the minimum of delay.
suitable pollinator variety can be grafted into Should the surfaces dry out, the tissues will
a tree or bush already grafted with another die and so make an effective barrier to the
variety, or it may allow a decorative stem to development of a successful union.
be grafted on and then be top worked with The making of a graft union is only partly
another variety. due to successful carpentry. Much also
depends on providing suitable conditions for Shield-budding, however, must normally wait Fruit trees (-especially apples) are grafted at Make the scion tongue by cutting for 1/2 in
the tissues to develop and grow to form a until midsummer when the bark lifts easily 9-10 in above soil level to avoid problems from one-third of the way up the scion sloping
successful union. In effect, this means that from the w o o d on the rootstock. such as collar rot. Ornamental plants, on the cut, keeping the knife blade at the same
water loss must be prevented and warmth other hand, are grafted as close to the ground angle as the tongue on the rootstock.
must be provided round the grafted parts by Whip-and-tongue grafting as feasible, to avoid unsightly bulges that Slip the scion into the rootstock so they
carefully covering them until they have Whip-and-tongue grafting is commonly used may occur with certain rootstock/scion interlock. If the rootstock is thicker than the
joined together. to propagate fruit trees, although the tech- combinations. scion, move it to one side until there is good
Traditionally, the grafted parts have been nique can be employed successfully for trees Cut back the rootstock to the appropriate contact between the t w o cambial layers.
covered and tied together with raffia, but and shrubs with tissues that will also readily height with a pair of sharp shears. Then Bind with clear polyethylene grafting tape to
most grafts are now enclosed by 1/2 in wide unite at relatively low temperatures. make a 11/2 in sloping cut across the top, using hold the join firmly. Seal the top of the scion
clear polyethylene strip. This has the advant- Select a plant that will be suitable as root- a sharp knife. with tree paint and label.
age of completely surrounding and sealing stock and plant it outdoors. Label it and leave Lift the scions from the ground. Select one For a wide range of trees and shrubs, in-
the cut areas, so reducing water loss to a mini- it to establish for one growing season. that has a similar diameter at its base to that cluding apple and pear trees, the grafted
mum. The graft union on indoor grafted In midwinter, select a plant that is suitable of the rootstock top. Take a sharp knife and parts can then be left to unite. Cherry trees,
plants is taped with rubberized strip before as scion material. From it take some hard- make a top cut close above a bud about four however, should have their scion and grafted
being placed in a humid atmosphere to wood stems with all their previous season's to five buds from the scion base. Then make area covered with a polyethylene bag, which
develop. growth. Bundle these scions together and a sloping 11/2 in cut across the base of the is then tied just below the union—the in-
Once the grafted parts have successfully heel them into 6 in of soil in a well-drained cool scion, ending it just below a b u d ; ensure the creased temperature hastening development.
united, the development of the new plant position. Firm back the soil and label them. cut is at the same angle as the rootstock cut. Remove the grafting tape and polyethylene
depends on preventing any further c o m - W h e n the scions are eventually grafted in This is a splice or whip graft. To provide bag as soon as the cut surfaces start callusing,
petition from the rootstock. Therefore, always spring, they will be less developed than the rigidity, add a tongue to the cuts. which means the t w o grafted parts are
remove all subsequent growths from any- growth on the rootstock. The tongue is made from single cuts on beginning to join.
where on the rootstock. Prepare the rootstock once its sap has both the scion and rootstock. From one- Cut off any growth that the rootstock may
Although it is theoretically possible to graft started to rise; this is usually just before the third of the way down the sloping cut on top produce and, if required, reduce the scion
at almost any time of the year, the best leaf buds break. Trim to make a single stem of the rootstock, make a shallow, single 1/2 in shoots to just one to promote a single-
season for most grafting is in the spring. with no branches. slice d o w n into the rootstock. stemmed tree or shrub.
Wedge or cleft grafting is perhaps the easiest middle of the scion base. Make a similar cut depending on its vigor. Write a label in rootstock, although these are unlikely to
way to join t w o plants as only simple carpen- on the opposite side of the scion. indelible ink and attach it to the new plant. occur with a rootstock that was cut back into
try is required, and it is used to propagate a Push the scion gently but firmly down into Cut out any competing growths from the the hypocotyl or a root.
wide variety of shrubs and ornamental trees. the rootstock cut. Leave a small portion of
In midwinter, collect some stems with all the cut scion surface exposed above the root-
their previous season's growth from a plant stock. This will encourage the development
with suitable scion material. Bundle these of callus tissues, and it is known as the
together and then heel them 6 in deep into "church w i n d o w " effect.
the ground. This will prevent the scions drying Bind the joined area tightly with clear
out, and will keep t h e m cool and retard their polyethylene grafting tape. Seal the top ot the
development. Label t h e m clearly. scion with a suitable tree paint to reduce
In late winter/early spring, select a suitable water loss.
rootstock: either a one-year-old seedling or a Place the grafted parts in a box of peat and
substantial piece of root that is growing grit and heel them in to just above the graft
vigorously. Lift the rootstock and wash it. union. Label and place in a protected environ-
Crafting is carried out on the top of the ment such as a cold frame or closed case, or
root or in the hypocotyl of the seedling. Cut on a greenhouse bench. The higher the
the top of the rootstock horizontally, using a temperature the faster the union will occur,
sharp knife. Then make a single 11/4 in cut providing the grafted parts do not dry out.
vertically down the middle of the rootstock. As the grafted parts unite, the exposed cut
Lift the scions; choose one that has plump, surfaces will start callusing. This can be seen
healthy buds and is of similar diameter to the in the "church w i n d o w " just above the cut
top of the rootstock. Make a sloping cut just surface of the rootstock, where the callus
above a bud at the top, using a sharp knife. tissues interlock and provide rigidity.
Then make a horizontal cut about 6 in below. W h e n a fairly firm union has formed, cut
To form a wedge, make a sloping 11/2 in cut, and remove the polyethylene tape. Pot up the
starting near a bud and cutting toward the resulting tree or shrub, or plant it out.
The side-wedge graft is the simplest and most possible, collect these stems with their apical Two weeks later, cut back the remaining Watering is probably the most difficult
effective method of side grafting, and it is buds intact. rootstock above the grafted area so that the aspect of graft management. Water little and
widely used to propagate both deciduous and Select a stem, or scion, of comparable scion becomes the leader shoot of the plant. often rather than in large doses at infrequent
evergreen plants. thickness to the rootstock. Make t w o sloping Dab the cut surface with a suitable tree paint intervals, so that the plant is kept on the dry
The usual season for side-wedge grafting is 11/2 in cuts on the scion base, opposite each if the final cut surface is extensive. side in a humid environment.
in late winter/early spring, just before the leaf other, so that a wedge shape is produced.
buds break. However, with evergreen plants Starting about 2 in above soil level, cut
it is feasible whenever a mature flush of downward into the rootstock for 1 1/2 in and
growth is available and the rootstock is inward to about a third of the stem thickness.
growing actively. For very sappy plants, that Gently bend the rootstock away from this
is those plants that "bleed" when cut, it is cut so that it opens sufficiently to insert the
advisable to graft early in the growing season scion. If the scion is narrower than the root-
and dry the rootstocks off before doing so. stock, match up the cambial layers on one
Establish a one-year-old labeled seedling side. Release the tension on the rootstock.
in a pot and grow it for a year. Ensure this Bind with clear polyethylene tape, over-
seedling, which will form the rootstock, is lapping it to seal the entire cut area and label.
related to and therefore compatible with the Stand the grafted rootstock in a green-
plant to be grafted onto it. house, and the t w o parts should join in about
About three weeks before grafting, place six to eight weeks, depending on the species.
the potted rootstock in a frost-free area to This environment is preferable to a warm,
encourage it to grow. Dry off the rootstock, humid one, such as a closed case, where the
especially deciduous rootstock, by keeping buds would be encouraged to develop and,
watering to a bare minimum or indeed by not once the t w o parts have joined, the grafted
watering at all. Trim the leaves off the b o t t o m rootstock would need hardening off, which
3-4 in of the rootstock stem. can be extremely difficult to do satisfactorily.
Select a plant that has suitable scion Remove the polyethylene tape and cut
material, and remove some stems with all back half the rootstock above the grafted
their previous season's growth. If at all area as soon as the two parts have joined.
Traditionally, side-veneer grafts have been After three weeks, once the rootstock Label the grafted rootstock and keep it spider mite infestations, so spray regularly
used to propagate conifers, but they are now shows signs of growth, grafting is carried out. warm and humid to encourage the plant to with fungicides and pesticides.
often carried out on any plant suitable for side Select a conifer that has suitable scion grow and the grafted parts to join up. A Take the grafted rootstock out of the closed
grafting. The join resulting from this method material and cut off a leader shoot of one closed case with or w i t h o u t heat from below case and harden off on the greenhouse
of grafting is slightly more upright than one season's growth. The length of the shoot, or is a suitable environment. bench, once the parts have united. This
from a side-wedge graft (see page 89). scion, will very much depend on the vigor Water the pot sparingly, keeping the plant should be within six to ten weeks. Remove
Conifers, when cut, exude resin and, of growth, but it must include some mature on the dry side until callusing occurs. the polyethylene tape and reduce the top of
although this can be reduced by drying off brown-barked w o o d . Strip off the leaves from Conifers, if grown close together in pots the rootstock by one-third immediately. After
the rootstocks before grafting, the resin will the bottom third of the scion. Make a 11/4 in under warm, humid conditions, are subject a fortnight, remove a further third. After mid-
still adhere to a knife blade and so impair its sloping cut down to the scion base, using a to various leaf diseases and rots, and to red summer, head back any remaining rootstock.
efficiency and cutting edge. Therefore, keep sharp knife. Then turn the scion over and
the knife blade clean by wiping it regularly make a very small wedge cut.
with some absorbent material soaked in an Trim any leaves off the bottom 6 in of the
organic solvent such as acetone. It is im- rootstock stem. About 21/2-3 in above soil
portant to wipe the solvent off the blade level, make a 11/4in sloping cut downward
with a clean cloth otherwise it could pollute and inward to give a shallow cut about 1/8 in
the tissues of any plant through which the deep at the bottom. Then make a slightly
knife blade subsequently cuts. downward and inward nick lower down the
Rootstocks for side-veneer grafts are almost rootstock to join the first cut. Remove the
invariably pot grown, as the fine, fibrous roots sliver of w o o d from the rootstock. Place the
of the conifer are prone to drying out. rootstock and scion together. If their sizes
Graft conifers either in late winter/early match they will be easier to manipulate. If
spring or during late summer, although the the scion is narrower than the rootstock, set
latter period causes problems as the trees to one side to match up the cambial layers.
have to be kept alive over the winter and then The interlocking bases of the t w o grafted
need to be hardened off in spring. parts will provide some rigidity, but they
In late winter/early spring, dry off the pot- should also be tied together firmly.
grown conifer that will form the rootstock by It is possible to use a rubberized strip as a
watering less than usual. Because it is ever- tie, but clear polyethylene tape is just as effec-
green, this drying off should not be as drastic tive and has the added advantage of
as for deciduous plants. preventing water loss from around the cuts.
Shield-budding, or T-budding, is a traditional shield-budding. Insert a rose bud into the Remove the leaves, but leave about 1/2 in of w o o d out. If the bud trace comes out with
way to propagate rosaceous plants by graft- hypocotyl of a seedling rose (see page 92) and each leaf stalk attached to the stem. the w o o d , the bud is not mature and should
ing. A bud from the plant to be propagated is a tree bud into a stem of a compatible root- W h e n shield-budding, always select buds be discarded.
placed behind the bark of the rootstock so stock at the required height. from the middle of a stem where the buds are Using the leaf stalk as a handle, slip the bud
that the back of the bud and the exposed Cut off any leaves and branches on the mature. Do not take them from the bottom into the T-cut on the rootstock, and trim off
surface of the rootstock w o o d are in contact. b o t t o m 12 in of the rootstock. Make a T- of the stem because they may be latent, nor the tail flush with the horizontal cut.
However, this technique can only be carried shaped incision through the bark by cutting from the top where they will be immature. Tie the budded rootstock with clear poly-
out when the bark of the rootstock lifts easily; a horizontal slit and then a vertical downward Cut shallowly into the stem, or bud stick, ethylene tape, leaving the bud and leaf stalk
this is normally between May and August. incision sufficiently large to take a suitable about 1/4 in below a mature b u d ; then cut exposed, and label it.
Select a suitable rootstock, either a seed- bud. The taut bark will begin to spring away shallowly underneath the b u d ; when past it, After three to four weeks the bud will have
ling or a one-year-old layer. Plant it in some from the wood underneath. Loosen the two lift off the bud together with a tail of bark. united with the rootstock and the tape can
open ground during the winter. Label it and flaps slightly to receive the bud. Ensure the cut is deep enough to avoid be removed.
allow to establish. Select a plant that has suitable budding damaging the " e y e " of the bud. In late winter/early spring, cut back the top
As soon as the bark lifts easily from the material. Cut off a stem with all the current Remove any w o o d from under the bark by of the rootstock to just above the bud, which
wood underneath, prepare the rootstock for year's growth and with plump, healthy buds. bending the bark outward and flicking the will then grow out during the following spring.
Hybrid Tea and Floribunda roses should be Pull away the earth from the rootstock Standard roses buds in a close spiral are worked on the
propagated by inserting buds into seedling neck. Make a T-shaped cut in the neck. Standard roses are propagated on to root- rootstock in order to produce a more even
rootstocks rather than by taking stem cut- Loosen the t w o flaps of bark a little. stocks of Rosa rugosa, which has single stems and regular head. The height at which the
tings. The advantage of rose budding is that Select a plant that has suitable budding usually 6 - 8 f t tall. Plant in winter in a row and leaf buds are inserted will depend on the
the seedling rootstocks boost the vigor material. From it choose a stem in which the support on wire attached to posts. Budding length of stem required. A standard rose is
of the weaker varieties, which on their o w n flowers have just " b l o w n , " that is, gone over, takes place during the following summer usually budded at about 31/2 ft; a half-standard
roots may grow only 9 in or so, while reducing and remove this stem with all its current when the bark lifts. Two or sometimes three at about 21/2 ft.
the potential of the more vigorous ones, season's growth. At this stage virtually all the
which might otherwise reach 14-16 ft tall. buds on the stem will be suitable for propa-
The selection of a suitable rootstock is one gation. Remove the leaves from the stem.
of the most important decisions when propa- Hold a sharp knife just below a bud. Cut
gating roses. Although it is possible to collect shallowly toward the tip of the stem around
a seedling of the wild rose from the hedgerow the bud. Lift off the bud together with its tail.
and use this as rootstock, this not only Insert the bud, tail upward, between the
denudes the natural flora of the countryside flaps of bark on the rootstock. Trim the tail
but in fact is not really desirable as rootstock. flush with the horizontal cut. Cover the bud
A rose rootstock should not produce with a rubber budding patch and pin it in
suckers once the bush is eventually planted position. This patch, which is made of non-
in its permanent position. It should ideally be vulcanized rubber, will perish at about the
of a variety that grows few thorns, and the same rate as the bud unites with the root-
actual process of budding will be easier if the stock—in about four to five weeks. This
neck of the rootstock is relatively long. All means that the rubber patch does not need
these advantages are found in Rosa laxa. cutting as it will not constrict the rapidly
In winter, plant a seedling rootstock of expanding neck of the plant.
5-8 mm grade up to its neck in the ground. The bud will develop before the end of the
Space further plants about 9 in apart in a row, season or during the following season.
and earth t h e m all up to cover their necks; In late winter, cut off the top of the root-
then label them. stock, just above the bud. This prevents
Budding is carried out once the bark of the possible stem suckers. The following autumn,
rootstock lifts easily, usually after midsummer. replant the bush in its final place.
Chip-budding is perhaps the easiest way to Select a plant that is suitable for budding.
bud a plant as it involves relatively few Cut off some vegetative shoots with all their
actions and, more importantly, it provides current year's growth and with well-matured
greater cambial contact between rootstock buds, at least toward their base. Discard the
and scion than does shield-budding. softer t o p growth and carefully remove all
A " c h i p " of bark and w o o d is removed the leaves flush with the stem.
from the rootstock and replaced with a " c h i p " Make a 1/4in cut down into the rootstock
of similar dimensions carrying a bud from the stem, at an angle of about 45 degrees. Start a
plant to be propagated. top cut 11/4" in above the lower cut and angle it
Chip-budding can be used to propagate down to join the basal cut; remove the chip.
any rosaceous plant, provided that the w o o d Select a stem, or bud stick, that has a
is sufficiently hard and mature. For the tech- similar diameter to the rootstock so that it is
nique to be successful, it is necessary to easy to match the cuts.
prevent any water loss by sealing the cut Make exactly similar cuts on the bud stick
edges extremely well. as on the rootstock, ensuring that a bud is
Chip-budding can be carried out at any included midway down the chip.
time of year provided that well-matured buds Tuck the bud chip into position on the
are available and temperatures are high rootstock and tie with polyethylene tape,
enough (at least 10°C/50°F) to produce a overlapping the tape so that it seals the chip
union quickly. completely. Then label.
Although this technique could be used on After three to four weeks the bud will have
pot-grown rootstocks such as Magnolia united with the rootstock and the tape can
grandiflora, it is usually carried out on root- be removed, so allowing the bud to swell.
stocks that have been planted in winter in In winter, cut the rootstock right back,
the open ground. close above the bud but without damaging it.
In midsummer, remove all branches and The bud will grow out the following season.
leaves from the b o t t o m 12-15 in of the root- If budding is done early, the bud may grow
stock stem. out before the end of the season.

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