The skeletal system supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form.

This system is composed of connective tissues including bone, cartilage, tendons,

and ligaments. Nutrients are provided to this system through blood vessels that
are contained within canals in bone. The skeletal system stores minerals, fats, and
produces blood cells. Another major role of the skeletal system is to provide
mobility. Tendons, bones, joints, ligaments and muscles work in concert to produce
various movements.

PROCESS

The skeletal system works to support your body. Without your skeletal frame, you
would be unable to move. Humans are vertebrates, meaning we have bony,
articulated (jointed) endoskeletons. An endoskeleton is a frame within the body
that offers support as it grows and develops. The skeletal system offers
protection, support, blood cell formation, stores minerals and energy and aids
movement. Bones are made of connective tissue. Connective tissue is found all over
your body and comes in different forms. Bones are mostly made up of collagen
fibrils. Their surfaces are covered with special cells made of calcium compounds.
This is what gives the bones their structure and strength.

Inside the bones, there are cells that contain fibers and ground substance. If you
were to look at bone cells under a microscope, you would find tiny grains scattered
throughout. As the cells develop, the calcium compounds inside crystallize. This
creates bones as we know them: able to withstand great pressure and strength
without breaking. Calcium and phosphorus are stored within your bones.

A human adult has a total of two hundred and six bones. Bones are considered to
be living organs because they are made up of nerve, muscle and epithelial tissue, as
well the connective tissue that binds everything together. If you were to look at
the cross section of a long bone, such as your femur, you would see a shaft in the
middle that is hollow. This central cavity contains either red or yellow marrow. Red
is newly produced marrow. As bones age, the red marrow converts into yellow. This
special, yellow marrow is an energy source.

Within the bones, red and white blood cells are produced, along with platelets.
There is a fibrous sheath called a periosteum that contains blood vessels which
supply oxygen and nutrients to the bone tissues. Blood vessels get in and out of the
bones by little openings called nutrient canals. As we develop, our bones grow with
us. Hyaline cartilage produces lateral growth, which is later replaced by bone
tissue. The bones add surface area through appositional growth, which causes your
bones to widen. The periosteum is responsible for secreting new bone tissue.
The skeletal system is covered with muscles that enable us to move. These muscles
are attached to the bones through tendons and often stretch from one end of the
bone to the other. Your bones and muscles work together through a series of
impulses and signals communicated between the brain and skeletal muscles. In
order to move, the nervous system signals a skeletal muscle to contract. When the
muscle contracts, this movement causes the attached bone (or bones) to follow.

ORGANS
1. BONES

The most important organ of the skeletal system is

the bones. Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones
that in coordination not only provides support and
protection to the viscera (with the help of muscles
attached to them) but also produces blood cells for
the body from the bone-marrow.

2. LIGAMENTS AND JOINTS

Another important component, i.e. the ligaments are made of fibrous collagen
tissue that attaches one bone to another bone. This attachment forms into joints
and allows the bone to move in a particular direction and hence enhances the
movement of body parts in desired direction, such as hips, elbow, knees ad wrist
etc. If the stretching of ligament occurs more than the normal levels, the person is
referred to as double-jointed.

3. TENDONS

Similar to ligaments, tendons are important skeletal

system organs which join the muscles to the bones,
hence they are more flexible so as to provide greater
range of movement. The contraction of tendon pulls
the end of bone to which it is attached and makes that
bone to move during walking and running. But this
excessive flexibility of tendons make them more prone
to injuries and infections. One such inflammatory
conditions is known as tendonitis, in which the tendons
get red, swollen and painful to move.

4. CARTILAGE

Another organ of skeletal system is

the cartilage, which is soft and
flexible connective tissue. Cartilage
not only plays a role in maintaining and
forming the shape of human ear and
nose as well as other organs, but also
protects the bones against friction
forces (which would otherwise
corrode the bones easily). The
cartilages can also get damaged or
infected, causing the joint to be
swollen and tender. In advanced cases, you may require repair or replacement such
as knee replacement surgery.
The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood
throughout the body. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the
nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be
completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal system it forms the
musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human body.

PROCESS

Without muscle, humans could not live. The primary job of muscle is to move the
bones of the skeleton, but muscles also enable the heart to beat and constitute
the walls of other important hollow organs.

There are three types of muscle tissue:

 Skeletal muscle: This type of muscle creates movement in the body. There
are more than 600 skeletal muscles, and they makes up about 40 percent of
a person’s body weight. When the nervous system signals the muscle to
contract, groups of muscles work together to move the skeleton. These
signals and movements are nearly involuntary, yet they do require conscious
effort. However, humans do not need to concentrate on individual muscles
when moving.

 Cardiac muscle: Cardiac muscle is involuntary muscle. This type makes up the
walls of the heart and creates the steady, rhythmic pulsing that pumps blood
through the body from signals from the brain. This muscle type also creates
the electrical impulses that produce the heart’s contractions, but hormones
and stimuli from the nervous system can also affect these impulses, such as
when your heart rate increases when you’re scared.

 Smooth muscle: Smooth muscle makes up the walls of hollow organs,

respiratory passageways, and blood vessels. Its wavelike movements propel
things through the bodily system, such as food through your stomach or
urine through your bladder. Like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is involuntary
and also contracts in response to stimuli and nerve impulses.

Muscle movement happens when neurological signals produce electrical changes in

muscle cells. During this process, calcium is released into the cells and brings about
a short muscle twitch. Problems with the junction between the cells — called a
synapse — can lead to neuromuscular diseases.
ORGANS

The muscular system allows us to move. Adults have a certain fixed number of
muscle cells, approximately 602. . Through exercise, such as weight lifting, the
cells enlarge but the number of cells does not increase.

Structure and Function

There are three types of muscle tissue—smooth, skeletal, and cardiac. Each has
its own distinctive function, and therefore, its own distinctive structure, but all
muscles allow movement of some kind.

Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle is called voluntary because you

can control this type of muscle. You can
voluntarily choose to move them. These
muscles attach to bones, move the skeleton,
and are found in the arms, legs, neck, or
anywhere you can voluntarily move a body part.
These muscles produce strong contractions.
Structurally, these muscle fibers
appear striated (striped) when magnified, have
more than one nucleus, and may be up to 30 cm long in humans. Look at the table in
this lesson that compares the features of the three types of muscle tissues.
Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle is called involuntary muscle because you

can not control this type of muscle movement. These
muscles line internal organs, blood vessels, and organs
such found in the digestive and reproductive systems.
Structurally, these muscle fibers appear non-striated
(not striped) when magnified, have one nucleus per cell,
and are usually short. They produce weaker contractions.

Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle tissue is involuntary muscle and

found, as its name would suggest, only in the
heart. You can not control your heart muscle; it
works automatically for you.
Structurally, these muscle fibers appear striated
when magnified, have more than one nuclei per
cell, and are also branched in appearance.
The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into
energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long
tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract
(GI tract). The alimentary canal is made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestines, and large intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal,
there are several important accessory organs that help your body to digest food
but do not have food pass through them. Accessory organs of the digestive system
include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. To
achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major functions
take place in the digestive system:

 Ingestion
 Secretion
 Mixing and movement
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Excretion

PROCESS

The process of digestion is a fascinating and complex one that takes the food we
place in our mouth and turns it into energy and waste products. This process takes
place in the gastrointestinal tract, a long, connected, tubular structure that starts
with the mouth and ends with the anus. The food is propelled forward within the
system, altered by enzymes and hormones into usable particles and absorbed along
the way. Other organs that support the digestive process are the liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas. The time it takes for food to travel from entering the mouth to be
excreted as waste is around 30 to 40 hours.

Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva begins the process of digestion. This
produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus and into the stomach.
Here it is mixed with gastric juice until it passes into the duodenum where it is
mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Saliva also contains a
catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another
digestive enzyme called lingual lipase is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on
the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is
helped by the mastication of food by the teeth and also by the muscular actions of
peristalsis and segmentation contractions. Gastric juice in the stomach is essential
for the continuation of digestion as is the production of mucus in the stomach.

Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and
continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract.
This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in
the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the
digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are
reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine. The waste
products of digestion (feces) are defecated from the anus via the rectum.

ORGANS

MOUTH

Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the mouth, also known as
the oral cavity. Inside the mouth are many accessory organs that aid in the
digestion of food—the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. Teeth chop food into
small pieces, which are moistened by saliva before the tongue and other muscles
push the food into the pharynx.
  Teeth. The teeth are 32 small, hard organs found along the anterior and
lateral edges of the mouth. Each tooth is made of a bone-like substance
called dentin and covered in a layer of enamel—the hardest substance in the
body. Teeth are living organs and contain blood vessels and nerves under the
dentin in a soft region known as the pulp. The teeth are designed for cutting
and grinding food into smaller pieces.
 Tongue. The tongue is located on the inferior portion of the mouth just
posterior and medial to the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several
pairs of muscles covered in a thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside of the
tongue contains many rough papillae for gripping food as it is moved by the
tongue’s muscles. The taste buds on the surface of the tongue detect taste
molecules in food and connect to nerves in the tongue to send taste
information to the brain. The tongue also helps to push food toward the
posterior part of the mouth for swallowing.
 Salivary Glands. Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The
salivary glands are accessory organs that produce a watery secretion known
as saliva. Saliva helps to moisten food and begins the digestion of
carbohydrates. The body also uses saliva to lubricate food as it passes
through the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.

PHARYNX

The pharynx, or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube connected to the posterior end of

the mouth. The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed food
from the mouth to the esophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the
respiratory system, as air from the nasal cavity passes through the pharynx on its
way to the larynx and eventually the lungs. Because the pharynx serves two
different functions, it contains a flap of tissue known as the epiglottis that acts as
a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the larynx.

ESOPHAGUS

The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is
part of the upper gastrointestinal tract. It carries swallowed masses of chewed
food along its length. At the inferior end of the esophagus is a muscular ring called
the lower Stomach, gallbladder and pancreasesophageal sphincter or cardiac
sphincter. The function of this sphincter is to close of the end of the esophagus
and trap food in the stomach.

STOMACH

The stomach is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal
cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm. In an average person, the stomach is about
the size of their two fists placed next to each other. This major organ acts as a
storage tank for food so that the body has time to digest large meals properly.
The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes that continue
the digestion of food that began in the mouth.
SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet
long that is part of the lower gastrointestinal tract. It is located just inferior to
the stomach and takes up most of the space in the abdominal cavity. The entire
small intestine is coiled like a hose and the inside surface is full of many ridges and
folds. These folds are used to maximize the digestion of food and absorption of
nutrients. By the time food leaves the small intestine, around 90% of all nutrients
have been extracted from the food that entered it.

LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

The liver is a roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system located to
the right of the stomach, just inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the small
intestine. The liver weighs about 3 pounds and is the second largest organ in the
body.

INTESTINES

The liver has many different functions in the body, but the main function of the
liver in digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine.
The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ located just posterior to the liver.
The gallbladder is used to store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so
that it can be reused for the digestion of subsequent meals.

PANCREAS

The pancreas is a large gland located just inferior and posterior to the stomach. It
is about 6 inches long and shaped like short, lumpy snake with its “head” connected
to the duodenum and its “tail” pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity. The
pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine to complete the
chemical digestion of foods.

LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine is a long, thick tube about 2.5 inches in diameter and about 5
feet long. It is located just inferior to the stomach and wraps around the superior
and lateral border of the small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and
contains many symbiotic bacteria that aid in the breaking down of wastes to
extract some small amounts of nutrients. Feces in the large intestine exit the body
through the anal canal.
The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and
structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology
that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the
environment in which it lives and its evolutionary history. In land animals the
respiratory surface is internalized as linings of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs
occurs in millions of small air sacs called alveoli in mammals and reptiles, but atria
in birds. These microscopic air sacs have a very rich blood supply, thus bringing the
air into close contact with the blood. These air sacs communicate with the external
environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the
trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi.
These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary
and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In
birds the bronchioles are termed parabronchi. It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi
that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air
has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of
breathing which involves the muscles of respiration.

PROCESS

As we breathe, oxygen enters the nose or mouth and passes the sinuses, which are
hollow spaces in the skull. Sinuses help regulate the temperature and humidity of
the air we breathe.

The trachea, also called the windpipe, filters the air that is inhaled, according to
the American Lung Association. It branches into the bronchi, which are two tubes
that carry air into each lung. (Each one is called a bronchus.) The bronchial tubes
are lined with tiny hairs called cilia. Cilia move back and forth, carrying mucus up
and out. Mucus, a sticky fluid, collects dust, germs and other matter that has
invaded the lungs. We expel mucus when we sneeze, cough, spit or swallow.

The bronchial tubes lead to the lobes of the lungs. The right lung has three lobes;
the left lung has two, according to the American Lung Association. The left lung is
smaller to allow room for the heart, according to York University. Lobes are filled
with small, spongy sacs called alveoli, and this is where the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide occurs.

The alveolar walls are extremely thin (about 0.2 micrometers). These walls are
composed of a single layer of tissues called epithelial cells and tiny blood vessels
called pulmonary capillaries.

Blood passes through the capillaries. The pulmonary artery carries blood containing
carbon dioxide to the air sacs, where the gas moves from the blood to the air.
Oxygenated blood goes to the heart through the pulmonary vein, and the heart
pumps it throughout the body.

The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls

breathing and separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, the American
Lung Association noted. When a breath it taken, it flattens out and pulls forward,
making more space for the lungs. During exhalation, the diaphragm expands and
forces air out.

ORGAN

Nose and Nasal Cavity

The nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening for the respiratory
system and are the first section of the body’s airway—the respiratory tract
through which air moves. The nose is a structure of the face made of cartilage,
bone, muscle, and skin that supports and protects the anterior portion of the nasal
cavity. The nasal cavity is a hollow space within the nose and skull that is lined with
hairs and mucus membrane. The function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisturize,
and filter air entering the body before it reaches the lungs. Hairs and mucus lining
the nasal cavity help to trap dust, mold, pollen and other environmental
contaminants before they can reach the inner portions of the body. Air exiting the
body through the nose returns moisture and heat to the nasal cavity before being
exhaled into the environment.

Mouth

The mouth, also known as the oral cavity, is the secondary external opening for the
respiratory tract. Most normal breathing takes place through the nasal cavity, but
the oral cavity can be used to supplement or replace the nasal cavity’s functions
when needed. Because the pathway of air entering the body from the mouth is
shorter than the pathway for air entering from the nose, the mouth does not warm
and moisturize the air entering the lungs as well as the nose performs this
function. The mouth also lacks the hairs and sticky mucus that filter air passing
through the nasal cavity. The one advantage of breathing through the mouth is
that its shorter distance and larger diameter allows more air to quickly enter the
body.

Pharynx

The pharynx, also known as the throat, is a muscular funnel that extends from the
posterior end of the nasal cavity to the superior end of the esophagus and larynx.
The pharynx is divided into 3 regions: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx is the superior region of the pharynx found in
the posterior of the nasal cavity. Inhaled air from the nasal cavity passes into the
nasopharynx and descends through the oropharynx, located in the posterior of the
oral cavity. Air inhaled through the oral cavity enters the pharynx at the
oropharynx. The inhaled air then descends into the laryngopharynx, where it is
diverted into the opening of the larynx by the epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flap of
elastic cartilage that acts as a switch between the trachea and the esophagus.
Because the pharynx is also used to swallow food, the epiglottis ensures that air
passes into the trachea by covering the opening to the esophagus. During the
process of swallowing, the epiglottis moves to cover the trachea to ensure that
food enters the esophagus and to prevent choking.

Larynx

The larynx, also known as the voice box, is a short section of the airway that
connects the laryngopharynx and the trachea. The larynx is located in the anterior
portion of the neck, just inferior to the hyoid bone and superior to the trachea.
Several cartilage structures make up the larynx and give it its structure. The
epiglottis is one of the cartilage pieces of the larynx and serves as the cover of
the larynx during swallowing. Inferior to the epiglottis is the thyroid cartilage,
which is often referred to as the Adam’s apple as it is most commonly enlarged and
visible in adult males. The thyroid holds open the anterior end of the larynx and
protects the vocal folds. Inferior to the thyroid cartilage is the ring-shaped
cricoid cartilage which holds the larynx open and supports its posterior end. In
addition to cartilage, the larynx contains special structures known as vocal folds,
which allow the body to produce the sounds of speech and singing. The vocal folds
are folds of mucous membrane that vibrate to produce vocal sounds. The tension
and vibration speed of the vocal folds can be changed to change the pitch that
they produce.
Trachea

The trachea, or windpipe, is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage
rings lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The trachea
connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows air to pass through the neck and into
the thorax. The rings of cartilage making up the trachea allow it to remain open to
air at all times. The open end of the cartilage rings faces posteriorly toward the
esophagus, allowing the esophagus to expand into the space occupied by the
trachea to accommodate masses of food moving through the esophagus.
The main function of the trachea is to provide a clear airway for air to enter and
exit the lungs. In addition, the epithelium lining the trachea produces mucus that
traps dust and other contaminants and prevents it from reaching the lungs. Cilia on
the surface of the epithelial cells move the mucus superiorly toward the pharynx
where it can be swallowed and digested in the gastrointestinal tract.

Bronchi and Bronchioles

At the inferior end of the trachea, the airway splits into left and right branches
known as the primary bronchi. The left and right bronchi run into each lung before
branching off into smaller secondary bronchi. The secondary bronchi carry air into
the lobes of the lungs—2 in the left lung and 3 in the right lung. The secondary
bronchi in turn split into many smaller tertiary bronchi within each lobe. The
tertiary bronchi split into many smaller bronchioles that spread throughout the
lungs. Each bronchiole further splits into many smaller branches less than a
millimeter in diameter called terminal bronchioles. Finally, the millions of tiny
terminal bronchioles conduct air to the alveoli of the lungs.

As the airway splits into the tree-like branches of the bronchi and bronchioles, the
structure of the walls of the airway begins to change. The primary bronchi contain
many C-shaped cartilage rings that firmly hold the airway open and give the
bronchi a cross-sectional shape like a flattened circle or a letter D. As the bronchi
branch into secondary and tertiary bronchi, the cartilage becomes more widely
spaced and more smooth muscle and elastin protein is found in the walls. The
bronchioles differ from the structure of the bronchi in that they do not contain
any cartilage at all. The presence of smooth muscles and elastin allow the smaller
bronchi and bronchioles to be more flexible and contractile.

The main function of the bronchi and bronchioles is to carry air from the trachea
into the lungs. Smooth muscle tissue in their walls helps to regulate airflow into the
lungs. When greater volumes of air are required by the body, such as during
exercise, the smooth muscle relaxes to dilate the bronchi and bronchioles. The
dilated airway provides less resistance to airflow and allows more air to pass into
and out of the lungs. The smooth muscle fibers are able to contract during rest to
prevent hyperventilation. The bronchi and bronchioles also use the mucus and cilia
of their epithelial lining to trap and move dust and other contaminants away from
the lungs.

Lungs

The lungs are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the
heart and superior to the diaphragm. Each lung is surrounded by a pleural
membrane that provides the lung with space to expand as well as a negative
pressure space relative to the body’s exterior. The negative pressure allows the
lungs to passively fill with air as they relax. The left and right lungs are slightly
different in size and shape due to the heart pointing to the left side of the body.
The left lung is therefore slightly smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2
lobes while the right lung has 3 lobes.

The interior of the lungs is made up of spongy tissues containing many capillaries
and around 30 million tiny sacs known as alveoli. The alveoli are cup-shaped
structures found at the end of the terminal bronchioles and surrounded by
capillaries. The alveoli are lined with thin simple squamous epithelium that allows air
entering the alveoli to exchange its gases with the blood passing through the
capillaries.
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs — in both
males and females — that work together for the purpose of procreating, according
to the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many
scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most important
systems in the entire body.

The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where
sperm are produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and
urethra belong to both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes
are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain
slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm production.

The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris,
labia minora, labia majora and Bartholin’s glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
The major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina
and uterus — which act as the receptacle for semen — and the ovaries, which
produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix,
while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to
hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg — or more in the case of multiple births — is
released and sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this
egg is eliminated as a result of menstruation.

PROCESS

1. Fertilization: A Sperm and an Egg Form a Zygote

During sexual intercourse, some sperm ejaculated from the male penis swim up
through the female vagina and uterus toward an oocyte (egg cell) floating in one of
the uterine tubes. The sperm and the egg are gametes. They each contain half the
genetic information necessary for reproduction. When a sperm cell penetrates and
fertilizes an egg, that genetic information combines. The 23 chromosomes from
the sperm pair with 23 chromosomes in the egg, forming a 46-chromosome cell
called a zygote. The zygote starts to divide and multiply. As it travels toward the
uterus it divides to become a blastocyst, which will burrow into the uterine wall.

2. The Zygote Becomes an Embryo: Development Prior to and During

Implantation
Embryonic structures in the wombA fertilized egg, or zygote, takes about five
days to reach the uterus from the uterine tube. As it moves, the zygote divides
and develops into a blastocyst, with an inner mass of cells and a protective outer
ring. The blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus and gradually implants itself
into the uterine lining. During implantation, its cells differentiate further. At day
15 after conception, the cells that will form the embryo become an embryonic disc.
Other cells begin to form support structures. The yolk sac, on one side of the disc,
will become part of the digestive tract. On the other side, the amnion fills with
fluid and will surround the embryo as it develops. Other cell groups initiate the
placenta and umbilical cord, which will bring in nutrients and eliminate waste.

3. In Eight Weeks, the Embryo Develops; By the End of Week 10 It Becomes

a Fetus

Fifteen days after conception marks the beginning of the embryonic period. The
embryo contains a flat embryonic disc that now differentiates into three layers:
the endoderm, the mesoderm, and the ectoderm. All organs of the human body
derive from these three tissues. They begin to curve and fold and to form an
oblong body. By week 4, the embryo has a distinct head and tail and a beating
heart. Over the next six weeks, limbs, eyes, brain regions, and vertebrae form.
Primitive versions of all body systems appear. By the end of week 10, the embryo is
a fetus. (Note: Pregnancy is often measured in terms of gestational age—age of
the fetus starting with the first day of a woman’s last menstrual period—and
embryonic or fetal age—actual age of the growing fetus. We are referring to the
gestational age of the fetus.)

4. Fetal Development Ends with Labor, a Three-Stage Process

The process of birth and surrounding organs during laborFrom week 10 of

pregnancy, the fetus grows inside the uterus, fueled by nutrient-rich blood
supplied by the umbilical cord. The placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to the
fetus and removes waste products from the fetus’ blood. Bones, muscles, skin, and
connective tissues form. Body systems develop. Limbs and facial features take
shape. Around week 36 (usually), the process of labor begins. In the first stage,
dilation, hormones stimulate downward contractions of the uterine walls. The
contractions push the head of the fetus against the cervix at the lower end of the
uterus. The cervix dilates. In the second stage, expulsion, powerful contractions
push the head and the rest of the body through the dilated cervix, and out
through the vagina and the vulva. The baby is born. Further contractions expel the
placenta to complete the placental stage.

5. Humans Must Develop Male or Female Gonads and Genitalia to be Capable

of Reproduction

Genital differentiation of the fetusReproductive structures begin to form in the

embryonic stage. By week 6, gonads and genitalia are present but undifferentiated.
Whether they become male or female is determined by one chromosome delivered
by the sperm. This pair contains an X sex chromosome from the female egg and
either an X or a Y sex chromosome from the male sperm. If the chromosome pair is
XY, the gonads develop into testes starting in week 7. If the chromosome pair is
XX, the gonads become ovaries starting in week 8. Testes secrete testosterone,
forming male genitalia around week 10. Without testosterone, female genitalia
form. All reproductive structures are in place at birth or shortly after. At
puberty, an increase in sex hormones will grow them to their adult size and
reproductive capability.

ORGANS

Male and Female Reproductive Organs

Both male and female reproductive organs have internal and external structures.
Reproductive organs are considered to be either primary or secondary organs. The
primary reproductive organs are the gonads (ovaries and testes), which are
responsible for gamete (sperm and egg cell) and hormone production. The other
reproductive structures and organs are considered secondary reproductive
structures. Secondary organs aid in the growth and maturation of gametes and
developing offspring.

Female Reproductive System Organs

Structures of the female reproductive system include:

 Labia majora - Larger lip-like external structures that cover and protect
sexual structures.
 Labia minora - Smaller lip-like external structures found inside the labia
majora. They provide protection for the clitoris and for the urethra and
vaginal openings.
 Clitoris - Very sensitive sexual organ located in front of the vaginal opening.
It contains thousands of sensory nerve endings and responds to sexual
stimulation.
  Vagina - Fibrous, muscular canal leading from the cervix (opening of the
uterus) to the external portion of the genital canal.
 Uterus - Muscular internal organ that houses and nurtures female gametes
after fertilization. Also called the womb, the uterus is where a developing
fetus resides during pregnancy.
 Fallopian tubes - Uterine tubes which transport egg cells from the ovaries
to the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in these tubes.
 Ovaries - Female primary reproductive structures that produce gametes and
sex hormones. There is one ovary on each side of the uterus.

The male reproductive system consists of sexual organs, accessory glands, and a
series of duct systems that provide a pathway for fertile sperm cells to exit the
body. Male reproductive structures include the penis, testes, epididymis, seminal
vesicles, and prostate gland.

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System Organs

The male reproductive system consists of sexual organs, accessory glands, and a
series of duct systems that provide a pathway for fertile sperm cells to exit the
body.
 Penis - Main organ involved in sexual intercourse. This organ is composed of
erectile tissue, connective tissue, and skin. The urethra extends through the
length of the penis, allowing urine and sperm to pass.
 Testes - Male primary reproductive structures that produce male gametes
(sperm) and sex hormones.
  Scrotum - External pouch of skin that contains the testes. Because the
scrotum is located outside of the abdomen, it can reach temperatures that
are lower than that of internal body structures. Lower temperatures are
necessary for proper sperm development.
 Epididymis - System of ducts that receive immature sperm from the testes.
Its function is to develop immature sperm and to house mature sperm.
 Ductus Deferens or Vas Deferens - Fibrous, muscular tubes that are
continuous with the epididymis and provide a pathway for sperm to travel
from the epididymis to the urethra
 Ejaculatory Duct - Duct formed from the union of the ductus deferens and
seminal vesicles. Each ejaculatory duct empties into the urethra.
 Urethra - Tube that extends from the urinary bladder through the penis.
This canal allows for the excretion of reproductive fluids (semen) and urine
from the body. Sphincters prevent urine from entering the urethra while
semen is passing through.
 Seminal Vesicles - Glands that produce fluid to nurture and provide energy
for sperm cells. Tubes leading from the seminal vesicles join the ductus
deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.
 Prostate Gland - Gland that produces a milky, alkaline fluid which increases
sperm motility. The contents of the prostate empty into the urethra.
 Bulbourethral or Cowper's Glands - Small glands located at the base of the
penis. In response to sexual stimulation, these glands secrete an alkaline
fluid which helps to neutralize acidity from urine in the urethra and acidity
in the vagina.

Similarly, the female reproductive system contains organs and structures that
promote the production, support, growth, and development of female gametes (egg
cells) and a growing fetus.
The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular
system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients
(such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood
cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting
diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.

The circulatory system includes the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. The
passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid
consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is
circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen
and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is
essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the
interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The
cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises
the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels
form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the
interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

PROCESS

 The circulatory system consists of three independent systems that work

together: the heart (cardiovascular), lungs (pulmonary), and arteries, veins,
coronary and portal vessels (systemic). The system is responsible for the
flow of blood, nutrients, oxygen and other gases, and as well as hormones to
and from cells.
 An average adult has 5 to 6 quarts (4.7 to 5.6 liters) of blood, which is made
up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
 The heart is a muscular organ with four chambers. Located just behind and
slightly left of the breastbone, it pumps blood through the network of
arteries and veins called the cardiovas- cular system.
 The systemic circulation is a major portion of the circulatory system. The
network of veins, arteries and blood vessels transports oxygenated blood
from the heart, delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells and then
returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 The system of blood vessels in the human body measure about 60,000 miles
(96,560 kilometers).
 Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart through the body. Veins
carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
 The superior vena cava carries oxygen-poor blood into the heart. The aorta
carries oxygenated blood from the heart to organs and tissues.
ORGANS

Heart

In humans, the heart is a four-

chambered organ, containing two atria
and two ventricles. The atria are the
receiving chambers, and receive blood
from veins. On the other hand ventricles
are designed to be efficient pumps,
sending blood into arteries. Oxygenated
blood from the lungs arrives through the
pulmonary vein to the left atrium. It
passes into the left ventricle through the
mitral valve during atrial systole. During
ventricular systole, this blood is pumped
into the aorta to be circulated in the
body through arteries, arterioles and
capillaries. Exchange of materials occurs through the single-celled endothelial walls
of capillaries. Deoxygenated blood from various tissues then returns to the right
atrium of the heart through two major veins – the superior and inferior vena cava.
Once deoxygenated blood reaches the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve,
it is pumped to the lungs during ventricular systole through the pulmonary artery.
In the lungs, gas exchange at alveoli.
Blood Vessels

There are two major types of blood

vessels – those that bring blood towards
the heart are called veins and those that
carry blood from the heart towards
other tissues and organs are called
arteries. Arteries and veins undergo
repeated branching to produce
arterioles and venules. The thinnest
blood vessels are capillaries, made of a
single layer of squamous epithelial cells.
These thin tubular structures are the
primary site for the exchange of
materials between the circulatory
system and tissues.

Lymphatic Circulation

Interstitial fluid is a colorless solution

that bathes all the cells of the body and
forms a major component of extracellular
fluid. It is formed due to the hydrostatic
force of blood in capillaries, leading to
the egress of water, ions and small
solutes from the circulatory system.
Thus, interstitial fluid is similar to blood
plasma in many ways. Some of this fluid starts to flow into the extended open-
ended network of tubular structures forming the lymphatic circulation. This fluid
is now called lymph and passes through lymph nodes, where pathogens, damaged
cells, or cancerous cells can be trapped and destroyed. Metabolic wastes and cell
remnants are then moved towards the bloodstream and processed before being
expelled or excreted as body waste.
The nervous system is a collection of cells, tissues, and organs through which an
organism receives information from its surroundings and then directs the organism
as to how to respond to that information. As an example, imagine that a child
accidentally touches a very hot piece of metal. The cells in the child's hand that
detect heat send a message to the child's brain. The brain receives and analyzes
that message and sends back a message to the child's hand. The message tells the
muscles of the hand to pull itself away from the heat.

The basic unit of the nervous system is a neuron. A neuron is a nerve cell capable
of passing messages from one end to the other. In the example above, the "hot"
message was passed from one neuron to the next along a path that runs from the
child's hand to its brain. The "move your hand" message then passed from one
neuron to the next along another path running from the child's brain back to its
hand.

PROCESS

1. The Brain and Spinal Cord Are the Central Nervous System. Nerves and
Sensory

Together, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous systems
(PNS) transmit and process sensory information and coordinate bodily functions.
The brain and spinal cord (the CNS) function as the control center. They receive
data and feedback from the sensory organs and from nerves throughout the body,
process the information, and send commands back out. Nerve pathways of the PNS
carry the incoming and outgoing signals. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves connect the
brain to eyes, ears, and other sensory organs and to head and neck muscles. Thirty-
one pairs of spinal nerves branch out from the spinal cord to tissues of the thorax,
abdomen, and limbs. Each nerve is responsible for relaying sensory information,
sending motor commands, or both.

2. Neurons in Nervous Tissue Relay Rapid-Fire Signals

All nervous tissue, from the brain to the spinal cord to the furthest nerve branch,
includes cells called neurons. Neurons are charged cells: they conduct electrical
signals to pass information through the body. A typical neuron consists of a cell
body, dendrites, and an axon with an axon terminal. The dendrites receive signals
from body tissues or other neurons and pass them into the cell body. If an outgoing
signal is produced, it zips down the axon to the axon terminal and passes to the
next neuron or target cell. This conductive capability sends information up and
down nerve pathways and through the central nervous system at incredible speed.
Some 100 billion neurons give the brain its awesome processing power.
3. Neurotransmitters Are the Activators of the Nervous System

Nervous system messages travel through neurons as electrical signals. When these
signals reach the end of a neuron, they stimulate the release of chemicals called
neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters travel across synapses, spaces between
neurons or between neurons and other body tissues and cells. Neurotransmitters
can be classified as two types: excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory
neurotransmitters stimulate electrical signals in other neurons and encourage
responses from body cells. Inhibitory transmitters discourage signals and cellular
responses. Through these chemicals, the nervous system regulates the activity of
muscles, glands, and its own nerve pathways.

4. The Spinal Cord Transmits Signals to and from the Brain and Commands
Reflexes

The spinal cord is an elongated cylinder of neuron cell bodies, bundles of axons and
other cells, protected by connective tissue and bone. It connects to the brain at
the medulla oblongata and runs down the vertebral column, the hollow tunnel
enclosed within the vertebrae of the spine. The spinal cord is part of the central
nervous system and serves as a kind of superhighway. Sensory information and
motor commands travel up and down, heading to and from the brain. These signals
speed in and out of the spinal cord via spinal nerves—the “on-ramps and off-ramps”
that branch out to supply the limbs, torso, and pelvis. Some incoming signals
demand a simple, immediate response. The spinal cord can shoot out a reflex
command without bothering the brain.

5. The Brain Connects Perceptions to Complex Thought, Memory, and Emotion

The nervous system does more than route information and process commands. Why
do certain smells immediately raise particular memories? The answer appears to lie
in the limbic system. The limbic system forms two paired rings within the brain,
consisting of the hippocampus, the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, and the dentate
gyrus, along with other structures and tracts. As with other brain segments, the
limbic system is involved in multiple nervous system functions and levels of activity.
It helps to process both memory and olfaction—our sense of smell—and it manages
a range of emotions. The aroma rising from a pot on the stove may send your hand
reaching for a spoon. It may also call up a dinner from earlier times, and make you
happy, regretful, or nostalgic.
ORGANS

Neurons

Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system. All cells of the nervous system
are comprised of neurons. Neurons contain nerve processes which are "finger-like"
projections that extend from the nerve cell body. The nerve processes consist of
axons and dendrites which are able to conduct and transmit signals. Axons typically
carry signals away from the cell body. They are long nerve processes that may
branch out to convey signals to various areas. Dendrites typically carry signals
toward the cell body. They are usually more numerous, shorter and more branched
than axons.

Brain

The brain is the control center of the body. It has a wrinkled appearance due to
bulges and depressions known as gyri and sulci. One of these furrows, the medial
longitudinal fissure, divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. Covering the
brain is a protective layer of connective tissue known as the meninges.

There are three main brain divisions: the forebrain, the brainstem, and the
hindbrain.
 The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and
processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and
understanding language, and controlling motor function. The forebrain contains
structures, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are responsible for
such functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling
autonomic functions
 The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain
is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain.
This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses as well as
motor function.
 The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and contains structures such as
the pons and cerebellum. These regions assist in maintaining balance and
equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information.
The hindbrain also contains the medulla oblongata which is responsible for
controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers that is connected to
the brain. The spinal cord runs down the center of the protective spinal column
extending from the neck to the lower back. Spinal cord nerves transmit
information from body organs and external stimuli to the brain and send
information from the brain to other areas of the body. The nerves of the spinal
cord are grouped into bundles of nerve fibers that travel in two pathways.
Ascending nerve tracts carry sensory information from the body to the brain.
Descending nerve tracts send information pertaining to motor function from the
brain to the rest of the body.
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the
group of glands of an organism that secrete those hormones directly into the
circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback
loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive. In humans, the major endocrine
glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, and adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is
the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with
the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal
medicine.

The endocrine system includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones
produced by those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation from
the nervous system as well as by chemical receptors in the blood and hormones
produced by other glands. By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these
glands help to maintain the body’s homeostasis. Cellular metabolism, reproduction,
sexual development, sugar and mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion are
among

PROCESS

Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland that produced it
through the bloodstream to the cells designed to receive its message. These cells
are called target cells. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to
some of the hormones. These proteins act as carriers that control the amount of
hormone that is available for the cells to use.

The target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each
hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with
specific target cells that have receptors for that hormone. When the hormone
reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these
hormone-receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner
workings of the cell.

When hormone levels reach a certain normal amount, the endocrine system helps
the body to keep that level of hormone in the blood. For example, if the thyroid
gland has secreted the right amount of thyroid hormones into the blood, the
pituitary gland senses the normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream.
Then the pituitary gland adjusts its release of thyrotropin, the hormone that
stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.

Another example of this process is parathyroid hormone, which increases the level
of calcium in the blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the parathyroid glands
sense the change and reduce their secretion of parathyroid hormone. This turnoff
process is called a negative feedback system.
ORGANS
 Hypothalamus: This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous
system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making
hormones.
 Pituitary: This is the "master" gland of your endocrine system. It uses
information it gets from your brain to "tell" other glands in your body what to
do. It makes many different important hormones, including growth hormone;
prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; and luteinizing hormone,
which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
 Pineal: This gland makes a chemical called melatonin. It helps your body get
ready to go to sleep.
 Thyroid: This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your metabolism. If
this gland doesn't make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything
happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get
constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism),
everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you
might lose weight without trying.
 Parathyroid: This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They are
important for bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and
phosphorus.
 Thymus: This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight
infection and are crucial as a child's immune system develops. The thymus
starts to shrink after puberty.
 Adrenals: Best known for making the "fight or flight" hormone adrenaline
(epinephrine), these two glands also make corticosteroids. These are hormones
that affect your metabolism and sexual function, among other things.
 Pancreas: The pancreas is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems.
It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones
insulin and glucagon. These help ensure you have the right amount of sugar in
your bloodstream and your cells.
 If you don't make any insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes,
your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the
pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
 Ovaries: In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and
support a pregnancy.
 Testes: In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and
body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in
making sperm.
The integumentary system comprises the skin and its appendages acting to protect
the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from
outside. The integumentary system includes hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and
nails. It has a variety of additional functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion,
and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, and regulate temperature, and is
the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and
temperature. In most land vertebrates with significant exposure to sunlight, the
integumentary system also provides for vitamin D synthesis.

PROCESS
We often don't think of the skin as a complex organ, but it is. The skin is the
primary organ in the integumentary system, which also includes hair, nails, and
certain glands. The integumentary system helps to provide support and structure
for the body, but it also plays several other important roles:

It is the first line of defense against foreign organisms and the external
environment.

 It helps to regulate body temperature.

 It senses changes in the environment (pain, pressure, touch).
 It supports the removal of wastes (as sweat).
 It aids in the production of vitamin D.

The integumentary system is one of the most active parts of our body, even though
we are not as aware of its activity as we are with the heart, lungs or stomach. The
integumentary system encapsulates and protects the body. The skin is actually the
largest organ in the body because of its large surface area. In some ways, the skin
can be thought of as an immune system organ, since it protects the body from
foreign organisms. In other ways the skin can be thought of as a sensory organ
because it contains many nerves that are related to the sense of touch. The skin
also integrates with muscles and allows for movements such as facial expression.

ORGANS
Skin, the largest organ of the body, is the primary organ of the integumentary
system. Skin is composed of three main layers, each of which has specific functions
related to its structure. The three main layers of the skin are:

 epidermis, which acts as a seamless, waterproof barrier to the external

environment and prevents excessive water loss from the body (the root "epi-
" means "above").
 dermis, which provides the tensile strength and elasticity of the skin,
contains nerves and sensory receptors and contains blood vessels that aid in
regulating body temperature.
  hypodermis, which attaches skin to other structures below it and acts as an
insulator and shock absorber (the root "hypo-" means "below"); the
hypodermis is also known as the subcutaneous layer.

Hair, another component of the integumentary system, is found in nearly all regions
of the skin, except on the palms, soles of the feet, and some parts of the genitals.
Hair grows from hair follicles that are part of the epidermis, even though they
extend down and the dermis extends up around them. Hair helps regulate body
temperature and protect the surface of the body, including eyelashes that protect
the eyes.

Nails are located on the end of each distal phalanx (each finger and each toe).
They protect the phalanges from trauma, and provide mechanical support for
manipulating objects. Nails grow from epidermal cells in the nail beds.
Glandular structures are also part of the epidermis, and are present in different
regions of the skin. They secrete substances that are important for many
physiological functions. There are three main types of glands:

 sebaceous glands, whose secretions maintain the softness and

hydrophobicity (water repellency) of the hair and skin.
 apocrine glands, whose secretions moisten the skin during pain, fear, sexual
arousal and emotional upset.
 merocrine (eccrine) glands, which secrete sweat to regulate body
temperature.
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess,
unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain
internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body. The dual function
of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and
to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous
state. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these
substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also
expel them through sweating. Only the organs specifically used for the excretion
are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term
refer to the urinary system. However, as excretion involves several functions that
are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of
anatomy or function.

PROCESS

The human excretory system functions to remove waste from the human body. This
system consists of specialized structures and capillary networks that assist in the
excretory process. The human excretory system includes the kidneys and their
functional unit, the nephron. The excretory activity of the kidneys is modulated by
specialized hormones that regulate the amount of absorption within the nephron.

Kidneys:

Within each kidney are an estimated one million microscopic nephrons. Filtering of
the blood takes place within these areas. Each nephron contains a cluster of
capillaries called a glomerulus. A cup-shaped sac called a Bowman's capsule
surrounds each glomerolus. The blood that flows through the glomerulus is under
great pressure. This causes glomerulus, water, glucose and urea to enter the
Bowman's capsule. White blood cells, red blood cells and proteins remains in the
blood. As the blood continues through the blood vessels, it winds around the renal
tubule. During this time, reabsorption occurs. Glucose and chemicals, such as
potassium, sodium, hydrogen magnesium and calcium are reabsorbed into the blood.
Almost all the water removed during filtration returns to the blood during the
reabsorption phase. The kidneys control the amount of liquid in our bodies. Now
only wastes are in the nephron. These wastes are called urine and include urea,
water and inorganic salts. The cleansed blood goes into veins that carry the blood
from the kidneys and back to the heart.

Ureters:

Ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. In the adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long.

Urethra:

A tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.
Bladder:

The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior
to disposal by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and elastic organ, and sits on the
pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.

Skin:

Gives off bodily sweat or perspiration. Skin is the largest organ of the human body.
It also protects the inner organs and tissues of the body.

Lungs:

Lungs give off carbon dioxide, a bodily waste, during respiration.

ORGANS
The Kidneys

Wastes in the blood come from tissue breakdown, and from food. After the body
takes and uses what it needs, it sends the wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys are
bean-shaped organs, about the size of a fist. Having atleast one kidney is
mandatory for living, unless treated immidietally. Because of the enormous amounts
of blood passing through the kidney, kidneys sxtract 180 liters of fluid daily. If we
extracted all of the fluid as urine, we would lose nutrients and dehydrate, Kidneys
are responsible for filtering the filtrate and returning most of the solutes and
water to the blood.

The Urinary Bladder

After the kidneys filter the fluid, the remaining wastes go to your bladder. The
organ stores the urine, and keeps storing it until you can feel it. When you can feel
it, it means that the bladder has become full, and you must urinate to release the
wastes from your body.

The Skin!

Your skin has a very important part in the excretory system. It holds moisture into
every part of your body. In the excretory system, the skins job is to regulate
one's body temperature. The salt in the skin helps in evaporation of the water off
of the body, to cool off one who is hot. Sweat is excreted through sweat glands.
Sweating helps the body maintain a cool, consistent temperature, which also helps
one maintain homeostasis.

The Liver

When we eat fatty foods, the liver orders the gall bladder to release bile into the
intestines. The bile then puts the waste products into the intestines. Then the
intestines absorb the fats into the blood stream. The liver is then given the blood,
and removes all waste products from it as it passes through. The liver removes the
iron, which involves red blood cell production. Amino acids are then broken down
and passed into the kidney. The kidney uses these to carryout their function in the
excretory system. The liver then stores the vitamins, and repeats its cycle.

The Lungs

The lungs play a mandatory role in the excretory system. Your lungs remove the
carbon dioxide built up in your blood using specialized cells known as alveoli. Your
lungs process the molecules into gas and when you breathe, the gas is ejected from
your body. If the lungs did not remove the carbon dioxide from your blood, it would
eventually build up, causing a number of different dilemmas in your body.
The lymphatic system is a network of vessels that transports nutrients to the cells
and collects their waste products. The lymph system consists of lymph capillaries
and lymph vessels that are somewhat similar to blood capillaries and blood vessels.
In addition, it includes lymph ducts (tubes that carry fluids secreted by glands)
and lymph nodes (reservoirs that filter out bacteria and other toxins from the
lymph that passes through them). In the circulatory system, blood flows from the
heart, through the arteries, and into capillaries that surround all cells. When blood
reaches the capillaries, a portion of blood plasma (the liquid portion of the blood)
seeps out of the capillaries and into the space surrounding cells. That plasma is
then known as tissue fluid. Tissue fluid consists of water plus dissolved molecules
that are small enough to fit through the small openings in capillaries. Tissue fluid is
an important component of any living animal. Nutrients pass out of tissue fluid into
cells and, conversely, waste products from cells are dumped back into the tissue
fluid.

PROCESS

Lymph capillaries are microscopic tubes located between cells. Lymph capillaries
resembles blood capillaries somewhat, but differ in important ways. Whereas a
blood capillary has an arterial and venous end. A lymph capillary has no arterial
end. Instead each lymph capillary originates as a closed tube.

Lymph capillaries also have a larger irregular lumen (inner space) than blood
capillaries and are more permeable (defused). Lymph capillaries branch and
interconnect freely and extend into almost all tissues of the body except the
Central Nervous System and the a vascular tissues such as the epidermis (outer
most layer of the skin) and the cartilage. Lymph capillaries join to form vessels
called lymphatics or lymph veins. These resemble blood-conducting veins but have
thinner walls and relatively larger lumen, and they have more valves. In the skin,
lymphatics are located in subcutaneous tissue and follow same paths
as veins. In the viscera (the internal organs of the body), lymphatics generally
follow arteries and form plexuses (networks) around them.

At certain locations lymphatics enter the lymph nodes. These are structures that
consists of lymphatic tissue. As the lymph flows slowly through the lymph sinuses
within the tissue of the lymph node, it is filtered. Macrophages remove bacteria
and other foreign matter as well as debris. Lymphocytes are added to the lymph
as it flows through the sinuses of a lymph node. Thus the lymph leaving the node is
both cleaner of debris and richer in lymphocytes. Lymphatics leaving the lymph
nodes called efferent lymph vessels and conduct lymph toward the shoulder
region. Large lymphatics that drain groups of lymph nodes are often called lymph
trunks. Lymphatics from the lower portion of the body converge to form a dilated
lymph vessel,(the cisterna chyli) in the lumbar region of the abdominal cavity. The
cisterna chyli (cistern - large tank or holding area) extends for about 6
centimeters just to the right of the abdominal aorta. At the level of the twelfth
thoracic vertebra, the cisterna chyli narrows and becomes the thoracic
duct. Lymphatic vessels from all over the body, except the upper right quadrant,
drain into the thoracic duct. This vessel delivers the lymph into the
base of the left subclavian vein at the junction of the left subclavian and internal
jugular veins. In this way lymph is continuously emptied into the blood where it
mixes with the plasma. At the junction of the thoracic duct and the venous
system, a valve prevents blood from flowing backward into the duct.

ORGANS
 The thymus: The thymus is located in the thoracic cavity, just under the
neck. It’s made up of two lobes of lymphoid tissue. Each lobe has a medulla
surrounded by a cortex. The cortex is where immature lymphocytes first go
to become T cells, but their maturation finishes in the medulla.
 The spleen: The spleen is located in the upper-left part of the abdomen. It’s
tucked up under the ribs, so you generally can’t palpate it (medically examine
by touch) unless it’s enlarged.
 The tonsils: The tonsils are masses of lymphoid tissue found in the back of
the throat and nasal cavity. They’re part of the immune system, so they help
fight infections, but removing the tonsils doesn’t appear to increase your
risk of infections.

 The appendix: The appendix is a pouch of lymphatic tissue that’s attached

to the large intestine. It’s located in the lower-right area of the abdomen.
Although it’s made of lymphatic tissue, the appendix doesn’t appear to have
much lymphatic function in humans, but it does release some mucus into the
large intestine.
An obstructed appendiceal lumen (opening) can cause appendicitis when bacteria
start to multiply. The result is abdominal pain and tenderness over the appendix.
Some lymphatic tissue similar to the tonsils is also located in the digestive tract.
Called gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), it comes in the following three
varieties:

 Peyer’s patches: These patches of lymphoid tissue are located in the

mucosa and submucosa throughout the small intestine, although they’re more
concentrated in the ileum. Peyer’s patches contain mostly B cells.
 Lamina propria lymphocytes: This type of GALT is located in the mucosa of
the small intestine. It also contains mostly B cells.
 Intraepithelial lymphocytes: These tissues are located between the cells of
the epithelial layer of the small intestine, between the tight junctions.