~întcntfon ~rcss ~crfcs

A TREATISE

ON

ELECTRICITYAND MAGNETISM

~;rn~z

VOL.I.
2897~
 Bonbon

MACMILLAN AND CO.

Pf/B~/ST~R~ TO TIIE UNIVERSITY OZ''

<Bïfor&
 (Cïarcnttttït ~r~s: ~tr~

i1 )p
1
q

U A TREATISE

ON

ELECTRICITYAND MAGNETISM

BY

JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, M.A.

Mûrh
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1873

[~l~W~/f~)'M<:)'t'<'t/]
 PREFACE.

THE tact that certain bodies, after being rubbcd,

appear to attract other bodies, was known to the
ancients. In modern times, a great variety of other
phenomena have been observed, and have been found
to be related to thèse phenomena of attraction. They
have been classed under the name of J~ec~c phe-
nomène, amber, ~~T~o~, having been the substance
in which they were first described.
Other bodies, particularly the loadstone, and pieces
of iron and steel which have been subjected to certain
processes, have also been long known to exhibit phe-
nomena of action at a distance. These phenomena,
with others related to them, were found to differ from
the electric phenomena, and have been classed under
the name of .~t~y~tc phenomena, the loadstone, ~ay~f,
being found in the Thessalian Magnesia.
Thèse two classes of phenomena have since been
found to be related to each other, and thé relations
between thé various phenomena of both classes, so
far as they are known, constitute the science of Elec-
tromagnetism.
In the following Treatise 1 propose to describe thé
 vi PREFACE.

most important of these phenomena, to shew how

they
may be subjected to measurement, and to trace thé
mathematical connexions of thc quantities measured.
Having thus obtaincd the data for a mathematical
theory of electroningnetism, and having shewn how
this theory may be applied to thé calculation of
phe-
nomena, 1 sliall cndeavour to place in as clear a liglit
as 1 can thé relations between thé mathematical form
of this theory and that of thé fundamental science of
Dynamies, in order that we may be in some degree
prepared to determine thé Idnd of dynamical plieno-
mena among which we are to look for illustrations or
cxplanations of tlie electromagnetic phenomena.
In describing thé phenomena, 1 shall sélect those
which most clearly illustrate the fundamental ideas of
thé theory, omitting others, or
reserving them till the
reader is more advanced.
The most important aspect of
any phenomenon from
a mathematical point of view is that of a
measurable
quantity. 1 shall therefore consider electrical pheno-
mena chiefly with a view to their
measurement, de-
scribing tlie methods of measurement, and
defining
the standards on which
they depend.
In thc application of mathematics to the
calculation
of electrical quantities, 1 shall endeavour in
the first
place to deduce tlic most general conclusions from thé
data at our disposai, and in the next
place to apply
the results to the simplest cases that can
be cliosen.
I shall avoid, as much as 1 can, those
questions which,
though they have elicited thc sidll of mathematicians,
hâve not enlarged our knowledge of science.
 PREFACE. vii

The internai relations of the different branches of

the science which we have to study are more numerous
and complex than tliose of any other science hitherto
developed. Its external relations, on the one ha.nd to
dynamics, and on the other to heat, light, chemical
action, and thé constitution of bodies, seem to indicate
the spécial importance of electrical science as an aid
to thé interprétation of nature.
It appears to me, thercfore, that the study of elec-
thé
tromagnetism in ail its extent bas now become of
first importance as a means of promoting the progress
of science.
Thé mathematical laws of the different classes of
phenomena have been to a great extent satisfactorily
made out.
The connexions between the different classes of phe-
nomena have also been investigated, and thé proba-
bility of thé rigorous exactness of t!ie experimental
laws has been greatly strengthened by a more extended
knowledge of their relations to each other.
Finally, some progress has been made in the re-
duction of electromagnetism to a dynamical science,
is
by shewing tliat no electromagnetic phenomenon
contradictory to thé supposition that it depends on
purely dynamical action.
What has been hitherto done, however, has by no
means exhausted thé neld of electrical research. It
bas rather opened up that field, by pointing out sub-
jects of enquiry, and furnishing us with means of
investigation.
It is har dly necessary to cnlarge upon the beneficial
 viii PREFACE.

resuJts of magnetic research on

navigation, and thé
importance of a knowledge of thc true direction of
thé compass, and of thé effect of thc iron in a
ship.
But the labours of those who have endeavoured to
render navigation more secure
by means of magnetic
observations have at tiie same time
greatly advanced
thé progress of pure science.
Gauss, as a member of the German Magnetic Union,
brought his powerfui intellect to bear on thé theory
of magnetism, and on thé methods of
observing it,
and he not only added greatly to our
knowledge of
the theory of attractions, but reconstructed the whole
of magnetic science as regards the instruments
used,
thé methods of observation, and the calculation of thé
results, so that lis memoirs on Terrestrial Magnetism
may be taken as models of physical research
by ail
tliose who are engaged in thé measurement of
any
of thc forces in nature.
The important applications of
electromagnetism to
telegraphy have also reacted on pure science by
giving
a commercial value to accurate electrical
measure-
ments, and by affording to electricians tlie use of
apparatus on a scale which greatly transcends that
of any ordinary laboratory. The
conséquences of this
demand for electrical knowjedge, and of these
experi-
mental opportunities for
acquiring it, have been already
very great, both in stimulating thé energies of ad-
vanced electricians, and in
diffusing among practical
men a degree of accurate
knowJedge which is likely
to conduce to the general scientific
progress of thé
whole engineering profession.
 PREFACE. IX

There are several treatises in which electrical and

magnetic phenomena are described in a popular way.
Thèse, however, are not what is wanted by those who
have been brought face to face with quantities to be
measured, and whose minds do not rest satisfied with
lecture-room experiments.
There is also a considerable mass of mathematical
memoirs which are of great importance in electrical
science, but they lie concealed in the bulky Trans-
actions of learned societies they do not form a, con-
nected system they are of very unequal merit, and
they are for the most part beyond the comprehension
of any but professed mathematicians.
1 have therefore thought that a treatise would be
usefui which should have for its principal object to
take up thé whole subject in a methodical manner,
and which should also indicate Iiov each part of the
subject is brought within thé reach of methods of
verification by actual measurement.
The general complexion of the treatise differs con-
siderably from that of several excellent clectrical
works, published, most of them, in Germany, and it
may appear that scant justice is done to thé specu-
lations of several eminent electricians and mathema-
ticians. One reason of this is that before 1 began
the study of electricity 1 resolved to read no mathe-
matics on the subject till 1 had first read through
Faraday's JTa~e~~e?! ~&serM'c/teNo~ Electricity. 1
was aware that there was supposed to be a difference
between Faraday's way of conceiving phénomène and
that of thé mathematicians, so tliat neither he nor
 x PREFACE.

they were satisfied witli eacli other's language. 1 had

also the conviction that this discrepancy did not arisc
from either party bcing wrong. 1 was first convinced
of this by Sir William Thomson to whose advice and
assistance, as well as to Lis publislied papers, 1 owe
most of what 1 have learned on the
subjcct.
As 1 procecded with tlie study of
Faraday, 1 per.
ceivcd that his method of
conceiving thé phenomena
was also a mathematical one,
though not exhibited
in tlie conventional form of mathematical
symbols. 1
also found that tliese methods were capaMc of
being
expressed in the ordinary mathematical fbrms, and
thns compared with those of thé professed mathcma-
ticians.
For instance, Faraday, in his mind's
eye, saw Unes
of force traversing ail space wherc thé
mathematicians
saw centres of force attracting at a distance
Faraday
saw a médium wliere they saw
nothing but distance
Faraday sought thé seat of thc phenomena in real
actions going on in the medium,
they were satisfied
that they had found it in a power of action at a
distance impressed on the electric fluids.
Whcn 1 had translated what 1 considered to be
Faraday's ideas into a mathematical form, 1 found
that in général the results of thé two methods coin-
cided, so that thé same phenomena were accounted
for, and the samc laws of action deduced
by both
methods, but that Faraday's methods resembled those

I take this oppoi-tumtyof acknowledging

W. Thomsonand to Profcssor my obligationsto Sir
Tait for manyvaluablesuggestions
t,9 madc
duringthe printingof thiswork.
 PREFACE. xi

in wilich we begin with thc whole and arrive at thé

parts by analysis, while thé ordinary mathematical
methods were fbunded on thé principle of beginning
with thé parts and building up the whole by syn-
thcsis.
1 also &und that several of the most fertile methods
of l'csearch discovered by thé mathematicians could be
expressed much better in terms of ideas derivcd from
Faraday than in their original form.
Thé whole tliecry, for instance, of the potential, con-
sidered as a quantity which satisfies a certain partial
dinbrential equation, belongs essentially to thc method
whieh 1 have called that of Faraday. According to
tlie other method, thé potential, if it is to be considered
at ail, must be regardcd as thé result of a summa-
tion of thé electrified particles divided each by its dis-
tance from a given point. Hence many of the mathe-
matical discoveries of Laplace, Poisson, Green and
Gauss find their proper place in this treatise, and their
appropr iate expression in terms of conceptions mainly
derived from Faraday.
Great progress bas been made in electrical science,
cliieny in Germany, by cultivators of thé theory of
action at a distance. Thé valuable electrical measure-
ments of W. Weber are interpreted by hirn according
to this theory, and the electromagnetic speculation
which was originated by Gauss, and carried on by
Weber, Riemann, J. and C. Neumann, Lorenz, &c. is
founded on tlie theory of action at a distance, but
dcpending either directly on thé relative velocity of thé
particles, or on thé graduai propagation of something,
 xii PREFACE.

whether potential or force, from thc one particle to

the othcr. Thé great success w]iich these eminent
men hâve attained in thc application of mathematics
to electrical phenomena gives, as is natural, addi-
tional wcight to their theoretieal speculations, so that
those who, as students of electricity, turn to them as
thc greatest authorities in mathematical
electricity,
would probably imbibe, along with their mathematical
methods, their physical hypothèses.
These physical hypothèses, however, are
entirely
alien from thc way of looking at
things wiuch 1
adopt, and one object which 1 have in view is that
some of tliose who wish to study
electricity may, by
rcading titis treatise, corne to see that there is anothcr
way of treating thé subject, which is no less fitted to
explain tiie phenomena, and which, though in some
parts it may appear less denuite, corresponds, as 1
think, more faithfully with our actual knowledge, both
in what it ann-ms and in what it Jcaves
undecided.
In a pliilosophieal point of view,
moreover, it is
cxccedingly important that two methods should be
compared, both of which have succccded in
explaining
tlie principal electromagnetic
phenomena, and both of
which have attcmpted to explain tlie
propagation of
light as an electromagnetic phenomenon, and have
actually calculatcd its velocity, while at the same time
t!ic fundamental conceptions of what
actually takes
place, as well as most of t!ie secondary
conceptions of
thé quantities conccrned, are
radically dinerent.
ï have therefore taken thc
part of an advocate rather
than that of a judge, and have rather
exemplified one
 PREFACE. XU1

method than attempted to give an impartial description

of both. I have no doubt that thé method which 1
Jiave called tlie German one will also nnd its sup-
porter s, and will be expounded with a skill wortliy
of its ingenuity.
1 have not attempted an exhaustive account of elec-
trical phenomena, experiments, and apparatus. The
student who désires to read aiï that is kno~vTion thèse
subjccts will find gréât assistance from tlie y?'a~
~~fc~e~c of Professor A. de la Rive, and from several
German treatises, such as Wiedemann's ~~<~MM~<
Riess' jRe~M~e~c~, Beer's ~e~~M~ c~MjEM-
/os~c~ &c.
1 iiave confined myself almost entirely to the ma-
thematical treatment of thé subjcct, but t would
recommend the student, after he has learned, expcri-
nientally if possible, what are thé phenomena to be
observed, to read carefully Faraday's ~e~~o~ef~
~csca~cAe~?'? jE7ec<7'zc~ He will there nnd a strictiy
contemporary historical account of some of thé greatest
electrical discoveries and investigations, carried on in
an order and succession which could hardly have becn
improved if the results had been known from the
first, and exprcsscd in the Janguagc of a man who
devoted much of his attention to thé methods of ac-
curateiy describing scientific operations and their re-
sults
It is of gréât advanta~e to the student of any
subject to read thé original memoirs on that subject,
for science is aiways most completcly assimilated whcn
Lifeand Ze«ct'A'
o/' 7~'M'~?/,vol,i. p. 395.

t
1
 XIV PREFACE.
it is in thé nascent state, and in t!ie case of
Faraday's
TPe~c~~ this is comparatively easy, as they are
published in a separatc ~brm, and may be read con-
secutively. If by anything 1 hâve hère written 1
may assist any stndent in understanding Faraday's
modes of thought and expression, 1 shall
regard it as
tho accomplishment of one of my principal aims-to
communicate to others thé same delight whieh t have
found myself in reading Faraday's TPcsefM-c/~s.
TIie description of thé phenomena, and t!ie ele-
jncntary parts of the thcory of each subject, will be
found in the earlier chapters of each of the four Parts
into wltich t!iis treatise is divided. The student will
nnd in these chapters enou~'h to give Itim an
elementary
acquaintance with thé whole science.
Tlie remaming chapters of eacli Part are
occupied
witli tlie higher parts of thé theory, the
processes of
numerical calculation, and the instruments and methods
of expérimental research.
The relations between
electromagnetic phenomena
and thosc of radiation, the theory of molecular electric
currents, and thé results of speculation on thé nature
of action at a distance, are treated of in thé last
four
chapters of thé second volume.

7'M. J873.
 CONTENTS.

PRELIMINARY.

ON TtfR MKASUKEMENT 0F QUANTtTIKS.

Art. pf~ge
l. The expression of a quautlty consists of two factors, t)tc nu-
!nencaiva)uc,and thé oamco) thé coicretc unit. 1
2. Dimensions ofderivedmiits i
3-5. Thc tnrcc fnndamentu) unita–Lengtit, Time and Musa 2, 3
(i.Derivedunits 5
7. PhyHiealcontinuityanddiscontinuity (,
8. Diseontinuityof a functionof more thanone variable 7
n.Pcriodic and mun~e fonctions. 8
10. RclHtionofphysieatqn~ntitiesto directions in space 8
lI.McttningofthcwordtjSodarandVector 9
12. Division ofphysicatvectorsintotwo classes, Forces and Duxcs 10
13. Relation hctweencorrcspondingvcetorsoftnetwo classes 11
14. Linc-intpgratioti apprapriate to forces, surface-intégration to
nuxcs 122
15. Longitudinntandrotationatvectors 12
!(!. Ijine-intcgralstmdpotcntials jg
17. IIamilton'a expression fur tho rpJation between a force aufl its
potuntia! 15J
18. Cyclic régions ttndgcon)etryof position 16
19. Thé potcntiatin an acydic région ifi single vahied 17
20. System of vaines of thé potential Inacyencregion. 18
21. Surfocc-mtegrals. 19
22. Surfaces, tubes, and Unes ofnow 21
23. Right-handedtmdieft-handed relations m spuce 24
24. Transformation of a tinc-intcgralinto a anrface-intcgral 25
25. EH'ectofB'amiItoti'a opération on aveetorfunction 27
26. Natureof the opération~ 29
 CUXTHNTS.

PART r.
ELECTIiOSTATJCS.

CMAPTER I.

DESCRIPTION OF Pt~NOMEfA.
Art.
27. EiL.ctnHcation by frictiun. EL.ctrifieation is of I»ago
twu Mnds, tu
which the munca uf Vitrcous ami Hcsmons, or Positive nnd
N~ativc.havcbcengiven go
28. E)eetriHcationby induction
31
2'). Eleetrificution by couductiou. Cot!duct.o)-sMid
insulutors 32
30. lu dcctnftuation by friction thf.
quantity of the positive ch.c-
tri~c~ttion is equid to that of thé negative e]ectriHcation 33
31. To charge a vessc! with a
quanti ty of electricity equa! and
opposite tothatof an excite Jbody 33
32.
Todischargoaconductorcomp!etc]yintonmcta))ievesse! 34
33.Tcatofe]ectrineatioQbygo)d-]eafe!ectroscopc. 34
34. ËfectnUcation, considered as tt measurable quantity, may be
ca)]edE!cctncity
35.Etcctr:citynmybctrpatedn8aphysica!quanttty 3~
36.
TheoryofTwoOuids "37
37.Thco!yufOneHu:d g~
38. Mcasurement ofthe force bctwcen c!ectri~d
bodies 40
39. He~tioH between t)us force and the
quantifies of c!ectrie:ty 41
40. Variation ofthe force with the djattmee
-42. Definitiun of the clectrostatie unit of
e~etricity.–Its
dimensiona 42
43. Proofof thé hwofeicctric force
44. E!cctricMd
45. Elcctric potentinl
· 45
46. E~ipotcntiai surf~es. Exa.npie of thcir use in' re.~ui~
about electricity 4'-
47. Lincs uf furce
48. Etcctric
tension ·~ 17
49. Etectromotive force
47
50. Capacityof)iconductor
48
SI.PropertIcaufhodies.-Rcsist.utcc ~g
 CONTHNTS. xvn

.Ut. ~KC
52. !S[)c';itichtductivL'c.q)~(;it.yoi':Ldic)uct.ric. 50
.'):{. 'A)'s(n'j)tion'ofc)(;ctt'icity. 50
.')). Impost-ibiHtyut'an.d'soiutcchit.)'~ 5!1
55. Dismptivcdischargt'Utow 52
5~ Brush 5d
57. Spnrk 55
58.E)cctnt;tdp))e)i<)niLCnt).()t'Tuurma)n)(: 5C
5t). Plan ot't))ctrcntisc,~)td sketch oi'ItHrcsu)ts 577
(i<). Ktectricput[n'iz'it!onm)d'Hsp!auen)cn< 5n
(U.')'))C motion ofdcctncityantdo~oustothatof un i!)con)pn"-H)t)t~
Onid ''2
(i2. i\'cu)iantit'.soft))('tht'o)'y<'t't))is<)'c)).t)St' (!2

CHARTER H.

J;).HMENTAItV )tATl!]':)tATiCA). 'i'UKUl~' 0]' MLKCT1UU1TY.

(;3. J)L'finitiunoi'clcctricityas:t.!u~t))C!na.tIt;!).lqufmtity. ('G

(!t. Vo!mnc-dc])sit,y,Stn'facc-dcnsity,andlme-dc)Mit\' ('77
fi5. Dcnnitionofthcctcctrostuticututofetectriuity M
(iC. Lawof force bet.weenetcctrincdbodics C9
fi7. Hcsuitatit force betwccntwobodies 69
U8. Resu)tMit force )Ltnpoint M
fi;). Linc-iutegndofutectric force; cicctrumotive force 71
70. E!cctric potcntlid 72
71. Rcauttnnt force in tenus of thé potetitut! 72
72. Thepotcnti!).)oi'a!tpomtsot'acouductoristhcs!unc 73
73. Potcutin.1 duc tofmdcctrHIcd systcm 7'1
7L Froot'of thé )nwofthc inverse squm'c 7<~1
75. SurftLee-integrfdofcIcctric induction. 77
7(). Introduction through )Lclosed surface duc to ft single ccutro
uf force 777
77. roiMou'H extension ofLn-plucc'H équation 799
78. Conditions tobcfulnlledat an clectrincd surface 80
79. Résultant force on an electt'incdsm'face 82
80. ThccIectrificationofa.conductorIscntIrclyontiieHurfMC 83
81. A distribution of cicch'icity on lincs or points is physicaDy
impossible 8-~
82. Lincs oftitcctricinduction 81
8; Spécifie iuductivocapacity 8n

VOL. t. b
 xviii
C'ONTM~TS.

CHAPT~H H).

SYSTJ~tS 0).' COND);f'TO){S.

.h't.
"t.
l'n/ll'
~Outhesupc!-j.oHiti()n<,t'dcet)-iftcdsystc.)nH
8~.
H')C)'gyuf)tne)cct.)-ificdsystu!)i nn
8C.O~c.dt)ico.y<.f'a.~cm «)' eondudor.
tenb!itt Coc<ïicicnt8ofpH-
gf)
~7. C.~cicnts..fi~h,cti.-n.
Cap~ityofac..nductor. Dimensions
<)ft))t;scco(;f]!(.'i(-))ts
00
~.Hcciprocatpt-~rtyofthccuenieicnt.s ~j1
~').At))eorem(]uetf)GrGC!)
''0.
!:c)ativcn~nitudcf,fthc~d)ici<j.)t.sofp<tml 02
!)).A)ido<'n)duct)0!)
02. T),c résultant Da
.ncehanic.U fore.. <,n a e~.Khietor
cxprcs.od i'n
terms of' tlie (,j,n,s ofthc dinbrcnt con.h.etors oft)ie
syste.n
aa()t!)evanatiunuft),t!cueuiclL.nt.sof))ut(;nti:L) <~
T).c sa.nc in tcnna oi- thc
potc.tthds, and t).c v~-iation of tho
cucfhc'tcnisofijtductiou..
f'L D'l
Cut))j,ansou.,('L-kTtri()cd.syHtc)ns

C!IAPTER t\.

'.HNM.\LTjj].;oiu':))S.

')~. T~u .~p.sltc nK.tho.is of t.-cati.~ dectrictj

.j.,(.s<io,
L'tar.K-tensticaofthcpotentiatfunction f),,
''7. éditions
undcrwhi(.)uhcvoi~mc-intcgra)
f/ ~7'
J7/v~
lh! 1 +~ )~rlx rl r!~
z
yr. ~.?,'
;1, r' rl~ ~r; rh·
vanishos..
1(1~1
''S.Thotusn~theore.uofthcunirjno mmi.nu,n<-f

/(~+~ 3
Appli~tiou ofthcthcor~t.thc dctcrn.in.tiunofthc dis-
tr)))ut,'onof(.)cett-tc!ty 107
100. Gr.-cn's t],c.orcm nud its
,.Ly.s,caj intcrpr.t~ioa'
101. U)-ccn'sfunctinns

I02.m.thoduni,~in~u,itin~~h.csofdcT~aI'eo~i<, ~?
 Cf~'THNTS. xix

CHAPTER V.

~HCUANKiAL AC't'IOK )!ETWEHN RLHCTmt-'IED tiODJKS.

.ArL p,~e
103. Cornpnrisou of the force hctwcoi difl'crent clectrined Rystcms 119
104. Mcchtinicat action <intmdc'mcntffnnc!cctnnpd surface 121
105. Compnrison betwccn tl)cnrips of dn'cct action :md théories of
stress .122
)~G. Thc !<ind oftitress rcquircd to account for thc phc'nomenfm 123
]07. T))c hypothesis of HtrcsB considft'cd as a sic]) in c')cch'ica)
sc'if'ncc 12C
]08. Thc hypothcsihi of str~sshewn to accmmtfor t!)c cquilibmnn
of thc mcdinm nnd fo)' thé forces acti!)~ hetwecn t'tectt'iiied
Lodics .128
)n'). Statdnents of Faraday rotative te thf.'tongitudina) tension and
latcnd pressure ofti)cHt]csofforep .131
HO. Objections tu stress iu)Lf)uidconsidcr(;d. 13]
1)1. StatL'!ncnt,oi'thcthcoryot'~c'c<rlL;poIariK)~ion .132

CHAPTER VI.

t'O~'TS A!~J) UXES OF KQUfL!)tttH~).

)]2. Conditions ofn])ointofcqui)I!)riu]u 135

]!3. Numberof points ()f'c<)ni)ihriu!n 13G
ni. At.~ point or tinc ofc'quiHLriun) thert.' is a conica) point or a
Iineofsclf-it)tc)'scc<io))nf<])c(;(juipot('))tiat surface 137
11~. Ang]u~ at wiiich an c'quipotcntia! surface intcrscctH itsctt' 138
11(;. T!)ecfjuiiih)'iun)of an c!cctrincdLodycan))othc stable. 139

CHAPTER VIL

Ffm!S nt'' J;QL'jrOTt:~TtAL SU]<FAf')'S AND U~fHS f)F FLOW.

] )7. Practicnt hnportanL-c of knowicd~c of t!)pHL-fornts in simple

'cs
H8.Twn(~cctrif)ed points, ratio J:l. (Fig.I) ]43
nf). Twocloctnfict~ points, rôti"-J:–1. (Fig.H) ]~
]20. A!]o!cct)'iftcdpc)i]tt]nau)nf()nnfic)doff<))Tu. ]~5
(Fi".JII)
]2t.ThtTo dectriHcd pfut~.s. Two spl)tTio)I sur-
cquipotcntia)
faces. (Fi~.IY) ) t.~5
]~2. Fm-ad!iy'Husf:f)i't1)ûcnn('(.')jtioi)(jf)Incsf'ft'())'c(.' MC
T~~ ~~t'thn(1(')'))pioycd)ud)'invin~t))C()i.)g)-)tm.s 1~7
)<22
 CONTEXTE.

L'JIAPTEK )H.

S'L)':('A.Si:hOPJ:)J.:CT):U.')(;AT)UX.
Art.
/'111'
!2).T\v<.)m)-a)~])Innc.'i
J2~.T\vut-o)K'cnt)'i(;sj'J)0)'icidsm'):n-~ ?
¿¡2
)2(i.T\<)C(')LX!)L]('y)i))(h'ict-m'f'i)ccs
t2r. t.on~t.L).)i.ia)
'ccu.ryti..<)<r,t).ccnd.S(.t'~h.<)an~ur-
)~U))dc(n)yry))n(h.rsnmi()(.r(.)tt.j)(,t(. ];j,j

C'IIAi'TEK I\.

S)')IJ~ffCALn.\R.t!u.\j(,s.

] 28. SiuK'dar points at which ti.c

p.tcntiat bccon.c.s inf.nitc ) -7
) 2'). S.nguLu- points «f diffcrcnt ordcr.s dcf.n~t
),y th~- n~s j
);
130. Hxp~i.n furthc potcntml duc tu.
j~' ,:),
<")tsnxcs
fui. tjle I)otûlltilil (111(~ to lioitit 1 (i()
!Thl8~n-cs.siuni.s
).~)ydduntuand\.cp~t.s t)K.m..st
jettera) type uft))c])a)-ino)ucof! d~rces
I;!2. T)'CKon!t),tGSscrn),un))socto)-i:t)<yp(.
I.3. ~,d j.nr~onics of- po.itiv..)~,e,, T,
fn(~at.)\-t'()<rcc..
1 tii
13L ~)'c~.ntuthct~o~.fd~tHr~t~)~~d.f~
135. H.c external auti.n ofan c)c.iM
sj.hcri~i surf~c co.nna.-ed
with <~tof an
i,n~in.u-y~uiar,~tatit., centre. 1.7
~b..Pro.ft)~~ r.and y, arc surface i,,n,ics cf.!i~nt
<ces, ti.c
.ur~c-in~rai r. ~,? = ,), tl,, h~
huin~c.xtcndedoverthé Hp)icric.U surface ifj!)
i. Y.c
uf// r. y,~
j~~
ofthesamcdcgrcc but uf dirent, typ~
'.38. Onconju~tcfttu-monies !tif>
If Yi inthe 17()
~.o.ia) hanuonic.uid
samc degrc< ~any<jthet-ty~oft)K.

//t''f 1~
/s=~~ r~,
~.cruy.i.th.
140. ~uc..f~,tthL.o)u.f.r, I
~'ir' io
-c har-
¡}Jollic;
1~1. Sur~c-in~nJ 172
uf the .qu~ .fa
.ynunctrica)j~n.c' :3

'49
 t'DXT~XTS. x\i i
Art. l'nsu
l')2. Dureront ))]cthud.oftrt.'ntin~sp!icri(-~))armonius 174
W3. On thc din~nnns of spin.'rie~) t'armunics. (Fi~s. V. Vf, VII,
vm.ix) 175
I-)-t. If t))Cpotcn<ia)i.s(-o)tstm)tt)u'oug))(mttH)ynnitc portion uf
spnccitisgott)r<ju~1)ontt))cwLotc!'['gion continuons withit
wit!nnw!)ichJj:)pLtcf''s('qu.tti')!)isfatisncd. 17C
1~5. To nnntysc n. sphorio)! J)n.)'tno!)ic into syston nf conju~atc
!uu'!not)ics t'y morns of a finitc junnher of jncnsurcments at
sclectcd points nft!)csphcrc 177
I-1G. App)ic!ttiont~sp!)f'nc!u)(tnntir)ysphcrict)Icnnducto)'s 178

CHAPTER X.

CONFOCAÏ,i-n'itPACHS Ot.' Tt[H SECO~t) DnuunH.

I'')7. Thc )ine'! of mtcrscetiou of two Systems and thci)' mtcrcepts

Ly thc t))it'd System 181
t-)8. Ttic cfuu'actcnstic cfp~t.ion of f in tcnns of dHpsoidu! co-
ordnmtca 182
!1!). Expression ofn,/3, y h) tcrmsofc!)iptie fonctions 183
150. Ptt.rticuhn'sentions nfficetricut distribution on thcconfoe~!
Hurfact'sandthcirtimitin~fnrtns 184
!51. Continuous transformation into )t n~u)'cofrevo)utionabout
ihcaxisofx z 187
!52. Transfornintif'n into a figure of rovohttion nhnut tIiL' nxis ofn: 188
153. Tt'an.sforjnntion into rtsyatc'mof cônes tunt sphères.189
]:')1. Co))focn!pnr:tuo]oi<Is 18n

CHARTER XI.

T)fnO!tY 0F Kt.t:CT)U' )MAO!

jns.ThonMOn'sinetitudofutcctt'Icinm~s )91
]5(). \V))L'n twu puiuf.s nre oppo;t~y attdn))L'f)ua))y<;)(;ct)'ifn;t),thc
Furfaceforwhicht))fjpt)tuntin!ihixct'ûis:t.sp))crc ]92
]57. Etectric images. J93
]58. DistriLutiouufcIcctricityûntitcam'facoofihcspiicrc 195
150. Image ofauygIvendistriLut.M~ofcIcetricIty. 19G
160. H.csuittuitfurccbetwecn M cicctrincdpomtand sphère. ]97
]GI. l!)mge3inaniuHnite]))a)]ccoHdncting8U)'f)tcc 198
IC2. Eicctric inversion ]<)f)
1G3. Geomc(,)'!caHheo)'ents~bout inversion 201l
16'L Application t'fthc hMthodtothcprohIcMof.Art.tn8 202
 CONTENT;
Art.
Io5. Finit); syatousof successive inm~c.s. 203
!GU. Case oftwoapho'icat surfaces intcrsccti])~at an
au~)e" 20~
I()7. Enmncration of thé cases in which t)ie number of ium"-es is
nnitc

IG8.Cascoft\vospherc3i)itet-sectin~ort))o~una!Iy. 207
!G').
Ct).-icoi't)u'eeHphc)-Mmtct-s(;ctin~ort)toguun)Iy .2)0
170. Case uf four
Hphere.sintursectm~ortttogonaDy ~n
171. Infinité Hene~Hfixxtg' 2)2
C~uoftwoconœtitncspiiures
172. Anytwo sphères uotinter.-iect.ingeauhother 2)~
173. Ctdcuhttion of thé coefHcients
ofcapacity and mductiun 2]<iG
I7L C)t)cu!)ttiun 'jf t))(' ct~u'~es of t])e and of t))e force
sp)n;res,
!)etwct;nt!)ûfm ~.y
!75. Distribution uf L-Iectricity ou two
.sp:)ercs in eotitact. rruuf
Sphc)'(! n,,(t
]7(j. TIiouisons nn-cstlgati<j)t ofan elcct.ri<icd
sphcricat how) 22!
!77. Distribution un an c!)ipsoid, aud on a circntnr disk at
po-
tentia)
!78. Induction on an utunsnht.tcd disk or huwl by an cicetrined
point in t)m eontiuuation of t)'c p)anc ut- ap)icrictd sm'faec 222
)79. Tiiu t-cst of thc spiierc supposud etoctrincd
unifornny 223
I80.Thubuw!!naiutaincdatput(;!ttia!~fuiduninftucncud 223
8 L Induction on the ))<)w[due ta a
nointpincedanywhci-e 22-J

CHAPTEU XII.

(-'OKJUUA'fK FUNOTMXS IN TWO UIMt-S[ONS.

82.
Caac9mwhichtheq)mntit,ies)u-efn)tct:unaut'.<tuid.vun)v 22C
!83.C()njugatcfuuct!(~)t.'j. n.~7
I8').(Jot)ju~i).<(jfn)tctn)nH)nt).ybcaddt!([n)'Mn))t)'actcd 228
185. Cunju~tc funetion.s ut' conjugale fm~H~s tn'c titc'nsctves
conju~to ~~Q
t8(.).Tr!UtMf'<))-!ntttionufl'uiss<)t)'s équation 03]
187.
Additimm)theot'cmsu)tco))ju~t(;functiuns 232
188. r'ivcrstfntmtwodiutcnsion.s
~og
!8n.Ek'ct)'ic images in (.wodinn'nsions ~03
)nO.Nu)un!uin'Mt)-:ui'.ifurnmti<mofi))iscf)sc 231
!H1. Di~tri).utiuu ofdcctnciiy nu.n- Uic ~c uf ,L cu.iductor foi-ille(l
Lyt\()p):tnusut't'net;s
tf)2. HHip~8:u)d))y~et-boti~.
()~ig.X) ~37
193. Tt-audfot-nmtionui'thiscasu.
(Fi'r.XI) OQu
 '-ONTHN't'S. xxii!
~rt. pj)~
194. Application tu two cases of thé nowofelectricity in itcon-
dnctii]gsheet. 23!)
195. Application to two cases ofcicetrictd induction 239
196. Cnpacity of a condenser consist.ing of n circuhu' disk betwccu
twoinnnite{)]t)ncs. 2-10
197. Cuse of a séries of cquidistant pinnos eut ofYLy n. p)auc ut right
angles to thon 242
l')8.Cuscoftt.furn)Wcd surface 243
lOO.Ctisooftt.sIngicHtt'tUK~tgt'oovu 243
200. Mo()Inention of the results whcn thc gl'oovc is eircuhtr 244
SOL Application tu Sir W.Thomson'sgutu'd-ring. 245
202. Cusc of two p~mHc! ph~tcHeut ufF by n. perpondicuitu' plunc.
(FIg.XH) 246
203. C)moof)tgratingofp:u'aUctwh'cH. (Pig.XIII) 248
204. Œ.sc uf n single ck'ctriticd wirc transfui')ned into t)mt of the
grating 248
205. Thc grating uscd ns tLshidd to protcct n. body from c)ectnod
influence 2.J9
20<). Mcthod ~fttppt'oxiniatiou npplicd tu tho case ofthc ~t'atin~ 251

CtIAPTER XIII.
MLECTttOSTATIG fXSTKUMnNTS.

207. Tacfnctionatclcctncat machine 25~

208.Thcc]cctrophorusoi'Yo)ta 255
209. Production of eicetri~eation Ly meduuucal work.–NiehoIson'H
Revotvmg Doubler 25C
210. Pï'nieIptûcfVai'Iey'sandThomson'scIectrtc~ImfLdunes. 2~fj
211.Thu)nson'awatc)'-druppu.gu)ftd)ine 250
212. Holtx'sdectricul machine 2GO
213.T))coryut')'ege)icratorsappHedtupIcet!'ical)tinchuies 2CO
214. On ctGctt'omct.crs n]idc)cett'oscopes. Ind!cating instruments
and nu)l metaods. DiH~rcuce bctwcen rcgistration and mca-
surcment 2H2
215. CuuIomb'sTot's]a!LB:dattCcformcasurin~chnrgcs 2C3
21G. Etectromctera fur jneasuring pûtcntial.s. Snow Htu'ris's and
Thomsott'M 2C(;
217. Pri.!ici)))cûFthcgun.rd-ring. Thomaou'sALHoiuteEtcctt'omet.er 2G7
218.Hcterost,aticmethod. 2G!)
210. Sc!f-n.cting ekctrojuctcrs.–T))ujnsoH's Quadrant Etcctt'omctcr 27)
220. Mcn.surcmcntorthûetectncpoteutialofastuallbody 27 i
221. Meaauremcnt of thé potcntial {tta point in thc ait- 27f)
 xxiv CONTENTS.

Art.
j~~c
222. Measurc]uc!)tof thé potentitLt uf couductor \vit!ton(.
touc])I))g it 27C
223. Mcasui'cment of thc suj'erficiid ~cnHityot' c)cctrif!cntiot). Thé
proofpJfmc ny~
224.Ahcmisp!tcreusednsa<cst o?o
225.Acit'cuI[tt'diak. n~n
22C. Onelectncnccumulators. TiteLcyJcnjfn- .281
227.Accnmu!atorsofmeasu)'abtccn))acit,y ~n
228.Ti)cguar(I-n))gaccu!nu!nto)' no~
339. Comptu-isoaot'thc capacités ot'accumuitttors. ~g~

PART II.
KLE('T!{()K!N').;M,\TfG'

CJIAPTEU I.

TnEELM;TfU<;('[jfmnNT.

2:30. Cm')'entproduccdwi)e)tco))<)nctors arc dM('))iir~d.288

23LTransfcrenecufc)cctrincation ~go
2.32. Description ofthc voirie bnttcry
~cjn
233. Electromotivc
force nn~
23'). Production of~fitcadycun-cnt ~q~
235.Propcrtie3oft)tCCurt-cnt. nn,
23C Etnctro~'tie action
nn,
237.
Exp!tuiationoftcrn)scon!tcct.cdwit.])dcct)'())ysis 909
238. Dincrent modes of passade ofthpcnr)-cnt
239. Mt~nctic action ofthccnrrcnt.
r,n.j
2)O.T))cC}(tIvnncn)icte)-
r,n,

CHAPTER II.
CONDUCTIONANn )tHS!STA\('E.
24!.Ohm'sLnw
f,
2.12. Génération ofhMtbythccun-ent.
JuuIc'sLaw 29(;
24.3. Anniogy bctwccn thc conduction of c~etricity and t))nt of ).cat 297
24'Dincrcnccshctwcenthctwoe)nsscsofp))cno!nc))a.297 î
215. Fara.hiy' doctrine oftt~e i.npo.ssiLiHt.y ~f an nhs-.tutc
c))ar~c 298
 CO~TE~TS. xxv

CMAPTER III.

Kf.HCTKOMOTIVp FO!tCE JtETWREt nODJES t~ CONTACT.

~rt. j,
2~ G. Vu)t:t's )a~" f)f thc contact Force hetwccn différent )nctn)s at thc
f!a))]ctcmpc)'ature 21H
2-17. EJTectofeIcctrutytes. 300
248. Thomsou'a voittuc cun'cnt in whicit gravity pcrforms the part
ofchunucal action. 300
2 19. rdtio-'s phcttoniennn. Deduction of the thcrmoetectnc c!cc-
tromotivc force itt~junction. 300
250. f'icetteek'tjdiscoveryofthermoctcetriccun'enta. 302
25L Mn~nu.s'utiuvof~ circuit ofonemeta) 302
252. Cutnmin~'sdiscovcryofthcrmocicctric inversions 30-1
253. Tho]))son's (tcductions from t))cse ihcts, and discovery of thé
!'(;Y(;)')i))Ic
t)tcr!Uid cffcet~ of c)ect)'ic currenta in copper and
n)iru)) 304
251. Tait.itaw<)f't))('f)cctromotiver<))'cnr)fnthermoc]cetricp[tlr 305

CHAPTER IV.

HLKCTROLYSIS.

255. Faraday'a la.wof'cleetroehennctu équivalents 307

25C. Ct.msms'stItcuryofnioteenIfu'n~Ittttion 30!)
257.El(;ct)'«!yticpuhn'izatiun 30!)
258. Tes<()fanelectro)ytchypo)fu'imtion 3]()
25').Dinicu)tiesinthetheory('fdcctt'oty.'iis 310
2GO.Mutecuhu-charges 311
2G1. Sceundary actions ohservcd:it thc électrodes 313
2C2. Conservation ofenergyiuc!cctro)ysl3 315
2G3. McnsuremcntofchemicaInfnnitynsiU) etectromotivf! force 3t(!

CIIAPTER V.

ELHCTROLYTfC
POLAUtZATtON.

2G-1. DiMcuttiesof~ppIyingOhm'sIttwtoclectrotytcs 31 H
2G5. Oh)n's)awncvcrthcIcssapp!!caUe 318
2CC. Thcun'eet uf pu))n'izat!~ondistim;uishcd from that of resist~ncf 3188
2(;7. roliu'ixtttiou duc to thé présence of the ions nt tlie eicctrodca.
T)tcious!ioti[ittfrcestate 31S)
2C8. Relation bctweon t))e cicctromutivc force of po)n)'ixation ttnd
the stutc of thc ions at tlie électrodes 320
 xxvi CONTUX'JS.
Art.
l'/I¡;U
2CO. D~sipation'jft))u]uus:mdi(.'ssufpo!.u'ization
321
270. Lin)itof)'t)'ixation
.)r,,
27t.Uittc)''s!iccuH(l:u-ypi)c(;umpfn-edwitIit))eLeydenjn!' 322
272. CuustiUitvoJttucctcmcnts.–Danicil'ace!!
39~

CIIAPTER VI.

~ATJ~KADCAL TUHOKY Ot- TU].: J)ISTRI)3UTIO~ OF HJ.HCTJUC

CUHM.:KTS.
273.Lij)L'a)'cu)jductM')j
~p~
27J.O)nn'sLaw
275. Lijtott'eondtictot'sinscncs
~qq.
27(i. Lit)(;a)'c<J)tdnctt)t's in multiple arc
qq.~
277. Jf<s!st)U)(;cu<'cunductor.s<jfut))furn] section gq]
278. Dimunsioxs oft)ic ((uantitics i))vo)ved in Ohnt's hnv 3'~
279. Spucific rMistn.ice nnJ conduetivity in
cicctromngnetie mesure 333
280. Line'u'systous ()feouduetu)'.sl))gc))(jra! ~oo
281. ~cci)'rûcn!prupu-tyofa)tytwocon(.h)ctorsot't!ic
system 335
282.(.)iju~tucundnct.o)'< .n~
28;}. Hcatgcncratc-()it) thé System r.
28).Thc hcnt
~n)mm.umwhcnthccun-cntiiidistn))utednc-
cot'dingttjOhtu'stitw

CHAPTER VII.

CONDUCTIOXIN THHEE DIMHNSfON.S.

285.
Nut.Lt.iou ~~o
28C.Co)npusttiu)]a!tdrcsotutionufu!ectriccurrcata 333
2R7. Dctct-minat!on uft))c (tunutity winch Oows
through any sm-racc 339
288.]'~juati()H(.'f:tsu!'fiLceof'f)o\v r.
2R9.nt.)tti(')))'ftwoc)t))))yt))rcc Systems of surfaces of)!uw 3.10
2')O.Tn))eHuf'()o\v
2')L Expt-csMon for t)K.nmpnnonts uf t)tc flow ni tcnns uf surfaces
"< sjj 1
2')2. uf this px))rcssion
Simp]ifn.-ntlon by n prope)- choice of pnm-
3.n1
29:}. L'nit tubes of )!ow used as n complète nict!n)d of dcterniining
the<;un'c))t u~ln1,,
2!)t.Cm-t-L'))t-s)tcctsaudem-rcnt-f).mctu)ns g.to
2n~.H<pt!itiuuof'continuity' ot~
20U. Qucmtityofdcctt'ieity winch ftowsthrough~givcn surface 3.1.j
 CONTENTS, xxvii

CHAPTER VIII.
IŒSISTANCKASU CONDUCTIYITYIN TUHJ~ DIMENSIONS

297. r.quatiousof résistance g~~

298. équations of conduction gj~
299.1~ttcofgcuc!-a.tionof))cat g~~
300. Conditions ofstability g.~
301.
Hquatiouofeontinuityinahomogeneousmcdium 3~8
302. Solution ofthucouation gjg
303.Th(;oryuft!)eeocf!Icicnty. Itprobablydoesnotcxist 3-~9
30L(~enera)ixedfortnof'T))omson'st!teorem 330
305.1'roofwithoutsytnbots 331
30C. Strutt's n~thod appticd tu wu'c of varmbtc scetiou.–Lower
linutof'thovutnuuftitc résistance 353
307.111ghc)'!ituit 3;~
308. Luwe)')itnit for t)iuc<jn-ectiont'u)-t)te ends uf thé wit'c 358
309. til~teriimit t g~g8

CHAPTEK IX.
(,'ONDUCTIOXTintOUUH imTEHOGËNEUUS MËDFA.

310.Sm'faefj-conditK)ns 3~0
3tl.Sp!icnc)dsu['faec
3!2.S})!ierIca)shci! 3~3
313. Sp)ienc:t)st)cnpttteediuaHc!d(jfunifonn<tow 3(;.j
31-1. Mcdmn)i)iw)uehsu]td!s})hut'cafn'cunifonnlydi8seminated 3C5
315. tn)ugesi!)~]))unc surface. 3~~
31G. McDiodofinverstoMnot applicable inthree dimensions. 3fj7
317. Case uf conduction t)n'ou~)i a. stratum bouudcd by parallcl
l'Lmes g(jy7
318. Infunto scries of images. AppUcation tu magnetic induction 3(j8
319. On stnitifled couductor.-). Cooiticienta of conductivity of a
couductor cotiaistmg of altcrnatu strata. of t\o dincrent sub-
stances g(jf)
320. If neitherof thc substtuiccs lias thc rotatory propcrty dcnotcd
by7'thecontpoundeonductoi'isfreefromit 370
321. If Uiu substances arc isotropic thé direction of grcatest resist-
ancuisuormultothetitratu. 37)1
322. Médium contauungparailcicpipedsofanothct'mcdium 3711
323. Ttiu rotntury prupcrty c.mnot bc iotroduccd by mcauH of con-
dutjtiugchanuds 37~
324. Construction of an artificia) sutid imving givcu codncients of
toti~itudinalandtrausvcrscconductivity 373
 xxvill ODXTHy'rs.

OJIAPTER X.

(;n\)~'f'T)t)\ )Nni~),t:<"rn[('s.
)'r.
:). ïnastri~tlyi~~nugcncot~smcdiu))) Li)'')Tc.n)))t;)t.) interna)
~Sc :!7.t
:!2C. T))curyof a condenser In w))ic!tt)tedic!cctrit.;is
u'jtaperf'cct
insuiatur .)--
.27.~()rcH!dt)n)c)Mrgc duc tu simple conduction 37~
~28.T))eoryot'acom))us!tc)tccuu)u)ato! 37~
:!29. Residua)d)nrgc)U)dctectrica)
absorption ~73
~3<T<)t:))disc)nn- JoUr,Qn
;i.'i].Ct)n]pan.sot)W)t!tt)~('on<tn(;tiunf)f!)eat. 'jgt
332.T!)(.'<'ryuftc]c~m))h ''ahicH~ndcoutjwnsouor~hec~untionH
wit))tfiosc'<)ftit('con(]nctio))('f')K':)t ~gj
.3. Opinion <)f0]nn un ttussubjcct ~gt
;U.Mcch!unca)iI)ustr.)t!()nofthf)~)-0))<'rtio.'jf)<'ndic]cct)'ic 33~

CHArTHK Xf.

Mr:SUK].:M!KT OF TJrt: KmCTHtC KHSIS-r.~CJ: 0F COXDUC-TOHS.

3:!5. Advanta~c «(' usil)~ nuttcria) standards ofrcsishtnee in

dpt-trica)
)m.'asu)'C))t(.'))t~ .jnn
:(!. DiOcrcnt staudm-dswhicit hâve i~cn uscd nnd ttin'crent Systems
w))ic))))avcLce])]))'opose() ooo
:{37.Tf)CL'!(.'(;tru[n:t~nctie System ofunits gtx)
;i~8. Wuber's unit, a!idthcï3)'itis](Assut-iati<)n unit or Ohm ~89
;!39. nôtres pprspcnnd
rr('t'cssudv!t)u<'f)ft)K-Oin))IO,non,OOf) 389
.'tJO.Rqn'oduct.ionufst.mdtu-ds .q~
:!J!. F<'t'msof'rcsist)).n<;ccuii.s
.'N2.Cot!uf~reat)'e!i!~t)mce
;iI3.Ar)'an~f'n)c']ttof'('oi!si)).scncs.
.tr.uj~'n:erit in )t)uttip)e arc
.)~. On tht;conn))U-is~!)()f résistances.
(t)0))m'S!npthod 30~
:!)H. (2)
~yt))U(.nf!(;r(.'ntiatgtdvauometcr ;j().i
:(3)J!yWhcn(stune'snridge J' ~g
~Esti)natio!iof;hnIts<jferrorint),edctM-mitmt)on 3~)
:~i).]!cst arrangement oft))ccundneturst~))C('un)))ur(;d .ioo
:i!')0.0))tI)cusco)'W!)cfttstone'sih-id~c.
35).T)toms(,))'s]nethodfu)-S!n!tUrcsistttnecR
:!52. Matt)no8scn nnd HoL-kin's meth.,d ~r
,m.dl rcsi.tanœs .)()(,
 CONTEJs'TS. xxix
t-.w..
.3.C<J)n))aris<jn«f!re!tt. résistances Lytitcctcdromctcr
· t08
.')5).J~-accuntu)ittion in a condenser ~OD
.'i.')5. Direct c!cct)'ustaticn]cthod 103
.'i.')C. T)'<]ns())t'smctho(lfnrth(!rcsistnnceofa~tviL)]unK-k'r J10
]\t.Lncc'smcthod f)f determinni~ thé rcsistiUlfc uf a Lattcry J t1
;)8. Comj~risonofcicctromotivef'orcc! ~1 113

CHAPTER XII.

KLEU'DUC HKSthTA~C]': u).' S[;J!S'i'A:S<;):S.

:i.')f).]\L't~Ls,(.'icet!-o]ytcs,auddK.')uch'ics .)j.,
.')(!(). RcMstitnccofjnehdti.ni (i
.< nc~istttnc~ofmcrcury )~ï
.<!2. T:))))('of résistance of mcta).s .)8 fi
.<?. I!c'.iMtft!)cc<.)fc)e(;h'oIytps.j!) !)
.'«iLExpcrimcntsofraaIxow .1~
~'5.
Hxt<eri)ncntH«fK()])]rtmschi'jntNipp<t)dt. 20
.'i(!().HcMintancc()fc)ietcctt'ics )2t
.'iC7.(Jutt,a-pc)'ch:t .)~:j
.<'8.(!Ias.s. ,j~j
3('!).(!aM-s .j
370. Exp(.'rin)t'i~Hf))"\Viedc)u:mn:m<)Uu))!tu:m)) )2f)
ËLECTRICITY AND MA&NETISM.
 ERRATA. VOL. I.

Pttgc 26, 1. 3 from bottoni, f~ 'As wc have made no assnmpt!on', &r.

~M~ <o 1. 7 of p. 27, tlie expression may then ho written', nnd
substitute as foijowa
Let us now supposo that thé curvcs fur whieh a is constant
form n. series of closecl cnrves, surromnHn~ the
])oint on thc surface
for which a )ms its minimum va)ue, a~, thc last curvoofthe series,
for which a = a,, coineiding with thc original ch.Hfft curve
Let us also suppose that t)te c'm'ves for which /j is constant fonn
a series of lines <h-tn\'n fro))i the point at whici) to t))H
n=a~
closed curve s, the first, and the last, hcing idcnttcal.
Intcgriitiog (8) by pnrts, tlie <irst to'tu wit)) respect to a nnd
thc second with respect to thc double integrata destroy eac!)
othcr. The hue integral,

/<Ë)
~0 -P n"=ao
is zero, because the curve a =
a. is reduced to n. point at which
there is but one value of~Vand of x.
Tbc two linc intc~ra)s,

-~(.Y~) (la ) ~=~Pl~+r'(A~) tZa~

destroy each other, because tho point (a, ~) is identical with thc
point (a, /j.).
Thé expression (8) is titerufore reduced to
/) ~.);,
< ~N
<~
(9)
JRo n_nl
Smce tho curve a = Ot is idouticat with thé closecl curve
.?, we
may write this expression
p. 80, in cqnatious (.3), (4), (G), (8), (17), (18), (19), (20), (21), (22),
7t' ?'M«! .v.
p. 82, 1. 3, for )-<'a.j! .V~.
l2V 2 r~
p. 83, in équations (28), (29), (30), (31), for l' (t.t" V
ftx;(t~
iu équation (2!)), !')t. tnc second mcmbcr.
~e/'o/'e
p. 105, 1. 2, for Q 7-c<ïfZ8Tr().
p. 108, équation (1), for p )-M<~
(2), for MM<~p.
(3), for <r r<'f<(~o~.
o ), (')), ~0)' a' )'ectf~ cr.
p. 113, t. 4, for Yt~ ?-eafl -L~
4Tr
1. 5, for 7t'7i'~cosc )-ea<Z TT~~cosf.
47r
p. 114, 1. 5, ~)r 7-e~
p. 124, last )u)o, /~r ~+~ rM(Z e~.+e~.
p. 125, lines 3 and 4, ~'(f~s~o.s'e wit))!n and without; 1. 16, /0)- v
!-<<t~ F; and I. 18, ~)' F M~a! v.
p. 128, )mca 11, 10, 8 from hottom, for dx read
p. 1-19, 1. 24, for equpotential 7-~td equipoteutial.
 2 ERRATA. VOL. [.

p. 159, 3, /o<- 7~ rea~

]. 2 from hottom, /o;' ?'<Mj
p. 1G3, 20, À;i )~a(Z À~~+i.

].. IG1, équation (3-1), (-1)' J~-T (-t)'~

2-~ ~.= °
r. 1î
h. 179,
9, ctluntion
équation (7G), for i -1- 1 ~M~
ï+1 ~·r.acl
l~27+'Ï.
?iL-1- 1.
)'. 185, équation (24), J'
for 1 r6~.
%= = i.
C- ()- C-–&-
p. I8G, L 5 from bottom, /.);- 'T)tc HUt'f<Lce-~ens!ty on thp
e!]iptlc plat~'
?-Mf2 Thc surfitcc-dcnsity on cithcr side of thu etHptic
pinte
p. 18(!, équation (30), /'«' 2~ /'<M~
p. 288, equfttio)! (38), ~e~~ 2~.
p. I9C, t. 27, e..f; ?'M~

p. 197, cquatiuti (10)8hould bc 7)/'=

.f .Î3 (.f'-a'~
p. 20-1, 15 from hottotn, (Me elthor.
p. 215, I. -1, ~/2/; )-<;< ~/2~
r'
p. 23j, cquation (13), /o!- 2 A' ?-eafZ -L.
p. 335, f/~ !nst l'I Hn~s.
]'. 33C, I. Jc~ i))crd'urc.
i. 2, thc potcntin! at C to cxcccd tliat at D
bvJ 7" )w~
cun-pnt, C, from .V to r.
]. 4, 6' to will cause thn potc-ntia! at J to cxeecd that at
7~')'y tho Hamc qnantity /Y ~a~ .Y to Y will cause un
cm')'<'nt C frum .1 to B. eoua!
p. 3.51, 3, t-caJ
7~~+7t~+/ 7?,?~+7~~+7i'
I. 5, .-< + + + .<,~)
2 ( M-t;
M~ (ty c~
p. 355, last line, /o)' ~t7 ,S'.

p. 35G, cquation (12), 7.M.2

p. 3G5, iit equatLona (12), (lu), (1G), jl ~a~ ~)-.

p. 3GG, équation
lt. C<JUlLtIUIl
(3),
(3), /o~
.for )-ea~
rear

p. 3G7, 5, 2~ ~~J 2~S'.

p. 3G8, equution (!-J), /d;- t~f!
ll. I. 1,
397, 1.
p. 3!J7, I, -~y ~<? ~S'. 8
ls ô A j
p. '104, at Oie ou! uf Art. 350 inscrt as foHuws
Whcn y, t])e résistance to bo mcasurcd, a, the résistance of
thc
Latiot-y, and a, tl)e rcsistancc of thé galvanometer, arc givoi, thé
Lest va)u~ of the othcr rcsistancca hâve beeu shewn
by Mr Otivo-
Mcavisidc (/<j/ct~ Feb. 1873) tu be

r=. ~=~ ~=~A/L+F.

'a+)/ a~y
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

PRELIMINARY.

UN THE MKASUHEMHNT 0F QUANTITIES.

1.] EvERY expression of a Quantity consists of two factors or

components. One of thèse is the name of a certain known quan-
tiiy of thé same kind as thé quantity to bc expresscd, which is
taken as a standard of rcfprence. Thc othcr component is t!tG
numhcr of timcs thé standard is to ue taken in ordcr to make up
thé reqnircd (luaiitity. Thc standard quantity is technically called
the Unit, and thc numbcr is ca.tic'd thc Numerical Value of thé
quantity.
There must t)c as many di~rcrent unita as there are difrcrcnt
kinds of quantities to bf mcasnred, !)ut in aH dynamical sciences
it is possihh' to dcHnc tlu'sc units in tt.'rms of tlie thrcc funda-
mental nuits of' Lcngth, Timc, and Mass. Thus tlie units of arca
and of volume are detined rcspectively as thé square and the cube
whose sides arc thé unit of tength.
Sometimes, ]io\vcver, we Htid several units of the same kind
founded on independent considérations. Thus thé g-allon, or the
volume of ten pounds of water, is used as a unit of capacity as well
as thé cubie foot. The gallon may he a convenient measure in
some cases, but it is not a systematic one, since its numerical re-
]a.tion to thé eubic foot is not a round intc~ral numbcr.
2.J In framing a mathema.tical systern we suppose thé funda.-
mental. nuits of ]eng'th, time, and mass to be given, and deduce
a.t] the derivative units from thèse by thé simplest attainable de-
finitions.
Thé ib-rmulae at which we arrive must he such tbat a. person
 2 FRELIMfNAKV.
s~. r~
of any nation, by substituting for thé difterent
symbols thé nu-
merical va]ue of thé quantifies as measured )iis own nation:),!
hy
Utnts.wouhifu'rivt'atatrucrcstdt.
Hence, in ati scientifie studios it is nf thc g-rcn.test importance
to employ unit s bclonging to a
properly defined system, and to
know the relations of th~se units to thé fundamental
units, so that
~'e may bc ab!c at once to tnmsform our résulta from one
system to
anothcr.
This is most convcnicntly donc by
aseertaining the ~M.
of cv~ry unit in terms of the three fundumcnt.at
units. Whcn a.
givcn unit varies as the ~th power of one of tliese units, it is said
to be of Mr/e;c/~ as i-cg-ardsthat unit.
For instance, thé scientifie unit of volume is
always thc cube
whose sidc is thé unit of
leugth. If thc unit of length varies,
thc unit of volume will vary as its third
power, and t!te unit of
volume is said to be of < hrcc dimensions with
respect to thé unit of
Icngth.
A knowk'dge of thé dimensions of units furnishes a test which
on~-htto be applied to the équations resulting from any
lengthened
investigation. T!ie dimensions of cvery term of such an
équa-
tion, with respect to eacli of thé three fundamcnta.1 units, must
be the same. If not, the
équation is absurd, and coiltains some
error, as its interprétation \vould be diflerent according to the arbi-
trary system of' units which we adopta

?~e 7%ce ~M~M~K/

3.] (1) Z~ The standard of length for scientific
in tliis country is one foot, which is thé third purposes
part of thé standard
yard preserved in thc HxL-hequcr Ch~tnbers.
In France, and othcr countries which have
adopted the metne
system, it is thé mètre. Thu mètre is thcoreticaDy thé ten mi!-
liontit part of thé length of a meridian of' thc earth
measured
from thé pole to thé equator but practicaHy it is the length of
a standard preserved in Paris, wliieh w.s constructed
te correspond, when at thé by Borda
température of melting ice, with the
value ofthe preceding length as measured
by Delumbre. The mètre
has not been altered to
correspond with new and more accurate
measurements of thé earth, but thé arc of the meridian is estimated
in terms of thé original mètre.

The theory of dimoMionn was Hrat atat~ ).y Fourier. y/tf'o)-e de C7t<t~!o-, § 160.
 .5.]] THH TIIREH FtJNDAMENTAÏ, HNtTS. 3

In astronomy thé mcan distance of thé earth û'om thc sun ia

sometimes taken as a unit oficngth.
In thc présent state ot' science thé most univcrsal standard of
)fng<h whieh \ve could assume would be t!tc wave leng'th in vacuum
of p.u-ticular kind of light, emittcd by some widcty diffused sub-
stance such as sodium, which bas wcH-dunned lines in its
spectrum.
Snch a standard would bc independent of any cha.ng'es in thé di-
mensions of thé cai't.h, and should bc adopted by those who expcet
t!icir writings to be more permanent than that body.
In treating of thé dimensions of units we shaU eall the unit of
length [Z/]. If is thc numerical value of a lengtli, it is under-
stood to be expressed iu terms of thé concrète unit
[.], so that
thc actual length won)d Lu fully exprusscd hy
[Z].
4.J (~) ~c. Thc standard unit of time in a.U civilized conn-
tries is deduced from the time of rotation of thc earth about its
axis. The sidcrcal day, or thé true period of rotation of the earth,
can be ascertaincd with great exactness hy thé ordinary observa-
tions of astronomers and thc mean solar day can be deduced
from this by our knowledge of thé len~-th of thu year.
Thé unit of time adopted in all physical researchcs is one second
ofmcan solar time.
In astronomy a yciu- is somctimes used as a unit of time. A
more universal unit of' time mig'ht bc fbnnd by taking' thé periodic
time of vibration of tho particular kind of light whose wave
length
is thé unit of len~th.
We shaU call the concrète unit of time
[?'], and the numerical
measure of time <
5.] (3) J/</M. Thé standard unit nf mass is in this country thé
avoirdu"ois pound preserved in thé Exchcquer Chambers. Thé
grain, which Is oftcn used as a unit, is denncd to be thé 7000th
part of this pound.
In the metrical system it is thé gramme, which is
theoretIcaHy
the mass of a cubie centimètre of distilled water at standard tem-
pérature and pressure, but praeticaUy it is thé thousandth part
of a standard kilogramme preserved in Paris.
Thé accuracy with which thé masses of bodies can be com-
pared by weighing is far greater than that hitherto attained in
the measurement of lengths, so that ail masses
ought, if possible,
to be compared directly with thé standard, and not deduced from
experimcnts on water.
Jn descriptive astronomy thé mass of thé sun or that of the
B 2
 4 PRELIM!NAi:Y.
earth is sometimes taken us a unit, Lut in t.be
dynamiea.! theory
of astronomy thé unit of mass is deduccd from the units of time
and tena-t)). eomhincd with tbe tact of univ<sa)
gravitation. Thc
astronotnica! unit of mnss is that mass whieh attracts :)nothci-
body p]accd at t)<e unit of distance so as te produce in thut hody
thé unit ofacedcration.
In framing- a. univers:~ system of units wc
m:t.y either dcduce
t!)c unit of mass in this way from those of
h'ng-th and time
ah-cady (~fined, and tins we e:ui du to a rougit approximation ni
thc pœst-nt staic of' science or, if we cxpcct soon to bc &b)c to
dctcrminp the mass of a sin~c mofccule of a. standard
substance,
we may wait for this détermination bufore fixing- a nnivcrsat
standard of mass.
We stia!! dénote thé concrète unit, of mass
by the symbo) [~1
in. trcating- of thé dimensions of other units. Thé unit of mass
will he taken as onc of the threc fnndamcnta! units.
When as
in thé French system, a particular substance,
\vatcr, is taken as
a standard of dcnsity, then the unit of mass is 110
!ong-er inde-
pendcnt, but varies as thc unit of volume, or as
r~'l.
If, as in tlie astronomie~ system, thé unit of mass is dcfined
wit!i respect to its attractive power, the dimensions of' r~t ire
[~7'].
For t))e aecderat.ion due tn t)te attraction of a mass M at a
distance is by thc Newtonian Law Suppose this attraction
to act for a vcry smal! time ou a body ori~in~Hy a.t
l'est, and to
cause it to describe a space s, then by the formula of
GaHIco

.=~~=.
~.2~
whence = Since r and are both
2 Icn~ths, and t is a
time, this equation cannot bc true unicss the dimensions of are
[/< ~]. The same can be shewn from any astronomicat
tion in whieh the mass of a, equa-
body appears in some Lut not in a])
of thé terms -t-.

0. ~1~
Uct. L..fH.)u.u)e/ .<e,~ of r~~
]~. Ihb. (,). Stonuyon ''rhu Jnturt~t ~lutinns of (;s'
18C8 .nd Sir W Thn,o..n Th..Si.e .f ..U.s.- .V~ /)'/t; Anb..
lie nhout \;32,000,000pounclH, uf
h~h~O~
 6.J DERIVE!) UNITS. 5

~/M~.S'.

(). j Thé mut of Vetocity is thaï vclocity in which unit of len~ih

is dcscrihcd in unit oftimc. Its dimensions arc [Z7'].
If wc adopt t!te units uF length and time derived from thc
vibra.tion~ of H~ht~ then t)ie unit of velocity is thé vclocity of
Ji~ht.
Thé unit of' Aceclomtion is tllat accélération ill which thé velo-
eity inerea.s' by unity in unit oftime. Ils dimensions arc [Ll'- '~].
Thc unit of Density is the density of :),substance which contains
unit of mass in unit of volume. Its dimensions are [~/7/].
The tmit of Momentnm is thé momcntum of unit of mass moving'
with unit of velocity. Its dimensions are p/7"~].
Thc unit of Force is the furee which prodnees unit of momcntum
in unit of time. Its dimensions arc [-~Z~].
This is thc absolute unit of force, and this définition of it is
implied in cvery cquation i~ Dynamics. Ncvcrtheless, in many
text books in which thèse équations are ~'Iven, n, dînèrent unit of
force is adopted~ namely~ ~!)e weig'ht of tLenationa] unit of mass;
and thenj in order to satisf~ thc équations~ thé national unit of mass
is itsuH'ahandoned~ and an artificial unit is ndoptcd as thé dynamical
unit, equat to tlie national unit divided by thc numerical value of
the forée of~'ravity at the place. In this way boih the unit of force
and thé unit of mass are mndt' to dépend on thé value of thé
force of gravity, whieh varies from place to place, so <hat statc'-
ments Involving' thesc quantities arc not complete without a know-
ledgc of thé force of gravity in thé places where these statemcnts
were found to be truc.
T))e aholition, for aH scicutific purposes, of this method of mca-
suring' forces is mainly due to the introduction of a général system
of mahing observations of magnetic force in countries in which
thc force of gravity is dinerent. AU such forces are now mcasurcd
according' ~o thé strictty dyr)amic:d method deduced from our
définitions, :uid the numerical results arc the same in whatever
country thc cxpcrimcnts are made.
Thé unit ofWorh is thc worh donc hy the unit of force acting
throug-h thc unit of !en~-th mcasured in its own direction. Its
dimensions are [J/Z'].
Thé Encr~y of a system, bein~ its capacity of' pcribrming' work,
is mcasurcd by thé \ork which tiu~ system is capable cf performing
by the expenditure ofits whole encrg'y.
 FRËL~ÏINARY. [7.
Thé definifions ofother quantifies, and of' the units to whieh
they an; referrcd, \vi!! hc given when wc requirc them.
In transforming the values of physical
quantities determiued in
terms of one unit, so as to t'xpn'ss thcm in terms
of any ot))er unit
of thé same kind, we have only to remcmber that
every expres-
sion for the quantity eonsists of' two factors, thé unit and thc n)t-
merical part whic)~ expresses how oCten the unit is tn bf t~tkcn.
Hcnee thé numericat part of the expression varies
invcrscly as thé
magnitude of thc unit, that is, inverser as the variuus powers of
the fundamcnt:)! miits which arc indicated
by thc dimensions of the
derivecl unit.

0;t 7'/y.y/'<
C~MK//y ~M~M/
7.] A quantity is said to vary conti]iuous1y when, if' it passes
from one vahtu to anothcr, it assumes ail thé intermediate
values.
We may obtitin the from a
conception ofcontinuity conside-rafion
of the continuons existence oi'ft particle of matter in time and
spar-e.
Such a partic)e cannot pass irom onc
position to anothcr without
dcs~-ihius- n conLinuous line in space, and thé coordinates of its
position must he continuons functions ofthe timc.
In thé so-called < erjuation of' as s-iven in treatises
eontinuity,'
on Hydrodynamics, thé iact
cxpressed is that ma«cr cannotappcar
in or disappcar from an élément of volume withont
passin~ in or out
throug'h the sidcs of that etcment.
A quantity is said to be a continuous function of its
variables
whcn, if thc variables alter coitinuonsly, thé qnantity itse!f alters
cont!nuous)y.
T)ms, if Il is a function of.~ and if, while x passas
continuousiy
from .7~ to .?- )< passes
contmuousty from 7~ to but \vhen x
passes from to r. 1t passes from M/ to H~ diffèrent from
bcing
then /< is sud to have a. in its
discontinuity variation \vith
respect to -v for thé value = a- hceause t passes ahruptiy
from
to ?// while .?.-passes
continuous)y <hroug)i .p,.
If we eonsider thé différential eocfnclent of Mwith
respect to for
the value = as thé limit of thé fraction
~o

when and are hotl) made to appro~ch without limit, then,

tf.~ and are ahvays on opposite sides cf. thé ultimate value of
thé numerator will be and that of the dcnominator will
be zero. If ?<is a
quantity pliysically continuons, thé discontinuity
 8.] CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINU'ITY. 7

can exist only with respect to the particular variable x. We must

in this case admit that it bas an infinite didcrcntial coefficient
\\hcn x = If' M is not phy&icaHy continuous, it cannot bc dif-
ferentiated at a)!.
It is possible in physical questions to gct rid of thc idca of
disco!)tinui<.y withont sensibly altcring thé conditions of' thé case.
If.~t is a very little less than and a very little g-rcater than
will bc to
thcn very n<ar]y cqual 7~ and to /< \Ve
may now suppose to vary in any arbitrary but continuons manner
from to 7~ Letween thc limits j~ and In many physical
questions we may bcg'in with a hypothcsis of this kind~ and then
investigate the rc'snit whcn thé values of and are made to
approach that of and ultimately to reach it. The result will
in most cases he indcpcndent of thc arhitrary manner in which we
have supposcd M to vary hehvecn thé limits.

.Z)~'coy/?/ o/~ ~M6'~OM 6/we /?~ O~c ~(~

8.~] If we suppose the values of a!l thé variables exc-ept to be
constant, thc discontinuity of thc function will occur for particular
values of y, and these will be connectcd with thc values of the
other variables by an cquation which \vc may write
= (~ &c.) = 0.
Thé discontinuity will oecur when = 0. Whcn <~is positive ths
function will have thé forni (.t-, &c.). When is négative
it will have thé form 7' &c.). Thcrc nced be no necessa-ry
relation bctwcen thc forms 7~ and 7~.
To express this discontinuity in a, mathcmatieal form, let one of
thé variables, say .1',bc expressed as a function of (~ and the other
variables, and let 7'~ and 7~ be expressed as functions of~ jy, z, &c.
We may now express t.he gênerai form of tlie function by
any
formuh), winch is sensibly equa! to 7'~ when is positive, and to
7'j whcn (p is negative. Such a formula is thc following-
~~7-, ~s
+
As long as M is a imite quantity, however great, 7'~ will lie a
continuons function, but if' we makc M infinite 7'~ will bc equal to
7~ when </)is positive, and equal to 7"~whpn is négative.

/0~K/ ~C jPcr/'M//t'~ C~/t/?~ 7~MC~'OM.

T))c first dcriva.tivcs of a continuons functioti may be discon-
 8 PMEMMINARY.
[9.
tinuous. Let thé values of thé variabies for which thé discon-
tinuity ofthe derivatives occurs be connectcd by the équation
<~=~(.r,)=0,
and let 7~ nnd be expressed in tcrms of (~ and M 1 other
variables, say (~, .c .).
Thcn, when is négative, is to Le taken, and whcn is
positive is to bc takcn, and, since 7'' is itself continuons \v)K'n
is zero, 7~ = 7~.

Hence, wlion is zéro, thé derivatives and mn.v he

dincrent, but thc derivatives with respect to any of' thé other
r/~ ~7~
Yai')a-b!es, such as and mnst t be
b thé
h same. Tho
'rl d"
diseon-
cl~ rlr/
tinuity is thercfnre confined to the derivative with respect to <~ al!
thc othcr derivatives being continuons.

7~<?/'<c ~Mf/ ~7;<<? 7'c/oy/

9.] If M is a funetion of .?-such that its value is thc same for
a-, .-?'+~ a;+?/ and ail values of x dinerin~ by lt is called a
periodie function of.v, and a is called its period.
If~ is considered as a funetion of M, thon, for a given value of
?/, there must be an infinite series of vaines of x difrering by
multijiles of a. In this case is called a multiple funetion of M
and a is called its cyclie constant.

The difïcrcntia! coefRcicnt bas only a finite numhpr of values

Cftrrpspotidi)]~ to a given v:duc of M.

the 7?t'/<M ~7' ()/<f 7)~-t'C//0/Min ~SfC.

10J In disting-uishing the kinds of physical quantities, it is of
g-rea), importance to know how tticy arc related to the directions
ofthosc coordinate axes whieh \vc usuaDy cmploy in dennIn<T thé
positions nFt])ings. Thé introduction of coordin~teaxcs into freo-
metry by Des Cartes was onc of the ~-rcatest steps in niathema~ica!
progress, for it reduced the methods of g<omet)Y to caleulations
performcd on numerical quantities. Thc position ofa point is made
to dcppnd on thé length of three lines which arc
always drawn in
determinate directions, and the line joining- two
points is in like
manner considered as thé resultant of threc lines.
But for mnny purposes in physical reasoning, as
distinguished
 H.] VECTORS,OR DIIŒCTED QUANTITIES. 9

from cateutation, it is désirable to avold cxplieitly Introducin~' thé

Cartcsian coordinates, and to fix the mind at once on a point of
space instead of its three coordinates, and on tho magnitude and
direction of a force instead of its three components. This mode
cf contcmplating' geometrical and physical quantities is more prim-
itive and more natural than thc other, although thé ideas connected
with it did not reccive their fnH dcvdopment till Hamilton made
thé next great step in dcaling- with space, hy thé invention of lus
Calculus of Quatornions.
As thc methods of Des Cartes arc sti)t thé most famiha.r to
studcnts of science, and as they are r~!y thé most usefnl for
purposcs of calculation, \ve shall express ail our results in thé
Cartesian form. I am convinc~'d, !to\vcvpr, that thé introduction
of the idt'as, as distin~nished rrom tlie operations and methods of
Quaternions, will be of g'rca.t use to us in the study of' aH parts
of our suhject, and cspeeiany in dcctrodynanncs, whcre wc have to
dcat with a numher of physical quantifies, thc relations of which
to cach other can bc cxpressed far more simply by a fc\v words of
Hamilton's, than by thc ordinary cquations.
11.] One ofthc moët important fcatures ofHamilton's method is
the division of quantifies into Scalars and Vectors.
A Scalar quantity is capable of heing completcly dcHned by a
single numerical sltecification. Its numcrical value docs not in
any way depend on thé directions \e assume for the coordinate
axes.
A Vcctor, or Directed quantity, requircs for its dennition thrce
numerical specifications, and t~csc may most simply be understood
as having référence to thé directions of thc coordinate axes.
Scalar quantities do not involve dit'cction. The volume of a.
gcomctrical figure, the mass and thé energy of a. materia~ body,
thé hydrostaticul pressure at a point it) a Huid, and thé potential
at a point in space, are examplus of scalar qu:mtitics.
A vector quantity bas direction as \v<H as magnitude, and is
such that a reversai, ot' its direction reverses its sign. The dis-
placement of a point, rcpresented by a straight liiic dra.\v)i from
its original to its final position, may bc taken as thé typical
veetor quantity, from which indeed thé name of Veetor is derived.
Thé vclocity of a 'jody, its momentum, the force acting on it,
an electric current, thé magnetization of a particle of iron, are
instances of veetor quantities.
There are physical quantities of anothcr kind whieh arc related
 10 PRELIMINARY. [12.
to directions in spacc, Lut which are not vectors. Stresses nnd
etrains in solid bodies are examp)cs of tliese, and thé
propcrties
of hodics considered in the theory of elasticity and in thc
t!ieory
of douhle réfraction. Quantities of this class rcquirc for their
définition ~~e numerica! speciriciitions. T!iey are expresscd in thc
hmguage of Quatc-rnions hy linear nnd vcetor fnnct.ions of a vector.
T!)e addition of onc vcetor quantity to anothcr of tlie samc kind
is perform~d aocordiug- to the rutc givcn i]i Stuiics for thc com-
position of furf~s. In iact, thé proof which Poisson ~ivcs of the
'paranf-lc~ram of forées' is npplicahk to the
composition of any
cjuantities such that a reversal of their sign is
tn équivalent to turningZ5
them end for end.
When wc wish to dénote a vector
(n)a~ity by a single symbol,
and to call attention to thc faet that it is a vector, so that we must
consider its direction as well as its we shaiï dénote
ma~ntude,
it by a German capital letter, as &c.
In thc calculus ofQuaternions, thé position ofa point in space
is defined hy thc vector dra~Ti from a fixcd
point, called thé origin,
in that point. If at ~hat point of space wc have to consider
any
physical <juantity whose va]ue dépends on thc position of the point,
that quantity is treatcd as a function of thé vcetor drawn from
t.hc origin. The function may he itscif either scalar or vector.
Thc density of a Lody, its température, its hydrost~tic pressure,
thé potcntial at a point, are of scalar functions.
exampics Thc
résultant force at tlie point, thc
velocity of a nuid at that point,
the velocity of rotation of an dément of thé
fluid, and the couple
producing rotation, are cxampics of vcetor functions.
12.] Physical vector quantities may bc divided into two classes,
in one of whieh the quantity is denncd with reference to a
linc,
whiic in thé other thé quantity is definod with référence to an
arca.
For instance, thé résultant of an attractive force in
any direction
may be measured by finding thc ~-ork whioh it would do on :L
Lody if the body were moved a short distance in that direction
and dividing it. by that short distance. Hère the attractive force
is definecl with refrénée to a line.
On the othcr hand, the nux of heat in
any direction at any
point of a solidbody may he defined as thé quantity ofheat which
crosses a small are drawn perpendieular to that direction divided
!'y that arca and Ly the time. Hère the flux is defined with
reference to an area.
 j~.] FORCESAND JLUXHS. 11

Thcre arc certain cases in which a quantity may he mcasured

with référence to a Une as well as with référence to an area.
T!ius, in treating of thé displacements of elastie solids, wc may
direct our attention either to thé original and the actulll position
of a particle, In which case the displaeement of thc particle is
mensnred hy thc linc drawn from thc first position to thc second,
or wc may considcr a small arca fixcd in space, and détermine
what quantity of thé solid passes across that arca during the dis-
placement.
In thc same way thc velocity of a (tuid m:).y he investig'ated
either with respect to thé actual veloclty of the individua! parti-
c)c's,or with respect to thé quantity ofthe uuid which Hows throug-h
any fixcd arca.
But in ~hL'sccases \ve rcquirc to know separately thé density of
thé hody as well as the disp!acement or velocity, in order to :t-ppty
the first méthode and whcncver we attempt to form a molecular
theory we have to use thé second method.
In thc case of the Howof electricity wc do not know anything
of its density or its velocity in the conductor, \ve only know tlie
value of what, on thé iiuid thcory, wou)d correspond to thé product
of thc density and thé vclocity. Hencc in aH such cases we must
apply thé more gênerai method of measurcment of thé flux across
an area.
In electrical science, electromotive force and magnetic force
belong to the first class, hcing dcfined with référence to lines.
When we wish to indicate this fact, we may refer to them as
Forces.
On thé other hand, electrie and ma~nctie induction, and electric
currents, helong to the second class, being' defioed with référence
to arcas. Wlien wc wish to indicate this fact, wc shall rcfer to t!)Gm
as Ffuxcs.
I~ch of tliese forces may he considered as producing', or tcnding'
to produce, its con'esponding' nux. Tkus, eleetromotive force pro-
duces electric currents in conductors, and tends to produce them
in dielectrics. It produces electric induction in dielcctrics, and pro-
babty in conductors also. In tho same sense~ mng'netic force pro-
duees magnetic induction.
13.] In some cases thé flux is simply proportiona.1 to the force
and in tlie same direction, but in other cases we can only &fHrm
that thé direction and mi~nitude of thé nux are f'unetions of' thc
direction and magnitude of the force.
 12 l'KEJJMINARY. [1~.

Thé case in which thc components ofthc flux are //M~/ functions
of those of t!tc force is discnssed in the c'hapter on thé
Equations
of Conduction, Art. 296. Therc are in gencral nine cociHcientH
which determine the relation bctwcen thé force and thc nux. In
certain cases we have rcason to bcheve that six of thèse cnenicicnts
form three pairs of equnt quantities. In such cases thé relation he-
t-wecn the line of direction of thc force and thé !iortn:d pianc ofthe
nux is of the samc kind as that bet\cen a diameter of a.n cHipsoid
and its conjngate diametral p)anp. In Quaternion iangua~e, thc
one veetor is Hnid to be a linear and vector funetion of thc othcr, :uid
whcn therc arc thi-ee pairs of equa! coeflicielits thé fonction is said
to bc scif-conju~'ate.
In tht- case of magnetic induction in iron, the flux, (the
ma~
nctizatiott of thc iron,) is not a linear funetion of the magnetlxi!~
force. In aH cases, howcver, the product of the force and the
flux rcsolvcd in its direction, ~ivcs a resu)t of scicntific
import-
ance and tliis is aiways a scalar (juantity.
14.] There are two mathematical opcrations of frcquunt occur-
rence whieh arc appropriatc to these two classes of vcctors, or
direct cd quantities.
In the case of forces, we have to takc the intégrât
along a Une
of thé produet of an e)emcnL of thé line, and the resolved
part of
thé force along that élément. TIie result of this opération is
called thé Liue-integra! of thc force. It represents thé wnrk
donc on a body carried niong the linc. In certain cases in which
the IIne-integral does not depend on thc l'orm of thé line, but
only on thé position of its extrcmities, thé line-integral is called
thé Potential.
In thé case of fluxes, we have to take t])e
intégral, over a surface,
of thé nux through every clement of the sttrface. Thc rcsult of
t))is opération is ca!)cd tlie Surfhce-intt~ra! of t))c Onx. It rcni'c-
sents the quant!ty which passes through thc ëurface.
Thcrc are certain suHact's ncross which thL'rc is no flux. Iff'
t\vo of these sur&ces intérêt, their line of intersection is a !i!K!
of Hux. In thosL' cases in w!tic)) the flux is in thé s:tmc Jircetion
as the force, lines of this kind are oftctt (;a!tcd Ijitins of Force. It
would be more correct, I)ow~vcr, to spc'ak of thcm in eleetrostatics
and ma~netics as Lines of Induction, atld in electrokinematics as
Lines of Ftow.
15.'] There is another distinction hctwccn différent kinds of
directed quantitics, which, Hiough in a physical
very important
 ~-] HNR-INTEGRALS. 13

point of view, is not so necessary to be obscrved for thc sake of

thc mathcmaticd methods. This is thc distinction bctween
longi-
tudinal and rotational pruperties.
The dirf'ction and magnitude of
quantity may dépend npon
some action or enect which takes place
entirely along a certain
linc, or it may dépend upon somcthing of the nature of' rota-
tion a.bout that linc as an axis. Thé laws of combina.tion of
dirceted quantities are thé same whethcr
thcy are !o!tgitudina! or
roh~ionat, so thut Hicre is nu différence in the mat!u;maticat tt'cat-
m<-ni,of thc two classes, but there
may bc physieal circumstances
winch indic:).tc <o which class we must refer a
particular phcno-
mcnon. Thns, cicctrolysis consists of the transfer of certain sub-
stances abng a line in one direction, and of certain other sub-
stances in thc opposite direction, which is
cvithntly a long-itudina!
phenomenon, and there is no evidence of any rotational eiFect
about thé direction of thé force. Hence we inicr that thé electrie
eurrent which causes or accompanies
eleetrolysis is a longitudinal
and not a rotationat phcnomcnon.
On the oti~r hand, the north and sonth
pok's of a ma.gnct do
])()Ldin'er as oxygeti and
hydrogen do, which appear at opposite
places during electrolysis, so that we )~ve no nvidcnce that mao--
nctistn is a longitudinal phenomenon, while the eflect of
mag-netism
in rotating tlie plane of polarized
light distinctly shcws t)tat mag-
netism is a rotational phcnomenon.

0~ ./</KC-~M~y~
16.] Thé opération of integration of thc resolved part of a vector
quantity along a line is important in physical science generally,
and should he c]ear)y understood.
Lct .T, r he the coordinates of a
point 7' on a. line whosc
ten~th, mcasnred from a certain point is s. Thèse coordinates
will bc functions ofasingle variu.hie
Lut 7)' be the value of thé veetor
quant.ity at .7~ and ]ct t))o
tangent to thé curve at 7-' make with the direction of thc ang!e f,
then ~coM<=is thé
resoNed part of 7i' atun~ the line, and thé
intl'grnl
intégral
= cos e
°
is called thé linc-intcgral of' R
along thé Jine ~f.
We may write this expression

L~y~ + <7
''o0 r/.< + ~-7-)
14 PRELIMI~ARY. [i6.

whc're JY, ~arc thé components of Il paraUel to x, y, z respect-

ivcly.
This quantity is, in ~'encrai, different for difïcrent lincs drawn
bctwpen and P. ~Yiien, however, within a certain region, the
quantity
A'+ y~+~~ ==--z)~,
that is, is an exact difTerential within that region, thé value ofZ
becomes L = \p~
and is the pâme for a~y two forms of' thc path bctwceu and 7~,
providcd tin' one form can bc ehang'cd into thc othcr by con-
tinuous motion without passing out ot'this région.

ÛM7~<
Thc quantity is a scalar function of thé position of thc point,
and is tlicrefore independent of thé directions of référence. It la
called thé Potential Function, aud thé veetor quantity whose com-
ponents are is said to have a potential if

xY = (rl~),
F=
1, _(0-I¥), Z=
~=- ~='~)'dz)
~Vhen a potential function exists, sm'Ihces for which thé po-
tential is constant are called Equipotential surfaces. Thé direction
of 7~ nt any point of such a. surface coincides with tlie normal to
thé surface, and if ? bc a normal at thc point P, then Il = ·
ilt-
Thé metbod of considering the components of a vector as thé
first derivatives of a certain funetion of thé coordinates witli re-
spect to thcse coordinates was invented Ly Laplace in his treat-
ment of the theory of attractions. The name of Potentiat was first
given to this function by Orcen t, who made it the basis of his
trcatment of electricity. Green's essay was ncglected by mathe-
matic-ians ti!l 1846~ and before that time most of its important
theorcms had been rediscovered by Gauss, Chasies, Sturm, and
Thomson j:.
In thc theoiy of gravitation thé potential is taken with thé
opposite sign to that which is here used, and tlie résultant force
in any direction is tben measured by thé rate of ~MC;Meof thé

M<'c. liv.iii.
Ct'leHte,
t HtiMty on thoA~ptictttxni [<f~):tthetnatica) An~tyHHtot.he'n~eorieftofEtectricity
nnd Mnj~t~tisn), K~tti)~h:t:n, ~S2S. Keprinted in Crc~f' ~ur!K! and in Mr. Fcrrcr'a
édition of Grcun'H \Vt)rkn.
Thontson and Tait, A~/xr~ fMo:o/ § 483.
1~.] RELATION BKTWEEN FORCE AND POTENTIAL. 15

potential funetion in that direction. In electrical and magnetic

investigations thé potentiel is dcfined so that the résultant force
in any direction is mcasured by thé ~f/'ea~t? of the potential in
t)iat dit'fction. Ttlis method of' using- thé expression milles it
con'L'spond in sign wIUi potcntial cnergy, which at\va-ys dccrc'asfs
when tue bodies are moved in thé direction of thc forces acting
on them.
17.] Thé geometrieal nature of tlie relation bctween the poten-
tia) and the vector tlius derived from it receives gréât liglit from
Harnilton's discovery ofthc formof tlte operator by which thé vector
is dci'ived from the potcntial.
Thc resolvcd part of tlie vector in any direction is, as we have
scen, the first derivutive of t!te potential with respect to a co-
ordinatc dt'awn in tha.t direction, the sign being reversed.
Now if i, j, k are three unit vcctors at right angles to cach
other, and if Y, Z are tlie components of the vector resolved
parallel to these vectors, then
~=Lr+~ (i)
and by \viiat wc have sa,id :).bovc,if is tlie potential,
.<
/p dx + tlz
~=-+~7~)- jj,-
If wc now write V for tiic opcra.torj

i' ~r,–+/ (3)

"<~
~=-V~. (4)
T)ie symbol of operation V may be Interpreted as directing us
to measure, in each of three reetang-tdar directions, thé rate of
incrcase of and then, considering' the quantifies thus found as
yecLors, to compound them into one. TIlis is what wc are directed
-to do by thc expression (3). But tve mny also considcr it as directing'
us first to iitid out in what direction 4' inercHses fastcst, and then
to ky on' in tha.t direction a vector representing' thia rate of
incrcase.
M. Lumé, in lits 7! ~Me~'û?~ 7?~c~ uses the term
Dincrcntial Paramctcr to express thé magnitude of this greatest
rate of increase, hut neither thc term itself, nor thé mode in whieh
Lamé uses it, indieatcs thut thé quantity referred to bas direction
as well as magnitude. On tliose rare occasions in whieh I shaU have
to rcfcr to this relation as a purely g'coinetrical one, 1 shall call thé
vcetor the Slope of the scalar function using the word Slope
16 rRELIMINARY. [i8.

to indicate thc direction, as well as thc magnitude, of thé most

rapiddecreaseof~
thé conditions
18 There arc cases, !)owcver, in which
= 0, ~==0, 0 and ~~==0. 0

which arc those nfA'<c+r~+~~hcin~- a complete diuerential,

are fu!fiHed throughout a certain reg-ion of space, and yet the hnc-
intc"-ral from to l' may Le different for two lines, each of
which lies whoUy within that région. This may bc thé case if
the rc~-ion is in thc form of a rin~, and if thé two lines from
to l' pass throu~-h opposite segments of the ring. In this case,
thé onc path eannot be transformcd into the other hy continuous
motion without passing' out of thé région.
Wc arc hère ~d to considérations helonging to thé Geometry
of Pusition, a, subject which, though its importance was pointed
out hy Leibnitz and IHustrated by Gau:'s, bas hecn little studied.
T)tc most complete treatment of this subject has been given by
J.B. Listing*.
Let there be j?j points in space, and let !ines of any form bo
drawn joinin~- thèse points so that no two lines intersect cach
Wc shall eall n figure com-
othcr, and no point is left isolated.
Of' thèse lines, ~-1 are
posed of Unes in this way a DIagram.
sufHcient to join the p points so as to form a. connected system.
line a or closed or, as wc shall
Every new complètes loop path,
call it, a Cycle. The number of independent cycles in thc diagram
isther~fore K = ~+1.
com-
Any closed path drawn along thé lines of thé diagram is
taken any number of
poscd of thèse indcpendcnt cycles, each bcing
times and in either direction.
T)ie existence of cyc-h-s is caUed Cyclosis, and thc number of
tmmher.
cycles in a diagram is eaUed its Cyclomatic

/M ~~t'M
C/C/U-M'A- and 7~<yMM~.
Surfaces arc either complete or hounded. Complete surfaces are
eitbcr infinité or closcd. Bounded surfaces are limitcd by one or
more eloscd lines, which may in thé limiting cases become finite
lines or points.
A finite région of spacc is bounded by one or more closed
surfaces. Of tliese one is the external surface, the others are

7)cr CM.<M Cn~<u-< Gott. AMi., Bt).x. S.97 (1861).

7P<tMm:t'<r
 CYCUC REGIONS. 17
i9.]
includcd in it and excludc cach othcr, and are called internai
surfaces.
If the region bas one bounding surface, we may suppose that
surface to contract inwards without brea~ing its continuity or
cutting itself. If tbe region is onc of simple continuity, such as
a sphère, this process may be continued till it is reduced to a
point; but if tbe région is like a ring, the resuit will be a eloscd
curvc; and if tbe region bas multiple connexions, the result will
be a diagram of lines, and the cyclomatic number of the diagram
will be that of tbe region. The space outside thc region bas tbe
samc eycinmatic number as the région itself. Hcnce, if tbe region
is boundcd by internai as well as external surfaces~ its cyclomatic
number is tbe sum of those due to all tbe surfaces.
Wben a region encloses within itself othcr regions, it is ca)led a
Peripliractic région.
The number of Interna! bounding surfuces of a region is called
its periphractic number. A elosed surface is also periphractie, its
number being unity.
t
The cyclomatic number of a closed surface is twice that of tbc
i region whicb it bouuds. To find thc cyclomatic number of a
boundcd surface, suppose ail the boundaries to contract inwards,
without breaking continuity, till they meet. The surface will then
bc reduced to a point in thé case of an acyclic surface, or to a Hnear
diagram in thé case of cyclic surfaces. The cyclomatic number of
tbe diagram is tba.t of thé surface.

19.] TjtËOREMI. ~o?~/<~ ~Mya~e~'e ~<oM

~~e+r~+z~ =-
the ~~Ke 0/6 //M<?-7'ÛW ? ~0!'M/!A /0 ~~0/M~ P ~CM
~0?~ ~M~~a/~ M; ~C ?'Py~?~M~ ~Cthe ~MC.
We shall first shew that tlie Ime-intpgt'a! taken round any closed
path within thé region is zero.
Suppose the equipotential surfftccs drawn. They are all elther
closed surfaces or are bounded cntirdy by thé surface of thé région,
so that a elosed line within thé region, if it cuts any of the sur-
faces at one part of its path, must eut the same surface in the
opposite direction at some other part of its path, and the corre-
sponding portions of thé line-integral being equal and opposite,
the total value is zero.
Henec if AQP and ~T are two paths from A to P, the Hne-
integral for //(~-P is thé sum of lhat for ~<37-' and thé elosed path
YOI..IJ c
 18 l'REL~lIXAKY.
r~o,

y/Q'7~ But tlie line-intcgrat of thé closed path is xeru, there-

fore those of the two paths are cqna!.
Hence if the potential is given at
any one point of sneh a
region, that at any other point is detcrminate.

20.] TJŒU)~ II. 7~ M ~V/r ~6' //{<-~o;t

.Y~'+ J~+~j == –j~4/
M 6'6' //<t-~ //c /M~~w 7- ~/OKy
~7~ M' ~<' /<, 7< /M ~C/<~ lie ~<M/~<t;
~M /~6' r~/M/ ~<OWM/</th-M/~M~<t'6'f/ MM~ ~c .~<;6.
Lct bu tlic cyclutuatic number of ttic
region, thcn Ar suctiotis
of Htc rcg-ioa m:ty Le niadc by sm-faces which wc
may call Dil-
phragms, so as to c]osu up A' of Htc ciumne~ of communication,
and rc-ducc tlie r~ion to an condition without dcstroying
its continuity.
T)tc Ime-Intcgi-a! from to any point P taken ulong a line
which does not eut -my of these
diaplu-agms will bc, by the last
theorcm~ determinato in value,
Now let A and Le ta~en indetinitely near to cau!i othcr, but
un opposite sides of a diaphi-ag'm, and let h' be t.he
line-intt.-gra!
from to 7~.
Let and .7~ bc two other points on
opposite sides of tlie same
diaphragm and indcnuitely near to eaeh other, and let A'' be thé
hne-integra! fi-om to .1'. Tlien A''=
For if we draw J~ and 7~,
nearly coincident, but on opposite
sides of the diaphragm, the
hne-integrals along- these Hne~ will be
ct~nat. Suppose each M~ua! to A, then tlie line-integral of J!'7~ is
.~at io that of ~J + ~7~+ 7V~= -7. + A'+Z = A' = that of ~P.
Hence t)ie line-integral round :Lc]osed curve whieh
passes through
onc (haphragm of thé system in a given direction is a constant
quantity A~. This quantity is called thc Cyclic constant corre-
sponding to thé ~-Ivcn cycle.
Let any etoscd curvc lie drawn within thc
région, and let it eut
t)tc diapbrag-ni uf the first cycle y times in the
positive direction
and y/ times in thé negative direction, and let
~=~j. Then
thc line-integral of thé closcd curvc will be
MjA"j.
Similarly tbe line-integral of any closed curve will be
A',-r y~A' + + M~A'A-
where M~-rcnrescnts ~.he cxcess of the nunibcr of
positive passages
of thé curve throu~h thc diapht-agm of thé
cycle A: over the
number of negative passages.
2.1.] SUHFACE-INTEGRALa. 19

If' two curvcs are such that one of them may be transformée}
into the other by continuons motion without at any time passing
throug'h any part of space for which the condition of having a,
potcntial is not futnited, thèse two curvcs are called ReconcDeabIe
curvcs. Curves for which this transformation cannot be effected
are called Irreconcileable curvcs
Thé condition that ~c+J~+Zr/j is ft. complete diHercntiat
of some iunction for all points within a certain region, occurs in
several physical investigations in which the directed quantity and
tlie potential have dinbt'cnt physical interprétations.
In pure kinematics we may suppose -Y) to Le thé com-
ponents of thc displacement of a point of' a continuous body whose
original coordinates are a' then tlie condition expresses that
thèse displacements constitute a MOM-o~<< N~'a<Mt.
If X, J~, Z represent thé components of thé velocity of a fluid at
the point z, then thé condition expresses that thc motion of thc
nuid is irrotational.
If A~ J~ represent thé components of the force at thc point
.c, y, z, then thé condition expresses that the work donc on a
particle passing from one point to another is tlie différence of thé
potentials at these points, and thé value of this différence is thé
same for ail reeoncileabte paths between thé two points.

0/< <S'/<<c<

21.] Let r/~be thc clément of a surface, and e tlie an~Ie which
a normal to thé surface drawn towards thé positive side of thé
surface makes with the direction of thé vector quantity 7~ then

ces 6</<S'is called tlie ~K~cc-a~ <y'7~or~' ~e ,!K{/e 6'.

THEOM~f III. ?%e ~K~ee-ïM~a~ < the ~c ~o~ <?~

~M~ec M~ ~6 ë~/cMc~ a~ the ~o~~e-/M~w7 6/' z~ e~M~'c/yc~ce
~a~M w~ ~e ~~?/acc. (See Art. 25.)
Let J~, Y, be the components of and let be thé
direction-cosines of thé normal to measured outwards. Thcn the
suriace-integral of Ti!over <S'is

ces < ~7~ =/'& + /V~~ +

= (i)
/V~ +~r~ + ~V ~r/
SeeSirW. Thomson 'OnVortcx Afotiun.' Tr~. & Fdt'ft., 1869.
-t- SeeTbomaon and TMt'a A~a<ttm< /tt7<«~ § 190 (i).
c 2
 20 rHELHHNARY. [21.

thé values of j~ being those at a point in thé surface, and

thc Integ-rations bcing- cxtended over thc wholo surfitec.
If tlie surface is n c!oscd one, thcn, whcn and are given,
thé coordinate x must have an even number oFvatues, since a line
paraUd to x must enter and Icave the enclosed space an cqual
numhet' of times provided it meets thé snr~ce at al!.
Let a point travelling from ~=–=0 to .~==+00 first enter
thc spaee when a;== xl, then leave it when x = and so on;
aud let tlie values of~'at thèse points bc ~j, &c., then

~Y~~=~{(~) + (~-A~) +&c. + (~i)} (2)

If is a quantity which is continuous, and bas no mfinitc values
bctwL'en f~ and .r. then
r riX
/-<V,
rX~ ~=~, (~
\vhere thc Intégration is cxtended from the first to the second
intersection, tha.t is, a!ong- thé nrst seg-mcnt of .r which is \vithin
t))c ctosed surfa.ce. Taking- into account all the
segments which lie
within the elosed surface, we (uid

~~=~ (,)
thé double Integ-ration being connned to the e!osed
surface, but
tlie triple intégration heing extcnded to thé whole enclosed
space.
Hence, if are continuous and finite within a dosed surface
'S', thé total surface-intégral of ovcr that surface will be
f rll'
dX dl'
PLcos E(18 rlI' r_IZ (le (lyelz,
ff
~=.~(~)~ ff Tt ) (S)
thc triple intégration being extended over tlie whole
spacc within S.
Let us next suppose that J", Z are not continuous within the
closed suHacc, but that at a certain surface
F(~ y, z) = 0 thé
values of Y, Z alter abrupt.ty from A-, Y, Z on thé negative side
of thc surface to on thé positive side.
If this discoQtinuity oecurs, say, and .ï' the value
between
of~wiHbe
dY
(X' X), (~
(6)
x~
where in thé expression under thé
intégra! sign only thc finite
values of thé derivative of ~'are to be considered.
In this case therefore thé total
surface-integ-ral of R over the
closed surface will be expressed hy
22.] ] SOLENOIDAL DISTRIBUTION. 21

~=~(~+~(r-z)~~
+ (7)
+ //(~- F) /)
or, if w~ M'are the direction-cosines of the normal to thé surface
of discontinuité and r~S'~an element of that surface

~=/F~

+~{~r-~+~(r- j') -)-H.)}~ (s)

where thc intégration of thé last tcrm is to bc extendcd over thé
surface of discontinuity.
If at every point where Z are eontinuous
~v
(IX + ~r
dY + (1 Z =
= 0, (0)
+ +
and at every surface where they are discontinuons
~r + j" + M~ = ~-+ r+ M'z, (10)
thcn thé surface-integral over every closed surface is zero, and thé
distribution of thc vector quantity is said to bc Solenoidal.
We shall l'ef'cr to equation (9) as the General solcnoidal con-
dition, and to equation (10) as thc Superficial solenoidal condition.
23.~] Let us now consider tlie case in which at every point
within thé surface the equation
r~r dZ
-+-,+
r/.ï' 7 =00 ((!1)
1)
is fuInHed. 'Ve have as a consequence of this thé surface-integral
ovcr thé elosed surface cqual to zero.
Now let the c!osed surface 'S' consist of three parts 81, ~o, and
6~. Let be a surface of any form bounded by a closed line Ll.
Let be formed by drawing lines from every point of -Z~always
coincidinn with thc direction of 7f'. If l, w, M are thé direction-
cosincs of the normal at any point of thé surface we have
~cos€=A"~+yw+~M=0. (12)
Hence this part of thé surface contributes nothing' towards thé
value of thé surface-intégral.
Let he another sur~ce of any form bounded by thé closed
eurve T~ in which it meets thé surface
Let Qj, Qo, be thé surface-integrals of the surfaces ~~o~ ~9
and let Q be thé sur~ee-integral of the closcd surface Then
~=~+~+~=0, (13)
 22 PREMMINARY. [~.

and we know that =0 (14)

thcrcfore ~;=– (15)
or, in othcr \vords, thc surutec-integral over thé surface is cquat
and opposite to t)t:tt over .S', whatcver be the form and position
or provided that thc Intcrmcdiatc surface ~o is one for \vhich Il
is always tangcntiaL
If wc suppose a elosed curve of small area, will bc a
tnlmlar surfucc having' ihe prnperty that tlie sm'facc-integ'ral over
every complete section of' thé tube is thc same.
Since tlie whole spaco eau be dividcd into tubes of this kind
provided ~}'- dZ
+ + =0, (16)
~6)
~+~+~J='-
a distribution of a vector qnantity consistent with this equation is
called a So!enoida! Distribution.

OM:ZMc.SMM~ .MC.? O/'F~?~.

If thc space is so divided into tubes that thé
surface-intégral
for evcry tube is unity, the tubes are eaUed Unit tubes, and the
surface-intégral over any finite surface 8 bounded by a elosed
curve L is cqua! to thc MKw.~< of sucb tubes which pass
through
'S' in thc positive direction, or, what is the same thing, the number
which pass through thé closed curve L.
'Mence tbc surface-intégral of dépends only on thc form of
its bonndary L, and not on thé form of thé surface within its
boundary.
On ~'<?ri~ar/f j?6~M;M.
If, throughout the whole région bounded externally by the single
elosed surface thé solenoidal condition

~Y 0
--+-+-=0
~°
is fu!<i!lcd, then the surface-integral taken over any elosed surface
drawn within this région will be zero, and the surfaec-integrat
takcn over a bounded surface within thc région will dépend only
on the fnrm ofthe elosed curve which forms its boundarv.
It is not, howevcr, gencraUy true that the same results fol!o\v
if thc rcgion witbin which the solenoidal condition is fn!ntled is
bounded otttcrwise than by a single surface.
For if it is bounded by more than one continuous surface, one of
thèse is thc external surface and the others are interna! surfaces,
 PERIPHRACTIC REGIONS. 23
22.]

and thé region S is a periphractie region, having within it other

relions which it completely encloses.
If within any of thèse enclosed relions, the solenoidal con-
dition is not fu)n!icd, ]et
=//7?cos6r/~
hc' thc surface-intégral for thé surface t'nctosing this région, and
let <), &c. bc thé corresponding quantities for thc other en-
closed régions.
Thcn, if :t, closed surface is drawri wit)n~ the région the
value of its surface-integra.! will be ~.cro only vh.p~~ this surface
does not incitide any of the cncloscd régions &c. If it
includes any of thèse, thc sm'facc-In<ogral ia thc smn ofthc surface-
intcgra.~s ofthc different cncloscd regions which lie within it.
For thé same rcason, thc surfacc-intcgr!~ iaken. CYpra surface
houndcd by :),closed curvc is thc same for such surfaces ouly bounded
by thé closed curve as are rcconci!eab1c with thc given surface by
continuons motion ofthe surface within thé region &
Whcn \vc have to dca! with n. periphractic région, thé first thing
to he donc is to redncc it to an apcriphrnctic rcg'Ion hy drawing
lines joining thc different bounding snrfacps. Eaeh of these lines,
provided it joins surfaces which were not ah'cndy in continnons
connexion~ rednces thé periphraetic numher by unity, so that thé
whole number of Unes to be drawn to removc th.c periphraxy is
cqual to thc periphractie number, or thé numbcr nf internat sur-
faces. When these lines have becn drawn ~e may assert that if
thé solcnoidal condition is funiHed in thé rcgion 'S, any closcd surface
drawn entirely within 8, and not cntting any of thc lines, bas its
snrfacc-intcgrat zero.
In drawing thèse lines wc must remGmbcr that :t,ny nnc joining
snrfaces which are ah'cady connectcd does not diminisli thc peri-
phraxy~ but introduces cyclosis.
Thé most familial' example of a periphractie region within which
thc sofenoidal condition is fulfilled is thc région surronnding <imass
attracting or rep(.ting inversely as thé squnrc of thé distance.
lu this case we have
fr t" V /y = m
A = w. < J = w <
y=*1
wherc m is the mass supposée! to be at the origin of coordittates
At any point where r is Unité
r/r r~
~+~
 24 PRELIMINARY. j~.
but at the origin these quantities become infinité. For
any closed
surface not inclndin~ thé origin, the is zero. If
surface-intégral
a closed surfine includes thé origin, its is 47rM.
surface-integral
If, for any reason, we wish to trcat thé région round w as if it
were not pcriphractic, we must draw a linc from to an Infinité
distance, and in taking surface-integ-rals wo must remcmber to add
47iM whcnever this line crosses from. the
négative to the positive
side of thc surface.

6~ 7)'~<a;6V/ r~ Ze/«M~/ 7~OM~ z'Kj%M~.

23.] In this treatise t!ie motions of translation along any axis
and of rotation about that axis, wIH be assumed to be of thé same
sig-n whcn Dicir directions correspond to those of thé translation
and rotation of an ordinary or right-handcd screw*.
ror instance, if thc actual rotation of thé earth from west to east
is taken positive, thc direction of the earth's axis from south to
north will bc taken positive, and if a. man wa.tks forward in the
positive direction, thé positive rotation is m thé order, head, right-
hand,feet, left-hand.
If we place ourselves on thé positive side of a surface, thc
positive
direction along its bounding curve will bc opposite to the motion
of the hands of a watch with its face towards us.
This is thé rig-ht-handed system whieh is adopted in Thomson
and Tiut's JV~M/ ~/7MO/~y, § 243. Thé opposite, or left-handed
system, is adopted in Hamilton's and Tait's QM~'M~. The
opération of passing from thé onc system to thé other is called, by
Listing, .Z-'c/'rc/M'o~.
Thé reftexion of an object in a mirror is a perverted
image of thc
object.
WIicn
wc use thé Cartcsian axes of x, z, we shall draw them

Thé cnntbine.) Mt.iuu of the muMieK of thé arm whe~i wo turn tho Kidt.- of
thé n~ht-hanf) ~ttwimt.s, and at thé Mme time thrust the han<! opner
fnrwttr<!s, wiU
imptess tho r~itt-h~ided ncrew motion on the m~ra firmJy than any vcrbf).]
d<ih!nt]..)t. A commun corkfferuw may be used mutnnry tM n nxttBriat symbot of thé t~me
r<t)un.
Pr<r \V. H. MitL-r Lns sug~~ed to mo th:tt aH thé t~tri~ of the vine are
r:nht-!)~.)dcd scruw.s.-m<)th.Mc of t)ie h..p ieft-hande~). the two .syMt~tttHofrulations in
fip~cc nu~))t he called those of thti vine Mu) the hop re~pectivciy.
T)~ Hyston ofthc vine, whieh wc adopt, is th~t of LinmL-uH. and of Hcrew-tUftkeM
in aH civilized cou~triu.) exccpt J.tpatt. De CMtdo!te w!m the first w]to called thé
hop-t.endnt nKht-h.mdHd. M,d in thie hu ts foltowed hy LittinK. an<[ by most M-riterq
on the rot~orypotarizatton of ]i~,t..Sercws like thé hop-tendrit are made for tho
coupUnga of raHv.carri:~es. M)d for the nttinss of wheeb). H.e left si<)e of
ordinary
camagoB, but they arc aiways called )eft.handed screws by those who use them.
2~.] LINE-INTEGUALAND SURFACE-INTEGRAL. 25

so that thc ordinary convcations about the cyclic order of the

symbols lead to a rig'ht-handcd system of directions in space. Thus,
if x is drawn castw:u'd and northward, z must be drawn upward.
Thc ureas of surfaces will bc taken positive whcn the order of
intégration coincides with tl)e cyclic order of thé symbols. T)ms,
thc area. of a closed curve in thc phinc of .ry may be written either

~< or
thé order of intégration bcing x, y in thé first expression, and~,A-
in thc second.
This relation hetwccn thc two products and may
bc comparcd with that between t!)e products of two perpendicular
vectors in the doctrine of Quaternions, t)ic sign of winch dépends
on the order of multiplication, and with thé reversai of the sign
of a deteriniriant when the adjoiiiing ro\vs or columne are ex-
changed.
For similar reasons a volume-intégral is to be taken positive when
thé order of intégration is in the cyclic order of the variables a; z,
and négative wlicn thc cyclic order is reverscd.
Wc now proceed to prove a theorem which is useful as Cfta-
bhshing a connexion between the surface-Intégral taken over a
finite surface and a line-integral taken round its houndary.

/<
24.] T~~EO'~).E~f IV. ~KC-< ~OMM~ a C~iS~M~
M~ ~6 e.C~e~ Ï~ ~M a
surface ~oKK~e~ ~6 c?~-<'e. ~K~XM~<~t\~
-Lt' ?
Let X, Y, Z be thé components of a vecto~~uantity who~e Hnc-
integral is to bc taken round a closed curve s.
Let S he any continuous finite surface bounded entirely by the
closed curve and let be thé components of another vector
quantity related to X, Y, Z by the equations
~F
~=~ ~=~
Thcn the surface-Intégral of S&taken over tlie surface S is equal to
tlie linG-Integjal of taken round thé eurve s. It is manifest that
f fulnl of themselves thé solenoidal condition
.o O.
f/y
Let l, M, M bo the direction-cosines of thc normal to an clement
 26 PREL)M!NARY. [2~.

of thé surface reckoned in thé positive direction. Then thé

value of thé surfa.ce-integ-ra.1of S may be written

~(~+M~MO~. (2)
In order to form a definite idca of thé meaning- of thé element
wo sbaiï suppose that the values of thc coordinates .?', for
evcry point of thc surface are given as fonctions of two inde-
pendent variables a and If /3 is constant and a varies, the point
(~ z) will describe a curve on the sur~ee, and if a series of values
is given to /3, a series of such curvcs will be traced, aH lying on
the surfitce 8. In thc same way, by giving a. series of constant
values to a, a second series of cnrves may be traced, cutting thé
first series, and dividin~ thé wholo surface into elementary portions,
any one of which may be taken as thc element
Thé projection of this element on thé plane of z is, hy the
ordinary formula,
l.t 7~
rl S rl rh rl~
'~=(~)~~ rl: dfl (la. ( )
Thé expressions for w~6' and are obtained from this by sub-
stituting'.?', In cyclic ordcr.
Thé surface-intégral winch we have to find is

/(~+M~+-~)~, (4)
or, Bubstituting- the values of (' in terms of A', J", Z,
~A~ dX
riX rAY .</r dZZ
M t+ M -}- M (tZ) r~.
ff (tM
V~ 7/.v (l~- (5)
Thc part of this which dépends on X may be written
/n~ ~A' ~~y\
< ~)- (~ ~)} ~)6

adding and subtractinc- </a ~3

this becomes

f/ t 4.
i~ '<< daa ~a
~A'~ ~Y~ f/.Y~~
tla (li- (70 7ï~ 71 ¡3da' ()7
(7)
-+~~+7/ (ly (1[3
;Y~Y~ ~Y~~ de ela.
(7-~y
(lx
=~)~ (/v ) (8)
As we have made no assumption as to the form of the functions
a and /3, we may assume that a is a function of A', or, in other
words, that thé curvcs for which a is constant are those for whieh
 HAMILTON'S OPERATOR V. 27
2.]

is constant. In this case = 0, and thé expression becomes

by intégration with respect to a,

f%cl `1 rlx (la = dx d,3 (9)
F~
whGïCthé intp~ration is nnw to be perfonned round thé closed
cnrve. Since all the quantities are -now expressed m terms of one
variole /3, we may mal:e thé Icngth of thé bounding cnrve, the
then be written
independent variable, and the expression mny
(!0)
(10)
~Y~, f/.y
where thé intégration is to be performed round thé eurve We
may treat in the same way thé parts of thé surface-intégral which
depend upon Yand so that wc get finally,

+I rl$ +~ ls~rls (")

(11)
JJ (l~-f-rty-f-~t~')rlb'=~~ X rls +~+~)~
~+,+.0~=/(-ï~
where thé first intégral is extcnded over thé surface and thé
second round the bounding curve .9~.

OMa !:ee~)'/?<o~.
<?? ~c< of the ~c)'~i'o~'V
is that by
25.'] We have seen that the opération denoted by V
which a vector quantity is deduced from its potential. Thé same
vector funetion, produces
opération, however, whcn applied to a
results which enter into the two theorems wo have just proved
vector displacements,
(III and IV). Thé extension of this operator to
and most of its further development, is due to Professer Tait t.
Let o- he a vector function of p, the vector of a variable point.
Let us suppose, as usual~ that
p = ~+~+/
and o-==~+yy+~
where J~ are the componenta of 0- in the directions of the
axes.
We have to perform on <rthé operation
\7 == -T- +? +
r/y
this and the rules for thé
Pcrforming operation, remembering

Thix theorem was given t'y Profesaor Stokes. ~m)'</t'i) 7't'MCF.nmu)f!<!0tt, 18S4.
nue'<ti"n 8. It it proved in Thomsun ttnd T:nt's ~~ttt-ft~ ~/t!0)'o~/ty. § 100 (j).
-)-'See l'roc. 7~. April 2S, J 8C2. On Green'H and other allied Theorems.
?'Mw.< -S. 7~'H., m69-70. very v~iunUo pttpcr; and On soma Quatenuon
7't'oc. R. S. ~Htn., 1870-71.
Intègres.'
 28 l'RHLIMINAHY. [25.

mujtiphcution of i, j, k, we find that Vnr consista of two parts,

one scalar and the other vector.
Thé scalar part is
n- /~Y ~J'
~Vo-=– (-~~p + -), sec Theorcm III,
and thé vector part is
~K .~A' ,~r
~Fv Cr= i (~~ + k((?X iJ!),
~~=~7~+~+j ( IT )
If tl)c relation between and is that given by
equation (1) of thé last theorcm, we may write
Vo- =<~-}- 7; +<{- Sec Thcorem IV.
It appears therefore that tlie functions of J~ which occur
in thé two theorems are hoth ohtaiued by thc opération ~7 on thé
vector whose components are X, Y, Z The theorems themselves
may be written

~~V o- ~y = /Y6'. <r (III)

and (IV)
/p =/Y~.V(r~
where <7?is an element of a volume, ds of a surface, f/ of a carve,
and Uv a unit-vector in thc direction of thé normal.
To understand the meaning of thèse functions of a vector, let us
suppose that o-o is thé value of o- at a point P, and let us examine
thé value of o-–o- in thé neighbourhood of P.
If we draw a closed surface round P~ then, if thé
surface-intégral of <rover this surface is directed
inwards, 'S'~7o-will he positive and the vector
o'o near thé point P will be on thé whole
t directed towards as in the figure (1).
I propose thercfbrc to call thé scalar part of
Fi~.l. ~o' the coM~ycMeeof o- at thé point JP.
To interpret thc vector part of Vo-, let us
suppose ourselves to be looidng in the direction of the vector
whose eomponcnts are ~j and let us examine
'"thé vector cr–o~ near thé point F. It will appcar
1 as in thc figure (2), this vector Lcing arranged on
V' thc whole tangentially in thé direction opposite to
the hands of a watch.
~'e'
I propose (with great diffidence) to call the vector
part of 7<r thé c/~7, or thé t'~OM of<7-a.t the point P.
26.] CONCENTRATION. 29

At Fig. 3 we have an illustration of euri combined with con-

vergence.
Let us now consider the meaning of thé equation
~Vcr= o.
This implics that Vo- Is a, scalar, or that thé vector
o- is thé slope of somc scalar funetion Thèse
applications of the operator V are due to Professer yj g
Tait*. A more complete development of the theory
is given in his paper Oa Green's and other allied Thcorems t/
to which I refcr the reader for the purely Quaternion investigation
ot' the properties of thé operator V.
86.] One of the most remarkable properties of thé operator v is
that when repeated it becomes
~i!a –_(_._L 1
-)- ––<)
~+~
an operator occurring in aU parts of Physics, which we may refer to
as La.place's Operator.
Tliis operator is itself essentially sealar. WIien it aets on a.
scalar function the result is scalar, when it acts on a vectorfunctiou
thé resuit is a vector.
If, with any point jP as centre, we draw a small sphère whose
radius is r, then if yo is thé value of q at the centre, and thé
mean value of q for all points within thé sphère,
=

so that thé value at thé centre cxceeds or falls short of thé mean
value according as V~ is positive or negative.
I propose therefore to call V'~ thé coKc~M~OM of q at thé
point P, because it indicates thé excess of thé value of q at that
point over its mean value in thé neig-hbourhood of thé point.
If q is a scalar function, the method of finding its mean value is
well known. If it is a veetor function, we must find its mean
value by thé rules for integrating vector functions. Thé result
of course is a veetor.

1802. t 7'<n)<. R. & Ff~tt., 1809-70.

Py-ocMf~t~ J?.
 PAR T I.
LLECTROSTATICS,

CHAPTER I.

DESCRIPTtOXOF PHENOMENA.

.F/f~/y~'C~~M ~C<OM.
27.] ExpENMENT1 Let a piece of glass and a piece of resin,
neither of whieh exhibits any electrical properties, be rubbed to-
gether and left with thé i-ubbed surfaces in contact. They will
still exhibit no electrical properties. Let them be separated.
They
will now attract eaeh other.
If a second piece of glass be rubbed with a second piece of
resin, and if thé pieces bc then separated and suspended in the
neighbourhood of thé former pieces of glass and resin, it may be
observed-
(1) That thé two pieces ofglass repel each other.
(2) That each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.
(3) That thé two pièces of resin repel each other.
Thèse phenomcna of attraction and repulsion are called Elec-
trical phenomena, and thé bodies which exhibit them are said to
be electrified, or to he c~;y6~ electricity.
Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by
friction.
Thé electrical properties of thé two pieces of glass are similar
to each other but opposite to those of thé two pieces of resin,
thé glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin
attracts.
Sue Sir W. Thornson On thé Mathematica! Theory of Electricity,' C«Ht&t-t'<~e
<tM(!.DuHtn .Vft</tem<!<t'<'«!yf)NrMft<.
Marct), 1818.
28.] RLHCTRIFICATION. 31

If a body electrified iti any manner whatever behaves as thé

glass docs, that is, if it rcpcis thé glass and attracts thé resin, thé
body is said to be ~~OM~ electrified, and if it attracts the glass
and repels tlie resin it is ~:dd to be )'<OM/y electrified. Ail
electrified bodies are found to be either vitreously or resinously
electrified.
It is thé established practice of mcn oi'science to call thé vitreous
electrification positive, and thc rcsinous electrification négative.
Thc exactly opposite propertics of thé two kinds of elcctrification
justify us in indicating thcm by opposite signs, but thc applica-
tion of thc positive sign to one rather than to thé other kind must
bc considered as a matter of arbitrary convention, just as it is a
matter of convention in mathematical diagrams to reekon positive
distances towards the right hand.
No force, either of attraction or of répulsion, can he observed
between an electrified body and a body not electrified. When, in
any case, bodies not previousiy -electrified are observed to be actcd
un by an eleetrified body, it is because they have become f~ec~
~~f/~M.

y~j'/f'ca/~M /;<<<M.

S8.J ExpEtUMENT II*. Let a holtow vessel uf metal bc hung

up by white silk threads, and let a similar thread
be attaclied to the lid of the vessel so that thc vessel
may be opencd or closed without tonching it.
Let thé pieces of glass and resin be similarly sus-
pendcd and electrified as before.
Let thé vessel bo originally uneicctrified~ then if
an electrified piece of glass is hung up within it by
its thread without touching tbe vessel and tbu lid
closed, thé outside of tbe vessel will be found to
be vitreously electrified, and it may be shown that
thé electrification outside of thé vessel is exaetly the
same in whatever part ofthe interior spaee the glass
is suspended.
If thé glass is now taken out of thé vessel without touching it,
thé electrification of the
glass will be thé same as before it was
put in, and that of thé vessel will have disappeared.
This electrification of tlie vessel, which dépends on the glaas

T)iM, and aevertd experiments which follow, are due to l''M-:tday, On Static
Electrical Inductive Actiot).' P/«' Jt/a~ 1843, or F~p. 7! ~o]. ii. p. 279.
 32 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMHNA. [29.

being within it, and which vanishes when ttjc glass is removed, is
called Electrification by induction.
Similar effects would be prodnccd if the g]nss were suspended
near tlie vessel on thé outside, I)ut in that case we should find
an elcetrification vitreous in one part of the outside of thé vessel
and resinous in another. 'When thc glass is inside thé YCHsd
thé whole of thé outside is vitreously and the wholc of thé inside
resinously electrified.

~6'C~OK ~y C~M~C/~M.
29.] ExPERiMKN'rIII. Let thé métal vessel he electrified Ly
induction, as in thé ]ast cxperiment, let a second metallic body
be suspended by white silk threads near it, and let a metal wire,
similarly suspended, be Lroug-ht so as to touch simultancousiy thc
electrified vessel and tlie second hody.
Thé second hody will now bc found to bc vitrcousiy electrified,
and thc vitreous electrification ofthf vessel will have diminished.
The clectrical condition has hcen tnmsferred from thé vessel to
the second body by means of thc \vire. Thc wire is called a M~-
<<6' of electricity, and tlie second body is said to be ~c/
COM~C~'O?:.
CoMf/M<?~~
~M~ 7MM~O~.
ExpERiMENTIV. If a glass rod, a stick of resin or gutta-percha,
or a white silk thread, had been used instead of the metal wire, no
transfer of clectricity would have taken place. Hence these latter
substances are cal!ed Non-conductors of electricity. Non-conduc-
tors are used in electrical expérimenta to support electrified bodies
wit1)ou-t carrying off their electricity. They are then called In-
sulators.
Thc metals are good conductors air, glass, resins, gutta-perel)a~
viileaiiite, paraffin, &c. arc good insulators but, as we shall see
aftenv!<.rds, all substances resist the passage of electricity, and all
substances allow it to pass, though in execedingly dif!erent degrees.
Titis subject will be considered when we come to treat of thé
Motion, of electricity. For thé présent we shall consider only two
classes of bodies, good conductors, and good insulators.
In Experiment II an electrified body produced electrification in
thé metal vessel whilc separated from it by air, a non-eonducting
medium. Sueh a medium, considered as transmitting these electrical
pneets without conduction, has been called by Faraday a Dieleetric
 8UMMATION 0F ELECTRIC EFFECTS. 33
~1.]
is called
médium, and the action which takes place through it
Induction.
lu Expcriment III thé electrified vessel produced electrification
in the second metallic body throug-h t)tc médium of thé wire. Let
us suppose thé wire removed, and the cleetnficd pièce of glass taken
out of thé vesse) witliout touching- it, and removcd to a sufHt-ient
distance. Thc second body will still exhibit vitreous cIcctriiiL-a-
have résinons
tion, but thc vessel, whcn thc glass is removed, will
clectrification. If wc now brit)~ thé wire into contact with Loth
all clectri-
bodies, conduction will take place along thé wire, and
the cicc-
fleatiou will disappear from hoth bodies, shewing that
trification ofthc two bodics \vaH equfil aud opposite.
II it was shewn that if
30.] Exi'ERDiENT V. In Experimcnt
a pièce of glass, clectrined by rubbirg it with resin, is hung up in
outside does
an insulated metal vessct, thc electrification observed
not depend on ttte position of thc glass. If we now introduce thé
rubbcd into thé same vessel,
pièce oi' resin with which thé glass was
there is
without toudiing it or thé vessel, it will he found that
no electrification outside thc vessel. rrom this we conctude t))at
to that
thé eleeti-iiication of thc resin is exactly equal and opposite
of hodies, electrified in
of thé glass. By putting- in any number
dcctrincation of thc outside of
any way, it may be sliewn that thé
tlie e!cctr:uca-
the vessel is that due to thé algebraic sum of aU
are resinous. We have
tions, those bcing reekoned négative which
thus a practicat method of adding tt.e eleetn~ effccts of several
bodies without altering the electrification of each.
insulated metallic vessel, 7~,
31.1 ExpEtUMENT VI. Let a second
he provided, and let thé clectrified piece of glass be put into tbe
second vessel
first vessel A, and thé electrified picce of resin into the
thé metal
Let the two vessels bc thcn put in communication by
Ail signs of clectnucation will dis-
wire, as in Experiment III.
appear.
thc ptcces of glass a.nd of
Next, let thé wire be removcd, and let
It will
rcsin be taken out of thé vessels without touching them.
be fbund that is electrified resinously and J~ vitreousiy.
into a
If now thé glass and thé vessel A be introduced togethcr
that there is no elec-
larger insulatcd vessel C, it will be fuund of A is
trification outside C. This shews that the electrification
of thé pièce of glass, and that
exactly equal and opposite to that to that
of 7? may be shcwn in the sMne way te he equal and opposite
of thé piece of resin.
VOÏ-. 1)
 34 ELECTUOSTATIC rHHXOMEX.A. [3~.
Wu have thus obtained a mcthod of charging a vcssel with a
qnantityofc!eetricityux:K'Hycqua!and opposite to that ffan
etcctrIficdbodywithoutidto'ingH~ccIccti'Incation ofthe ):it.tcr,
and wc may in this way chafge any number of vcssels with exac'Hy
t'qua1quantitiesofc)ectricityofcith(;rkind,whichwcmayt:tke
forprovisionalunits.
33.'] Exi'EKiAtENT VII. Let the ycsse) 2~, chargcd with a. quan-
tity of positive c')cctricity, which \vc shall call, ior the presc'nti,
unity, he introduo.'d into the larger insniated vessel C without
ionchmg' it. It will prodncu a positive elcctrification on thé ont-
sidc of 6'. Now let 7~ 1e made to touch thc inside ci' C. No change
cf'titc cxtcrnfd cIccti'IHcut.ion will hc observed. If'j9 is now t:d<cti
out of C withont tonchii)~- it, a.))d removcd to a stiflieieiit distance,
it will he iou)td that j~ is co)np)ctc)y discharged, and that C t)as
bccotne chargcd with a. utiit of positive c)cctricity.
Wc hâve thus a mcthod oftransfL'rri])~ thc charge of7~ to 6'
Lct be now rechat'g'ed with a unit of ciccti'icity, introduced
into C a.h'cady charged, made to touch thc inside of C, and l'c-
moved. It. will hn fuuud that 7~ is a~ain comptutety discharged,
so that thé charge of C is doubled.
If this process is rcpcatcd~ it \vin he found that howcvcr hig'h)y
C is previousiy chargcd, and in whatever way 7~ is chargcd, whcn
is first entirely cnc!os<Mtin C, then madn to touch C, and finaDy
removed without touching C, the charge of' is comp!etc)y tt'ans-
fcrred to C, and j9 is entirc]y free from cteetrification.
This expcrimcnt indicates a mcthod of cl)arg'ing a body with
any ntunhcr of units of clectricity. \Vc shall n!id, whcn we corne
to the mathematical theory of electricity, that thé result of titis
expo'iment at!ords an accuratc test nfthc truth ofthe theory.
33.~ Before wc proccfd to thf investigation of thé law of
elcetrical force, let us cnumerate thé tacts \ve )tave already esta-
b!ishcd.
By placing any clectrified system insidc an insulated houow con-
ductin~ vessel, and examitung the resultant effcct on the outside
of' the vessel, we ascertah) the characier of thc total e)ectrifieatiou
of the system placed insidc, withont any communication of elee-
tricity hetween t!te different bodies of thé system.
Thé electrification of thc outside of thé vessel may be tested
with gréât dehcacy hy putting it in communication with an eIec-
troscope.
Wc may suppose the electroscope to co~~sist nf a strip of g'o]d
 34"] EIjECTRtCYTY AS A QUANTITY. 35

!eaf hanging bct\veen two bodies chargcd, onc positively, and thé
other negatively. If thé g'o]d leaf becomes electrified it will ineHnc
to\\arjs tlie body \vhose eiectriHcation is opposite to its o\n. Hy
incrcasiog thc electrification of thc two hodies :md thc delicacy of
thcHuspension, an ext-cedio~ysmaH cIcctrHicutiou oi'the gold leaf
may ue detcctcd.
Witcn \c cornu to descrihe eleetromctcrs aud multipliers ~'e
shall fmd ihut therc are still more délicate methods of dutocting
ciccti'tfication and of' testing thé accuracy of our theorcms, but at
présent we shiLt!suppose tlie tcsting' to bc [nadc Ly connccting' the
boHow vessel with a gold Ica,fe]cctroscope.
This method was uscd by Faraday in his very adnumDc dc-
mot]stmtion of thc !:n\'s of clectrical phcuomcna.
34-] I. Thé total electrification of a body, or system of bodics~
rcma.tns always thé same, except in so far as it receives clectrifi-
catin!) from or ~'Ivcs electrification to othnr bodies.
I)i ai! eicctrica! experiments tbe electriileution of bodics is foLUK).
to dian~e, but it is always found that Dus change is due to want
of' pL'rfcct insulatiol, and that as tbe means of insulation are im-
provud., tbe loss of electrification becomes less. 'We may thercfore
assert tbat thé electrification of a body placed in a pcrfectly in-
sulating medium would remain pcrfcct)y constant.
II. AVhen onc hody dcctrifics anotbor by conduction~ thc total
ch'etr)f]catio)i of thé two bodies remains the samCj ti)at is, thc onc
loses us much positive or gains as much négative electrification as
thc other gains of positive or loses ofncg'ative elcctrification.
For if thé two bodies arc enclosed in thé hoDow vessel, no change
of thé total c!cctrif!eation is observed.
III. When electrification is produccd by frieHon, or by
any
other known méthode equal quantifies of positive and nc"'ative eicc-
trification are produced.
For the electrification of thé who]c system
~l.in .1'1 may be tested in
thc liollow vessel, or thé process of electrification
may be carried
on within thé vessel itself, and lowever intense t)m dL-ctri~catiou of
tlie parts of thé system may Le, thé e!cetrific:)tion of the w!)olc,
as indicatcd by the gold Icaf electroscope, is invariably zéro.
T]tc electnhcation of a. body is therefore a pllysiea! quantity
c:)pa)~c of' mpasuremcnt, and two or more electnftcations can be
combincd experimentally with a result of' the same kind as wlien

'Ott St~ticEIectricat In'htctive Action.' 7~;7.J/(~ 18.t3, or ~ru. ~M..votii

p. 2~9.
D2
36 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA. [~

two quantities are added atgcbraically. Wc e thereforeare entitled

to use Janguage ntted to dca! witb clectrification as n quantity as
well as a quaHty, and to speak of any electrified body as ctuu'g'ed
with a certain quantity of positive or negative electricity.'
35.] While admitfing electricity, as we have now done, to thé
rank of a physical quantity, we must not too hastily assume that
it is, or is not, a substance, or that it is, or is not, a form of
energy, or that it helongs to any !<nown eategory of physical
quantifies. AU that \vc have hithert.o proved is that it cannot
be creatcd or annihilated, so that if the total quautity of elec-
tricity within a c!osed surface is increased or diminished, thc in-
crease or diminution must have passecl in or out through thé closed
surface.
Tliis is true of matter, and is expressed by thé equation known as
thé Equation of Continuity in Hydrodynamics.
It is not truc of heat, for !)cat may he increased or diminished
within a closed surface~ without passing in or out t!irough thé
surface, hy thé transformation of somc other form of encrgy into
heat, or of heat into some other form of energy.
It is not truc even of energy in general if we admit thé immé-
diate action of bodies at a distance. For a body outside the closed
surface may makc an excliange of energy with a body within
thé surface. But if ail apparent action at a distance is thc
result of thé action between the parts of an intcrvening medium,
and if thé nature of this action of the parts of thé médium is
clearly understood, then it is conceivable that in all cases of the
increase or diminution of thé energy within a elosed suriace we
may bo ab)e to trace t!)e passage of the energy in or out through
that surface.
Therc is, however, anotlier reason winch warrants ns in asserting
that electricity, as a physical quantity, synonymous with thé total
electrification of' a body, is not, like iicat, a form of energy. An
clectrified system bas a certain amount of energy, and tins energy
can be ca]cu!ated by multiplying thc quantity of electricity in
each of its parts by another physical quantity, called thé Potential
of that part, and taking hait thc sum ofthe products. Thé quan-
tities Eleetricity and Potential,' when multipliecl together~
produce thé quantity 'Energy.' It is impossible, therefore, that
electricity and energy should he quantities of thé same category, for
electricity is only one of thé factors of energy, the other factor
being Potential.'
~6.] THEORIES 0F ELECTRICITY. 37

Energy~ which is the product of thèse factors, may also be con-

sidered us the produet of several other pairs of factors, such as
A Force x A distance throngh which thc force is to act.
A Mass x Gravitation acting through a certain l'eight.
A Mass x Hatf thc square of its velocity.
A Pressure x A volume of' fluid introduced into a vessel at
that pressure.
A Chemical Affinity x A chemical change, measured by thé numher
of eicctro-chcmieal équivalents which enter
into comhmation.
If we ohta.in distinct mechanical ideas of thé nature of electric
potential, we may combine thèse with thc idea of energy to
détermine t.he physical eategory in which 'Electricity' is to be
placed.
36.] In most theories on thé suhject, Electricity is treated as
:),substance, but inasmuch as there are two kinds of electrification
which, bcing combined, annul each other, and since we cannot
conceive of two substances n.nnulling' each other, a distinction has
been drawn betwecn Frec Eicctricity and Comhined Electricity.

7%~ ~0 /'YK~.
lu thé theory called that of Two F!uids, ail bodies, in their
unelectrified state, are supposed to Le charged with eqnal quan-
tities of positive and négative ckctncity. These quantities are
supposcd to be so great that ~o process of electrification has ever
yet deprived a body of :dl thé electricity ofeither Idnd. Thé pro<
cess of electrification, accord! n~ to this theory, consista in takin~
a certain q~antity P of positive electricity froni thé body and
communicatin~ it to j9, or in taking- a qnantity JV of negative
electricity from 7? and communicating it to or iu somc eom-
bina.tion of thèse processes.
TIie resuit will hc that A will l'ave ~+~ units of negative
which
electricity over and abovc its remaining positive electricity,
is supposed to he in a state of combination with an equal quantity
of négative electrieity. This quantity ~+~ is called thé Free
FIxed elec-
electricity, thé rest is called thé Combined, Latent, or
tricity.
In most expositions of this theory thé two clectricitics are called
Fhuds/ because thcy are capable of being transferred from one
body to anothcr, and are, within condueting bodies, extremely
38 ELECTR08TATIC
PHENOMEXA. [36.
mobile. Thé other propcrties ot' nuids, such ~.s their inertt~
weig-ht~ and clasticity~ arc not attributcd to thcm by those who
hâve uscd thc theory ici' mcrety mathematieal purposcs but the
use ofthe word Fluid bas bcen apt to mislead the vn~~r, incindin~
many mon of science who arc not natural phi!osop)tcrs~ iind who
have seixed on thc word Fiuid as thc only term in thé statemcnt
of tlie thcnry wlm'h seemcd intcHigihtc to them.
Wc st)a!t sec that thc mathematical tt'catmcnt of't.hc subjcct has
hccn ~t'catly dcvciopcd by writcrs who exprcs': themsetves in terms
of the ~T\vo Fluids' tlicory. Thch' results, ho\vc\'cr, )invc been
dL'dnc'cd cnt!rc]y from dat:), which can bc provcd by expérimenta
and which must, thcrefoi'c be truej whct)]cr we adopt the tticory of
two fluids or not. Thé expcrimcnta) vcriH(jatio!i of the mathe-
matical results thercfure is no évidence for or against thé pccu!i:n'
doctrines of this Itteory.
Thc introduction of two unids permits ns to consider the ne~'a.tivc
c!ectrincation of and thé positive electrification of~ as the efrect
of .7~ o/ of thrcc différent proccst-es which would lead to the same
rcsult.. \Vc have aIrcady 8upposcd it producL'd hy t!)e transfor of
l' units of positive deetricity from to togrether with thé
ti-nnsfer ofA~ units of négative cicctricity from to But if
7~+j'V units of' positive electricity had heen tr:msf(.'rrcd frum
to or if.P+./V units of négative clectricity had heen transferred
from J9 to il, thc resultin~' frec cicctricity' on and on 13 \vouH
have hcen thc same as hcf'orG~ ))nt thé quautity of ~comhined
ctectricity' in wou)d hâve hccn h'ss in thc second case a.nd g'rcater
tin t)]u third than it was in t!œ first.
It wonid appear tlierefore, ~ccording- to this theory, that it iti
passible to alter not only the amount offrcc clectricity in a hudy~
hut thc amount of (.'oinhincd electricity. But no ptmnomcan havn
cvcr Leen observud in ciectritied bodies which ca,n Le tra.eed to the
varying- a.mount of their con)))incd dectricit.ics. IIeno'' cither thc
conibincd ch'ctricities )t!).vûno ohscrvaDc propertics~ or thc amount
of thc comhinud ctectricitics is incapable of variation. The first
nf th~-se alternatives présents no diniodty to the mère ma.thema-
tician, who attributes no propertics to thé nnLds except those of
attr.K'tion and répulsion, for i)i this point of vie\v thé two Ouidu
simpty annul one another, and thcir combination is a truc mitthe-
muticat zero. ]htt to those who eannot use thc word Fluid withont
thinking of a substance it is difHcult to conceive that thc com-
bination of thc two Onids shall have no properties at all, so that
37-] THEORIES 0F ONE AND 0F TWO FLUIDS. 39

thc addition of more or less of the combination to a hody shall not

in any \ay afïect it, either by increasing its mass or its wcig-ht, or
altering some of its other properties. Hence it bas been supposed
by some, that in every process of' ehjctrincation exactiy equal quan-
tities of the two ituids nre transfurrcd in opposite directions, so
that tlie total quitntity of thé two ihuds in any body taken to-
gL'ttier reniains always thc same. By this new law they contrive
to save :)ppea)'ances/ forg'<;ttin~' that there would have heen no need
nf the law except to reconcile thé two nuids' theory with facts,
and to prevent it from prcdicting' non-existent phenomena.

?~c~~ o/' 0/~ 7~

37.] In thc theory of One Fluid everyDiing is thé samc as in
thé theory of'Two Fhuds except that, instead ofsupposing' thé two
suhstanccs cqual and opposite in ail respecta one of thcm, gene-
raHy thc negative onc, lias heen endowcd with thé properties and
naine of Ordinaiy Matter, white t)ic othcr retains thc namc of Thé
Eh'etric Fh)id. Thé partick's of t]ic uuid are supposcd to rcpcl
onc anothcr a<(.'ordin~ to the law of' thc inverse sfpun'c of thc
dis~air'c, and to attrait those of mattcr acc'ording to the same
!aw. Thnsc of' matter are snpposcd to rcpel cach other and attract
those of clectricity. Thc attraction, howcvcr~ t.ctween units of thc
différent substances at unit of distance is supposed to b(j a vcry htt)e
grcater than the repulsion hetwcen units of thé same Idnd, so that
a unit of matter combined with a unit of clectricity will exert a
force of attraction on a, similar combination at a distance, this
force, ho\vevcr~ hcing- ëxcecdingly smaU comp:u'cd with thé force
hetwecn two unconihincd units.
This residuat forée is supposcd to account for the attraction of
cravitation. Unelectrifiecl Lodies are supposcd to bc ciMi'g'cd with
as many units of' electricity as thcy contain of ordinary mattcr.
Whcn thcy contain more cleciricity or less, thcy are said to Le
positiv<y or negativety (jlectriued.
This theory does not, like thé Two-F!uid theory, cxphun too
much. It rcquu'os us, however, to suppose thé mass of thé electric
i)uid so small t))a,t no attainahh* positive or négative elcctrification
bas yet perceptibly increascd or diminished cither thé mass or the
weight of a body, and it bas not yet been able to assign stiflicieiit
reasons why the vitt'L'ous rather than thé resinous electrification
should bu supposed due to an f~t'e.Mof electricity.
One objection has sometimes hcen ur~ed aguinst this theory by
 40 ELECTROSTATIC l'IIENOKENA. [38.
men who ought to have reasoncd botter. It bas hcen said that
thc doctrine that thé n:u'Lic)cs of matter uncomhined with elec-
tricity ~6'~ one another, is in direct antagonism with thé well-
esta.b!islted fact that cvery partictc of matter ~e~ every othcr
partiele tin'ougitont thc univcrse. If thé theory of One I~uid were
truc we should have t)tc ))e!tventy bodies repelling om another.
But it is ma.nifcst t))at the heavcniy bodies, a-ecording to this
theory, if they consisted of matter uncomhined with electricity,
wonlcl he in the highcst state of negative dectriiicft.tion, and \vouM
rcpc! each othcr. Wc have no rcason to bchevc tl)at they are in
sueh a. high)y cicetrinod state, or could be maintained in that
state. Thé earth and all thé bodies whosc attraction lias beeti
ob~erved are raH)cr in an une)ectrinod st:~t< that is, thcy contain
thc normal charge ofelectricity, and thé only action hetween them
is thé rcsidual force lately mentioned. Thé artificial manuel how-
ever, in which this residual force is intrcdueed is a mnch morH
valid objection to the theory.
In thé present treatise 1 propose, at difU'rcnt stages ofthc in-
vestigation, tn test thc dinerent théories in tlie hght of additional
classes of phenomena. For my own part, 1 look for additional
liglit on thé nature of cicctricity from :t study of what takes place
in thc space intcrvening hetween the electrified bodies. Sueh is thé
es-~entia! char:ictcr of thé mode of investigation pnrsued
by Faraday
in his ~~c~wc~ Ti'MM~~ and as we go on I intend to cxhibit
the rcsults, as dcvelopcd hy Faraday, '\V. Thomson, &c., in a eon-
nected and mathematical form, so that \vc mny perçoive what
phenomena are explained equidiy \ve)) by an the théories, and what
phenomena indicate t!te pecnliar Jif!iculties ofeach theory.

~/tYMK/'<;wCK~ 7'<<? ~6'/WC<'M7~C/< ~O~'e.?.

Forces be mea~u'cd in varions
38.] may ways. For instance,
one of thé bodies may be suspended from one arm of a ddieatc
balance, and weights suspended froni t))e other arm, till the body
when unelectrincd, is in equilibrinm. The other body may then
be p)aced at a known distance bencath thé first, 80 that th&
attraction or repulsion of thé bodies whcn electrified may increase
or dinutnsh tbe apparent wcight ofthc (h-~t. which
TItcwcight
must be added to or tilken from thé othcr arm, whcn
cxpressed
in dynamical measure, will measure thc force between thc bodies.
This arrangement was used by Sir W. Snow Harris, and is that
a~optcd in Sir W. Thomson's absotutc electrometers. See Art. 217.
 0F ELECTRICFORCES.
MEASMREMENT 41
~C).]

It is sometimes more convenient to use a torsion-balance in

which a horizontal arm is suspended by a fine wire or iibi-e~ so as
and
to be capable of vibrating about thé vertical wire as an axis,
thé
tl)c body is attached to one end of thé arm and acted on by
force in thé tangential direction, so as to turn the arm round thé
vertical axis, and so twist thé suspension wire through a certain
is found hy ohservi))g
angle. Thé torsional rigidity of thé wire
the time of osciDation of thé arm, the moment of inertia of the
and
arm being otherwise known, and from the angle of torsion
be
thé torsional rigidity tl)e force of attraction or repulsion can
deduced. Thé torsion-balance was dcvised by MicheII for the dé-
termination of tlie force of gravitation between small bodies, and
was used by Cavendish for this purpose. Coulomb, worMng in-
and successfully
dependcntly of thèse philosophers, reinvented it,
of electrie and magnetic forces;
applied it to discover thé Ia\vs
and thé torsion-balance bas ever since been used in all researches
where small forces have to be mea.surcd. See Art. 215.
either of thèse methods we can
39.] Let us suppose that by
measure thé force between two electrified bodies. Wc shall suppose
tlie dimensions of thé bodies small compared with thé distance
between them, so that tlic resnit may not be much altered by
tho electrification on eitlier body,
any inequality of distribution of
and we shall suppose that both bodies are so suspended in air as
to be at a considérable distftnce from other bodies on which they
miglit induce electrification.
It is then found that if thé bodies are placed at a nxed distance
and charged rcspectively with e and e' of our provisional units of
a force proportional
electricity, they will repel cacli othcr with
to the product of c and e'. If eitlier e or e' is négative, that is,
if one of the charges is vitreous aud tlie other resinous, tlie force
will he attractive, but if both e and e' are negative thé force is again
répulsive.
We may suppose tlte first body, charged with w units of
vitreous and M units of resinous electricity, which may be con-
ceivcd scparately placed within tlie body, as in Experiment V.
Let thé second hody, F, hc charged with M/ units of positive
and M'units of négative electricity.
Then cach of thé M positive units in J! will repel each of thé m'
a total effect
positive units in -Bwith a certain force, say J; mailing
equal to )t!w~
Sinct.' t.I)e cfrcct of negative electricity is exactly cqual and
 42 ELECT~OSVATIC FHENOMENA.
f~o.

opposite to that of positive electricity, each of thé positive units

in will attract each of thc ucgativc units in \vit)i thc sa
same
forcer making- a total effect cqua! to M~~
Similarly the M negative units in will attract thc positive
units in j~ with a force ~w~ and will
repel the négative units
in 7? with a. force
Thé total répulsion will t))Rt-Gforchc (MM'+
~~)y; a))d the total
attraction will he (/+ M~)/~
The restiltiiit répulsion will hc
(~w'-t-M?/-M~-M;)/' or (~)(~–?/)/~
Now w-M = e is the a)~.bra)'e:d value of thc
charge on aod
?/-?/= is that of thé charge on so that t)ic résultant n--
pu)sion may be writtcn c~ thc quantities e and being :dways
undcrstood to hc talœn with their proper signs.

~û?t < //<;7~-c-e ?< the J9~~M~

40.] Having est~blishL-d thc law of force at fi nxed distance,
we may mnasurct]te force )~tweeu bodies
char~ed in a constant
manncr aud placed at d;f!u)-cnt distaticcs. It is found
hy direct
mL-asurcmcnt that thé forée, whcthcr of attraction or
rc-pt.ision,
varies invcrscty M ttm squarf of thc
distance, so that if is the
rcpuision bctwccn two units .tt unit distance, thé rcpulsion at dis-
tance will he/ and the R-cnera) expression for thc
repulsion
hctwccn e units and </ units at distance wi)) hc

/7/oM ~M< ~A't-< ~7~c.M/

41.] We have hithorto ~scd a wholly arbitrary standard for our
unit of electricity, namely, the electrification of a
certain picco of
glass as it happcncd to Le electrified at titc commencement of our
expcnmcnis. Wc are now ahtc to sélect a unit on a definite
prin-
c.p!e, and in order that this unit may belong to general
wf duhnc it so thaty'may bc system
'tnity, or in other words-
7~ ~/o. H~ < ~M~y c~c/
<~ ~M~ ~M~
?/ 7f~/4 ?~7 ~c< ~M~
This unit is called thé J~c-etrost~tie unit to
the J'~ectroma~nctic unit, to be afterwards distit~uish it from
defincd.
We may now write thé
general law of electrical action in thé
simpieform ~=~ or
 LAW 0F Et.ECTRIC FORCE. 43
~o]

~6 ;-<?/jM~M </<o.s'w~~~fA c~~ye~ ~-f.~ec~i'f~' w~~e a~

<?'/<M<~~<e~ M//M~~y c~ the ~c~6'< o/6' e~
~6V/ the .!<<' ~<' ~<M~.

j9<~6'M.cM<<<' 7~<'c/'wa~e c/' Q~~K~

unit of qna.ntity itsuif,
43.] If ['~] is thc coucreto clectrosta.tic
and e, the numcrical values nf particulfn- quantifies; if [/.] is
thc unit of len~th, and thé nnmcrical value of' thc distance; an(l
and ~the numerical value ofthc force,
iff~'1 is the unit nf force,
thcn thc cqttatioti. hecomes
7"]=~~[~][Z--];
~-hcncc [<2J = [~] 1
= j_~y-].
This unit is caUcd thé Electrnstatic Unit of electricity. Ot])cr
units may be emp!oycd for practical pnrposcs, and in other depart-
mcnts of electrical science, but in thc fqua.tlons of eicctrostatic~
be estimatcd in e!ectro-
qu:).utities of electricity are nnder.stood to
static unitH, just as in physical astronomy we employ a, unit of
tnass whicii is founded on thé phcnomena of gravitatioti, and which
diffcrs from the units ofmass in common use.

7~-o<9/' o/' j~w c/' ~,7f6'<< ~ce.

thé torsion-balance
43.1 Thé experiments of Coulomb with may
be considered to have ostablishcd thc law of force with a certain

approximation to accuracy. Experiments of this !dn.d, howcve)',

arc rendered di~eult, and in some dc~rec uncerttin, hy sevend
traced and corrected for.
disturbing causes, which must be carefully
In thé first place, thé two clectnficd hodies must be of sensible
dimensions relative to the distance between them, in order to be
c~pnble of carrying charges sufficient to produce meas~rable forces.
Thc action of each body will then produce an enect on the dis-
trilmtion of electricity on thé ct))er, so that thé eharg'c cannot he
considered as evenly distributed over the surface, or collected at
the centre of gravity but its encet must bc calculated by an
intricate investigation. This, however, bas hcen done as regards
two sphères by Poisson in an extremely ahle manner. and the
investigation bas been greatly simplified by Sir W. Thomson in
his ï%eo~ ~e~'M~ Images. Sec Arts. 172-174.
Another difncnlty arises from thé action of thé electricity
induced on thé sides of the case containing the instrument. By
 44 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.
f~

making the inside of thé instrument accurutety cylindric, and

making its inner surface of metal, this efiect eau Le rendered
definite and measurab!e.
An independent di)Hcu!ty arises from the
Imperfect insulation
of thé bodies, on account of which thé
charge continually de-
creases. Coulomb invcstigated the law of
dissipation, and made
corrections for it in his experiments.
T)ie methods of insnlating
char~cd conductors, and of mcaanring-
e)cctrica1 cftects, have been
greatly improvcd since thé time of
Oou)omb, particu)arty by Sir W. Thomson; but t)to
perfcet ac-
curacy of Coulomb law of force is established, not
by any direct
experiments and measurcments (which may be used as iUnstrations
of thé !aw), but
by a mathematical considération of thé pheno-
menon deseribed as Experiment
VII, namely, that an electrified
conduetor if made to touc.h the inside of a hoHow
closed con-
ductor C and then withdrawn without
tonehin~ isperfectiy dis-
cliarged, in whatcvcr manner thé outside of C may be etœtrified.
By means of délicate elcetroscopcs it is easy to shew that no
electricity remains on B after the opération, and by thé mathe-
matical theory given at Art. 74, this ean
only hc thé case if thé
force varies inversely as t))c square of thé
distance, for if thé law
had been of any different form would hâve been clectrified.

7~ ~ce~c ~'<
44.J Thé EIcctric Fic]d is thc portion of space in thé
Lourhood of clectrified bodies, considci-ed ~-itit référence neig-h-
to electric
phenomena. It may be occupicd by air or other
bodies, or it
may bc so-ca))cd vacuum, from which \ve h~ve withdrawn
sub~ance. which wc can act upon with thc means every
at our dis-
posai.
If an clectrified body bc placed at
any part of thc clectric field
it will hc !tctcd on a force which will depend, in general, on
by
thc shapc of thc Lody and 0.1 its
charge, if thé body is so highly
charged as to produce a sensible disturbance in t!te
trification or the othcr bodies. previous clec-
But if the body is very small and its
charge aiso very small,
thé eh'ctnhcation ofthc othcr bodies will not he
and we may coi.sidcr tlie sensib)y disturbed
body as indieating hy its centre of p.ravitv
a certain point of the Md. Thé force
acting on thc Lody will
then bc pr.,port.oual to its and will bc r~crscd whcn the
charge,
charge is reversed.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL. 45
~6.]

Let e be the charge of the body, and the force acting on thc
small F is propor-
body in a certain direction, theu when e is very
tional to e, or J'' = .K<
where 7)' is a quantity depending on thé <)t)terbodies in thé field.
If thé charge e could he made equal to unity without disturhing
the electrification of othcr bodies wc should ha,ve F = 7~.
We shall call R tlie Résultant electric force at thé given point
of the field.
~cc~e 7'~CM~.
e be moved
45.] If thc small body carrying thé small charge
from thé given point to an indemnité distance from thc electrified
a force 7~,
bodies, it will experience at each point of its course
where varies from point to point of thc course. Let tbc who!e
work donc on thé body by these electrical forces he tt)en is
the potential at thé point of the field from which tlie body shu-ted.
If thé charge e could be inade equal to unity without disturbing
the electrification of other bodies, we miglit define the potential at
with unit of elec-
any point as thc work donc on a body ebar~ed
infinite distance.
tricity in moving from that point to an
A body electrified positively tends to move from places of greater
or of négative
positive potential to places of smaller positive,
tends to move in the
potentiaL and a body negatively electrified
opposite direction.
In a conductor thé electrification is distributcd exactly as if
it were free to move in thé couductor according to tbe same law.
If tl)ercfore two parts of a conductor have different potentials,
positive electricity will move from thé part having greater potential
to thc part bavmg less potential as long as that difference con-
tinues. A conductor thcreicre cannot bc m electrical equilibrium
unless every point in it lias tlic same potential. This potential is
callcd tlie Potential of the Conductor.

F~?<?/jo/<i' ~M~ce~.
be described m the
46.] If a surface dcscrihed or supposed to
clectric ncld is such that the eleetric potential is thé same at every
surface.
point of the surface it is called an Eqnipotential
An electrified point constrained to rest upon such a surface will
have no tendency to move from one part of the surface to another,
beeause thé potential is thé samc at every point. An equipotential
surface is therefore a surface of equilibrium or a. levcl surface.
46 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA. [46.

Thé resultant force at any point of the surface is in the direction

of thé normal to thé surface, and thé magnitude of thé force is such
that the work donc on an electrical unit in passing from thé surface
~'to thé sur~ee is F-
No two equipotential surfaces having different potentials can
meet one another, because thé same point cannot have more than
one potential, but one equipotential surface may meet itself, and
this takes place at all points and lines of'equilibrium.
Thc surface of a conductor in electrical cquitibrium is necessarily
an equipotential suruice. If the etectrincation of thc conductor is
positive ovcr thé whole surface, thcn thé potential will diminish as
we move away from thc surHupeon cv~ïy side, and thé conductor
will he surrounded by a series of surfaces of Inwer potentiat.
But if (o\ving' to the action of external electrified bodies) some
relions of the eonductor are electrified positively and others ne-
gatively, the complete eq~~ipotcntia~ surfucc will consist of thé
surface of thé conductor itself toi,-etlier with a system of other
surfaces, meeting thé surface of thc conductor in thé lines which
divide thé positive from the négative régions. Thèse lines will
he lines of equilibrium, so that an electrified point placcd on one
of thèse lines will expérience no force in any direction.
When thé surface of a conductor is electrified positively in some
parts and negatively in others, there must be some other clectrified
hody in the field hesides itself. For if we allow a positively
electrified point, starting from a positively electrified part of thc
surface, te move always in the direction ofthe resultant force upon
it, the potential at the point will continually diminish till thé point
reaches eitber a negatively electrified surface at a potential less than
that of thé first conductor, or moves off to an infinite distance.
Since thé potential at an infinite distance is zero, thc latter case
can only occur \vhen the potential of thé conductor is positive.
In thé same way a negatively electrified point, moving off' from
a negativcly electrified part ofthc surface, must either reach a posi-
tively electrified surface, or pass off to infinity, and tlie latter case
can only linppen when thé potential of the conductor is negative.
Therefore, if hoth positive and négative cleettincation exists on
a conductor, there must bc some other hody in thc netd whose
potential bas thé same sign as that of the conductor but a greater
numerical value, and if a conductor of any form is alone in thc
1
field the electrincation of' every part is of thé same sign as thé
potential of thé condnctor.
49-] ELECTJUC TK~SION. 47

/K~ 0/* 7'0/

47.] Thé line described by a point moving always in thé direc-
tion of thé resultant force is called a Linc of force, It cuts thé
equipoteutial surfaces at right angles. Thé propertics of lines of
force will Le more fully explained afterwards, hecause Faraday bas
expressed many of thé laws of electrical action in terms of his
conception of Unes of force drawn in thé electric field, and indicating
both the direction and the magnitude of thé force at every point.

7~/fC~'M~~MM'ÛM.

48.] Since thé surface of' a conductor is an <?qnipotentia~surface,

the resultant force is normal to the surface, and it will Le shewn
in Art. 78 that it is proportional to the supci'ncial density of the
electrincation. Hence thé electricity on any small area of thc
surface will bc acted on by a force tendin~ow thc conductor
:),nd proportional to the product of thc résultant force and thé
force
density., that is, proportionid to thé square ofthe resultant
This force which acts outwards as a tension on evory part of
thé conductor will he called clectric Tension. It is measured like
unit of area.
ordina.ry mechanical tension, by thé force exerted on
Thé word Tension bas been used by electricians in several vague
senses, and it bas been attempted to adopt it in mathematical
thé cases
language as a synonym for Potential but on cxaminmg'
in which thc word bas heen used, 1 think it will bc more con-
sistent with usage and with mcchanical analogy to understand
inch
by tension a puUing force of' so many pounds per square
exertcd on the surface of a conductor or eisewherc. Wc shall find
that titc conception of Faraday, that this electric tension exists not
only at thé electrified surface but ail along- thc lines of force, leads
to a. tlieory of electric action as a, phenomenon of stress in a
mcdium.
J?~OMO//r<? 7~7'

4.9.] When two conductors at dinerent potentials are conncctcd

by a thin eonducting- wire, tlie tendency of electricity to flow
along thé wire is measured by thé dinercnce of thc potentials of
thé two bodics. Thé difference of potentials between two con-
ductors or two points is therefore called thé Electromutive force
between them.
Eleetromotive force may arise from other causes tha.n dinerence
48 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA. [50.

of potential, but these causes arc not considered in trcating- of sta-

tical plectricity. We shall consider them when we corne to chemical
actions, motions of magnéto inequalities of température, &e.

6~a6. < ~<

con-
50.] Ifone conductor is insulated whilc all the surrounding
ductors are kept at thc zero potential by being put m comn'ul-
nication with thé carth, and if the eonductor, whcn charged with
a quantity F of electricity, bas a potential thé ratio of to F
is called thé Capacity of thc conductor. If the eonduetor is com-
ptctcly eticlosed within a conducting vessct without touching it,
thcn the charge ou the inner conductor will bc equal and op-
posite to thc charge on thé inuer surface of thé outer conductor,
and will be cqual to tlie capacity of thé inner eonductor multiplied
by the différence ofthc potentials ofthe two conductors.
.T~e~c ~ccMM/~a/0;
A system consisting of two conductors whose opposed surfaces
are separated from cach othcr by a thin stratum of an msufatit)~
medium is called an clectric Accumulator. Its capacity is directly
proportional to thc area of thc opposed surfaces and inversely pro-
portio])al to thé thiekuess of thé stratum between them. A Lcyden
jar is an accumulator in which glass is tlie insulating medium.
Aceunnuators are sometimes called Condeusers, but I prefer to
restrict thé tcrm ~condenser' to an instrument which is used not to
hold clectricity but to increase its superficial density.

l'MPEUTIUS 0F BODIES IN IŒLATIÛN TO STATICAL ELECTRICITY.

7~'6-<'<? ~0the ~A-~6 0/'7~?6'~ ~'Ci~ a ~C~.

51.] Whcn a charge of eleetricity is communicated to any part
of a mass of mutai thc electricity is mpidiy transferred from places
of high to piMes of low potential till tlie potential of thé whole
mass becomes thc same. In the case of pièces of metal used in
ordma.ry expcrimcnts this process is completcd in a time too short
to he observed, but in thé case of very long and thin wires, such
as t~osc used in telegraphs, titc potcntial does not become uniform
till after a sensible time, on account of thé resistance of thé wire
to thé passage of electricit through it.
The résistance to thé passage of electricity is exceedingty dif-
ferent in different substances, as may ~e seen from thé tables at
 5i.] ELECTRIC RESIST-ANCE. 49

Arts. 3G2, 3G6, and 3G<),which will bc explained in treating of

Ulectric Currents.
AI) the metals are good conductors, though thé résistance of
lead is 12 times that of copper or silver, that of iron G times,
and that of mercury GOtimes that of copper. T)ie résistance of all
notais increases as their température rises.
Selenium in its crystalline state mtvyalso bo regarded as a con-
ductor, though its résistance is 3.7 x JO~ times that cf a piece
of' copper of thc same dimensions. Its résistance increases as the
température rises. Setcnium in thé nmorphous form is a good
insulator, like sniphur.
Many liquids conduct electricity by dcctrolysis. This mode of
conduction will he considcrud in Pai-t. II. For thc présent, we ruay
regard ail Mquids containing' watcr and all damp bodics as con-
ductors, far inferior to the metals, hut incapable of insulating a
charge of clectrieity for a sufncicnt time to be observed.
On thc othcr hand, thc gases at the atmospheric pressure, whether
dry or moist, are insulators so nearly pprfeet whcn thé cicetrie tension
is small that we have as yct obta.incd no évidence of elcctricit.ypassing
through them by ordinary conduction. Tlie gradual loss of charge
by clectrified hodics m!).yin every case bc traced to impcrfcct insu-
lation in the supports, the electricity cither passing through thé
substance of thc support or creeping- over its surface. Hence, wlien
two eharged bodics are hung up near each other, they will preserve
their charges longer if thcy are clectrified in opposite ways, than if
they are electrified in thc same way. For though thé electromotive
force tending to make the electricity pass througtt thé air between
tLem is ]nnch greater when they are oppositely clectrified, no per-
ceptihle loss occurs in this way. Thé actual loss tukcs place through
thé supports, and thé electromotive force throug'h thé supports is
grc'atest when thé bodies are electrified in thé satne way. TI~eresult
appears anomalous only whcn we expcct thé loss to occur by thé
passage of electricity through tlie air between thé bodies.
Certain kinds of glass wheu cold are marvelously perfect in-
snlators, and Sir W. T)iomson bas prei-erved charges of electricity
for ycars in buujs hermetically sca~ed. Thé same glass, however,
bccomes a condnctor at a température below that ofhoiling water.
Gutta-percha, caoutchouc, vulcanitc, para.fnn, and resins are good
insulators, thc résistance of gutta-pcrcha at 75° F. being about
Gx 10~ times that of copper.
Ice, crystals, and solidified electrolytes, arc a]so insulators.
VOI..I. E
60 ELECTROSTATIC
PHENOMENA. [52.
Certain liqnids, such as naphtha, turpen~me, and some oils~ are
insulators, but inferior to most of tlie sohd itisulatùrs.
Thé rcsisttuicc of most substances,
cxccpt thc metals, audscicmum
and carbon, scems to diminish as thé température rises.

DIHLECTtUCS.

~('t'(:' /YC~'M C~t'

53.] Atl bodies whose insulating power is such that when they
are placed between two eonductors at différent potentials thé elec-
iromotivu furec acting on t!)cm docs not
Iinmediat<;1y distribute
thcir electricity so as to reduce thé potential to a constant
value, are
called by Faraday Dicicctrics.
Faraday discovered U)at the capacity of an acentim~tor depends
un the nature of the maulating' médium hetween thc two
conductors,
as well as on the dimensions and relative position of the conductor
themselves. By substitttting- other
insu)ating- media for air as the
didcctnc of thc accumulator, withoub
altering it hi any other
respect, hc found that when air and other gases were employed as
the insuiating- medium the capacity of thc accumulator remained the
same, but that when s!tc!t-Iac, sniptnu-, glass, &:c., were substituted
for air, the capacity was increased in a ratio which was different
fur each substance.
Thé ratio of thé capacity of an accumulator formed of
any di-
c!cctric medima to thé capacity of an accumulator of thé same form
and dimensions filled \it!i air, was named
by Famday thc Specifie
Inductive Capacity of thé dieleetric médium. It is
eqna.1to unity
for air and other gases at all pressures, and
prohably at all tempe-
ratures, and it is greater than unity for all other
liquid or solid
dich'ctrics which have tjGcn examined.
Ifthcdidœtric is not a good insuhtor, it is diSteult to mca-
sure ils inductive capacity, beoause the aeeumutator will not hold a
charge for a sumcient time to allow it to be measured but it is
certain that induetivc capacity is a
property not connncd to good
insulators, and It is probable that it exists in all bodics.

.M/y;~M of ~<'c/c~.
53.] It is round that whcn an aceumulatoris formed of certain
dielectrics, t))e fol!owing-phcnomcna occur.
When thc accumulator bas ucen for some time
electrified and is
thon suddenly discharged and
again insu]atcd, it becomes recharged
 54.] ELECTRIC ABSORPTION. 51

in thé same sensé as at first, but to a smaller degrec, so that it may

bo diseharged ngain several times in succession, these discharges
aiways diminishing. This phenomenon is called that of thc Re-
sidual Discharge.
Thc instantancous discharge appears always to be proportional
to thé dif!ercnce of potentials at thé instant of discharge, and the
ratio of thèse quantities is thé true capacity of thé accumulator;
but if the contact of thé discharg'er is prolonged so as to include
sone of the rcsidnal discharge, thé apparent capacity of thé accu-
mulator, calculated from sueh a discharge, wilt he too great.
Thé accumniutor if charged and left insulatcd appears to lose its
charge by conduction~but it is found that thc proportionate rate
of loss is much greater at first than it is afterwards, so that thé
mcasure of conductivity~ if deduced from what takes place at first,
would he too grcat. Thus, whcn the insulation of a suhmarine
cab)c is tested, thé insulation appcars to improve as thé electrin-
cation cojitinucs.
TItermal phenomena of a kind at first sig'ht analogons take place
in thé case of thc conduction of heat when thé opposite sides of a
body are kcpt at diftcrent températures. In thé case of heat we
know that they depend on thc heat taken in and given out by thé
body itself. Hencc, in thc case of the clectrical phcnomena, it
bas heen supposed that electricity is absorbed and emitted by thé
parts of thé body. We shall sec, however, in Art. 320, that thc
phenomena can he explained without thc hypothesis of absorption of
eleetricity, by supposing thc dielectrie in sorne degree heterogeneous.
That thé phenomenon called EIcctrie Absorption is not an
actual absorption of cleetricity by thc substance jnay bc shcwn by
charging the substance in any manner with electricity whitc It is
surrounded by a cJoscd metatlic insniatcd vessel. If, whcn thc
substance is charged and insulated, the vessel be instantaneously
discharged and then Icft Insu!at<;d, no charge is ever communic'atcd
to thé vessel by thc graduât dissipation of thé elcctrification of thé
charged substance within it.
54-.] This fact is expressed by thc statement of Faraday that
it is impossible to charge muttcr with an absolute and independent
charge of one kind of electricity.
In fact it appears from thc rcsnit of evcry oxperiment which
bas been tried that in whatever way electrical actions may take

~p. 7PM..
vo).i. seriesxi. ii. 0)tthé .b)iolntt:ChargoofMfttter,'Mtd(1244).
K2
 ELECTHOSTATIC PHEXOMENA. f~.

place among- a system of bodies surrounded by a metallic vcssel, the

charg-e on thc outside of that vessel is not altered.
New if any portion of could he forccd into a body
electricity
so us to be absorbed in it, or to bcuome
tatent, or in any way
to exist in it, without being- connccted with an
cqual portion of
the opposite ek-ctricity by Hues of induction, or if, after having'
being absorbed, it cou!d gradually cn)crg'e and rctnrn to its or-
dinary mode of action, \ve should find somc change of electrifica-
tion in thé tiun'uunding- vosscl.
As this is never found to Le the
case, Faraday conduded that
it is i)i)})ossih!e to communicate an abso]ute
charge to matter, and
that no portion of mattcr can
hy any change of state evolve or
rcnder latent onc kind of
electricity or the othcr. He thercfore
<
rcg-arded induction as the esscntint fmietion both i)! thé first
dcve)opmGnt and .thé conséquent phc-nomena of clcctricity/ His
'induction~ is (J2fJ8) a polarized state of the particlcs of thc
dielectric, c:).ch p:n'tictc b~n~- positive on one side jmd négative
on the other, thé positive and thé
négative eleetrification of each
partiele being a,l\vays exactly equaJ.

Z'A~<<; ~a~ye
55.] If thé electromotive force acting at any point of a dielectric
is g-raduaUy inereascd, a limit is at
~ngth rcachcd at which therc
is a suddcn electrical
disch:u-ge through thé dielectric, generally
accompanied with tight and sound, and with a tempomry or per-
manent rupttu-c of thé dielectric.
Thé intensiiy of the electromotive force when this takes place
depends on thé nature of tbe dieteetric. It is grcater, for instance,
in dense air than in rare air, and
greater in glass than in air, but
in every case, if tlie electroniotive force be made great cnong-h,
thc dieicctric gives
way and its insulating power is destroyed, so
that a current of eleetricity takes
place through it. It is for this
reason that distributions
of' electricity for whieh thé electric résultant
force becomes anywhere infinite cannot exist in nature.

7~ j~e<e G'~M'.
Thns, when a conductor having- a sharp point is electrified,
thé theory, hascd on thé hypothesis that it retains its charge,
leads to thé condu.ion that as we
approach the point thé super-
ficial density of the
electricity inereases without limit, so that at
thé point itself thé and thcreforc the resultant
snrfaee-density,
See Fftraday, yo). i., Hcriesxii.M)J xiii.
 ELECTRIC GLOW. 53
55-]

electrical forcer wou)d be infinité. If thc air, or other surrounding

dicicctric, I)a<l an invincible insulating power, this rcsult would
actuaUy occur but the fuet is, that as poon as thé resiiltant force
in thc neighhourhood of thc point bas reachcd a. certain limit, thé
insutating- power of thé air givcs way, so that thé air dose to
the point becomes a cnnductor. At a certain distance from the
point thé ]'~su]t:mt force is not sunicient to break through thé
insu)ation of the air, so that thé electrie cun'ent. is ohecked, and
the clectricity accumulâtes in thc air round thé point.
Thé point Is thus surrounded by particles of air charged with
electricity of' the same kind with its own. T)~ efTeet of this eharged
air round thé point is to rclieve thc air at the point itself from
part of the enormous electromotive force -whieh it would have ex-
pcrienced if thc conduc-tor a.bne had been electrified. In fact thé
surface of the electrified body is no longer pointed, beeause the
point is enveloped by a rounded mass of electrified air, tbe surface
of which, rather than that of thé solid conductor, may be regarded
as thé outer electrified surface.
If this portion of electrified air could he kept still, thé elec-
trified body would retain its charge, if not on itself at least in its
neighbourhood, but the charged particles of air being free to move
under thé action of electrical force, tend to move away from the elec-
trificd body because it is charged with the same kind of electricity.
Thé charged particks of air therefore tend to move ofF in thé direc-
tion of thé lines, of force and to approaeh those surrounding- bodies
which. are oppositely electrified. Wi)en they are gone~ othcr un-
charged particles takc their place round thé point, and since thèse
eannot shield those next thc point itself from the excessive elec-
trie tension, a new disehargc takcs place, after which thé new1y
charged partictcs move oH', and so on as bng as thé body remains
electrificd,
In this W!).y the following phenomcna are ])rodnced :–At and
close to thc point therc is a steady gtow, arising from the con-
stant diseh.u'g'cs which :u'e taking place ijctween tt)c point and the
air very ncar it.
Thc charged partich's of air tend to move o(f in thé same général
direction, and thus produce a current of air from thé point, con-
sisting of the cltarbed particics, and prohahly ofnthcrs carried along
hy them. Hy artinciaHy aitling- this eurrcnt we may increase thc
glow, and hy checking thé formation of thé current wc may pre-
vont the continuancc of the glow.
 54 ELHCTRUSTAT)C
PHENOME~A. ~6.
ihe electrie wnid in thé neighbourhood ofthe
point is sometimes
very rapid, but it soon losesits vefocity, and thé air with its eharged
particles is carried about with t~e gênera) motions of the atmo-
sphère, and constitutes fininvisible clectric cloud. When the charg-ed
particles corne near to any conducting sni-~cc, sucli as a wall, tttey
induce on that surtace an electrification opposite to their own, and
are then attracted towards thc wn!), hnt since the electromotive
force is small tliey may remain for a long- time near thé wall
without hcit]~ drawn up to thc surface and
disehargcd. They
thus form an cteetrificd atmosphère din~ing- tn ccnductors, thé
pré-
sence of' whieh may sometimes be detccted by thf; L'h'cti'ometer.
T!]e ck'etrieat forces, howevcr, acting betwccn
charged portions
of air and other bodies are cxcecdingty fefhie
compared with thé
forces whieh producn \vinds arising from inequalities of
density
duc to dinurcnccs of température, so that it is
vcry improhaDe
that any oLservabie part of thé motinn of ordinary t!)under clouds
arises from ele'ctrical causes.
Thc passage of electricity from one place to another
hy thc
motion of charg-cd particles is ealled EIcctrIcal Convection or Con-
vectivc Discharge.
Tiic eicctricat glow is therefore produccd by thc constant
passage
of electricity through a small portion of air in which thc tension
is very high, so as to charge thc surrounding
particles of air which
are continually swept ofThy the electrie wind, which is an essential
part of thc phenomenon.
Thé glow is more eas!!y formed in rare air than in dense
air,
and more easHy wLcn thé point is positive than when it is
négative.
This and many other diiTureneeshctj\vecn positive and
negative e)cc-
trification must bc studicd hy those who desire to discover some-
-thing :)Dout t)tc nature of eiectt-iei~y. Th~'y have not, however,
Lecn satisfactori)y broug'ht to Le:u- upon any
cxisting- t!)ccry.
7~c ~Y~c ~A~.
56.] Thc c)cctric brusk is ]))icnomcnon wliieh nmy Le pro-
duccd hy c~cirifyin~ a biunt poiut or small La!! so as to prodncc
an electric iœ!d in \vhieh the tension diminishes, ]~ut in a )css
rapid
tnatincr, as we Icavc t)tc surinct!. It, consists of a succession of
diHch:)rg-cs, ramifyin~- as thcy di~r~c from the b:dl into t!tc :iit-,
nnd t~-minaLittg- cither by
ch:u-g-in~ portions of air or !jy rcachin~-
somc nLher eonducto)-. Jt is aceompanicd l'y a sound, the pitch of
w))ic1) depunds on tilt; intcrvu! hctwcen thc succcsstve
disch~rgcs,
and tho-c is no purrpnt of~it- as in thc oa<o «fthc
e'1ow.
57.] ELECTRIC
SPARK. 55

7~6 F~/M

57.] When thc tension in thé spacc between two conductors Is

considérable ail thé way hetwecn them, as in the case of t-wobans
whose distance is not great compared with their radii, thc discharge,
when it occurs, usuaDy takes thc form of a spark, by winch nearly
thé whole electrification is dischargcd at once.
In this case, wlien any part of thc dielcctric has g'iven way,
thé parts on cither side of it in the direction of thé electrie force
are put into a state of greater tension so that they aJso ~ve way,
and so thé discharge procceds right through thé dielectric, just as
when a little rent is made in thc cdgc of' a piece of papcr a tension
to
applied to thé paper in thé direction ofthc cdge causes thé paper
he torn through, heginning at thc rcnt, but divcrg'ing occasionally
wherc therc are weak places in thé paper. Thc electric spark in
the eamc way Legins at thc point wherc thé electrie tension first
overcomes the insulation of thc diclectric, and proceeds from that
othcr weak
point, in an apparently irrcgu)ar path, so as to take in
points, such as partieles of dust Doating' in air.

0~ ihe A7<c ~o~ô' ?'c~K~ /o ~/o<7/<ce'S/ ~i

In thé experiments of Sir W. Thomson thc electromotive force
thiek-
required to prodncu a. spark across strata of air of varions
nesses was measured Ly mcans of an electrometer.
The sparks were made to p~ss hL-twceutwo surfaces, one of which
was plane, and thé otitc'r only snn!cicnHy convex to makc thc spa,rks
occur always at thc same place.
Thé dinct-cnee of potential reqnil'ed to cause a spark to pass was
found to incrcasc with tlie distance, but in a Icss rapid ratio~ so thab
thé electric force at any point hctween tlie surfaces, which is the
quotient of thé différence of potcntial dividcd by tlie distance, ean.
hc raised to a. greater value without a discharge when the stratum
of air is thin.
~Vttcn thc stratum ofair is vcry thin, say .0025-t of a ccn-timetre,
the résultant force rcquircd to prnducc a spark was found to ùe
327.7, in terms of centimètres and grammes. This corresponds to
nn electric tension of ] ] ,2f)grammes \vci~ht per s(ptarc centimètre.
'When thé distance bctwccn the surfaces is aLout a millimètre
the cleetrie force is about 130, and thé clectrie tension .68 grammes
weight per square centimètre. It is probable that thé value for
7')-f«-./i'. IP'if' <')',I!pprint,fti~p.xix.
 56 ELECTROSTATIC PIIE~OMH~A. [~8.

grcatcr distances is not mue)] less than this. The ordinary pressure
ofthc atmosphère is about K)32 grammes pcr
square centimètre.
It is difficult to exphun \vhy a thin stratum of air should
require
a. greater force to producc a disruptive it than a
dischargc across
thicker stratum. Is it possible that the air vcry near to thc sur-
face of dense bodics is condcnscd, so as to become a better insu-
lator ? or does tllo pot~ntiat of an cjeetrificd conductor dinbr from
that of thé air in contact with it by a quantity havin~ a maximum
value just bcfbrc dischargc, so that the observcd difTercncc of
potential of thé condnctors is In every case greatci- than thé dif-
férence of potentials on tlie two sides of thé stratum of air
by a
eonstimt quantity equivalcnt to thé addition of about .005 of an
inch to the thicimcss ofthc stratum ? See Art. 370.
AU thèse' phenomenn. diftcr considcrab!y in difTerent gases, and in
the s:).mRgas at (ll(ïere)it dcusities. Some of thé forms of dectrical
discharge through r~rc gases arc cxecedingly rcmarkabic. In semé
cases therc is a rG~thr alternation of lnminous and
dark stratit,, so
that if thé electricity, for example, is passing a tube con<ain-
a]ong
ing a vcry small quautity of gas, a number of luminous disks will
be "cun arranged transverspjy at nearly cqnal hitcrvats
a!ong the
axis of thc tube aud separated by dark strata. If the strength of
the current be increased a ncw disk will start into existence, and
it and thé old disks will arrange themselvcs in closer ordcr. Iti
a tube described by Mr. Gassiot* the Hght of each of the disks
is bhush on thé négative and reddfsh on the
positive side, and
hright rcd in tlie central stratum.
T)tese, and many other phenomena of electrical disekargc-, are
exceeding-Iy important, and when thcy are bettcr understood they
will probably throw great light on the nature of
electricity :Ls we!l
as on tlie nature of gases and of thé mcdium pcr\-ading space. At
présent, however, thcy must be considered as out~ide thc demain of
thé matbematical tlteory of electricity.

~7<.Y.< ~(?MOMf~/r<< ?b/M~<

58.] Certain cryst:tls of tourmabne, and of other mincrats, posscss

what may be called Etectric Po):u-ity. Suppose a crystal of tour-
maline to bc at :L uniform température, and app:n'ent!y free frorn
clectrification on its surface. Let its température be now raised,
tlie crystil remaining insulated. One end will bc found positively

/n~~fc(~ft<OfMe<<;)-,
Mttreh, 1866.
59. ELECTMFICA.TION OF TOURMALINE. 57

and tbe othcr end neg'atively electrified. Let thé surface bc de-
prived ofthis apparent c1cctrinc:Ltion by means of a flame or otbcr-
wise, tben if thé crystal bc made still botter, eh:ctrincation of' thc
s:tme kind as before will a.ppcar, but if thé crystal bc cooled thé
oui which was positive when tbe crystal was heated will become
négative.
Thèse elcctrifications are obeerYed nt thé extrcmities of thé nrys-
tit.Hog't'aphic axis. Some erystti!s nre tcrmln:ited by a six-sided
pyramid at one end and by a threc-sidcd pyramid at thé other.
In thèse thc end having the six-sidcd pyramid becomes positive
when thé erystal is I)cated.
Sir W.Thomson supposes evcry portion of thèse and other hemi-
hcdra.1 crystals to have a dcfinite clectric polarity, the intensity
of which depends on thé tomperature. When thc surface is passed
through a itame, evcry part of thc surface becomes c~ctrincd to
sueh an extent as to exactly Hcutmhxe, for ail cxternal points,
thé cffect of thé internai polarity. Thc crystal then bas no ex-
terna.1 electrical action, nor any tcndency to change its mode of
ctc'ctrin.L-ation. But if it bc heated or cooled thc interior polariza-
tion of each particlc of thc crystal is altered, aud can no longer
bc balanced by thé supcrncial electrification, so that there is a
resultant external action.

P~~ o/' 7'/w«'<.s'<

59.] In thc foUowing' treatise I propose first to explain the ordinary
theory of clcctrical action, which considcrs it as dcpending ouly
on tbe electrified bodies and on their relative position, without
ta.king' account of any phcnomena which may take place in thé
surrounding' media. In this way we shaH establish thé law of thé
inverse square, the theory of thc potential, and thé équations of
Laplace and Poisson. We shu-H next consider thé charges and
potentials of a system of elcctrificd conduetors as connccted by
a system of equations, thc coefficients of which may hc supposed
to bc dctennincd by cxperiment in those cases in 'which our pt'cscnt
mathematical mcthods arc not applicable, and from these we shall
détermine the mcchanical forces acting' between. tbe dînèrent elec-
tritied bodies.
~Ve shaU then investigate certain general theorcms by whieh
Green, Gauss, a.nd Thomson have indicated thé conditions of so-
lution of problems in the distribution of electricity. One result
of thèse theorems is, that if Poisson's equation is satisfied by any
 58 ELECTROSTATIC
PHENOMENA. [gç.

function, and if at thé surface of every conclnetor thé funetion

bas thé value of thé potential of that conductor, then thé func-
tion expresses thc actual potential of the system at every point. Wc
also deduce a mcthod of finding prohiems capable of exact solution.
In Thomson's theorem, thc total energy of thc system is ex-
presscd in thé form of the integral of a, certain cjuantity extended
over thc whole space betwecn thé electrified hodies, and also in
thc form of an intégra! cxtended over tlie clcctrified surfaces only.
The équation het\vcen thèse two expressions may bc thus inter-
prctcd p)tysica!!y. We may conceive thé relation into whieh the
etec'tt'ined bodics are thrown, either as thc resuit of thc state of
tLe intcrvc))in~' medium, or as thé result of a direct action between
the cicetrified hodics at a distance. If we adopt thé latter con-
ception, wc may détermine thc law of thé action, but we can go
no furthpr in sppcutating' on its cause. If, on thé othcr hand,
wc adopt the conception of action throug'h a médium, we arc ]cd to
cnquire into thé nature of that action in cach part of thé médium.
It appears from thc theorem, that if wc are to loo~ for thc scat
of the clectric energy in the difT~rent parts of thé dielectric me-
dium, the amount of energy in any small part must depend on
thé square of thé mtcnsity of the résumant clectromotive force at
that place multiplied hy a coenicic-nt called the specinc inductive
capacity of thc medium.
It is botter, ho-wevpr, in considcring thé theory of dielectrics
in thc most general point of view, to distinguish hetwcen the ctcc-
tromotive force at any point and thé electric polarisation of thé
medium at that point, since these directcd quantities, though re-
lated to one another, are not, in some solid substances, in the same
direction. The most general expression for thé electrie energy of
thc médium per unit ofvohtmc is hait the product of the electro-
motivc force and thc electrie polarization multiplicd by thc cosine
of tbc angle hetween their directions.
In aH fhud dicleetrics 1]~' clectromotivc force and thé electrie
polarization arc in thc same direction and in a constant ratio.
If we calculate on ihis hypothesis thc total cncrg-y
rcsiding
in thé médium, \vc shall nnd it equal to the energy due. to thc
cicctriftcatioa of tlie conductors on thc hypothesis of direct action
at a distance. Hcnec thé tn'o hypothèses are
mathetnatically equi-
valent.
If wc now proceed to invcstigate the mcchanica~ state of thé
medium on the hypothesis that the rnechanical action observed
6o.] ] STRESS IN DIELECTUICS. 5~

hetween electrified bodies is exertcd through and by means of

thc mcdium, as in thé familial' instances of thc action of one body
on auother by means of thé tension of a rope or thé pressure of
a rod, we find that thé medium must be in a state of mechanical
stress.
The nature of this stress is, as Faraday pointed out a tension
along thc hncs of force combined with an equal pressure in all
directions at right angles to thèse lines. The magnitude of thèse
stresses is proportional to thé energy of the electrification, or, in
other words, to the square of' thé résultant electromotive force mul-
tiplied by thé specinc inductive capacity of the medium.
This distribution of stress is thé only one consistent ~vith thc
observcd mcchanieal action on thé electrified bodies~ and also with
thé observcd equilihrium of the nuid dielectric which surrounds
them. 1 have therefore thought it a warrantahle step in scientific
procédure to assume the actual existence of this state of stress, and
to follow the assumption into its conséquences. Finding thc phrase
~cc~'c ~M.p?~used in several vague senses, I have attempted to
confine it to what I conceive to have been in thc mind of some
of those who have used it, namely, thé statc of stress in the
dielectric medium which causes motion of the electrified bodics,
and leads, whcn continually a,ugment<;d, to disruptivc discharge.
Electric tension, in this sense, is a tension of exa.et!y thc same
kind, and measured in t!)e samc way, as thé tension of a l'ope,
and the dielectric medium, which can support a certain tension
and no more, may be said to have a certain sti'CYtgth in cxactiy
thé same sense as thé rope is said to have a certain strength.
Thus, for example, Thomson bas found that air at thé ordinary
pressure and température can support an electrie tension of !)<!00
grains \veight per square foot before a spark passes.
60.~] From ttie hypothesis that electric action is not a direct
action between bodies at a distance, but is excrted by means of
thé médium betwcen thc bodies, we have dcduced that this medium
must be in a state of stress. We have also ascertained thc cha-
racter of thé stress, and compared it with thc stresses which may
occur in solid bodies. Along thé lines of force there is tension,
and perloendicnlar tu them there is pressure, thé numerical mag-
nitude of thèse forces being equal, and each proportional to thé
square of thé resultant force at the point. Having established
thèse results, we arc pi'cparcd to take another step, and to form
seriesxi. 1207.
j6'.r/).T~CN.,
60 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA. [60.

an Idca of the nature of thé eleetric polnrization of the dielectric

medium.
An elementary portion of a, body may be said to bc polarized
when it acquires equal and opposite properties on t\vo opposite
sides. Thé idca of internat pofarity may bc studied to thé ~rcatest
advantage as exemplifiecl in permanent magnets, and it will be
explained at greatcr icng'th wlien wc come to treat ofmagnetism.
Thc eh'ctric polarixation of an elementary portion of a dielectric
is a forccd stntc into which thé médium is thrown by the action
of ek'ctromotn'e foi'œ, and which disappears whcn that force is
removed. \Vu may conceivc it to consist in what we may eall
an electrical displuccment, produced by thc electromotive force.
When thé ek'ctromotivc force acts on a conducting medium it
produees a cnrrcnt through it, but if the medium is a non-con-
ductor or dielectric, thé current caunot fiow throu~Iï thé medium,
but thé electricity is displaced wit))in thé medium in the direction
of the electromotive force, thc extent of this displaccment de-
pendii)~' on thé magnitude of the electromotive force, so that if
the electromotive force increases or diminishcs the electric displace-
ment increases and diminishes in thc same ratio.
Thé amount of the displacement is measured hy the quantity
of ek'etricity which crosses unit of area, wiule thé displacement:
increases from zero to its actual amount. This, therefore, is thé
measure of thé electrie polarization.
The anatogy Lctwccn the action of electromotive force in pro-
ducing' electrie displacement and of ordinary mechanical force in
producing thc displaccment of an elastic body is so obvions that
I have ventured to call thc ratio of thé e)ectromotivc force to thé
corresponding electric displacement the M~r/ c/'p/?'/e 6'/a~6'<~
of <hc médium. This coefficient is différent in difrerent media, and
varies inversety as thc specifie inductive capacity of each medium.
Thé variations of electric displacement cvidently constitute electric
cun'ents. Thèse currents, however, can only exist during thé
variation of thé dispht.cement, and therefore, since thé displace-
ment eannot excecft a certain value without causing disruptive
discharge, thcy ca.nnot bc continued indetinitcly in thé same direc-
tion, tike thé currcnts througii conduetors.
In tourmaline, and other pyro-e!ectric erystalsj it is probable that
a state of electric polarization exists, whieh depends upon tcm-
perature, and does not require an externat electromotive force to
produce it If the intcrior of a body were in a state of permanent
6o.] ELECTRIC DI8PLACEMENT. 61

electric polarization, thé outside would gradually hecomc charged

in such a manner as to neutralize the action of thé internai elec-
trification for ail points outside the hody. This cxtcrnal superficial
charge could not be detected by any of thé ordinary tests, and
could not be removed by !).n.yof thc ordinary mcthods for dis-
charging superncial clectrification. Thé internai polarization of
thc substance would thcreforc never bc discovered unhss by some
nn'itns, such as change of température, thc amount of the interna!
polarization could be increased or diminished. Thé external elec-
trification would then bc no longer capable of neutralixin~ the
extcrna.1 eft'ect of the interna! polarixation, and an apparent elec-
trification would bc oLservcd, as in thé case of tourmaline.
If a charge e is unifbrmiy distribut ed over the surface of a
sphère) thé résultant force at any point of the medium surrounding
the sphère is numerically cqual to thé chargea divided by thc square
of tlie distance from thé centre of thé sphère. This resultant force,
according to our theory, is accompanied by a displacement of clec-
tricity in a direction outwards from t)ie sphère.
If wenowdrawaconeentrie spherical surface of radius?-, the whole
disjdacement, j?, through this surface will bc proportional to thé
résultant force multipned by thé area of thé 8pheric:d surface. But
thé résultant force is directly as thc charge e and inversely as the
s<p.]areof thc radius, whilc thc area ofthe surface is directly as the
squarc of the radius.
IIence thé whole displacement, is proportional to tbe charge e,
and is independent of thé radius.
To détermine the ratio between thé charge e, and thé quantity
of clectricity, j~ disp!ac&doutwards through tbe spherical surface,
let us consider thc work doue upon thé médium in thé région
bctwecn two conccntric spherical surfaces, \vbile thé displacement
is increased from 7~'to ~'+8~ If and dénote the potentials
at thé inner and thé outer of thèse surfaces respectively, the elec-
tromotive force by which thc additional dispiacement is produced
is so that the work spent in augmenting thé displacement
is(~)8~.
If we now makc thé inner surface coincide with that of the
electrified sphere, and make the radius of the othcr infinité,
becomes f, thé potentia! of thé sphère~ and bccomes zéro, so
that the whole work donc in thé surrounding medium is ~o- s.
Dut by t!te ordinary theory, thc work done in augmenting' thé
charge is ~"Se, and if this is spent, as we suppose, in augmenting
 C2 ELECTROSTATIC PIIENOMENA. [6l.

thc displacement, 8~=~, and since aud e yanish together~

-&' = or-
~C ~V~ceW<<' û?~MV~Y/~ .~<i'M~ ~C6 COMCCM~C
?~7/ /~e .e is c~~r// /t/ the <?~ye OMthe .?/~<'yf.
To fix our ideas of electrie displacement, let us consider an accu-
mulator formcd of two ccnducting plates A and j9, separated by a
stratum of a dick'ctnc C. Let bc a conducting wire joining
A and and Jet us suppose that by thé action of an electromotive
forœ a quantity Q of positive electi-icity is transferred along thé
wirc n'om to Thé positive dcctrincfitioli of A and thé
ncg-ativc electrification of B will produce a certain electromotive
ibrcc ncting from A towards B in thé dielectrie stratum, and this
will producc an electric displacement from towards 13 within the
dieh-c-tric. Thé amount of this displacpmcnt, as measured
hy thé
quajitKy of electricity forced across an imaginary section of the
dicjcctric dividing it into two strata, will be, according- to our
theory, cxactiy Sec A)-ts. 75, 7C, 111.
It app~-ars, ~hcreforc, that at thc same time that a
quantity
nf utccLricity is bcing- transferred
along dM wire Ly the cicctro-
motivc force from -N towards so as to cross every section of
thc wirc, the same quantity of
electricity crosses every section
of thc dielectric from to\vards by rcason of the electric dis-
placement.
T)n- reverse motions of electricity will take
place during- thé
discharge of the accumu]ator. In the wirc thé discharge wiU be
Q from to and in thc dielectric thé displacement will subside,
and a quantity of electricity Q will cross
evcry section from .B
towards
Hvci-y case of electrification or discharge may therefore be con-
sidercd as a motion in a closed circuit, such that at
every section
of the circuit the samc of crosses in thc same
quantity eicctriclty
ttme, and tins is the case, not only in thé voltaie circuit where
it lias alvays been recognised, but in those cases in which cicc-
tricity bas bcen generally supposed to be aceumulated in certain
places.
61.] We are thus led to a very remarkable conséquence of thé
theory which we are examining, name!y, that tI)G motions of elee-
tricity arc hke thosc of un ~c~~M~ nuid, so that thé total
quant itywithin an imag-inary fixed ciosed surface remains always
thc same. This rcsulL appears at first
sight in direct contradiction
to the iact that we can charge a conductor and thcn introduce
62.] THEORY PROPOSED. 63

it into the doscd space, and so alter the

quantity of electricity
within th~t space. But we must rcmember that thé
ordinary theory
takes no account of t))C electric displaecmcnt in the substance of
dielectrics which we hâve been invcstigating, but confines its
attention to thé electrification at thé bounding surfaces of the
couductors and dielectries. In thé case of thc charged conduetor
lut us suppose thé charge to be positive, thcn if tlie
surrounding
dicicctric extcnds on al! sides beyond the closed surface there will be
electric pota-rixation, accompanicd with displaccment from within
uutwards all over thc ctosed surface, and tlic
surfacc-hitcg-ral of
thé displacement ti~en over thc surface will he equal to thé
charge
on thé conductor within.
Thus whcn thé char~ed conductor is introduced into the closed
space there is immediately a. di6p!aeemcnt of a quantity of elec-
tricity equal to thé chfu'g-e throu~-Ii thc surface from within out-
wards, and the whoïc quantity within the surface remains the
samc.
Thc theot-y of c]ectric polarization will he discussed at
greater
h'ngth in Chaptcr V, and a mechanical illustration of it will be
givcn in Art. 331, but its importance cannot be fully understood
till wc arrive at thc study ofelectromag'netic phenomcua.
6X.] Thé pcculiar fcatures of tlie theory as wc have now de-
vclopcd them arc
That thé energ-y of eleetrifieation résides in the dielectric medium,
whcther that médium be solid, liquid, or gaseous, dense or rare,
or evcn deprived of ordinary gross mattcr, provided it be still
capable of transmitting elec-trical action.
That thé energy in any part of tlie médium is stored up in
the form of a state of constraint called electrie polarization, thé
amount of which dépends ou. the résultant electromotive force at
thc place.
That electromotive force acting on a dielectric
produecs what
wc have ealled electric displacement, thé relation between the force
and thé disptaeemcnt being in thé most général case of a kind
to be afterwards investigated in treating of conduction, but in
the most important cases tlie furce is in thé same direction as
the displacement, and is numericaUy cqual to the
displacement
multiplied by a quantity which wc have called thé coemeient of
electrie elasticity ofthe dielectric.
That the cnergy per unit of volume of the dielectric
arising from
the electric polarization is ha!f thé of thé electromotive
product
 64 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA. [62.
force and the clectric displacement multiplied, if necessary, by the
cosine of the angle between thcir directions.
That in nuid dielectries tttc eicctric polarization is accompa,nied
by a tension in tlie direction of the lines of force combincd with
an cqual pressure in a!i directions at rig'ht angles to thé lines
of force, the amount of thc tension or pressure per unit of area
bcing numcricaUy equal to tbe cnergy per unit of volume at the
samc p)acc.
That thc surfaces of any elementary portion into whicn wc may
cnneeivc thc volume of thé dielectric divided must be conceived
to bc eleetrified, so that thé surface-density at any point of thé
surface is equal in magnitude to thé displacement through that
point nf thc surface ?'<?c~'oM~ ?'M?M~, eo that if thc displacement
is in thé positive direction, thé surface of the clement will be elec-
triiicd negatively on thé positive side and positively on tho négative
side. Thèse superficial clectrifieations will in general destroy one
another when consecutive éléments arc considered, except where
thc diclectric bas an Interna) ehargf, or at thé surface of thc
dielectric.
Tbat whatcver eh.'ctriclty may lie, and whatcver wc may under-
stand by thc movement of ek'ctrieity~ the phenomenon which wc
have called clectric displacement is a movement of electricity in the
same sensé as the transfcrenee of a definite quantity of electricity
througli a wire is a movement of electricity, thc only dif!erence
beiog that in thc dielectric there is a force which we have called
dcetric elasticity which acts against thé e~ectric displacement, and
forces thé clectricity back when thc electromotive force is removedj
v'hcreas in the conducting wire the electric elasticity is continually
giving' way, so that a current of true conduction is set up, and
thé résistance dépends, not on thé total quantity of electricity dis-
placed from its position of equitibriumj but on tlie quantity which
crosses a section of thé conductor in a given time.
That in every case thé motion of electricity is subject to thé
same condition as that of nn incompressible fluid, namely, that
at cvery instant as much tnust f)o\v out of any given closed space
as (tows into it.
It foUo~~ (rom tbis that t'vc'ry electrie eurrent must form n
ctoscd circuit. Thé importance oftbis resuit will be seen when we
invc'sttgatc t!)c laws of ch'ctro-magnetism.
Since, as \vc have seen, tbe t))cory of direct action at a distance
is m!tt))en)aticaUy identical wit.b that of action by means of a
62.] METIIOD 0F THIS \VORK. 65

mcdium, thé actual phenomena may be explained by thé one

theory as we)l as by thé othcr, provided snitable hypothèses bc
introduccd whcn any difiiculty oeeurs. Thnsj Mossotti bas deduccd
the mathematical theory of dicleetries from thc ordinary theory
of attraction by mere!y giving an electric instead of a magnetic
interprétation to thé symbols in tho investigation by which Poisson
haf deduced thé tlicory of mag-netic induction from thé theory of
magnetic flnids. lIe assumes thé existence within thé dielectric of
small conducting- cléments, capable of having their opposite surfaces
or
oppositely cicetrined hy induction~ but not capable of losing
gaining electricity on thc whoïc, owing to their being' insulated
from cach othcr by a non-conductmg' médium. This theory of
dieleetrics is consistent with thé laws of electricity, and may be
actually truc. If it is trne, the speeif'c inductivc capacity of a
dielectric may he greatcr, but cannot be less, than that of air or
vacuum. No instauce bas yet been found of a dielectric having
an inductive capacity less than that of air, but if such should
bc discovered, Mossotti's theory must he ~bandoned, although his
formulae would all remain exact, and would only require us to alter
thc sign of a coefficient.
In thé theory which 1 propose to dcvelope, the mathematioal
methods are founded upon tlie siiiallest possible amount of hypo-
thesi~ and. thus équations of thé same form are found applicable to
for
phenomena which are certain)y of quite diHcrent natures, as,
instance, electric induction through dielectrics conduction through
conductors, and magnetic induction. In ail thèse cases the re-
lation between thé force and thé cffeet produeed is expressed by
a set of équations of thé same kind, so that when a problem in
one of thèse eubjeets is solvcd, the problem and its solution may
be translated into thé language of the othcr subjccts and tho
results in their new form will also be true.

VOL.I.
 CHAPTER II.

HLEMENTARY
MATUEMATICAL
TJIHORY0F STATfCAL
ELECTMICfTY.

~'M/OM o/~e/ a.? ~ewa/

()M~.
63.] We hâve seen that ti~ actions ofc!ectrif!ed hodies arc s.ich
that the electrincation of one
hody may bc equal to that ofanothcr,
or tu thé sum cf the dcctriHcations of two
hodies, and that when
two bodtcs arc cqua!)y and
oppositely ctcctrificd thuy Lave no 0!
tnca] efrect on extonm! bndiG.s when
pla~.d to~thcr within a closed
insuhd.<.d conducting-vcssL.1. Wc may exprès all thesu re.u!ts in
a eonc.sc and consistent manin.r
by doscribin~ an electrified body as
with a certain
c~ which wc may dénote
by 6-. ~hcn thc ctectriCcation is positive, that is,
usuat convention, vitrcous, c will he a according to thé
positive quantity. WI~n thé
clectrificution is native or resinous, e will Le
ucgative, and the
(juantity -6 may be int~-pi-cted cither as a négative quantity of
vitreous electricity or as a positive
quantity uf resinous clectricity.
Tlie etTect of adding together two
equal and opposite charges of
eicctrjetty, +c and -e, is to produce a state of no clectrihcation
expressed by zéro. We may therefore regard a
body not electrified
as virtually charged with equal and
opposite charges of indefinite
magnitude, and an electrified body as virtuaHy charged with un-
equa) quantities of positive and négative
electricity, the a!gebraic
sum ot thèse charges thé
constituting ohserved clectrification. It is
nmmfest, however, t!.at this way of regarding an ekctriiied
body
entirely artificial, and may he compared to the conception of thé
velocity of a body as compounded of two or more diffcrent velo-
ottcs, no onc of winch is the actual ydocity of the
we speak therefore of a body. Whf;n
body bcing eharged with a quantity c of
electricity we mean simply ti.at thc hody is electrified, and that
tlie electrification is vitreous or rcsinous
aceording. as c is positive
or
ncgatjvc.
 ELECTRICDENSITY. 67
64.]

ON EI.ECTRÏCDENSITY.

J~M~K/MM ~~C 73/WCM.?~.

Thé electric vohunc-density at a given point
64.1 .D<OM.
in space Is thc limiting ratio of' tlie quantity of electricity within
a sphere whose centre is the given point to thé volume of thé
sphère-, when its radius is diminishcd without limit.
We slialt dénote this ratio by the symbol p, which may be posi-
tive or negative.

J9~K~M oit 'S'M~C~.

It is a resuit alike of theory and of c-xperiment, that, in certain

cases, thé electrification of a body is enti)'e!y on thé surface. Thé
thc if defined to thé method
density at a point on surface, according
"'iven above, would be infinite. Wc therefore adopt a difrerent
mcthod for tlie measnrcment of surfacc-Jensity.
~c//M~~M. T)te electrie density at a given point on a surface is
thc limiting ratio of thé quantity of clectricity within a sphère
whose centre is thé given point to the area of thé surface contained
within thé sphere, when its mdius is diminished without limit.
Wc shall denote thé surface-density by the symbol <r.
Those writers who supposed electricity to be a material fluid
or a collection of particles, were ohHged in this case to suppose
thé electricity distributed on thc surface in tlie form of a stratum
of a certain thickness C, its density being- ~), or that value of p
which would resuit from tlie p:t.rtlc)cs having thc closest contact
of which titey are capable. It is manifest that on this theory
p~ = o-.
When o- is negative, according to this theory, a certain stratum
of thiekncss 0 is left entirely devoid of positive electrieity, and
filled entirely with negative electricity.
There is, however, no expérimental evidence either of thé elec-
trie stratum having any thickness, or of electricity being a fluid
or a collection of particles. We therefore preter to do without thé
symbol for thé thickness of the stratum, and to use a special symbol
for suriaee-density.

j9~K~M a~ Z~2e.
It is sometimes convenicnt to suppose electricity distributed
on a line~ that is, a long narrow body of which we neglect tlie
F 2
 68 )';LECTROSTATJL'S.
f~e ·
Inckness. ln this case wc may dcfinc t]~
te bc thé Inniti,~ linc-dcnsity at any point
.ati. 0)- th.. c-h-ch-icity on an dément' o!-
the
line to in. )e,,g.th of O.at .h.m..nt ~)~cn <he
élément is diminished
wj~unt Iimtt.
If~ denot.~ thé !ii.G-dcnsi<y, tlion t)ic w).o!c
quantityof cicc-
tricity nn a cn.-vc is ~.I,cre is tho dément of thc curve.
= A
Sinu)nr]y, ,f is the
surface-dcn.sity, the who)e quantity of e)ce-
t'-tofy on thc surface is

6
=~ rr

whcre is the dément ofem-~cc.

If is tlic .1 ,ny point of .pacc. then tho whole
volun~-den.ity
~fctnotywjtJnn a certain vohtmeis

c=~/p~
vhcre is the clément of volume. Thc h-mits of in~ration
in cac.I. case ~rc. thosc of t).c
curvc, thc surface, or thc portion of
spacc cmis)de)'cd.
It is ~anifcst that A, and arc quantities diffbring in kind
c.K.h in space lower than t!.c
prccedi~.o ~at
bebcn~oncehmcnsion
a hnc, t).c quantifies
~A, and will bo of thc
same I.nd, and if Le thc .nit of
length, and A, p .ch the
unit of thc d~nt H..Is of dcnsity, aA, and /'wuieacn cach
dénote oue unit
ofcJcctrk.ity.

o/' ~e o/' T~/r~.

between whieh
is~~?
is ~hc unit of Lot tu'o bodies, whosc dimensions are
!c~.th. small
thé di~e~ h. ~ed with equal q~
~n_~redw.th
P .t.vc e).c nc~ty and p.accd at and and
!e thc .barges he saeh that the r~ective~
force with which tLy each
is rené

L.dy ..a.d".7" to Le ti.e unit of If thé ehar~f

e~er body .1
thé deetricity.
were a unit of
nes-.tive dectricity, then since the
.f. Lodie. ~d Le reve.~ w~I.uld have n
att)action equal to the unit offbrcc.
were also
fo~ wouh)
force tlic llT~ h.. n.pu)s)v~ and unity, the
equa! to unity.
Since thé .cticn bct~een
any two portions of electricity is nul
68.] LAW OF ELECTRIC FORCE. 69

afïceted hy thé présence of other portions, tl)c répulsion hetween

e units of' eh'etricity at and units at .7? is ee', thc distance
~J3 being unity. Sec Art. 30.

Z</?o o/'V'b~c~c~ee~ /?/'<'c/c< _<f.

66.] Coulomb shewed by cxperiment that thé force Ijctwcen
L'Icctriticd bodics whosc dimensions fn'c small f'o!n]):n'cd with the
distance bctween thcm, varies inversely as thé square of thc dis-
tance. IIcnce thé actual repulsion bctween two such bodies eharged
with quantities e and and placed at a distance is
ce'
7"
1'W
We shall provc in Art. 7-1 that this law is thc only one con-
sistent with thé ohservcd fact that a conduc-tor, ])h~ced in t)]e iusidc
of a ebsed hol!ow conductor and in contact with it, is deprived oi'
aïï electrical charg'e. Our conviction of thc n.ccuracy of thé law
of thé inverse square of thé distance may be considcred to l'est
on experiments of this Idnd, ra.ther than on thé direct measure-
mentë of Coulomb.

7t'K~ .Z'b/V~ ~C/~feM ?'0 J~c.y.

67.] ln order to find thé résultant force hetween two budies
we mig'Iit dividc each of them into its cléments of volume, and
consider thc répulsion hetween thé electricity in eaeh of thc clements
of thé first hody and thc electricity in cach of the elements of thc
second body. We shonld thus gct a system of forces equal in
numher to thé product of the numbers of 'thc clements into which
wc huvc divided eaeh hody, :)nd we should have to combine thé
euccts of these forces by thc rnles of Statics. Thus, to und thé
component in thé direction of.)' wc shouhl have to find thé value
of thc sextuple intégral
/Y/Y/Y ~/(j-)
~J~.U {(~(~7 +(~ ~~p
where A', are thé coordinates of :). point in thc first body at
which thu cicctrieat dfnsity is p, nn'l .T~ z', and p' nrc the
for thc '.('cond n.nd the integ'rn.tion
corrosponding' quantifies hody,
is extended first over thé onu hody and tht'ti over tlic otlier.

7t'<<M//r/~ /vc /M/.

68.] In order to simpliF~' U)n mathcm:ttical procc'ss~ it is con-

vcnient to consid~r th< :)ftifm of nn t.')(~'triH<'d hody, ~"jt <'n another
 70 ELECTR08TATICS.
)"68.

body of any form, but on a.n indefinitely smnll body, charged with
an Indefinitely small amount of eh'ctrieity, and
ptaced at any point
of the space to whieh thé electrictd action extends.
By making
thc chnrg-c of tilis
body Indefmitety smaU we rendcr insensible its
disturbing- action o)t tlic c)m)'~u of the nrst body.
Let e be thé chitrgc of this body, and let thc force
acting on
it when placcd at the point (: and let
~)he7~, thc dircction-
cosines of thc force hc M, then we may call thé résultant
force at the point (;~ ~).
Jn spcitking- of thé resnKant electrical force at a
point, we do not
n<-eL-ss:tt-i)yimply that any force is actually exertcd thcre, but. only
that if an electrified body were
ptac-ed therc it would be acted on
by a force ~c, wherc e is thé charge of the body.
.2~ The Résultant electrical force at
any point is the
force which would bc exertcd on a small
body charged with t)ic unit
of positive electricity, Ifit were
placed thcre without disturbing- thé
actual distribution ofeicctricity.
This ibrce not only tends to move an electrified
body, but to
move thé electricity within the so that the
body, positive eh-ctricity
tends to move in t]te direction of and thé négative electricit.y
in the opposite direction. IIenee thc force Il is also called thé
J~eetromotivc yorce at thc point (~ r).
~hen we wish to express the tact that the resultant force is
a
vector, we shall dénote it by the German letter (S. If thc
is a dielectric, then, body
according- to the theory adopted in this
treatise, thc electricity is disptaced within it, so that thé
quantity
of electricity which is forced in thc direction
of @ across unit
of area fixed pcrpendicular to @is

~=~; .lï~;
whcre D is the déplacement, @ th.. résultant
force, and Â~the
~t~cinc inductivc c-apacity of the dielectric. For air, = l.
Jfthe hody is a conductor, the state of eonstraint is
continuaHy
~vi!)S- wav, so that a curre)~ of' conduction is produced and main-
ta)!)Gd as long- as the force @ acts on the médium.

C~o~ r)/c j?~/<~M< 7'~yce.

If dénote the components of 7?, then
~=A! y==~ ~=~,
whcre /,?~,?~ are the direetion-cosines of~
 HLECTROMOTIVE FORCE. 71
69.]

y~e-cy~ ~<?c/nc Force, o?-~cc~o~o~'M Force

~H c/s C~'c.
a given arc ~P of a curve is
69.] Thé EIcctromotivc force along
which would be donc on a unit
numerically measured hy thc work
ofpositivc~clectneity carried along thc curvc from thé bcguuung,
1o 7~, thc end of the arc.
and if the re-
If .<is thé Icngth of thc arc, mcasurcd from
sidtant force 7~ at any point of thc cui-ve makcs an angle E with
thc tan~.nt drawn in the positive direction, then thé work done
on unit or clectricity in moving along thé element of thé curve
~witibc 7)'cose~
and thc total electromotive force ~wHl be

r== /cose~,
''o0
extended from thc bcginning to thc end
the in~ratiort bcin~
of thc nrc.
If we nmkc usc of thc componcnts of thé force R, we find

+ 71~+ rlsdIS (,8,

l
'-=M~~ s
o 0 ,A (1-S
are such that JT~+r~+~~ is a complete
If ~nd
diO'crcntial ofa funetion of then

r == =
(A~i.- -t- r~ + Z~)
A
where thc integration is pci-formed in any way from the point A
to the point P, whether along thé given curvc 01- along any other
Une hetween A and 7-
In this case ris a scalar function of thc position of a point in
of thé point, the value
spaec, that is, when wc know thé eoordinatcs
of r is determinate, and this value is ilidependent of thé position
and direction of thé axes of i-efercnec. Sec Art. 1G.

0~ ~MC/OKN r/e P<M~'OMO/'ajPo!M'

In what follo\vs, wlicn wc dcseriljc a quantity as a function of

the position of a point, wc mean that for every position of the point
the function has a determinate value. We do not imply tliat this
value can always bc cxpresscd hy the same formula for ail points of
formula on 0110 side of a
space, for it may be expr~ssed by onc
on thc other side.
given surfuce and by another formula
 72 ELECTHOSTATIC3. [70.

On Pû~M~ ~<MC/;OM~.
70.] Thé quantity A'+J~+~ is an exact dinerential
whcnever the force arises from attractions or
repulsions whosc in-
tensity is a function of thé distance only from any number of
points. For if be thé distance of one of thc points from the point
(~ z), and If /)'j be thé répulsion, t!ien

.1.1= Ir'1 l, .=h'c

.Y.=~=~ rla;'
with similar expressions for and so that
+ + =
and since is a funetion of is an exact difTerentia!
only,
ofsnmc function nf~, say fj.
Similarly for any other force acting from a centre at dis-
tance
A",~A-+ J, + Zj = =
But JT==~ +A~+&c. and Z and are compounded in the same
way, thcreforc
A'+ J~+~~ = ~~+~&c. =
the integ-ra! of this
quantity, under thc condition that ~= 0
at an infinite distance, is caHcd thé Potential
Function.
Tiie use of this fnnction in thc of
theory attractions was intro-
duced by Laplaee in t!ic caletilation of thc attraction of
the eart.h.
Green, in his essay On thc Application of Mathematieat
to Electricity,' gave it thé name of thé Potential Function. Analysis
Gauss,
working independently of Green, also used thc word Potential.
CJausius and others hâve applied the term Potential to thé
work
winch would he donc if two bodies or wcre to
systems removed
an infinite distance from one ..nothcr. Wc shall follow
thé use of
thc word in recent English works, and avoid
ambiguity by adoptinglm
the fo))o\ving définition due <o Sir W. Thomson.
~M~ The Potential at a Point is the work
which would be donc on a unit of
positive electricity by thé elec-
trie forces if it wcre placed at that
point without disturbing- t)ie
ch.ct.-ie distribution, and can-icd from that
point to an infinite
distance.
71.] Expressions for the Résultant Force and its
terms of thc Potential. components in
Sincc thé totu] e)cctromotivc force
along any arc JLNis
72.]] rOTENTIAL. 73

if we put f~ for thc arc ~j9 we shall ha.vcfor the forcercsolvcd

in thé directionof
I?cos£ =
7CCOS< = –-y-
(171,
r
whence,by assuinin,,(18pandiel to eachof thé axes in succession)
wcget y=_ ~=_ 1
r~
~F.
~=~! 1cl.z +
+ rlr/ +~!
+ rlz
Wu shall denote the force itscif, whosc mag-nitudc is Il and whosc
componcnts are -T, by thc German letter @, as in Arts. 17
and(!8.

~C ~O~M~M~ al aM ~!K~ within C~M~?~ is the .MMP.

73.] A conductor is a body which allows thc dcct.ricity within

it to move from one part of the body to any other when acted on
by electromotive force. When the clectricity is in cquiHbrium
thcre can bc no electromotive force acting within thé conductor.
IIcnec 7~ = 0 throughout the whole space occupied by the con-
ductor. From this it follows that

~'=0= 0,0, ~=0 ~=0.

rlx
f/ clJ-0, = 0
and therefore for every point of thc conductor
~= 6',
where C is a constant qua.ntity.

Foi'c?~M~ o/' C~M~e~

Since thc potcntial at all points within the substance of t)ie

conductor is C, thé quantity C is called thé Potential of thc con-
ductor. C may bc defined as thé work winch must be done by
externat agency in order to bring- a unit of electricity from an
infinite distance to thé conductor, thc distribution of eicctricit.y
being supposed not to be disturbed by thé presence ofthe unit.
If two conductors have cqual potentials, and arc conhected hy
a. wirc so fine that thé electricity on thé wirc itself' may be negr-
lected, thc total electromotive force along thé wire will be zéro,
and no electricity will pass from the one conductor to thé other.
If the potentials of thc conduetors and be and thcn
thc cit'c'tromotivc force along nnv wirc ]oin!ng' and will be
~r,
74 ELECTROSTATICS. [73.

in thé direction ~7~, that is, positive clectrieity will tend to pass
from thc conduc'tor ofhig-hcr potenliat to thc ot))er.
Potcntial, in electrical science, lias thc samc rctatiott to EIcc-
tricity that Pt-essnr~, in ITydro.sh).ties, )ms tf) F)tud, or tliat Tem-
pérature, in ThermoJynamics, bas to IIcai. Etuetricity, Fluids,
and lïcat :d) tend to pnss from one place to another, if thé Potcn-
tial, Pressure, or Tonpcratm-e is greatcr in thé first p)ace than in
the second. A fhud is eer<ain)y a substa.nœ, hcat is as certain)y
not a substance, so that t!tou~-)t wc may find assistance from ana-
logies of this kind in fnrmin~- clear idcas of forma! electrical rela-
tions, wc must Le caref'ut not. to let the one or the other &na.)op-y
sn~gcst to us that clectrieity is cithcr a substance like water, or
a statc of agitation !ikc hcat.

7~/CM/~ f/~c r/~ 7;.7~M/ ~/cw.

73.] Let thcre bc a single electrified point chargcd with a quantity
e of electricity, and let r hc thé distance ofthe from it,
point id,
thcn
r=r7i'~r = r–=?" r
Lct therc bc any numher of ctcch-iftcd points whose coordinates
are (;), (~), &c. and ihcir charges Cj, ~,&c., and
let tlieit- distances from the point (~,y, ~) hc ?- &c., then the
potcntial of the systcm at will be

r=s(').
Let the clectric density at any point (~, <-)within an e)ec-
trified body hc thcn the pntcntin! duc to the hody is

~=~
Wh. )-={(.t–)~)2+(~~)~~
thé intcgraiion hcing' extended throughout thc body.

0~ P~y~C Z~7~ f~c 7KM;M ~?«/<?.

74.] Thé fact that the force Ix.'twecn ctectrified bodies is inverscty
as the sqniu-c of thc distance mny b(; considered to be established
by din-ct expcrimcnts witli thé torsion-hahmec. T!)c results, how-
ever, whieh \Vt' derivo from sucti experiments rnust be rc~rd<;d
as afTected hy an crror dc'pending- on the
probable error of CMh
cxpcnment, and unless the skiti of thé operator be
very ~rcat.,
 PROOF 0F THE LAW 0F FORCE. 75
74.]

thc probable error of an experiment with the torsion-balance is

considérable. As an argument that the attraction is really, and
not merciy as a rongh approximation, inversely as the square of thé
distance, Expcriment VU (p. 3.1) is far more conclusive than any
measurements of c~cctrical forces can be.
In that expurimcnt a conductor B, charged in any manner, was
enclosed in a hoiïow conducting vessel C, which completely sur-
rounded it. 6' was aiso electrified in any manner.
B was then p~aced in electrie communication with C, and was then
again insniatcd and l'cmoved from C without touching it, and cx-
amincd by means of an clectroscope. In this way it was shewn
that a conductor, if madc to touch thé inside of conducting- vessel
which complctely cndoses it, becomes comph-tely dischargcd, so
that. no trace of electrification can bc discovercd by thé most
dcHoate cicctromctcr, however strongly thc conductor or the vessel
ttas bceu p~'ev~ous~y c!cctrif)L'd.
Thc mcthods o.f detectin~- thé electrification of a body are so
dc-licate that :L miDiont!] part of the original electrification of
cnuM hc ohserved if it existed. No experimcnts involving the direct
mcasurement of forces can hc brought to such a dcgrcu of accuracy.
It follows from thiH expcrimcnt ttiat a non-eicctrified body in thc
insidc of a hoUow conductor is at the same potential as thé liollow
condnetor, in whatcvcr way that conductor is charged. For if' it
were not at thé samc potential, then, if it wcre put in electrie
connexion with thc vessel, uither by touching it or by means of
a wire~ electricity would pass from tho onc hody to the otticr, and
thé conductor, when removed from thé vessel, would hc found to hc
eiectrificd posit ively or iiegatively, which, as wc have already statcd,
is not thé ca.se.
Hence thc w!)o]e spacc inside a hoUow conductor is at thc samc
potential as tbc condnctor if no eleetrified body is placed within it.
If thc law of thc inverse square is true, this will bc thé case what-
evcr hc thé form of thc hoUow conductor. Our objcct at present,
howcver, is to ascertain from this fact the form of tlie law of
attraction.
For this pnrposc let us suppose tlie liollow conductor to bc a thin
spherical shell. Since evcrything is symmetricat about its centre,
the shell will be uniformly clectrified at every point, and we have
to cnquirewhat musthe thé law of attraction of a uniform spherical
she)I, so as to fulfil the condition that thc potential at every point
within it shall bc the same.
 76 ELECTROSTATJCS. [74.
Lot thé force at a distance )' from a point at which a. quantity e
of electricity is eoncentrated Le 7?, wherc is some function of?'.
Ail central forces which :u'c functions of thé distance admit of a

potential~ let us write 'LLJ for thé potential function duc to a unit

of clectricity at a distance
Let thé radius of thc sphcrical shell bc and let thc surface-
density he n-. Let 7~ Le any point within thé shell at a distance
from thc centre. Take thc radius throug'h P as the axis of
spherical coordinates, and let he tlie distance from J? to an element
<7~nf thé shell. TItcn the potential at P is

8,
.=~

T ?' a~
r=/00~n sm
/<y'sm6~0de
Now ==
~–2~cos~-}-
?'=~sin6~0.
Hpnce TT = 2 'TT /(,.)
/(.)~ (Ir
F=2~<r-~ /+;'
y~~«–;)
and must be constant for aiï vaines of~j less tlian a
.Mulupiymg both sides t)y~an(i uittcrenttatingwith respect to~j
r= 2~a {/(~+~)+.(a-
Differentiating again with respect to~~
0 =~(~+~).
Since a and~ are independent,
(?-) = C, a constant.
Uencc /(r) = C)'-}.C',
and thé potentia! function is

.= c~.
y.
The force at distance is
got by dinercntia.ting this expression
with respect to and cha.nging' tlie sign, so that

or the force is invcrseiy as thé square of the distance, and this

therefore is the on!y law of force which satisfies the condition thitt
tlie putcntiat \\ithin a uniform sphcrical shell is constant*. Now
SeePratt's ~/fc'/)OH)<-«/
J'~t'/o~t~y,p. ]44.
76.] ELECTRIC
INDUCTION. 77

this condition is shewn to be MnIIcd by thé electric forces with

titc most perfect accuracy. Hence thé law of electric force is
\'t;~Lu!l '0 a corresponding' degrce of accuracy.

tS'K~cc-T~ o/<?c/<c ~~c~M, ~M~~e~e 7)~M<

/OM~ a ~ac<?.
75.] Let R be thé resultant force at any point of thé surface,
and E the angle which 7~malles with thé normal drawn towards the
positive side of the Burface, then Tt'coscE is thé component of the
force normal to thé surface, and if <~ is thé clement of thé surface,
the electric displacement throngh dS will be, hy Art. G8,

A'/i* cos E r/<S'.

4'TT
Sincc we do not at present consider any dielectric except air, -Â'= 1.
We may, however, avoid introducing at ihis stage thc theory of
electric displacemcnt, hy calling7)'co8e~the Induction throug'h
the clément ~'S'. This quantity is well J~nown in mnthematicai
physics, but tlie name of induction is borrowed from Faraday.
Thé sut'mce-integra.I of induction is

cos 6
fm

and it appears by Art. 21, that if -ï, 7, are thé components of~
and if thèse quantities arc continuous within a région boundcd by a
closed surface S, thé induction reckoned from within outwards is
f/'T, 7. /T/ ~\7 7 7
d,v + il~ + ~)~
ri;
u(
~ccs~=~(~
thé intégration being extended through thc whole space within the
surface.

Induction ~OK~ ? 7~M~<? Closed ~M?/aCCdue to a &'M~~CëM~e

of Force.
76.] Let a quantity e of electricity be supposed to be placcd at a
point <3, and let be the distance of any point from 0, thé force
at that point is Ti* = in thé direction OP.
l'-
Let a line be drawn from 0 in any direction to an infinite
distance. If 0 is without the closed surface this Une will either
not eut thé surface at all, or it will issue from thé surface as many
times as it enters. If 0 is within thé surface thc Hue must first
78 ELECTROSTATICS. [76.
issue from thé surface, and then it may enter and issue any number
of fîmes alternatcly, cnding by issuing from it.
Let e be t.!u' angle betwcen 0/~ and thé normal to thé surface
drawn outwards where OP cuis it, thon where thé line issues from
the surface cos e will bo positive, and whcrc it enters cos will
be ncg'ativu.
Now let a sphere hc deso'ihcd with centre 0 and radius unity,
and Ici tlie Hue <9~ doscribe a cunical surface of smal! angutar
aperture about 0 as vertex.
Tlils cône will eut off a smal! element f/M from tlie surface of thé
sphcre, and small elements <S'~ &c. from Die c'toscd surface at
the various places whcrc t!u: Hne 07~ iiitei-seet,3 it.
Then, since any eue of thèse cléments <S'i!)tcrscets thé cone at a
distance from thc vertex and at an obliqnity f,
~6' = sec < ~M
and, sincc R = we shaïï have
7~ cos f = j~ c ~(u
thé positive sign being titkcn when ?' issues from the surface, and
thé négative whcrc it enfers it.
If thc point 0 is without thé closcd surface, thc positive values
arc equal in number to thé negative oncs, so that for any direction
27t'COS€~=0,

and therefore 0,
~7~cose~'=
thé integration heing- extended over thé whole closcd surface.
If tlie point 0 is within the etosed surface the ra-dius vector 07~
first issues from the eloscd surface, givin~ a positive value of' e~,
and then lias an equal iiumber of entrances and issues, so that in
this case 7)'cos E ~'S' = e </M.

Extending thé integ'ration over thé whole elosed surface, we shall

include the whole of the sphcrieal surface, the arca of which is 4'n',
so thut
cos = .1 Tic.
~~M =
Hence wc conclude that the total induction outwards through a.
etosed surface duc to a centre of force e placed at a point 0 is
zero when 0 is without tlie surface, and 4Trc when 0 is within
the surface.
Since in air thc displacement is cqual to the induction dividcJ
 77.] 0F LAPLACE
EQUATIONS AND POISSON. 79

by 4~ thé displacement through a dosed surface, reckoned out-

\v:u'ds, is equal to tlie c)cctrieity within the surface.
~"Y~/M/ It also follows tha,t if thc surface is not ctoscd but
is bonndcd by~ a g-Ivcn dosed curve, the total induction throug-h
it is <u~, wliere M is thc solid ang-Ic suhtendcd hy the dosed curve
at 0. This quantity, thercfore, dépends only on thé closed curve,
and not on the form of tlie sur~cc of \vhich it is the bounda.ry.

<3Mthe /~K~OM~ Z,6'C r~ 7~~0M.

77.] Since thé value of thé total induction of a single centre

of force through f), closed surface dépends only on whether thé
centre is within thé surface or not, and does not dépend on its
position in any other way, if tht'i-e are a, number of such centres
&c. \viU)H) the surface, and < < &c. without tlie surface,
wc shall have

.ITTC;
~7~COS6< =

whcre <? dénotes the a)~'ebraica). sum of thc quantities of c]ee-

tricity a~t ail thc centres of forée within the elosed surface, that is,
thé total electricity within thé surface~ résinons clectricity being'
reckoned négative.
If thé electricity Is so distributed within tlie surface that thc
density is nowhere infinite, wc sha!I have by Art. G-j,

4 TTC= -1-n-
~~p~'</y~,
andhyArt.75,

/y~=~'(~+'
If we take as thf closod surface that of thc etonent of volume
<<- wc slutll liave, by uqu~ting- thcse expressions,
dX r/y
~+~+~=~~
and if a potential ~cxists, wc find by Art. 71,
~'V ~~F ~~F
-7? +-+- +4wp=0. 0.
r/ .7~"
This équation, in tlie case in which tlie density is zero, Is called
Laptacc's Equation. In its more général form it was first given by
Poisson. It enabtes us, wlien \ve knowthe potential at every point,
to détermine tlie distribution of electricity.
80 EIjECTROSTATICS. [78.

We shall dénote, as at Art. 2C, thc quantity

r/
~+~
and we may express Poisson's equation in words Ry sayijig- that
thé clectric density multiplicd by 47r is thé concentration of thé
tlie potential has no
potential. Wherc there is no ctcctnHcation,
concentration, and this is thé interprétation of Laptaee's equation.
If wc suppose t))a.t in thé superficial and hnear distrilmtions of
thé elec-
electricity thé volume-density p remains finite, and that
tricity exists in the form of a thin stratum or narrow fibre, then,
of thc stratum or the
hy increasing p and diminishing thé dcpth
section of the fibre, we may approach thé limit of truc superficial
or lincar distribution, and thé équation being- true throughout tite
if interpreted in accordance
process will remain true at thé limit,
with thé actual circumstanees.

0M the CCM~O?~ ~t7/~ r/<!~MT~YfC~Z ~~C6.

to
78.] We shall consider thé electrified surface as thc limit
which an eicctiined stratum of density p and thickncss v approaches
when p is incrcased and v diminishcd wititout limit, thé product pv
fr
bcin~ always finite and equal to thc surface-density.
Let the strntum he tha.t induded bctween thé surfaces
~(a-)=7''=~ a (I)
and F=a+~.h. (2)
~f (~
If we put
Ifweimt = ?/' +
f/~ +
and if ?~, Mare the directiou-cosincs of thé normal to thé surface,
~F
7~ = 7t'M =
le1)1, 7CM = (~

Now let he thé value of thc potential on thé negative side

of thé surface 7"'= a, its value between thé surfaces F= a and
7'' == -)- and its value on thé positive sidc of' F = a+
Also, let pi, p', and he the values of thé density in thèse three
portions of space. Then, since the density is everywhere finite,
the second derivatives of are everywhere finite, and the first
derivatives, and aiso thé function itself, are everywhere continuous
and finite.
At any point, of tlie surface 7~'= let a normal he dmwn of
 ELECTRIFIED SURFACE. 81
78.]

length v, till it meets thc surface F = a+~ then the value of.~ at
thé extremity of the normal is

a+ v +~la 11/, + tizd lz+ &c, ((5)

5)
~+.(~+~+~)+&c., clJ
or s+~=Œ+r72+&c. (G)
Thc value of F at thé same point is
tl V'
(7)
~=~+~+'+'~)~. r.x C!/ z
lc tlY''
~=~+~ (8)

Since thc first derivatives of F continue always finite, thé second

sidc of the equation vanishcs when is diminished without limit,
and therefore if and denote the values of on thé outside
and inside of an electrified surface at thé point x, y, z,
= (9)
If + <7.p, + ~y, + be the coordinates of another point on
thc electrified surface, F=a and ~=~ at this point also; whence
(I.Pf dF (IF
0=~+~A+&c., (10)

0= {X+ {z+ e.j Il )

~(~~+(')~+(~+~(n)
f/A' (19 (19 dz dz
and when vanish, we find thc conditionss
~"1 ~7 1
/M'

~= C~ (12)

~~t
J
where C is a quantity to be determineJ.
rl,Y
Next, let us consider the variation of F and along thé
ordinate p&raUel to x between thé surfaces F= a and 7~=s+~.
Wc hâve 7~ = + + ~'(~)' + Sec., (13)
~ï'ï*

and ~r,~4~<+~. + ~.K" (.4)

(/A' rM;*
Hence, a.t tlie second surface, wliere J''=~+~ and fheeomes

~~+'~+~ ('~

VOL.T.
 82 ELECTROSTATICS. [?o.
r/~F'
whence ,+&;c.==C' (](j)

)jy thc first of equations (12).

Multipfyiug- by 7~, and rememberin~ t]tat at thé second surine
7~<r == n/)
//2~
we find
weHnd 7?12
~~=C7~. (j8)

Simihu-ty 7r CTi. 2
~/=C7~ (
(~)
rl'=T''
and
~=6~M~. (20)

~1-
Addiii-
Add.~ + + _Ic = CTI;
c7?;
(- + + ~~)~ (21)
(2,)
~2 ~2
lmt + = 7 aii(l k = vI?
(eX- ( ,Ir r (~
hcncG C'=–47r~=–47r<T, (23)
whcrc <r is the surfacc-dc-nsity; or, muttipiymg- t!te equations
( 12) by M, 1l rcspectivdy, and addin~
,~7~ 2 P2 ~r
r17~ d 1 )+~( rl __)i '~2 rl l i +~~? o. (2~)
~) 1
-)~(~)+~)+4-=~
Tins equation is called the nf 7' at a surjet.
6'M
This cquatinti may also Le u'rittcn

~F, ~7~,
~+~~=~' ( )
(25)
where arc the normals to the surface drawn towards tlie
first and thé second médium respective, and thé potentials
at points on thèse normes. Wc may also write it

7)'~cosf~+jPjCOSfj+47T(r=n; (2(!)
whcre j?~ 7?~ arc thc resultant forces, and
fj.fg thc ang-Ies which
they make with thc normals drawn~o?~ thé surface on either
side.
79.] Let us next determine thé total meclianical force acting on
an ctement of thc c!cctrined surface.
Thé ~encrai expression for the force parallel to x on an element
whosc vu)umc is and volume-density p, is
~7
rl,r, (27)
 8<).] FORCE ACTtNG ON AN ELECTIUFtED SURFACE. 83

In thé présent case we have for any point on the normal f

~7~ ~~i. r >
~=-~+~7~ (
~) )

also, if thc cicment of surface is <<~ that of thé volume of thc

c!cmcnt of U)e stratum may be written and if is thc whotc
force on a stratum of thickuess

~=.+-+~-)~ rl.u rl.c (") )

Intcg'rating with respect to wc find

x = dS + &c.);
~=-(~+~). fi Cv 2 -}.- <~)
(30))

~F, ~r'
silice
or~mee
or, l- Ó) +~-&e.
-~=-~+~ (31)

~=-(~.+~)+&c. rl.L rl.z (32)

When v is diminishcd and y/ino'cased without limit, thé product
p'v remainin~' always constant and cqual to (r, thc expression for
thé force in the direction of; on thc eicctrieity o'S' on the clement
of surface </<9is
ofsurfacedSis 7c.<t
x.,I (3 3
(33))
A=-(-); (7,Si 1- -(Iv 2)
that is, thc force acting on thc electnned element <r~<S'iu any given
direction is the arhhmctic inean of thc forces act ing on cqual
quantities of clectricity placed one jnst insidc the surface and thc
othcr just ontside thc surface close to the actual position of the
élément, and tlicreforc thé rcsu!tant meelianical force on thé elcc-
triHed élément is equal to thc résultant of thé forces which would
act on two portions of electrieity, cach equal to hatf tliat on tlie
element, and plaeed one on Gaeli sidc of thc surface and iunultcly
nca.r to it.
80.] ~e~ coKrA<c/o/ M c~ ~7;Mw, /<~ 7~~ o/' the
c~ec~c/y M()M ~M~rc.
We have ah'cady siicwu that throughout thc substance of thc
conduetor thc potential F is constant. Hcnec \7~ is zcro, and
therefore by Poisson's equationj p is zero throug'hout the substance
of thé conductor, and there can bc no electricity in thé intcrior
of thc conductor.
Hence a stiperficiil distribution of eicctrieity is the only possible
one in thé case of conductors in cqui)ibrium. A distribution
throughout the mass can only cxist in equi]ibrhm) when t)ic body
is a. non-eonductor.
(; 2
 M ËLHCTROSTATIC: fg

Since thé restant force within a conductor is ~ro, t)te résultant

force just outsid<- the conductor is
along. the normal and is cqual to
~TTfT,achng. outwards from thé conduetor.
81.] If wc now suppose an ebnga'Lcd
body to ).c dectrified, we
n~y, bydiminis)ung. its lateral dimensions, arrive ut the
of an cicctrin~d line. conception
Let bc thc Iengt)i of a small portion of thc
dongated body,
and let c bc its cireumferpnee, and t.he .snp~rncial density of thé
electricity on its surface, D~cn, ii- À is thc electricity pcr unit of
icng-f;)i, = 6'<r, and the rcsultfmt cicctrical force close to the
surface will bc
d TT0- = 47!
<
If, whi!c A n'mam. finite, c bc dimini.shed
indefinitdy, thé force
nt the surface will he incrcascd
indefinitely. Now in cvery di-
ck.ctrK. thc.~ is a limit
hc.yond whieh Utc force cannot bc merc-ascd
without a disruptive Heuc-c a distribution of
discharg-c. electricity
in which a ii.iitc is
quantity placed on a finite portioM of a linc
is 'ncons)ste<it with the conditions
cxisting in nature.
Even if an insutator could bc found snch that
no discharg-e coulù
dnvcn through it by an infinite it
force, would bc impossible
to charge a hueiu- conductor with a finite
of electricity,
for an infinite electromotive force would bc quantity
required to brins- thé
clectricity to thé linear condnetor.
In thé samc way it
may bo shewn t)~at a point eh~cd with
a hmte quantity of
electricity cannot cxist in nature. It is con-
venant. ho~-ver, in certain cases, to speak of eleetrified lines and
points, and wc may suppose these rcpresented
by eleetrified wires,
and by small bodies of which the
dimensions are neglig-ibic ci com-
eo
pared with the principal distances conccrned.
Since tlie quantity of
clectrieity on any given portion of a wire
d.mmishes indefinitely when thé diameter ofthe wire is
indefinitely
diminishecl, thé distribution of electricity on hodies of' considérable
d.mens.ons will not be sensihly afiected
by thé introduction of' very
fille mcta!!jc ~ircs into the
field, so as to form electrical connexions
bctween thèse hodies and thc eart.h, an electrical
machine, or an
eicctromctur.

(~ o/' 7~cc
82.] Ii :t Mue bc drawn whose direction at
course comci~s with tliat of the resultant cvery point of' its
force at that point, thé
line is called a Ijiac of Force.
 82.] UNES 0F FORCE. 85

If lines of force be drawn from every point of a Une thcy will

form a surface sucb that the force at any point is paraHcl to thc
tangent ptnne at tbat point. Thc surface-intégral of the force with
respect to this surface or any part of it will therefore be zero.
If Unes of force are drawn from every point of a closed eurve LI
t)tcy will fonn a tubular surface ~o- Let tlic surface 6\, bounded
hy the dcs<;d curve Zjj be a section of tbis tube, and let be any
ot!]cr section oftbe tube. Let Qn' ~D ~a the surface-intègres
over ~), ~j, tS~,then, sincc the thrcc surihces compietcly enclose a
space in \vhlch there is no attracting' matter, we liave
~,+~+~ = 0.
But ~,) = 0, therefore <2~= <2;, or the surfacc-intcgra,! over
the second section is equal and opposite to tliat over thc first: but
sincc the directions of the normal are opposite in thc two cases, wc
may say tliat the surfacc-integ'rals of the two sections are cqual, tbc
diroc-tion ofthe line of force being' supposed positive in botb.
Sucb tnbe is calicd a Soknoid~ and snch a distribution of
force is cnUed a. Solcnoidal distribution. The velocitics of an in-
compressible uuid arc distributcd in this ma.Hncr.
If wc suppose any surface divided into eJcmentary portions such
that the sm'fit.ce-intcg'ra) of each clement is unity, and if solenoids
arc drawn Dn'ougb thé field of force having t!)ese c)ements for their
basps~ then tlie surfa.ce-hiteg'ral for any other surface will be re-
preseuted by tbe number of solenoids whieh it cuts. It is in ~bis
sense tbat Faraday uses bis conception of lines of force tn indicate
not only the direction but the amount of tbe force at any place in
the field.
We have used the phrase Lincs of Force because it Ivas becn used
by Faraday and others. In strictiiess, bowcvcr~ thèse lines shouki
be caUcd Lmcs nf EIcctric Induction.
In tb~ ordinary cases thc )incs of induction indicatc tbe direction
and magnitude of the résultant electromoti\'e iorce at every point,
because tbe force and tbc induction arc in tbe same direction and
In a const:mt ratio. Tberc arc otber cases, bowcvcr, in which it
is important to remembe)' tliat thèse lines indicatc tbc induction,
and tbat thc force is Indicatcd by tbe cquipntcntial surf:K;es, hcin~'
normal to tliesc surfaces and invcrsely proportional to the distances
of consécutive surfaces.

Fromc&)~f,tn))e. FMad~yusea (3271)the terni 'Sphut)(!y!oid'in tlie same

tfcniie.
 86 HLECTHOST-\T!C; [go.

'S~<f /<t'~ C~<y(.7~.

83.] In thé prcccding' invcstig'ation of' Hurfaœ-int~-rats 1 have
adnptcd the ordinary corccption of direct, action at a distance,
and hâve not takcn into considurathm
:uiy cifccts dcpcnding on thé
nature ofthc dicicctric médium in \v!iich ths forées are ohservcd.
But Faraday bas ohscrvcd ihat thc quantity of ctcctricity
induecd hy a g-iven eIcctMmoriyc force on thc sui-Jaccofn, conductor
\v!ii(.~ bounds a dicicctric is uot Lhc same for a!! dn-h;ctt-ics. Thé
induccd ck-ctricity is g-r~atcr for most solid and
liquid dich-etrics
t)mn foi- ah- and gasc.s. Hc;icc UtesL- bodics ar.- sai(L to huvc a
g'r(.ttcr spécifie inductive capacity than ai)-, \vhic-)i is thc standard
mcdmm.
We may express thé th(;ory of
Faraday imnathcmaticat languag-c
hy s:tying tl)at, in a diGicctnc mcdium thc induction acrosi.! any
suriacc is thé product of thc normal electric force intn the coc-mcicnt
of sppciHc inductivc capaeity of that medium. Jf wc dénote this
coL-nleicot by thcn in cvery part of tite Investigation of snr-
iacu-intcg-rals wc must muttipiy }, and Z hy so that the
équation of Poisson will bceomc

rl liA~rl1r -f- ,11.

l +-E. rl li ==p0. 0.
rl+~P 4~r
At the surface of séparation of h~-o média whosc induptivc
capa-
citics arc and and in which t))c potcntials :u-c and
Dic eharaetcnstic équation may hu \ritt:un

~Aj rlv '-j-i7r<r=n;

wh~-e is ttic normat drawn from thc first médium to thé
second,
is the true surf~-donsity on thu surface of' separatioji
and
that i.s to say, thé quantity of electricity which is actn:)i)y on the
-surface in thé form of a ch.-n-gc, and \v!)Ich c:ui h<; a!tered
on]y hy
convcyi.~ ck.c-tricity to or from Hu- spot. This true dcctt-ification
mu~t ht. disiing-uishcd from t]ic apparent, uk-ch-irication
which is
tht- t.)cct)-iiication as d.-Juf-<.dfron) U.c L-h-ctri~
forces in t!ic nci~h-
hourhuud of t).c snrfa~ usin~- Du.
ordinary charactcristie equation
< '1r, a~ o.
~p ~t' +
If n sohd dich-L-tri. of' any form is a
p(.rfcct insntator, and if
its surface, n.cci~.s no thL.n t!.<- truc ch-etrification rcmains
ch:~e,
xc'ro, \vl):)tcvcr hc thL- c)cctric:t). forces at-ting- on h.
 SPECJF1C tNDUCTIVE CAi'ACtïr. P7
8~.]

l
IIc-nce = 7~ and~F.. +- = 0,
~f A.~
.[~c/A\
r/f Aj–A.; < A~–A~
Thc sui-facc-dcnsity a' is tiiat of U)L- appiu'eut eicctriftcation
It
prndticcd at thc surtace nf the solid dieicctric by induction.
disfn'peurs entircly w)icn <~e inducing' force is l'cmovcd, but if
duru)~- tLc actiou of thc- luducin~ force thc apparent c-!cctrIRe!),tion
of thu surface is discharg'ed hy passin~' a ihune over the surface,
thun, w!)cn tho inducing- force is t:tkL-n away~ therc will appear an
(;]cctri(!cation opposite to (/
In a hcterog'cueous dieiccti-lc in which varies couLtiuuousIy, if
be tlie apparent volume-dcuHity,
~r
+ +
~c:- +-l7Tp=0.
+.1~~<-n.

Comparing this with thé ~quntion abovL', \c fnid

~f/r ~A~ ~/A'r/~
.1 ~(p-Ap ) + + =
+
T)]L- tnu' c!cctrinc:ttlon, indicatcd by p, in thc dielectric whoso
v:u'mhlc inductive cap:n'ity is dunotcd by K, will produce thé same
potential nt cvcry point as thc apparent eleetrification, indicatcd hy
p', would producc in a dieicctric whosc iiiductive capacity is evcry-
wheru cqual to unity.

Seo F~r!u)tty'H'Rem:n't<non Static tnductton,' 7')'ocMf~)~;t </«' .A'o~

tf<t~M;. Fo)'. 12,18S8.
 CItAPTER III.

SYSTEMS 0F CONDUCTORS.

C~ ~<?~o~7~M 0/' ~c~M~ A~~M.

84.] Let be a given eleetrified
system of which the potentia!
at a point 7 is and let be another electrified system ofwhich
the potential at thé same
point would be if did not exist.
Then, if A and <-xist together, thé potential of the combined
system will bc ~+
Hence, if bc thé potential of an electrified if thé
electrification of every part of~ bc inereased iu systcm
tlie ratio of to 1,
thc potential of thé new will bc w
system

cy~M.c~M.
85.] Let the system be divided into parts,
that tho potcntial in eaeh ~,&c. so small
part may b. considered constant through-
cut its cxtcnt. Lct &e. be the qnuntities of
c.ac!iof these parts, and let electricity In
&c. bc thcir potcntials.
JcJ: then the potentials will
hecome ~t1i ~tl &c.
Lot us corder thé enect of
change in~ in all thèse
.? css,ons. It will b, equivalent to
charging with a quantity
oF.Icctr~ty &~ These charges must he
po.scdto hc Lrought from a distance at which thé sup~
of the system is .nsensihic. The eleetrical action
work donc in of
brin~
electricity to who~ potential hcforc the is
charge ~.andaftcr
r
theehar~(M+~)/~must]icbetwccn
and (M+ ~) dit.
In the limit we may neglect the
square of and write the
expression
~~M~.
 COEFFICIENTS 0F POTËNTIAL AND OF INDUCTION. 89
86.]

Similarly thé work required to inerease the charge of

i~~M~ so that thé whole work donc in increasing the charge
of thé system is
(~l~l+ ~~+&:C.)M~.
If we suppose this process repeated an indefinitely great nnmber
of times, cach charge being indcfinitely small, till the total efTect
becomes sensible, the work donc will bc

S(~)~~=~(~)(~);
wherc 2 (Fe) means the sum of all thé products of thé potential of
cach element into the quantity of clectricity in that element when
M = 1, and M~is thé initial ~nd thc final value of M.
If wc m:tke M~== 0 and ?/~= 1~ wc find for the work required te
chiu'g'c an nneleetnned systcm so that thé electricity is e and thé
potential in each elemont,
<2=~2(~.).

General ?%60~/0/'a~M 0/' 6'OM~MC~)'

86.] Lot j~, .t bc any number of conductors of any
form. Let thé charge or total quantity of electricity on each of
thèse be T~, and let their potentials be ~i,
respecti vdy.
Let us suppose thé conductors to be all insulated and ori~inaUy
frce of and at potential zero.
Now let Ai bc charged with unit of electricity, thé other bodies
being' without charge. The enect of this charge on will be to
raise thé potontia! of A1 to~ that of to and that of to
whcre &c. are quantities depending on thé form and rela-
tive position of the conductors. Thé quantity j~, may be eaHedthé
Potential Cocnicient of on itself, and may be called thé Po-
tential Coeflicient of~ on and so on.
If thé charge upon ~i is now made then, by the principle of
superposition, wc shall have
~==~=~
Now let AI bc discha.rgcd~ and A2 charged with unit of clectricity,
and Ict thé potcntials of~, be ~i, then thé
potentials due to 7~ on will be
~=~1~ ~.=~~2.

Similarly let us dénote thc potential of A, due to a unit charge

on byy~ and let us caH~ t)te Potential Coefficient of on A,
 SYSTEMS 0F CUNi)UUTOi{.S.
[87.
thon wc shall hâve t))e
foiïowin~ équations detcrmining t]ic po-
tcntials in terms of the
charges
=~n ~i. -f- ~r) ~r.. + 7~j

~=~+~+~ (,)

= ~).. + ~r + 7~
Wc have hcrc M lincar cquations eontainin~- cocfHcients of
p'~oitinL
87.] By .so!vin~- t!.csc équations for 7,~ &c. we should ohtain
Mcfjoattons of tlic form

~=~i.+~+?,7;

=
~i /"t .+ /+ f (g)

~.=~i -+~+~ ·
Thé cnemcients in thèse
équations inay bc obiained direcDy from
those ni tlie former
équations. They may be c~ted CocfHcients nf
influctton.
Of thèse is numerically cqud to thc
ou quantity of dccti-icity
when is and aH thc. ot)ier bodu.s aro
potcntial uni<y
at potential zero. This is ca]]<-d thc
Capa<-itv 0!' It dépends
on tlie fnrm and position nfaU thc
conductors lu thé systcm.
Of thc. rest is ti.c <.har~. induecd on
whcn is main-
tai~c-d at. potcnt.al and all thé other
unity c~iductcrs at potentia!
zero. This is called the CocOIcient of
Induction of on
T))c mathcmatica! détermination of the cocniclents of pntfntia)
of capacity from thc known forms and
~nd positions of thc con-
ductors ,s in ancrai dinic~t. We shall af-tcrwards prove that they
ha~ ahvays determinate
values, and wc shall détermine thcir values
in certain special cases. For thc
prient, howevcr, wc may suppose
them <o he detcrmined
hy actual experimcnt.

.CM~ ~f ~~C~
Sincc the potential ofan electrified
point at n distance 7. is thé
charge of electricity divid.d by tlie distance, the ratio ofa
of electricity io a quantity
potential may bu rcprescnted by a line. Hencc
<hc eoofnc~-nts of
capacity and iuduetiou arc orthc nature cf
lines, and thc coefficients of potential
(~) arc of thé nature of the
rcciprocals of lim-s.
88.] I{ECir.HOCAL PROl'ERTY 0F THE COEFFLC1ENTS. 91

88.] TuEOKEM I. ?%c eo~c'e?<~ ~r ?'~)'e equal /c

those <)/' j~, ;'c~'r<? /0
If 7~ thc charge on is incrcased by 87?, the work spent in
hrin~'ing S~ from an infinite distance to the conductor whose
poteutia! is is by the dcnnition ot' potential in Art. 70,
1
and this expresses the incrément of thé clectric energy causcd hy
this incrément of charg-c.
If thc eh:u'g'GS of thé dînèrent condnctors arc increased by 8~,
&c., thé incrément of the electric energy ofthc system will ho
8Q = 8~ + &c. + 8~, + &c.
If, therefore, thc electrie energy (g is expressed as a function
af the charges 7~, &c., thé potcntial of any eonduetor may hc
expresscd as thc partial diucrcntial coefHcicnt of this iunction with
respect to thé charge on that conductor, or

Y' ~dl;T~ h" ~~l ls~~

Sincc thé potentials arc linear functions of thé charges, thc cncrgy
luusL hc a quadra.tic fnnction of thé charges. If we put
C~~
for thc tcnn in thc expansion of which involves the product
7! A' then, hy dincreutiating with respect to 7~, we find the term
ofthe expansion of F, which involves 7~ to bc C7~
DInerentiating' with respect to 7~ we find the term in thc
expansion of F,, which involves 7~ to be C'7~
Comparing thèse rcsults with équations (1), Art. 8(j, we r!nd
~r, = =~r.
or, interpreting thé symbols~~ and~,r
Thé potential of due to a unit charge on Y~ is equal to thé
potcntial of A, due to a unit charge on
Tliis reciprocal propcrty of thé electrical action of one conductor
on another was established hy HchnhoKz and Sir W. Thomson.
Ifwe suppose the conductors Ar and to be indefinitely small,
wc hâve thé following rcciprocat propcrty of any two points
Thc potential at any point duc to unit of ckctneity placcd
at in presence of any system of conductors, is a funetion of thé
positions of and in which the coordinates of and of A,
enter in thé same manner, so that thc value of the funetion is
unchanged if we exchange .Ir and
 92 SYSTEMS 0F CONDU-CTOKS.
[80.
This onction ie known by thc nnme of Grecn's
Fonction.
The coc-fncients of indnction and arc also cqna). This is
eas)]y sccn from thc proccss by which these c~cients :u-c obtaincd
from the coefHcients of potcnti: For, in the expression for
and~, entct- in thc same wn.y n8 imd do in thc expression
for < irencc if all pairs of coefficients and arc eqnn), t!tc
piur.s nnd y,, arc also cqua).

89.] THEORMt II, Z~

~y.' oM
~c c. co~o~ ~<' ~~<
o~. ~< ?/~ r/y~ M~
~< ~e o~<?;- M~~c~~
~o~M~)-o, ~c~ ~<o~M/ ~7~e
For, in the f!rst case, if is the potential of we find by
c-quittions (2)~
'e = ~re lri
~,==~, Fi11C1 ~r
and ~.=~ jrrTr·
IIcnM ~=~ ~,=-~
'?"- ?r,
In the second case, we !]~vc

~=0==~+~.

Hence =-=“
-yrr
From this foUowsthc important
thcorcm, due to Green
If a charge unity, placcd on the conductor
in prosence of
conductors &c. at potential zero indnces
charges
&c. in these conductors, then, if is discharged and i)~
sulated, and these conductors are maintained at
potentials F
&c., thc potential of~ will be
Kj~+M~~&c.
The quantities (M)arc evidently numcrical
quantities, or ratios.
Thc conductor Ao may bc
supposed reduced to a point, and
~&c. need not be insulated from each
other, but may bc
dificreut clemcntary portions of thc surface of the same
conductor.
We shall sec t!ic application of this
principle when we investigate
Grecn's Functions.

90.] THEORE~r III. M~c~M~ all

but MOMe~e eo~ ~~M~ ~r/M~~ o?. ·
For let a charge unity he eommunie~ted to
the other con-
ductors bc~g. uuch~d. A system of' equipot~-ntial snr&ccs will
91.] PROPERTIES 0F THE COEFFICIENTS. 93

be formed. Of thèse one will be thé surface of ~nd its potential

will be /~r- Ii- is placcd in a hollow cxcavated in so as to bc
completely enclosed by it, then thc potential of~, will also Lc/~r'
If, however, is outside of J,. its potential p, will lie between
and zéro.
For cotisidcr the lines of force issuing from thc chargcd con-
ductor ~r. The charg'c is measurcd by thc excess of the numbcr
of Unes which issue from it over those which terminate in it.
Hcnce, if the conductor lias no citarg'e, thé number of lincs which
enter thé conductor inust be equal to the numbcr which issue from
it. Thé lines which enter thé conductor comc from places of greater
potential, and thosc which issue from it go to places of less poten-
titi). Hence thc potential of an uncharged conductor must be
intcrmedia.tc betwcen thé Ilighest and lowest potentials in thé field,
and thercfore thc highcst aud lowest potentials cannot belong to
auy of the uncharged bodies.
Thc highcst potential must therefore be that ofthe charged
body ~'vd the lowest must be that of space at an infinite dis-
tance, which is zéro, and all thc otlier potentials SHch as ju, must
lie hctwecn and zero.
If completely surrounds then~, =~.

91.] TitEOREM IV. J\~Mf 0/' ~CCO~C/<?M~0/' !'M~MC~'OM

<i!7'<'
~0~
M<?.~M all ~O~C ~/0/M~/ ~0 <{ COX~MC~M M~
MMMC/ <aK ~C CO<~C~<?~C/' C~~C/~ 0/' ~M~ COM-
~C~O/'j W~;6'~ a~f~ ~<M//<
For let be maintained nt potential unity while all the other
conductors are kept at potential zero, then thé charge on ~r is ~r~
and that on any other conductor is
The number of lines of force which issue from Is~ Of thèse
some terminate in thé other conductors~ and some may proceed to
infinity, but no lincs of force can pass between any of the othcr
conductors or from thcm to infinity, hecause thcy are all at potential
zero.
No line of force can issue from any of thé other conductors such
as becausc no part of thé field lias a lowcr potcntia.1 than
If da is completely eut off from by thc elosed surface of one
of thé conductors, then q, is zero, If is net thus eut off, a
négative quantity.
If oue of thé eonduetors completely surrounds A, then all
thé lines of force from fall on and tlie conductors within it,
 SYSTEMS 0F CONDUCTORS. [ça.

and the sum of the coefficients of induction of thcse conductors with

respect to will bc equal to q, with its sign chang-cd. But if
is not compictely surroundcd by a conductor thé arithmctical
sum of tlie coefficients of induction q, &c. will bc less than
y~.
Wc have deduced thèse two theorems
indcpcndently hy means
of electrical considérations. We ]ea.vc it to thc mathcmatica,!
may
studcnt to détermine whether one is a mathematiea!
conséquence
of thc otiter.

Z~~Mi; ~c/~M/e~~ 7~~s OM~M~C~/KC/0)' ïM~;w~

of the 6~
92.] Let bo any mcchanical displacement of thc conductor,
and let bc thé thc componcnt of thc force
tfndi)is- to produce tliat
displacement, thon <I~~ is the work donc hy t!)e force during
the disptaccment. If this work is derived from t!ie electrification
of thc sy~tem, then if Q is thc electric
energy of thé system,
<I'8~+5~==0, (3)
`~=-
= -h-
8(/) (~
~=~+~~+&c.) (5)
If the bodies are insulated, the variation of
Q must be sucti that
7~, &e. remain constant. Substitutin~- thcreforc for thé values
of the potentials, wc have

~=~(~7~), (c)
whcre the symbol of summation X inc)udes a)! tcrms of thc form
within the brackets, and )- and
may eacli have any values from
1 to M. From this wc find

(1) rl = sr (E 7s~rlJ~r,1
l ()
''=-~=-~(~~)
as thé expression for the
component of the force which produecs
variation of ~hc gcncrahxed eoordinate <

7~y< .fc~/<~ y'o~w 7~<?/.s-.

~6'
93.] Thc expression for in terms of tlie charges is

12 %-r
"'=-(~')- (J;rLR ..l ?(8)
where in thé summation r and hâve each cvery vaine in suc-
cc'ssion from ] to M.
Now~= X~(~~) wherc may ])ave any vniuc from 1 to ?/,
so thatt
 93.] RESULTANT FORCE IN TEKMS OF rOTENTIALS. 95

CI)== –~2
*J' S 2 f.F F/7
~-r~j~ (9)
Now the coefficients of potential are connected with those of
induction by ? équations ofthc form

~r(7~r) = (10)
and ~M.(M-I) ofthe form
~(~)=o. (n)

Diifct-entiating with respect to we get ~M(M+1) of

équations
thé form
the ,7,.<II'
r.r 1
2r + :tr }
n~1)
(Iq ql,, (11) (12)
(~)
~~(~')=".
\vhcre and may bc thé same or différent.
Hotcu., putting <?and equa! to and

~=~X~(7~~), (ici) (13)

but (/) = so thitt we may writc

"=~(~)' rl ~p
wherc and may have cach every value in succession from 1
to This expression g-ivcs the rcsuhant force in tcrms of thc
potentials.
If eac!) conductor is comeeted with a battpry or othcr co!)-
trivanee by which its potential is maintained constant
during- ttic
displacement, then this expression is simply
~<3y
(10"=~' (~)
(1J)
under thc condition that all thc potentials are constant.
The work donc in this case durmg- the
displacemcnt 8~ is S~,
and thc eicctrical energy of thc systcm of conduetors is incrcased
hy o~; lience thc energy spent by thé hatterics during- thé dis-
phtcen~nt is
'~8~+8~ = 2~8~ = 28Q. (iG)
h appears from Art. 92, that thc resultant force is equal to
under thé condition that thc charges
(11) L~ of thc conductors arc
constant. It is also, (IQ under the con-
by Art. 93, equal to
ditiou tliat thé potentials of the conductors are constant. If thé
f'onductors arc insulated, thcy tend to move so thnt their energy
i.s diminished, and thc work donc hy thc clectrical forces
daring-
t)ic dis])taccmcnt is equal to thc diminution
ofenerg-y.
ïf thc condnctnrs arc conncctcd with hattcrics, sn t.hat thcir
 96 SYSTEMS 0F CONDUCTORS.
fo~ ·

potentials are maintained constant, they tend to move so that the

energy of thé system is inereased, and thé work donc
by thc
electrical forces during thé displaccment is to thé incrément
equal
of the energy of thc system. The
energy spent by thé batteries
is equal to double of either of thèse
quantities, and is spent haïf
in mechanical, and half in electrical work.

OM<& Co~~?-~oMo/MM~?-
~ee~M~.
94.] If two electrified systems are similar in a geometrical sensc
so that thé leng-ths of
corresponding lines in thc two systems
are as L to Z', then if thé dielectric which
separates the cnnducting
bodies is thc same in hoth systems, the coefficients of induction
and of capacity will be in
t)~e proportion of L to For if wu
considcr con-cspcnding- portions, A and of thc two Systems, and
suppose tlie quantity of clectricity on to he and tbat on
to be then the potentials and r' at eorresponding points
and j~, due to this electrification, will bc

~ind r'
Dut is to ~j~ as L to so that \vc must have
Z~:Z~
But if thé inductive capacity of thc dielectric is different in thc
two systems, being- in the first and in the second, then if thé
potential at any point of the first system is to that at thc (.01--
responding point of tlie second as F to and if thé quantités
of electricity on corresponding- parts are as to we shall have
Z~A':Z~~
Bythis proportion we may find thé relation bctwcen thé total
electrification of corrcspondmg- parts of two
systems, whicti are
in the first place g-eomctrieaUy similar, in thé second
place com-
poscd of dicicetnc mcdia ofwhieh thc die)cctrie inductive
c-apacity
at corresponding points is in the
proportion of K to A" and in
thc third place so electrified that tlie
potcntials of corrcspondin~ °
points are as to F~.
From this it appcars Diat. if q he any cocfEcicnt of
capacity or
induction in thé first System, nnd thé corresponding one in thc
second,
<?=/=.. Z~
and If and denote corresponding- coefficients of potenti:).! in
the two systems, 1 1
~=T~'
94-.] COMPARISON
<)F StMILAI!SYSTEMS. 97

If one of thc bodies be displaecd in the first system, and thc

corrcsponding' body in the second system reçoive a similar dis-
placement., thcn thèse displacements are in the proportion of
to and if thé forces acting' nu thé two bodies are as to 7~,
then the work donc in the two Systems will be as 7'"Z 1o 7'
Ihtt thc total elcctrica.1 cnerg'y is ha!f the snm of the quantitius
of electricity multiphed eae!i by thc potentiel of the electrified
body, Bu tha.t in the similar Systems~ if Q and <~ bc thé total
electrical cno'gy~
<3~ ~F
and tlic difference of energy aftcr similar displacements in the two
systc'ms will be in thé same proportion. Hencc, since 7'~ is pro-
portioiial to the electrical work done durin~ t))C displacement,
7'Z :7~: ~V.
Combining* titese proportions, we find thnt the ratio of' the
resultant force on any body of the nrst systcm to that on the
eon'esponding' hody of tlic second system is
F' ~A",

or T.
7'
T~À' /À"

Thc first oi' these proportions shews that in similar systems the
force is proportional to the square of the electromotive force and
to the inductive capacity of the dielectric, but is indcpcndcnt of thé
actual dimensions of the system.
Hence two condnctors placed in a. liquid whose inductive eapacity
is greater than that of air, aud ficctrified. to g'ivcn potentiais, will
attract cach othcr more than if they had been ehcc'tl'ined to thé
same potentials in air.
Thé second proportion shcws thnt if thc quantity of electricity
on cach body is g'Iven, the forces arc p report iona! tu thc squares
of tlie cleetrincations and inversely to tbc squares of the distances,
and aiso invcrsety to the inductive capacities ofthe média.
IIcnce, if two conductors with givcn charges are placcd in a
llqnid w)iose inductive capacity is greater than that of air, they
will uttract each other less t!ian if thcy had bcen surrounded with
air and e)cctrined with the sarne charges of e)cctricity.
 CHAPTER IV.

OENEHAL
THHOKEMS.

95.] IN thc preceding chapter we liave calculated thé potential

function and investigated its properties on the
hypothes.s that
there is a direct action at a distance between electrified
bodics,
which is the resultant of the direct actions between thé
various
electrified parts of thé bodies.
If we call this thé direct method of
investigation, thc inverse
method will consist in assuming. that tlie
potential is a funetion
cbaracterised by properties thé saine as tliose which we liave
already
estahhshed, and investigating thé form of thé function.
In thé direct method thé potential is ealculated from thé
dis-
tribution of electricity by a process of
integration, and is found
to satisfy certain partial differential
équations. In the inverse
method the partial diiïerential equations are
supposed given, and
we bave to find the potential and the distribution of
It is only in problems in which thé distribution electricity.
of
is given that the direct method can be used. WIien electricity
we hâve to
find thc distribution on a conductor we must make
use of the
inverse method.
We hâve now to shew that the inverse method leads in
case to a determinate resuit, and to establish certain every
general
theorems deduced from Poisson's partial difTerential
équation
r~~
~+~~=~-
The mathematical ideas
expressed by this equation are of a
different kind from those expressed by the
equation

~=/ r
~+~ ~w~. d,~ ~tz.
Y-J /'+<.
'aom
J_~
~–m/-+00*co
J_m
In the di~.rential equation we
express that thé values of the
second derivativcs of V in the
neighbourhood of any point, and
~6.]] CHAHACTEHISTICS0F THE POTENTIAL. H9

thé density at that point are related to cach other in n. ccrtalu

manner, and no relation is expressed between thc value of at
that point and thc value of p at any point at a sensible distance
from it.
In thc second expression, on the other hand. tlic distance hetween
tlic point (. z') at wliich cxists from tlic point (~, ~) at
which f' oxists is dcnotcd by and is distinctly rccogniscd iu thu
expression to 1)0 ititc~rated.
Thé int~ral~ therefore, is thc appropriatc matlicmatica.l expression
for a theoi-y of action betwcen particles at a distance, whcretLs the
diffcrential équation is thé appropriatc expression for a theory of
action cxci'ted between continuons parts of a médium.
We hâve seen that thé result of the integratioi satisfics thé
diffcrential equation. We liave now to shew that it is thé only
solution of that equation fulfilling certain conditions.
Wc shall in this way not only establish thc mathematica! cqui-
valence of thc two expressions, but prepare our minds to pass from
thc theory of direct action at a distance to that of action between
contiguous parts ofn. medium.

C/~W~ < //C ~'O~M~ 7~MC//OM.

96.] The potential function considered as derived by integration
from a known distribution of elcetricity either in thé substance of
bodies with thé volume-density p or on certain surfaces with thé
surface-density (r, p and T being everywhere finite, bas bccn shewn
to hâve the following eharactcristics
(!) ~is finite and continuons throughout all space.
(2) vanishes at an infinite distance from the dcetrincd systcm.
(3) Thé first derivatives cf arc finite througbout all space, and
continuous except at thé cicctrincd surfaces.
(4) At every point of space, except on thé clectrificd surfaces, the
equation of Poisson
~F ~r ~F
~-+~+~+'~='
is satisfied. Wc shall refer to this équation as thé General
Charaetcristic équation.
At every point where therc is no electrification tins ('(juation
beeomes thé équation of Laplace,
f' ~f-
0.

)) 2
 100 GENERAL
T)f);<)I!)~)S. [0~
(.) At any point of an ciectrined surface at which thé sm-face-
density is <r, thc iirst duri\divc of/ tahen with respect to tho
normal tu thc surface, changes
i~vaiuRabrupttyatthc suriace
sottie

7~ +~.=0,
whcrc and are thé no-mais on eiOn.r side of thesnr~ce, niid
/"at)d arc thc corr~pondm~- potcutiaJs. We sha!) refer to Dus
L-qaatio)) as thc- SupeHiciat Chai-actc;-istic cq nation.
('!) If dL-not~ Oie p<.t<.ntia! at a point whosc distance i'rom
anynx..<) point in afinit~ c.k.L-trica!ystcni is/ th<;nO)(.pro(hK-t
whL-u inc~.ascs IndcfmitcJy, is
u!<imatc!y cqnal to t)tu tota.)
charge m thc finitc sy.sf.cm.
~7'.] ~~w~. Let r hc any continuons fnnction of and
y,
let M, Le functions of snhjcct to thc gL-no-n! sok.noida)
condition
(~
~+~="~
who-c H.csc functions are continuons, and to <!)c superficial so!c-
noida! condition

(~j ~~+M(rj rj + (~ ~) == o, (~
at any surface at w)]ic]i thcsc fnnct.ions nceome
discontinuons,
l, M, M bcin~- t)K' direct ion-cosincs of thé norjna! to thé
surface
tmd xt, < 7~ {i,,d ~}~ y~g omettons 0)1opposite
sides oft)x' surface, thcn the
triple intcg'ra!
rll' r7l' rll
~=/
vanisl.cs whe.i t!.e intégration is extended overa spuee bounded
by
surfaces atwhicheitho-ris constant, or
/~+~+~==0, /j\
w, M, bcing- thé direction-cosincs ofHic surface.
Bcforo proceeding. to prove this Hicorem
ana)ytica!)y wc may
observe, that if~, r, 7~bc takeu to reprc.sent thé
components oftiic
a homogeneous nnid
veiocity~of ineompressibtc of density unity,
and if be ta!<en to represent tlie
potcntia) at any point of' spaee
of forces acti~-on thc fhu'd, tlicn the ancrât and
superficid ~ua-
tions ofeontinuity ((i) and (2)) indicate t!.at every p:u.t of the
space i~ and continues to be, full of thé nnid, and
equatioa (.1)
is thc condition to Le fulniied at a surface
throu~h. ~!iic)t thc nuid
doesnotpass.
Thé intégra! represents tlie \vorh donc bv t!)e Ouid against
tlic forces acti)~- on it in nnit of timc.
97. ] LEMMA. 101

No\v, sinec thc forces winch act on thc fhnd are derived from
thé potentia) funetion thc work which they do is subjcct to thc
javnf conservation of('ner~ and thf work donc on thé whote
f!uid within a eertaiu sj~aee <nay be found ifwe know thc potentia)
:)t thc pomts \vht're caeh linc of How cntors thc space and whcrc
it issues t't'om it. T))c cxcess of thc second of thcsc' potcntiids cvcr
t)t<' fh'st, mu)tipHed hy thé quantity of fhnd wltich is transmittcd
:t!nng' cnch linc nf f)o\v, will ~'i\'e thé \vork doue by that portion
of thc ftuid, and thc sum of all such prodnets wi!l givc the whole
wcrk.
Nn\v, if thc spacc bc boundcd bya surface ibr windi r==C, a.
constant quantity, t!ic- potentiel wiH bc tlic same at thé place
whcrc any line of uow cnters thé space and wherû it issues from
it~ "0 t)):tt in <his easc no work will bu donc hy thc forces on the
<h]?dwithin thc spacc~ and .= 0.
Sccondty~ if thc spacc bc boundcd in who!e or in part by a
~u'faœ satisfyin~ équation ()), no ihnd will enter or h'avc thc space
throu~h this surface, so that no part of thé vahic of~/ c-au dépend
on tbis part oftbe surface.
T)K- quantity J/ is thercforc xcro for a space houndcd externally
hythc dcsed surface /'=C,and it rcmains xcro titou~h any part
of tbis space bc eut of!' from the l'est by surfaces fuHH)mg' t))e
condition (J).
Tt~c a.na!ytic!d expression of thé process by which u'e deduce the
wcrk donc in thc interior nf the spaee from that \vhich takes place
:)t thé Lom~din~ surface is containc(t in the foHowin~' method of
iatc~')'ation by parts.
Takiug' H)e iirst tcrm of thc intégral J!

.~A =~ ('~ ~)
when' ~('~
) = ~[~i-+M:)–r<
and \vherc 7~1 ~7~ &:c. are thc values ofy/and <' at ihe points
w))osc c'ooi'dinates arc (.?,, r), (. ~), &c., a' &c. heing thc
v:))ucs of \\hcrcthc ordina.te cuts the bonnding' surface or surface~
arran~'ed in dcscendin~' order of magnitude.
Adding' the two othcr terms of thc intégral we nnd

J!/
= S (K F) + f~ ('' ~) + ? («' ~')
/f-f/K ~\7 rl.r~ rlz.
7
J~J^ l \~l.l ,¡ + rh~ rl~
-+~+J~ J
 102 GENERAL THEOR-ËMS.
f'n?.
IfY, M, M are the dircction-cosines of' t)ic normal drawn imvards
from thé hounding~ surface at any point, and an clament of th~t
surface, thoi \ve ntiiy writc

~nv -t- ~tm)rl,f -f- rla;rly rh

111
~=-J/-(~= (lrc.-1- rJ ~r/x + -¡. ++
the iotfg-ration nf thc first term
h~ing oxtcndcd f.vf-r t)tc- boundin~-
surface, and ~hat nfthc scpnnd Ltu-oug-hout the cntirc
spaec.
For !tl! sj~af'cs within ~-hicli t-, 7~ arc continuas, the second
term vanishes in vh-tw of équation
(I). If ior any surface within
tht~ spac<- y~ r, w arc disenntiuuous Lut suhj(;ct to équation (2), wc
nud for thc part of .~dcpendtn~ on this s)n-facc
=
) (~i ~t + ~i + ~'j)

+ ~)
wh<-rethé snfUxcs and applied to
any symbo!, indicatc to which
of the two spncos s~parated )j~ the surfucc thé
symbn! belotes.
Now, sincc is continuous, wc )iavc at every point of the
surface,
= = r;
wc have a]so
but since the normds arc drawn in opposite
directions, wc hâve
Il = == =
= w~ w, ?~ = = M
so that the total value of~ so Hu-as it
depends on the surface of
discontinuity, is
~~t +
= r (~ (,~ ~~) + ( (~~
T)!e quantity undcr the intégral
sign vanishes at cvery point in
virtue ofthe supcrnoa! solenoidn) condition or characteristic
(2).
Hence, in determini)~ thc value of~ wc have only to consider
thc surfacc-intpg-ra! over thc actua!
bounding surface of thc spacc
considcred, or

= ~(~ + M<-+ MM)

C~ 1. If is constant over the whole surface and
equal tn C,

= Cn (~~ + + i.~)
The p:n-t of this expression under thé
sign of double intégration
rf-presents thé eurfacc-intcgrat of thé nux whose
eomponcnts arc
7~ ?., and hyArt. 21 this sur~cc-int~ra) is zero for thé closed
surfa<T.n virtue of' thc geucm! and
snperncia) sol~.noida! conditions
f))and(2).
 THOMSON'S THEOREM. 103
ç8.]

Hcnce = 0 for a. space bounded by a single equipotential

surface.
If thé space is bounded externally by the surface ~== C, and
internally by thc surfaces F = /"= C;, &c., theu thé total value
of ~f for thé space so bounded will be
~&c.,
whcre is the value of thé integral for thé wliole space within the
eurfuce = C, and are thé values of the intégral for thé
epaces within the internai surfaces. But we hâve seen that
1112,&c. are cach of them zero, so that thé integral is zero also
for thc periphraetie région betwcen thé surfaces.
Case 2. If /M+M~+M~ is zero over any part of the bounding
surface, that part of thé surface can contribute nothing to thé value
of .M, because tlie quantity under tlie integral sign is everywhere
zero. Hence J)~ will remain zero if a surface fulniling' this con-
dition is substituted for any part of thc bounding surface, provided
that thc remainder of thc surface is all at the same potential.
98.] We are now prepared to prove a theorem which we owe to
Sir William Thomson
As we shall requirc this theorem in varions parts of our subject,
1 s)) ail put it in a form capable of thé necessary modifications.
Let a, b, e be any functions of -T, z (we may call them the
componcnts of a flux) subject only to thé condition

,+,-+-+47rp=0, 0, (.~
~.t'
where p lias given values within a certain space. Tins is thé général
cliaracteristic of<?, c.
Lct us aiso suppose that at certain surfaces (8) <?.,b, and c are
disaontinuous, but satisfy thé condition
~(~i–~)+M(~+K(~–c~)+47ro- = 0 (6)
where 1,M, M are thc direction-cosines of the normal to thé surface,
< Ct thé values of a, b, c on thé positive side oftbe surface, and
c~ those on tlie negative side, and o- a quantity given for
every point of the surface. This condition is the superficial charac-
teristic of a, &,c.
Next, let us suppose that is a continuous function of .p,
which either vanishes at infinity or whose value at a certain point
is given, aud let satisfy thé general characteristic equation
yoxr/if~,Fcbrunry.18.18.
Cfn)~rM/c«)f~Df~ot Ma//<etM<t<'(t!
 10~ OMNEHAL THEOI{J~)S. ~C)8

x-~ r/
"7- + A + A + -j T/)= 0 (7)
~j/
and thc supei-Hoal charactenstic ~t. t!te surfhccs (~),

x- Fl r-
~J~
~)~<)

+M(Ai–A~ -)+.l7Tfr=0, (8)

K bcing- a. quantity which may bc positive or zero but not

negative,
g'iven ibt (.'vcry point of'spacc.
FinaDy, let 8 <greprescnt thé triple integral

8 '2 =
y ( + + c~) (9)
exiended over a, space boundcd by surfaccsj for cacii ofwhic]) cither
= constant,

or + + ),c + A~ =
=
A~ ((..1) ( 10)
rl~ + clw
Z
wLere t!)c va))ie o~ is given at cvery point ofthc surface, tlicn, if
c bc supposed to v:u-y in any manner,
snbjcct te the aboyc
couditions, ~he value of will be a ~i~Mo M~MMM, when

.=~. (.“

7-ao/:
Jfwc put for thé gcuo'a! vatucs o(' <

<7=A~+~ c=A~+~ (;2)

~=A~+.,
thcn, by substituting- thcsc valuca in equations (5) and (7), we find
that H, satisty thc g-cncral solenoida.1 condition
<< f/~
(I -+ +-= 0.
f/~
Wc a)so find, hy c~~tions ((!) and (8), that at thp succès of
~iHconLinuity thc- vn-lucs of 7/~ r~ -i aud r~, satisfy thé
superficia! sotenoidat condition
(2) ( t~) + M(~'j K~)== 0.
~) + M( i-j
The quantifies th~rcfbre, satisfy at. (.'very point t)ic so!c-
uui~al conditiuns as stated in the prcceding- lumma.
 UNIQUE MINIMUM 0F Q. 105
g8.]

~Vc may now express Q in terms of v, zv and

f(~ I l'~rl2
r! rlb' j 1
(.+,~)~~ (IX(l 'l-
o = (~+ ~r)~ +

<
~("fj+"
The last term of Q may bc writtcn 2 .V, where is thc quantité
considcred in thc lemma, and whic)i wu proved to bc zero whcn thc
which is cilher e~uipotcntml
spaec is hnunded by surfaces., cach of
or sutisfics thc condition of équation (10), whieh may be written
(4) ~+/+KW = 0.
second terms.
Q is therefbrc refUtccd tn thc sum ofthe first and
In each of these terms tlic quantity under thc sig-!i of Intégration
consists of thc sum of three squares, and is therefore esscntiany
cf intégration can only bc
positive or zero. Hence tlie rcsutt
positive or zero.
Let lis suppose tlie function known, and let us nnd what values
of ?/, r, 7~will mal~c Q a minimum.
If we assume that at every point w = 0., v 0, and 7~'= 0, thcse
values fulfil tlie solcnoidal conditions, and thé second term of
is zero, and Q is thcu a, minimum as regards tlie variation of
7/, ?.
For if any of tliese quantifies had at any point values dincring-
from zéro, thé second term of Q would hâve n. positive value, and
assumed.
wou!d be greater than in the case which we hâve
But if u = 0, = 0, and w 0, titen

.~F
'=~ ~=~ '=~

Hence these values of c makc Q minimum.

But thc values of' a, < c, as cxpressed in équations (12), nrc
thèse quantities con-
pcrfcctiy general, and inchidc all values of
sistent with thé conditions of the thcorem. Hence, no other values
of f~ ~) c can make Q a minimum.
Again, Q is a ({uantity cssentially positive, and therefore Q is
c.
always eapahic of' a. minimum value by tlic variation of fi,
Hcnce tite values of c which make a minimum must lutvc
ti rea! existence. It does uot follow t!iat our matl)cmatica! methods
are sunicientty powcrfu! to dctL-rmine them.
CM-o~~ Iff/, c and À' are given at eveiy point of spac~
and if we write
 106 GENERAL THEOREMS.
[gg.

dr l,tlr
M =
C=K- (IF
-A~ (1.1:' <=~ rlJ rl.,
~r+,,
withthccoadition(l)
~M
+--+-0 03
=
thon /,?<, ? can be found without from t!)cse four
ambiguity
équations.
~ry The générât characteristic
équation
/r~~jL ~x-~
~+ ~+~~=
wherc r is a finitc quantity of single value whose first
derivatives
nrc finite awl eontiaucus except at thé and at th~ surface
sur~cc
fulfil thc su~crnci:)! characteristic

~«~)

~)~-=~
C!m bc satisfied by one value of and by one only, in thé
following
cases.
C7.M'1. ~hcn the equations apply to the space within
any closed
surface at every point of which /'= C.
For we have provcd that in this case hâve rca! and unique
vahtcs which determine tlie first derivatives of and hence, if
difTGrcnt values of Fpxist, can
thcy only dîner by a constant. Lut
a.t the surface /'is given equal to 6', and therefore ~is
detcrminatc
throug-hout thé space.
As a partiodar case, let ns suppose a
space within which == 0
bounded hy a eioscd surface at which l'=C. Thé characteristic
equations arc satisncd by making /"= C for every point within thc
space, and therefore r=C is thé only solution oi'Dte equations.
~M' 2. W)ien thé équations app]y to the
space within any closed
sur~cc at every point ofwhich /'is given.
For if in tliis case thé characteristic
cquations cou]d bc satisfied
bytwo diftt'rcnt values of say F and F', put ~=r–~ then
suhtracting- the characteristic équation in (rom that in we
find a characteristic équation in At the closcd surface ~= 0
bccause at thé surface /'=y, and within the surface thé
density
is zéro hccausc = p'. Hence, by Case 1, ~== 0 thronghout thé
<~nc)oscdspacc, and thereforc /'= throu~hout this spacc.
99.] A1TLICATION CF THOMSON'S TI1EOREM. 107

0/M 3. When thé equations apply to a space bounded by a.

closed surface consisting of two parts, in one of whieti is given a,t
every point, and in thé other
~F ~r ~r
~c + A"?~-y- + À r/j = ~7,
~/y
where q is given at every point.
Por if there arc two values of let ~Vrepresent, as before, thcir
dinurencc, then we shall have thc équation futniïed within a closed
surface consisting of two parts, in one or which 6~= 0, and in tlie
other dU'
-y- +M + M = 00
~.r f/~
and sincc U'= 0 satisfies thé équation it is thé only solution, and
therefore there is but one value of F possible.
y~e.–Thé functjion in this theorcm is restrictcd to one vaine
at each point of space. If multiple v~ncs are admitted, then,
if thé space considered is a cyclic spacc, thc cqna.tions may be
satisfied by values of F containing terms with muHip!e values.
Examples of this will occur in EIcctromagnetism.
99.'] To apply this theorcm to détermine the distribution of
e~Getrieityin an electrified System~we must make A'===1 throughout
the space occupied by air, and A~= oo throughout thé spacc occupied
bv conductors. If any part of thé space is occupied by dielcctries
whose inductive eapacity difrers from that of air, we must make A~
in that part of the spaee equal to the specifie inductive eapacity.
The value of determincd so as to fn!nl thèse conditions, will
be thé only possible value of thé potential in the given system.
Grccn's Theorem shews that the quantity Q, \vhen it bas its
minimum value corresponding to a givcn distribution of dcctricity,
rcprcscnts the potential energy of that distribution of electricity.
See Art. 100, équation (11).
In thc form in which Q is exprcsscd as thc resuit of integration
over every part ofthe field, it indicates that the enci'gy duc to thé
electrification of thc bodies in the field may be considered as thc
resuit of thc sommation of a certain quantity which exists in every
part of tlie field whcre eleetrical force is in action, whether etec-
trification he présent or not in that part of thc field.
Thé mathcmatica! method, therefore, in which Q, the symhol
of electrical energy, is madc an objcct of study, inste:id of p, the
symhot of electricity itself, corresponds to thé mcthod of physical
spL't'uhition, in which \vp look for thc scat of electrical action in
 10 S (.];:N).;I{AL THEOJ{Et)S.
j~tOO.
cvery part of thé fic)d, instcnd ni' c-nnnning- our attention to the
flec'trincd bodics.
Thc tact t!tat attains a minimum value whcn thé
componcnts
of thc dcctric forc~ an- cxpr~scd in ternis ofH)o nrst
dériva Ivcs
of'a potcntiaLs)iows<]iat., ifitwcrc for tbf
possible (..)cctric forco
to ~e distributcd in any oth~r mannL.r, a m<-c!)anicat (ot.c,.
wonid
bc LroughL into phy tending- to H.e
hrin~ di~tribntinn of force
mio its achml statc. Thc aetua! statc of thc ch'ctnc fieJd is
therefore a statc of stable cfjniHbrium, considcred with
rci'M-cncf
to aU variations of' that statc consistent with the actual
distribution
of frcc L']cct)'ici<y.

C~'<'cM~7Xe'o~'e~.
100.] Thé following remar)<ab!G theorem was ~iven
(Jrccn in his cssay On Dtc Application of Mathc-matics to by (~eor~e
]<:)c-ctrici't'v
and Mngnct.isn).'
1 I)ave madu use of tho cocHicient introduccd by Thomson, to
givc ~r gpncra~ty to tbc staiemcnt, and we shaïï find :wc
procccd that <h~ thcorem may be modinc-d sn as to
apply to thu
most ~-ent-)-al c-onstitutio;i of(;rysta!)ixed média.
~(- shaH suppose that and arc two functions of .?-, r,
which, with <Iicir first dcrivativcs, are nnitL. and continuons wi'thm
<]'c' spaco bonndc'd by thc doscd surface .S'.
~Vc shall also put ~br concisencss
rl rl
Â- U=
+ + C)

and
ancl rl
~.A-+rll~ +- ~A-
A rllr rl A~
l\. rll n -,1 <7T
+ = -~P r, (2)
whc-r<- is a rc-a) quantity, g.Ivcn for cach
point of space, which
may bL. positive <n- zéro but not n.g-ative. Th. <juanti<i.s p and
~o va)umL.-densiti..s in t))c
corrL-.spond thcorv cf po~.utia!s, but
in t)n.s tnv~ti~.a<io.t thcy :u-c to bc
consi(h.r<~d shnph' as' ab-
brcv.ations for Oie functions of and to ~hic.h thL.y arc hère
C(n)at<d.
ln thc samc \ay we may put

~V'
='

l,ta + r,~ -1- ~r ~t

~<=.cl.r~ h -r(, h rl: (..)
whcn- l, arc th.. dircdion-cosines ofthc normal
drawn inwards
'00.] GREEX~ THEOREM. 109

from thc surfuce Thé quajititics o- and or~correspond to super-

ficiat detisitic~, but at présent we must consider them as dcfincd hy
thc abovc équations.
Crcen's Ti)corcm is nbta.ined by integrating by parts thc ex-
pression
d 7rJ/ = (~<r -t- + ) (S)
.J./
thruug-hout tlic spacc within the surface <S'.
It'wc eonsidcr as n componcnt of a Force whose potential is F,
t ry ~t~
and A" as a. composent, of a (lux~ thc expression w!H g'ive thé
work donc Ly the force on the flux.
If we apply tlic mettiod of intégration by parts, we und

)7rJ/ =
H i~A <(~ +M, +M < )~
~U <7/

-(-A-+ A )~ (.
~J (/ <

or (7)
.l7r~=~.tTi~r~+~-l7r~
hi prcciscty the same mamicr by cxchauging ~und wc should
fiml
find rrr
.~J/' = (8)
+ i Tia ~~+ .1~~
Thc statemcnt of Gréent Thcoi'cm is that thèse thrcc expressions
for --Va.rc ideuticat, or that

~)/ = + < = + f~p ~J

1 y/Y, ~7~ <F.,
= .1 (~C + + ,-)~
~~J~J J

6'~w~'oK o/' 6'rf~M' 7X(.'r~o~' C~c/06'

Theru are cases in which thc résultant force at :my point nf a
certain region fulfils tlie ordinary condition of having a. potcntial,
whitc the potential itscif is a many-valued functiou of thc coor-
dinutes. For instance, if
.T
v= y=- ~=n,
~+~' .~+.T

wefind many-vnlucd function of and~, thc

/'=t~n"
vulnes ut' furming' an iu'ithtnctical sc'nes whose (~ommon difïcrcnec
 110 GENERAL THEOMMS.
[100.

is 27r, and in ordcr to define which of thèse is to bc takcn

in
any particular case wc must make some restriction as to thé line
along which wc arc to intègre thc force from thé point where
= 0 to tlie requircd point.
In this case tlie région in w)iicl! thé condition of
having a
potential is fu!ni)cd is thc cydic région surrounding the axis of
this axis bcing a line in which the forces are infinite aud
tho-cfor~
not itselfincindcd in thc reg-ion.
Thc part of thc infinite plane of .-i~ for which .?' is
positive may
bc taken as a Jiaphra~m of this cyclic
région. If wc hcgin at
a point close to the positive side of tliis
diaphragm, and integ-rate
along a line which is restrictcd from passing throng'h tlie
the Hne-integral will Le restrictcd to that value of rdiap!tragm,
which is
positive but less than 27r.
Let ns now suppose titat thé région hounded
by thé closed surface
in Gréons Theorcm is a cyclic of
region any numher of cycles,
and that thé function is a many-vahtcd function
having any
number of cyclic constants.
fm
thé quantitics
r!x a,td will hâve
liave definite vaincs
values at at]
all
and 1
points within S, so that thé volume-integral
/Y~~ ~r
7.U + +
bas a definite value, <Tand p have also dennitc
values, so that if ~7
is a single valned function, thé
expression

~+
bas also a definite value.
Thc expression involving bas no dennitc value as it stands,
for F is a many-valued function, and
any expression eontaining 1~.
is many-valued unless some rule Le
given \vherehy we are direeted
to select one of thé many values of Fat eaeh
point of thé région.
To make thé value of r definite in a région of M
cycles, we must
conçoive Mdiaphragms or surfaces, cach of which
completely shuts
one of thé ehanne!s of communication bctwecn thé
parts of thc
cyclic région. Each of thèse diaphragms reduces the numher of
cycles by unity, and when M of' them are drawn thé region is still
a connected region but aeydic, so that we can
pass from any one
point to any othcr without cutting a surface, but on!y by recon-
ci!eab!e paths.
 JOO.] INTERPRETATION0F GREEN'S THEOREM. 111

Let 81 be the first of these diaphragms, and let thé line-integral

of thé force for a line drawn in thé acyclic space from a point
on thé positive side of this surface to the contiguous point on
the négative side be Kj, then K, is thé first cyclic constant.
Let thé other diaphragms, and their corresponding cyclic con-
stants, be distinguished by suf!ixes from 1 to ?, then, since thé
region is rendcred acyclic by thèse diaphragms, we may apply to
it thé theorem in its original form.
We thus obtain for thé complete expression for thé first member
of thc equation

~p~W~ +~ +~ +~+&c. +~
The addition of these terms to thc expression of Green's Theorem,
in thé case of many-valued functiotis, was first shewnto be necessary
by Helmhoitz*, and was first applied to thé theorem by Thomson.

.P~Cû~ TM~OM G'<'C?/ Z~CO~'CW.

Thé expressions rr and p denote tlie quantities of
clectricity existing on an élément of the surface 6' and in an
clement of volume respectively. Wc may therefore writc for either
of thèse quantities the symhol e, denoting a quantity of electricity.
We shall then express Green's Theorem as follows-
~= X(~Y)=2(r6);
wherc we hâve two systems of electrified hodies, e standing in
succession for e~ &c., any portions ofthc electrification of thé
first system, and F denoting the potential at any point due to all
these portions, while stands in succession for c/, c~, &c.~ portions
of thé second system, and donotes the potential at any point
due to thé second system.
Hence Fe'' dénotes the product of a quantity of electricity at a
point belonging to thé second system into the potentiel at that
point duc to thé first system, and 2 ( ~) dénotes thé sum of ail
such quantities, or in other words, S ( ~V) represents that part of
the energy of thé whole electrified system which is due to thc
action of thé second system on the first.
In thé same way S ( ~c) represents that part of thc energy of

Uober ïnte~ra.)e der Hydrndynttmisehett Gleichungen wetche doi Wirbctbe-

wegungen ontapruchen,' 6'fe~e, 1858. Tranalated by Tait in 7~/t~. J)~ 1867, (t).
t On Vortex Motion,' 2'rff7~. R. ~df/t., xxv. part i. p. 241 (1868).
 il2 GENERAL THEOREME [lOO.

the whole system which is duc to thé action ofthe first system on
thé second.
If wc dcfine whcrc is the distance of tlie quantity e
7'as S(-),
of elcctricity from thc given point, then thc fquality hetween thèse
two values of may bc obtaincd as foDown, without Grcen's
Thcorem–

~Y) = = S
~(~(~) = ~(~) (~Q.) = S(~).

This mode of regardin~- the question be!ongs to what wc hn.ve

called the direct method, in which \ve he~in by considerin~ certain
portions ofc)eetneity~ placcd at certain points of spacc, and act.in'T
on one another in a way dcpcnding on thé distances bet\vcen thesu
points, no account bcing taken of any ititcrvoung- médium, or of
any action supposed to takc place in thc intcrvemin~ spacc.
(h'cen's TIleorcm, on the other ha.nd, he)ong's csscnti~Iy to what
wc have cal1ed thé inverse method. Tin' potential is not supposcJ
to arise from the cicetrincation by a process of summation, but
thc electrification is supposcd to bc deduced from a perfect!~
arbitrary function called thé potcntial by a process of dinercn-
tiation.
In the direct mcthod, the cquatioti is a simple extension of t)m
law that when any force acts directly between two bodies, action.
and réaction arc cqu:d and opposite.
lu thu inverse method thé two quantities arc not proved directiy
to bc cqua!, but eacti is proved cqual to a third quantity, a tripfn
integral which we must endeavour to intcrpret.
If we writc 7~ for the rfsultant electromotive force duc to thc
potential and M, M for thc dh-cetion-cosliws of 7f*, thcn, by~
Art. 7!,
7.,
T= 7L1, = Aw, = Wz.
7~
lrl.c~ /t~ j~ lior,
If \ve aiso write 7i" for the forée duc to thc second system, and
M/, M' for its dh'cction-ccsincs,

-T– = 7)' < -== Tr w

< r~ = Ti*
and thé quantity .V may bc written

1
.==~ .17T~~(A'/t'ccs~)~ (to)
f5

a
ICI.] GREEN'S FUNCTION. 113

where cos e = + M~/ + ??',

f being the angle hetween thé directions of le and 7~.
Now if 7~ is what we hâve called thé coefficient of electric
inductive capacity, then 7~7)'will he thé electric displacement due
to thé electromotive force and thé product 7f'7~7~cos€ will
represent thé work donc hy thé force 7~ on account of thé dis-
placement caused by thé force 7t', or in other words, thé amount
of intrinsic energy in that part of' thé .field due to the mutual
action of 7~ and 7~.
We therefore conclude that thé physical interprétation of Grcen's
theorem is as foDows
If thé energy which is known to exist in an electrified system
is due to actions which takc place in all parts of thé neld, and
not to direct action at a distance hetween thé electrined bodies,
then that part of thé intrinsie cnerg'y of' any part of thé field
upon which the mutual action of two electrified systems dépends
is A"7~7~cos e per unit of volume.
The energy of an electrified system due to its action on itself is,
by Art. 85, ~X(er),
which is by Green's theorem, putting U =

<'=~y~
and this is thé unique minimum value of' thé integral considered
in Thomson's theorem.

G'M~ 7'~MC~'OK.

101.~] Let a closed surface 6' be maintained at potentiid zero.

Let 7~ and Q be two points on the positive side of the surface
(we may suppose either tlie inside or thé outside positive), and
let a small body charged with unit or electricity be placed at 7~,
thc potential at the point Q will consist of two parts, of which one
is due to thc direct action of thé clectricity on P, while thc other
is due to thé action of' thé electricity induced on S by 7~. Thé
latter part of thé potential is called Green's Function~ and is
denotcd by G'
This quantity is a function of thé positions of thé two points
7~ and Q, thé form of which dépends on that of thé surface S. It
bas bcen determined in thé case in which S is a sphcre, and in
a very few other cases. It dénotes thé potential at Q duc to the
electricity induced on S by unit of clectricity at P.
VOL.! 1 t
 114 GENERAL THEOREMS.
[ici.
Thc actual potcntial at any
point Q due to the electricity at
andon~is 1
+
wherc denotes thé distance hetween 7~ and
At thé surface and at all points on thc negative side
of~, tlie
potcntial is zero, therefore j
1'"
~=- ( )
(1)
where thc su~x indicates that a
point A on thc surface 8 is taken
tnstc.i.d of Q.
Lct dcnote thc surfaee-dcnsity induccd
by P at a point
of thé surface then, since is thé potential at due to the
superfictal distribution,

~=~~
wherc ~6'~is an element of thé surface .9 at and thé integration
is to bc cxtcnded ovcr thé whole surface A
But if unit of
clectricity had bcen placed at (?, we should hâve
had by équation (l),), 1

~7" (s)

whcre
=-
is thé density induccd
(~
by (2 on an élément at il, and
is the distance betwccn and Substituting this value of

1q«
in t)tc expression for <7~, wc find

v. (.)
'M~ ~'n,l
Sincc this expression is not altered
by changing into '<
and
tnto, wo find tllat /-Y
a resuit which we
."w (G)
(G)
hâve aiready shcwn to be necessary in Art 88,
but which we now sec to bc deducible from the
mathematica! process
by which Green's function may be eatculated.
If wu assume any ()istribution of
elcctricity whatever, and place
in thé ucld a point charged with unit of
electricity, and if t).c
surface of potential zt-ro
completely séparâtes thé point from thé
assumcd d.stribution, thon if wc take this surface for thc
and the point for 7~ Grecn's surfice
funetion, for any point on thé samc
side ot thé surface as P, will be thé
potential of thé assumed dis-
tnbut.on on thc other side of thé surface. In tins
construct any numbcr of cases in which Green's way wc may
function can be
 MINIMUM VALUE 0F Q. 116
102.]

found for a particular position of P. To find the form of the

function when the form of the surface is given and thé position
of .P is arbitrary, is a probicm of far greater difficulty, thougli,
as we hâve proved, it is matliematically possible.
Let us suppose the probicm solved, and tbat tlie point P is
taken within the surface. Thcn for all externat points thc potential
of thc superficial distribution is equal and opposite to that of
Thc superficial distribution is therefore ccM~'o~e and its action
on ail cxternal points is thc same as that of a unit of negative
clectricity placed at 7-

~o~ q/o-v~M~ <'o~<' ~~K~ û/'(~~C!eM~ o/"C~c~~ ~'e.

103.] Let a region be eompletcly bounded by a number of
sui-raccs 81, &:c., and Ict be a quantity, positive or zero
but uot négative; given at every point of this région. Let r
bc a function subjcct to thé conditions that its values at the
surfaces 'S' &c. are the constant quantities Cl, C;, &c., and that
at the surface~,
==
f/fv ou,
where v is a normal to tlie surface Tlien thé integral

M
8 TT~J~
/(~?+~
taken over thc whole region, bas a unique minimum when F satisfies
the equation d
A + A + A = U 0
r/~ d~
throughout the region, as well as tlie original conditions.
We hâve alrcady shewn that a funetion exists whieh fulfils thé
conditions (1) and (3), and that it is determinate in value. We
have next to shew tbat of all fonctions fulfilling tlie surface.eou-
ditions it makes Q a minimum.
Lct /"obc thc function which satisfies (1) and (3), and let
~= ~+~7 (4)
bc it.function which satisfies (1).
It follows from this that at tlie surfaces &c. ~=0.
The value of Q becomes

8 TTJ~
~±/(~)~(~+~.)

rlx ~y(Iz. (5)

+2~(~~+&c.)~
rlx ~)
Thomson fmd T~it's A~<<f)-a~.P/u'/oMpAy, § S20.
1 2
 116 GENERAL THEOREMS. [102.

Let us confine our attention to thc last of thèse thrce groups

of terms, mcrely ohserving that thc other
groups are essentially
positive. By Green's theorcm
I
~J ~IL 71v- î ia +
d.c rh; + rlx 17 7clz /Y~ 7C.
rl S
+ rlJ (121+ -7iz-
71j ~lJ rlz rlz,
-)~=~ (Iz = J JK ll rl(1vv

~(~~ rlx~.c +
.W~rl,u rly
1.
~lJ
+ ~f~)~ (tX
LJ J ( )(6)
thé first intcg-ral of thé second member
being extended over titc
surface o(' t)ic region and thé second throug'hout thc enclosed
space.
But on thc surfaces &c. ~= 0, so that these contribute
nothing to the surface-integral.
Again, on tlie surface that this surface contributes
°' –~==o,so
dv
nothing to the Intégral. Hence the surface-integral is zero.
Thé quantity within brackets in thé
votumc-integral also dis-
appears by equation (3), so that tlie volume-intcgrat is also zero.
Hence Q is reduced to

~=~~C~f+ &c.)~~+ ~A-(~~ ~.)~&. ;,)

Both these quantifies are essentiaHy positive, and therefore the
mininmm value of Q is wlien
< = 0,
= (8)
~)
=
or whcn is a constant. But at the surfaces &c. == 0. Hence
~=0 everyw!)ere, and gives the unique minimum value of <3.

Ch~M~OM o/'<ï ~e/o/ Z~~ o/ 6'o~c~M~ o/C~ac~.

The quantity Q in its minimum fonn can be
expresscd by means
ofGreen'stheoi-em in terms of &c., the potentials of~,
and -Bj, &c., the charg-es of these surfaces,
<3=~"i~+~+&c.); (9)
or, making use of the coefficients of capacity and induction as deHned
in Article 87,
== ( ~i + &c.) + ~2 + &c. ( ] 0)
The aceuratc détermination of the ecefncients is in
q general
difHcu!t, involving the solution of the général equation of etaticat
electricity, but we make use of the theorem we have proved to
determine a. superipr limit to the value
of any of thèse coefficients.
102.] METHOD 0F APPROXIMATION. 117

To détermine a superior limit to tlie coefficient of capacity qn J

make FI = Ij and r:&.c. each equal to zero, and then take
any function /vhich shall liave thé value 1 at and thé value 0
at thé other surfaces.
From this trial vaitte of calculate Q by direct intégration,
and let thé value thus found be Q'. We know that Q' is not less
than the absolute minimum value Q, whieh in this case is ~n.
Hence ~u is not greater than 2~. (11)
If wo happen to have chosen thé right value of thé function
then <~ = 2 Q', but if thé function we have choscn differs
slightly from thc true form, then, siuce Q is a minimum, Q' will
still be a close approxitnatio)i to thé truc value.

'S'K~e;(M-Z/w</ ~~e 6'~e~!CMM~ ~7~/eM~

Wc may also détermine a nuperlor limit to thé cocmcients of
potential dcfined in Article 8C by mcans of thé minimum value
of the quantity in Article 08, cxpressed in terms of ?, b, c.
By Thomson~s theorcmj if within a certain région bounded by the
surfaces ~i, &c. thé quantities a, b, c arc subject to thé condition
r~ <?
–+ + = U~00; ((12
(12))
f~'
and if ~a+w~+Me = <y (13)
he given aH over thé surface~ whei'c l, M, Marc thé direction-cosines
of thé normal, thon thé intégral

~= 7T,,)~~(~+~+~)~~
t (14)

is an absolute and unique minimum when

a = 7f,r ) = ~r/F ) c = ~<A (15)

<r/y
When thc minimum is attained is cvidently the same quantity
which we had before.
If therefore we can find any fbrm for a, c which sa.tisfics the
condition (12) and at the same time makes

~L = ~i, /y~ = &c. (1 G)

and if <~ be the value of Q ca!cu)ated by (14) from thèse values of
< c, thcn Q~ is not less than
A(~~+~~)+~ (17)
 118 GENERAL THEOREMS. [l02.

If wc take the case in which one of thé sur-

surfaces, say
rounds thc rest at an infinitc distance, we hâve thé
ordinary case
of conductors in an infinite rpg-ion and if wemake and
=
F = 0 for ail thé other surfaces, we hâve = 0 at infinity, and
2 0~
~ti is not greatcr than
~i
In thé very important case in which thé clectrical action is
CDtircJy between two condueting- surfaces and of which
comp!ctc!y surrounds and is kept at potential zero, we hâve
~'j = and ~i~j = 1.
Hence in this case we hâve

911
~iQotlessthan~– (is)
and we had before
net
not great~r than2 Q2 Q'
less tlian (is)
( (18)
)
so that we conclude that thé truc value of thc
lu, capacity of thé
internai conductor, lies between thèse values.
This method of fmding- supcrior and inferior limits to the
values
of these eoefRcicnts was
suggested by a memoir On thé Theory
of ResoMnee/ by the lion. J. W.
Strutt, ~<7. ;?~ 1871. Sec
Art. 308.
 CHARTER V.

MECHANICAL ACTION BETWEE~ ELECTRIFIED BOD1ES.

103.') Let ~'= C he any closed cquipotcntial surface, C being

a partieular value of a function t!)e form of which we suppose
known ï~t cvery point, of spaee. Let thc vahie of Fou thé ontside
of this surface bc r~ and on ihc inside TIien, by Poisson's
cquntion
cyuation
d~ F
d~ JI" ~r ri V
U, (1)
~+-+-+4~p=0.
(~ (4
( «'s-
wc can détermine the density p, at every point on the outside, and
thé density P2 at every point on thc insidc of thé surfa-ce. Wc shall
call thé whole electrified system thus explorcd on the outside j~j,
and that on thé inside Thc actuid value of 7" arises from thc
f'omhiiiGd action of both thèse systems.
Let Tt* be thé total resultant force at any point arising from
thé action of J~ and R is everywhere normal to thé cqui-
potential surface passing through thé peint.
Now let us suppose that on thé cquipotential surface = C
cicctricity is distrihuted so that at any point of tlie surface at
whieh the resultant force due to and reckoned outwards
is R, thé surface-density is o-~with thc condition
~=47r(r, i (2)
and let us call this superficial distribution thé electrified surface
then wc cfni prove thé following thcorem relating to thé action of
this electrified surface.
If' any equipotential surface belono-ing to a given electrified
thé surface-
system be con.ted with electricity, so that at cach point

density o- = 4 TT where 7~ is thé résultant force, duc to thé original

electrical system, acting outwards from tliat point of the surface,
thcn thc potential due to thé electi'incd surface at any point ou
120 ËLECTRIC ATTRACTION. [103.

thé outside of that surface will be equal to thé potential at the

same point duc to that part of thé original system which was on
thc insidc of thc surface, and t)tc potcntial due to thé electrified
surface at any point on thé inside added <o that due to thé part of
thc original syst.cm on thé outside will be cqual to C, thc potential
of the surface.
For let us alter thc origina.) system as fb!!ow6
Lct us !eavc cvcrything thé same on thé outside of the surface,
but on thc inside let us make everywhere cqua! to C, and let us
do away with thc electrified system on thé insidc ofthe surface,
and substitutc for it a surface-density o- at every point of thé
surface such t!]at Il = 4 7To-. (3)
Thon this new arrangement will satisfy thé charactcristics of at
cvery point.
For on thc outside of thc stu'face both thé distribution of elec-
tricity and thé value of /'are unaltered, thercfore.since /"orig'ina)!y
satisfied Laphtcc's équation, it will still satisfy it.
On thé inside is constant and p zero. Thèse values of ~and p
also satisfy t!]e charactcristic équations.
At thé surface itself, if is thé potential at any point on thé
outside and that on thc inside, then, if~j w, Mare thé direction-
cosines of thé normal to thé surface reckoned outwards,
1 ~r, 9 ~rcr (4)
~–l~l+M-'=-~==–4~(r;
+ +

and on thé inside the derivatives of F' vanish, so that the superficial
characteristic
~7' ~F,y1 ~f~ 4
~(–)+~(,)+M(- ––)+47TO-=0 (5)
~;f f/~ fM
is satisfied at every point of thé surface.
Hence thé new distribution of potential, in which it bas thé
old value on thé outside of the surface and a constant value on
thé inside, is consistent with thé new distribution of electricity,
in which thé electricity in thc space within thé surface is removed
and a distribution of clectricity on thé surface is substituted for
it. Also, since thé original value of vanishes at infinity, thé
new value, which is thé same outside t!)e surface, also f~fi)s this
condition, and therefore thc new value of F is thé sole and only
value of F bebng'ing' to the new arrangement of electricity.
 io4.]] EQUIVALENT ELECTRIFJED SURFACE. 121

On tfte ~M!Cù'/ ~e~o~ and ~~c~o/t o/e

~/cwN and JE,.
104'.] If we now suppose thé equipotential surface ~=C to
become rigid and capable of sustaining thc action of forces, we
may prove tlie following theorem.
If on every element of an equipotential surface a force
be made to act in the direction of the normal reckoned
8'n'
outwards, whcre -X is thc 'clectrical résultant force' along thé
normal then t)]e total statical en'ect of these forces on Die
surface considered as a rigid shell will bc tlie same as thc total
statical cifect of thé e]cctrica) action of thé eIcL'trincd system A,
outside thé shell on thé electrified systcm inside thc shell, thé
parts of thé interior system hcing supposed rig'idty connccted
tog'cther.
We have scen that thé action of thé c)eetrined surface in thé last
theorem on any external point was equal to that of thé iutcrnal
system and, sinee action and réaction are equal and opposite,
thé action of any externe electrined body on thé electrified surface,
considered as a rigid system, is equal to that on thé internal system
7~. Heuce thé statical action of thc cxterna! system J~ on thé
electrified surface is equal in aH respects to thé action of~ on thé
internal system 7~.
But at any point just outside thé electi'ined surface thé résultant
force is Il in a direction normal to thé surface, and reckoned positive
when it acts outwards. Thé resultant inside the surface is zero,
therefore, by Art. 79, thé résultant force acting on thé element
rlS of the electrified surface is ~<r~'S', where o- is the surface-
density.
Substituting thé value ofo- in tcrms ofJP from equation (2), and
denoting by thé résultant force on thé electricity spread over
thé clément f~, we find
2(IS.
dS 8~PL
~~=
Ti)is force alwtt-ys acts along tlie normal and outwards, whether
R he positive or negative, and may he considered as equal to a

pressure ~j= 87rJ?~ acting on thé surface from within, or to a tension

of thé same numerical value acting from without.
Sec Sir W. Thomson On the Attractions of Cnnducting and Non-conducting
ElectriHed Bodies,' L'ft~t~fM~c~Vft</t<:)tK<<«'a~ ~ttty 1843, Mtd Repriot,
t7oft)T)(t<,
Art. VII, § 1~7.
 122 ËLECTRIC ATTHACTION. [io5.
Now Il is thc resultant duc to the combined action of thé
external system J~ and thé electrificatiou of thé surface & Hence
thé enect ofthc pressurer on cacit element of the inside ofthe surfitce
considcrcd as a rigid body is équivalent to this comhined action.
But thc actions of thé différent parts of thc surface on each other
form a system in cquilibrium, thcrefbre the cHect of the
pressure on
thé rigid shell is équivalent in aiï respects to thé electrie attraction
ofj?; on thé site! and this, as we hâve before shewn, is equivalent
to thé electrie attraction ofj~ on considercd as a rig-id systcm.
If we had supposed the pressure to act on thé outside of thc
shell, t!ic resultant ciFect would have becn equal and opposite, that
is, it would have heen statically équivalent to thé action of thc
internal system 7~ on thé external system .Z-
Let us now take thc case of two clectrified and
systems
7~, such that two cquipotcntial surfaces r=C'[ and ~=C,, whie)i
wc shall call <S',and respcctively, can he described so that is
exterior to and surrounds A, and lies within
Thcn if 7i\ and rcprcscnt tbe résultant force at any point of
and respectively, and if we make

8 7r
~=8~~=~. 7r
thé mechanical action betwccn and is équivalent to that
bctwecn the shciïs 'S', and <S~ supposi)~g' every point
of presscd
in\n.rds, that is, towards with a pressure jUj, and evcry point of
prcsscd outwards, that is, towards witli a pressure
105.~] According to thé thcory of action at a distance thé action
hctwccn and j~ is rcally made up of a system of forces
acting in
straight lines betwcen thé clectricity in ~') and that in and thé
actua! mechanical enect is in complète aecordance with this
theor~.
T)]crc is, howevcr, another point of view from which we
may
examine thé action hetween and Whcn wc sec one body
aeting- on another at a distance, beforc we assume that thé o!)c
acts dircctiy on thc othcr wc g-enera!)y inquire \vhethcr there is
any matcrial connexion between thc two bodies, and if we find
strings, or rods, or framcwork of any kind, capable of accounting'
for thé observed action between thc bodies, \vc pi-cfer to
cxplain
the action by means of thé intcrmcdiatc connexions, rather than
admit thé notion of direct action at a distance.
Thns when two particles arc connectcd
by a straight or eurvcd
rod, thc action bctwccn thé particles is ahvayB along- thé line joinin~-
them, but we account for this action by means of a system of
 io6.] INTERNALFORCES. 123
mternal forces in the substance of thé rod. The existence of thèse
internal forces is deduced entirely from observation of thé eHcct
of external forces on the rod, and thé internal forces themsclves
are genera!!y assumed to be thé résultants of forces which act
between particles of the rod. TIius thé obscrved action between
two distant partîmes is, in this instance, removed from thé class
of direct actions at a distance
by referring- it to thé intervention
of thc rod the action of thé rod is
expiai ned by thé existence
of internal forces in its substance; and thé internal forces are
explamed by means of forces assumed to act between thé particles
of which thé rod is composcd, that is, between bodies at distances
which though smalt must be finite.
Thé observed action at a considérable distance is thcrefore cx-
pkined by means of a great numher of forces acting between
bodies at very small distances, for which we are as little able to
account as for thé action at any distance however
gréât.
Nevertheless, thé considération of the phcnomenon~ as cxplained
in this \vay, tcads us to
investigatc thé properties of the rod, and
to form a tlicory of elasticity whieh we should have overlooked
if' wchad heen satisfied with thé explanation by action at a distance.
~05.') Let ns now examine the conséquence of assuming- that thé
action between electrified bodies can bc
explained Ly thé inter-
mediate action of thé medium between them, and let us ascertain
what propertics ofthe médium will account for thé obscrved action.
Wc liave first to détermine thé internal forces in thé
medium,
and afterwards to account for them if
possible.
In order to determine the internal forces in
any case we procecd
as follows
Let thé system 2!f be in equilibrium under thé action of thé
system of external forces F. Dividc by an imaginary surface
into two parts, MI and Jt~, and let tlie
systems of external forces
acting on thèse parts rcspectivcly be 7~ and 7~. Also let t!ie
internal forces acting on in consequence of its connexion with
be called the system
Then, since is in equilibrium under thé action of and I,
it Mo\vs that I is statically équivalent to reversed.
In thé case of thé electrical action between two electrified
systems
7~ ~nd wc described two closcd equipotential surfaces
entirely
surrounding and cutting it on' from 7~ and we found that the
apphc~tion of a certain normal pressure at every point of thé inner
stds of the inner suriacc, and on thc outer side ofthc outer
surface,
 124 ELECTRIC ATTRACTION. [io6.
would, if these surfaces were each rigid, act on the outer surface
with a résultant equal to that of thc electrical forces on
the outer
system 7~, and on the inner surface with a resu)tant
of tlie electrical forces on thé inner equal to that
system.
Let us now consider the space between t!)e
surfaces, and let us
suppose that at cvery point of this space there is tension in thé
direction of and cqual to pcr unit of arca. This tension
will act on t!iu two surfaces iu the same
way as thé pressures on
thc other side of thé surfaces, and will therefore account
for the
action between and so far as it dépends on the internal force
m the space Letween and
Let us next investigatc the
equilibrium of a portion of thé shell
bounded by thèse surfaces and separatcd from thé l'est
by a surface
everywhere pcr])endicu!ar to thé equipotential surfaces. We
may
suppose this surface generated by deseribing any closed curve on
<S' and drawing from evcry point of this curve liues of force till
they mcet '?.
Thé figure we hâve to consider is therefore bounded
by the two
equipotential surfaces and &, and by a surface
there is no induction, whieh wc through wilich
may call
Lct us first suppose that the area of thé closed curve
on is very
small, call it dSI, and that <~ = C~
The portion of space thus bounded
may be re~arded as an element
of volume. If v is thé normal to thé
cquipotcntial surface, and
thé element of that surface, then thé volume
of this element
is ultimately f~r/f.
The induction throngh is 7~ and since thcre is no in-
duction through and no free electricity within thé
space con-
sidered, thé induction throug-h thé opposite surface will be
equal and opposite, considered with reference to thé
thé closed surrace. space within
There will therefore be a
quantity of elect,ricity

~=-1~
on tlie first equipotential surface, and a
quantity
1
~== –7~
e,,
471
.1?.,(1S,
on thé second equipotential surface, witli thé
condition
6',+~= n.
 100.] ] RESULTANT OF ELECTRIC TENSIONS. 125

Let us next consider the resultant force due to the action of thé
electrified systems on these small electrified surfaces.
Thé potential within thé surface is constant and cqual to CI,
and without thé surface it is constant and equal to (~. In thé
shell between these surfaces it is continuons from CI to C2.
Hence thc resultant force is zero except within thé shell.
Thé clectrified surface of the shell itself will be actcd on by forces
which arc thé arithmeticat mcans of the forces just within and just
without thc surface, tha.t is, iu this case, since thé résultant force
outside is zero, thé force acting on the superficial eleetrification is
one-half of thé resultant force just within thé surface.
Hence if be thé total movin~ force resolved parallel
to due to thé electrical action on both thé electrified surfaces of
the element <f,

Z~~=-~(<+.), dx
where thé sufHxesdénote that thé derivativca of are to Le talœn
at and ~& respectively.
Let ?<be thé dircction-cosines of thé normal to thé
equipotential surface, then making
</a;= < r/y == ? < and = M
~F. .F r~F 'r/~
(-, ) 2 = (,) + (~-y-~ +?< +
M-)~&C.
and since <~= \ve may write thé value cf

J~~r~ = y +M,-
~~r~(~ ~c +M-)~t'.

But ~==– and

4-7r
~r (~ +M–+M–)=–

tlierefore Z~~ = -L 7)' <M

8TT ~N;
or, if we write
2 2 2
i i ~F;'
8 7r B2l 1 ~/rj' rll';2 dÿr~2/ ),
~=8- =~(~ lrll'll +~
then
thcn ,I- ~~Ip~ Y- Z-
.Y=~~ ~r y=~, :~`h'~ ~=~; ~rlh,
'r~
or thé force in any direction on thé eicmcut arising from thc action
of the electrified system on thé two clectrified surfaces of the
element is equal to half thc rate of inerease of in that direction
multiplied by thé volume of thé element.
 HLECTRIC ATTRACTION. [io6.
1~

for the forces acting on

This result is the same if we substitute
whose potcntial is
thé eleetrined surfaces an i.na~inary force to
of thc element aud .schcitn~
actin~ on the whole volume
movesoastoinereasc~
ofpnfinite si.e, bounded
~r~1
If wc now r.turn to thc case of a figure
aud and hy the surface of no
hy the equipotential surfaces
induction~, we may divide th..vhole spacc into
< c n
s.ri.s of cquipotcnti~ .urfaces and two serves of -r ~c
Thé char~ofelcd.ndty on
induction. thcsc.cesotho~
and so that thc total
which arc in contact will h. cqual opposa
on the charges
cttcct will be that duc to the ctcctric.I forces acti.~ bc
o,, thc surfaces and and hy .vhat we have provcd
thi~vdl
of the figure duc to a
thc samc as thc action on the ~.ho~ volume
System of forces whoscpotentifdis-
electrical forces are
But we l..ve ah-eady shewn that thcsc
of thé surfaces
équivalent to tension~ applied at atl points n
IIcncc thc cu-.et of this tension is to pull the ~mc
and 6. he
Thc ~urc therefore caunot
the direction in which inertes.
on it.
in c(!uilibrium unicss somc other forces act
is apphed at cvery
Now wc know that if a hydrostatic pressure
of any closcd figure, the cqual to
point of the surface cirect of thc
whole voh~c
that ofa svstcm of tprces acting on thc n~urc
In this case the n~rc pushed in
and having- a potcutial
the direction in which diminishes..
the i~ure shall be in
~Vc can now arrange mattcrs so that
cquilibrium. let
surfaces 6\ and
'y' point of.the two equipotential of the surface of no
a ==~hc applicd, and at every point
= 7~ ~c- ~'l~ed. Thèse forces will kccp
induction let a
thc ))Lrurc in cquinbrnnn.. comhined
Fortin tension ~nyLe considered as a pressurer
with a tension We hâve thcn a hydrostatic pressurer actm~
and
at cvery point of the surface, .nd a tension 2?J actmë- on
only. of 6'. and
"~hc en-cet of' thc tension 2~ at every point
that is, .1 is equal to that
of that which wc hâve jnst cakuhted, ot thé
of forces whosc potential is actin~ on t!ic ~vho e vo urne
Thc en-cet of the pressure acting on thé whole suriace
i~ure.
to that of this system of
is\ hydrostaties equal and opposite
forces, and will I.eep the figure in equilibrium. forces in
M7.~ Wc hâve now determined System of internal
 107.J STRESS IN A DIELHCTRIC MEDIUM. 127

thc medium which is consistent with the

phenomenn, so far as
we have examined them. Wc have found tliat in order to account
for thc electric attraction between distant bodies without
admitting-
direct action, we must assume thc existence of a at every
~M~
point of the médium in thé direction of thé résultant force 7)' at
that point. In order to account for thc equilibrium of thé médium
itself'we must further suppose that in every direction
perpendicular
to 7)' there is a~c~~yc~
Hy estab!is))in~ thc ncccssity of assuming- thèse internal forces
in the theory of an electric médium, we have advanccd a
step in
that theory which will not bc lost wc should fail in
though
accounting for thèse internal forces, or in explaimn~- thé mcchanism
by which they can bc maintained in air, glass, and other dicleetric
média.
We hâve scen that thé internal stresses in solid bodies can be
ascertained wit.h précision, thou~h -t!ic théories which account for
thèse stresses by means of molecuhu- forces
mny still bc doubLfuI.
In the same way we may estimate these internal electrical forces
beibrc we arc able to account for them.
In order, howover, that it may not appear as if we had no
explanation of thèse interna! forces, we sha.)l shcw that on thé
ordinary theory they must cxist in a shell bounded by two equipo-
tential surfaces, and that thé attractions ;md
répulsions of the c!ec-
tricity on thé surfaces of thé shell are sufncient to account for them.
Lct thé first suriace 6~ bc e)ectrif)ed so that thé
surface-density is

~='
and thé second surface so that thc surface-density is

4 ri
then, if we suppose that thé value of Fis Ci at every point within
'S' and at every point outside of~, thc value of /'bet\veen these
surfaces remaining as bcforc, thé characteristic
equ:ttion of' r will
be satisfied cverywlicrc, and r is thcreforc thc truc value of tlie
potential.
We bave ah'eady shewn that thé outer and inner sur~ces of thé
she)l will be pulled towards cach othcr with a force the va)ue of
which referrcd to unit of surmce is or in other words, thcre is a
tension in thé substance of thé shell in tlie direction of thé lines
of force.
Sec F~radity, J?M.(~4) !tnd(1297).
128 ELECTRIC ATTRACTION. [io8.
If we now conçoive thé shell divided into two segments by a
surface of no induction~ thé two parts will experience clectrical
forces thé résultants of wluch will tend to separate thé parts with
a. force équivalent to thé résultant force due to a pressure acting
on evcry part of thé surface of no induction which dividcs thcm.
This illustration is to be taken mcrcly as an explanation of what
is tncant by the tension and pressure, not as a physical theory to
accouut for them.
108.~] We hâve next to consider whether thèse internal forces
are capable of accounting for the ohscrved clectrical ibrecs in every
case, as weH as in thé case where a closed equipotentia! surface ean
bc drawn surrounding one ofthe electrified systems.
T)ie statical theory of interna) forces bas been investigated by
writers on thc theory of elasticity. At present \e shall rcquire only
to invcstigatc tbe cncct of an oblique tension or pressure on an
element of surface.
Lct be thé value of a tension rcfen'ed to unit of a surface to
which it is normal and let thcre be no tension or pressure in any
direction normal to Lct thé direction-cosines of be m, M.
Let be an clement of surface normal to thé axis of~ and let
the cfffct of thc internal force be to urge thé parts on thé positive
side of this clément with a force whose components arc
~</j in thé direction of~
j~ and
7~ z.
From every point of thé boundary of thé clément let lincs
be drawn para,llel to thé direction of tlie tension forming a prism
whosc axis is in thc line of tension~ and let t)ns prism be eut by a
plane normal to its axis.
Thé area of' this section will be ~F, and the whole tension
upon it will be ~~</y~ and since there is no action on thé sides
of thé prism, which are normal toj~, thé force on thc base ~<~
must bc equivatent to the force ~~r/c acting in thé direction
(/, M,;<). Hence tlie component in thé direction of a',
7~~ = 7~~ ) or
~~r =
Similarly =~/M~ (i)
=~

If wc now combine with this tension two tensions and in

directions (l', -) and (/ M") rcspectively, we shall have
 ~o8.] COMPONENTS DF STRESS. t29

~,=~+; -)-Y~,
= + + (2)
~,=~+~+~
In thc case of thé clectrical tension and pressure thc
pressures
are numerieaDy cqu:d to thc tension at
every point, and are in
directions at right nn~es to thé tension and to each other. Honcu,
y =~=-~ (3)
+ -)- = i, + + 0, ~M+ + r~ = n, (.t)
~<- <!nd = (2~)~,
= 2/ ~)
7~ = 2/
for the action of thé comhincd tension and
pressures.
Also, since = where 7)' dcnotos thc resnltnnt
87r 7~,
oTT Force, and
sincc /t'/ = 7t'~ = 7~~ =

~=8~

= 1- 2 X =
j);¡V
= g~: 2~=~, }ly;n r (Ii)
('!)

>
~=~2A~=~; 071"

whcrR y, ~arc the componcnts of7~, thé resultant dectromotivc

fbrcL'.
Thc expressions for t!)c component internal forces onL snrfnccs
normal to and may he written down from symmetry.

7'o ~c~-M/Me the coK~o;~ o/'p~?~M~ o/<; e~M~

Tliis clément is boundcd Ly the six planes perpendieular to the
axes of coordinates passing- througli thc
points (;c, z) and (.f-f/.t-,
.~+~+~).
Thé force in thé direction of x which acts on thc first face f~
–7'Tj- tending to draw tlie clement towards the négative
side. On thc second face for which x bas thevahie.?--)~
thé tension bas thé value

+
(~ ~~)
and this tension tends to draw the element in thé
positive direction.
If we next consider thé two faces //c~.)' with
respect to the
VOL.t. K
 130 KLHCTIUC ATTRACTION.
[io8.

tan~entiat forces urg'ing' them in thc direction of we find thc

force on t))c fh'st fhce < and that on thc second

+ ~) ~.e
(.
Similar!y for thé faces wc Und that a force -c~ acts
on thé nrst face, and
+
(~ ~~)
on thé second in thé direction of x.
Jf ~< dénotes thé total efrect of all thcse internai forces
actnig pa)'a.)iel to the axis of x on thé six faces of thé element, wc find
=
(~ + + ~~)
< denoting- by thé internal force, rcferred to unit of volume, and
resolved paratlel to thé axis ofa,
d d r/
'=~~+~~+~- (7)
with similar expressions for and thc component forces in thé
other directions*.
Diflérentiating the values of~ and~ given in équations
(C), we find

r~
0
~=~~(~+~+~-
But by Art. 77
~Z
~t)\
(-+-+-)=4Tr~.
Hence =p
Similarly ??=p~ (10)
~=P~.
Thus, the résultant of tlie tensions and pressures which we hâve
supposed to act upon thé surface of thé element is a force whose
components arc thé same as those of thé force, which, in thc
ordinary thcory, is ascribed to thé action of electrified bodics on thé
electricity within the élément.
If, therefore, \ve admit that there is a medium in winch there
is maintaincd at every point a tension in thé direction of thc

J htfj mventij~mtion mny )je compared with that of thc

e<jutttion of
in hydt-odynMuicH,' and wit)i otherx in which the unect on un élément continuity
of volume
tMdeduced from the va)uea ofcertMu qu~ntitiM )tt ita
bounding surfacH.
 110.] FARADAY'S THROnY. 131

resuXant dcctromottve force 7~ ajid such that /i~ = 87r/~ combincd

with an equa) pressure in every direction at right angles to thé
résultant 7)*, then thé mechanical (iffect of thèse tensions and
pressures on any portion of thé médium, however bounded, will bc
identical with thé mechanica! efreet ofthe electrical forces accordiog
to thc ordiuary theory of direct action at a distance.
109.] This distribution of stress is preeiseiy that to which Fara-
day was led in his investigation of induction through dielectrics.
He sums up in thé following words
~(I2')7) Thc direct induetive force, which mny bc concelved to
Le cxertcd in lines bet\vcen thc two limiting- and charged con-
ducting- surfaces, is accompanied by n lateral or transverse lorce
equi vident to t dilatation or répulsion of these représentative lines
(1221.), or thé attracting force which exists amongst thé par-
ticles of thé dietectric in thé direction of thc induction is nc-
companied hy a repulsive or a divcrging force in the transverr.e
direction.
(1298) Induction appears to consist in a certain polarized state
of thé partides, into which they are tLrown by thé electrified body
sustaining thé action, thé particles assuming positive and negative
points or parts~ which are symmetrically arra.nged with respect
to each other and thé inducting sur&ces or particles. Thé state
must be a foreed one, for it in originated and sustained only hy
force, and sinks to thé normat or quioscent state when that force
is removed. It can Le <MM/~<M<only in insuht.tors by thé same
portion of electricity, beca-use tbey onty can retaiu this state of thé
part Ides.'
This is an exact account of thc coiehisions to which we have
been condncted hy our mathematicat investigation. At every point
of thé médium there is a state of' stress such that therc is tension
a)ong the lines of force ami pressure in idi directions at right angles
to thèse lines, thé numericat magnitude ofthe pressure being
equal
to that of thé tension, :md both vnrying as thé square of thé
résultant force at thé point.
'l'he expression elcctric tension' has been used in various sensés
by différent writers. 1 sha.U always use it to dénote thé tension
along thé lines of force, whieh, as we have seen, varies from point
to point, and is aiways proportiona) to thé square of thé résultant
force at thc point.
110.] Thé hypothesis that a state of sti-es. of this kind exists
in a Ouid dielectric, such as air nr
turpcntine, may at first sight
K
 HLHC"T){)(; ATTH.ACTtON.
ri II.

apparat varianccwith LhccstabJiMh~.d principe tha<atany point

)n a (iui(t thc prcssui-L'si)):))) directions tu'cctju:)]. )hu- in thc
dc()u(.tionof<Iusp)-Incip](-from a considération offbc mobitity
i)nd cquilibrium of titc paris of t]ic iinid it is takct) for
~-rantcd
that no action snch as t])at. which to takcphtce
wchcrcsupposo
along- the lines of force cxists in tl)c nuid. Thc stntc of stress
whieh wc bave bcen studyiug- is j)urfectly consistent with tlic
niohiHty and ~~)i)ibrinm of t))G fluid, for wc havo sec!) t))a~ If
any portion ofthefiuid is dcvoid ofdcctricdmr~, it expéri-
ences no r~snXimt forée from thé Htrc'sscs on its
surface, howover
in)c'nsc thcst.- maybc. Itiso)i)y whc)) a portion orthu ituid
Lc'comcs char~-cd, that its cqni!ibrlum is di~turt~d thc
by stresses
on Us suri:n~ aud we knowthat in this case it actually tends to
inoYL-. IIencc thé supposed statc of' stress is not ittcnnRistcnt with
the cqui!ibrinm of a nuid die)L'ctric.
Thc fjuanti<y which was invcstigatcd in Thnmson's
thcorem,
Art. f)8, may hc intcrprctcd as HR'
cnergy in thc médium due to
the distribution of stress. It nppcars from that theorcm that t.t)e
distribution of' stress which satisfics thc'
ordinary conditions also
makes <~ an ahso)ntc minimum. Now whcn thc cïx.'r~y is a.
minimum for a)ty confi~nration, t))at conh~uration is one of
cqui-
hhrinm, and the cquiliLrium is stable. IJt'ncc the di(j]cctric
whcn suLjcctcd to thé inductive action of electrified bndics wil]
of itself take np a state of stress distrihutcd in thc
way \ve'have
dcscrihed.
It must bc cnrefu)]y borne in mind titat \v< iiavc made
only onc
stcp in thé thcory of the action of thc médium. Wc have supposed
it to bc in a. state of stress, but wc have not in
any way accounted
for this stress, or exp]ained how it is maintaincd. This stcp,
however, secms to me to bo an important one, as it cxphuns,
bv
thé action ofthc consécutive parts of thé médium, phenomena which
were formerly supposed to Le exphcabk' on!y by direct action at
a distance.
111.]] 1 hâve not, bée;. ab!c to makc thé next stcp, namely, to
account by mechanical considérations for thèse stresses in thé
dielectric. 1 therefore ieave thé theory at this point,
merely
stating what arc thé other parts of' the phcnomcnon of induction
in dielectrics.
I. Electric Displaecment. Whcn induction takes p!acc in a
dicicctt-ic a phcnomenon takcs place which is équivalent to :).
dis])!accmcnt of pJcetricity in thé direction of thé induction. For
 JIt.] ] EijHCTi{IC POLAUJXATiON. 133

instance, in n Lcydcn j:n', of whieit the inner coa.tin~' is chnrg-cd

positively and thc outer coa.tin~ ncg~tively, thc disptaeement in
thc substance of the g~ass is from within outwards.
Any iticrease of this disphccmcnt is équivalent, during' thc time
of incrcase, to a cnrrcnt of positive ch'ctricity from wit))in cut\v:u'd~
:md !i)iy diminution ofttm disptacL'mL'nt is cquivalent to aL-urrftit
m thc opposite dircctinn.
Tlic whotu (juantity of (.')(.~tricity disp):tccd throu~h any arca.
of'a surfacu fixcd in tlitjdidc'ctric is mcasurcd by thc' quuntity which
\c hâve ah'cady investi~att'd (Art. 73) as thc surface-intégral of
ittductio)) throu~-h th~t ai'L'a, nudtiphcd \vhcre is thé
))y 47i'A",
spécifie Inductivo capacity c('thc diL't~'tric.
JI. Supcrficin.! EIcctrineation uf thu P:n'tic)t's or thf Dictcctric.
ConcL'ivu :my portion ofthc difIcutriL', ]a.r~-c or smal), to bc scj'aratcd
(in imagination) from thc rcst hy a closcd surfact-, thcn \v); tnnst
suppose that on cvery e!emcntary portion of this surf'acL' titcrc- is
an L'luctrification mcasurcd hy thé total disptaecmcnt of' etcctricity
throug-h t))at clément of surface ~f~ /MMY/
In thé case of thé Leyden jar of' which thé inner coating' is
charg'ed positi\'c!y, any portion of thc ~-ks8 will hâve ils inner
side charg-ed positivc!y a'id its outcr sidc If this
negativety.
portion hc entirely in. the mterior of thé ~)ass, its fnperueiid ek'c-
trtneation will bc ncntmhxed by t!te opposite dectrineation of thc
parts in contact with it, but if it bc in contact \vit!i a conducting
body which is incupabtc ofmaintainin~- in itself the inductivt' s(at~
titc superficiid cicetrification will not Le ncutrahxcd, but will con-
stitutc that apparent cluctrinca.tion \vhich is
cojnmonly caUcd t!]c
t~ectrificatiou of tlic Condnctor.
Thé eteetrincation thererorc at thé honudin~- surface of a eon-
ductor and the stirroundiu~- dicicctric, which on thé otd
t])eury
\vas c.d)ed thé dectrification of'the conductor, must Le cattcd in t!ic
thcory of induction titc superficial eteetrificatiou of Hic surrounding
diehjctric.
Aecordin~ to this theory, aH (.dectrineation is thé rcsiduat offect
of' thc pohu-ixution (~f thc dic)ectrie. T)ns polarixation exists
througliout thé interior uf thc substaucc, but it is there !)ent)'a)ixcd
hy t)tc juxtaposition ofopposit~y cleetrificd parts, !-o thaï it is on!y
at thc surface ofthe dicicctric that thc eHects of the cteetriiication
hecome apparcut.
T)ie thcory compictcty accounts for t)ic thcorcni ofArt. 7~ that
 134 HLHCTRIC ATTHACTJON.
[III
thé total induction
throu~h a closed surface is equa) to the total
quantity of elceirieity within thé surface multiphcd by For
what we hâve called thc induction
throns~ the surface is simply
the electric déplacement
multiphed by ..nd the total dispLnce-
ment ontwards to
necessarily cq~.ai thc total eJectrification within
the surface.
Thé theory also aecounts for thé
impo~hiiity of' communicati,~
an a),so!nte charge to natter. For every partide ofthe dieicch-i~
dcctr.hed with cqua! and
opp~-tG diar~s on ils opposite .idus,
it not he more correct to
~ou)d say that thèse c!eetrincations are
<n!y thé manifestations ofa sin~c phenomcnon, which we mav cati
Mect)'!e Po]ar)xation.
A diek-ctric medi.n~ when thus
po!arized, is the seat of electrical
~e~y and thé energ-y in unit of' vohu~ of the
medinm is nu-
mer,ca!)y equat to thu dL.ctr.c tL.nsion on unit of arca, Loth
t.t~-s qu!m-
equa! to ],alf the produet of thé displacement and thé
being
resuttant cicctromotivc' ibrcp, o]'

~= ~D@ = 7C~ =
STT
whore~ is the electric tension, S) thé 0 the etcotro-
dispkcement,
motive force, and thc spécifie inductive
capaeity.
If thé medium is not a
p.-rfect insulator, thestate cfconstraint
wh.cli we t.al) eh.ch.ie
polarization, is eont.iu~Dy ~-iving way Thc
mcd.um y~etds to the ck.ctromotivc
force, the electric stress is
r~xed, and thé potcntial ene~y of the state of constraint is
con-
vcrted into heat. Thé rate at which tbis
deeay of the state of
po)a.at.on takes p]aœ dépends on the nature of thé
medium.
Jn some kinds o( ~tass, days or
ycars may clapse before the po]ar-
ization .smks to )ialf its ori~in~ value. In eopper, this ehan~e
may occupy less than thé bil!io.,th of a second.
We hâve supposed thé medium after
being-potarized to he simpty
!eit <o itse!f. In thé phenomenon called
the eiec.tric cnrrcnt Dm
codant passade ofeteetricity thi-.u~-h thé n~diu,n t.nds to restore
thé .state of polar~ation as fast as thé
of the médium
aHo~ it to dc-cay. Thus thc ..xtcrna] c.on<h~.tivity
a~.ney which maintains thé
eurrent is a]~-ays dom~ work in
rcstori,~ the pohu-ixatio.t of thé
mcdnun, w!neh is continuaHy hecomin~ rc)axcd, and the
potcn<i:d
ener~y of Uns polarixatinn is continuaHy Lecomi. transfnrmed
.nto heat, so that thc final rcsult of thé
c.ne~v expend.-d in ,nain-
)ai.n~. thc eurrent is tu raisc the tempemturc ofthe conductor.
 CHAPTER VI.

ON l'OINTa AND UNES 0F EQUILIBRIUM.

112.] Il'' nt any point of thé electric field the resultant force is
zero, the point is called a Point of eqninhrium.
If cvcry point on a certain line is a point of equilibrium, thé line
is called a Line ofcquilihrium.
The conditions that a. point shall be a point of cquilihrium arc
that at that point
~r ~F ~r
== 0~ = 0, = 0.
r~ ~y
At such a point, tl~erefbrc, thc vahtc of is a maximum, or
minimum, or is stationary, with respect to variations of thc
noordinatus. The potential, however, can have a. maximum or a
minimum value only at a point char~'ed with positive or with
negative electricity, or throughout a. finite space bounded hy a
surface electrified positively or negativety. If, therefore, a point
nf equi!ihrium occurs in an unclectrificd part of thé field it must
!)c' a stationary pointa and not a maximum or a minimum.
In faet, thc first condition of a maximum or minimum is that
~r
and

must he aH négative or a)l positive, if thcy hâve Unité values.

Now, hy Laplacc's équation, at a point where there is no e]pe-
trincation, thé sum of these three quantities is zero, and thercfore
this condition cannot he fillfilled.
Instead of investigating tlie analytical conditions for thc cnses
in which ttic components of thé force simultaneously vanish, we
shall givc a gênerai proof by means of thé equipotential surfaces.
Ifat any point, 7~ there is a truc maximum value of <hen, at
an other points in the immédiate ncighhourhood of7~, thé value of
/"is less than at Hence /~wi)) he surrnmidt'd hy a séries of
 136 POINTS AND LINHS <~ H(~UILJ];I:tL~
[ij~.
closcd cqmpotcntial surfais, c.aeh outside thc one
bciore it, and
a~ points of any onc ci' t!~su surfaces thc
ok.ctrica! force will be
d~-ected ontwards. But I~ve provcd, in Art. 7(!, that t)ic surfaœ-
mtcg-ra! of t.])e dc.ctrica! forœ takcn ovcr :my cJoscd surface
~-iv~s
t)t~ inta) dcetrification within that surface
mutt,i~!ic.d t,y New,
in this case t))(. force is
c-v~-ywhcre nnhvard.s so t]tat thc .surface-'
!n<cg-ral is nc-œss:u-i)y positive, !Uid ttici-cforc tItL-rc is
positive c)(;c-
trification within thc sur~cc, and, sinœ
n~y takc Htc surface as
ncar to as wc p)ua.sc, tito-c is positive dcc.trification at t)ie
point A
In thc samc way we may
provc t.),at if is a juininium at
thcn 7-' ]8 nL'g-ativdy ctfctrincd.
Ncxt, ]ct 7~ bc a point ofcqniubrium in a rc~imt devoidof c!~c-
tnficat.on, and Ici us dcsc.ribL. a
very small closcd surfac<- round
thcn, as ].avc scc.n, 1),. potu.iti~) at thi.s .urfacc ca.inot
bu
L.v~rywhcr<- ~rcatcr or ~<.ry~-hcr<. t),.ui at It .uu.st ti.c.r~.
fort. Le greatc-r at .somc
parts of t! surfaœ and )c.ss at othc.rs
LhcsL. portions of' tt.c surface arc. houndc-d
).y tincs in whic). O.c
pot..it.a! is c.<p,a] to that at )i~
A)on~. drawu from
points at ~)nch thc potcntia! is Icss H.nn tf~at at tht; d~-trica)
iorcc ,s from 7~ and
a!on.~ )incs drawn to points of .r.ut.r
tcnt.al the force is to~u-d~ po-
JfL.nc. t),c point is a point of
stabic .f)ui),br.uin for
so,nL.disp)ac.un~it~a.id of uustah)c oquili-
~)mn ~or otl)ur dispja~mcuts.
113.J Tn dL.tc.rminc thc nun)~r of t!.c points and )in<-s of
]c.t ns eonsidL.r th. sarfaec or surfaces coui-
Id'r..un, f<,r w)n'e)~ thc
rot~nt.a) is cqua! to 6', a ~.n Lot us c.~i th. riions
<p.antity.
in ~nch thc. pot.ntia) is !c.ss than 6' thc
native ~.ions. and
fhosc m which it is ~.ater O.an 6- thé positive riions. Lct
~1 ~i )n~.h.st pot.tia) listing, in thc
c..ctno u.!d If n.~ ~=/, t)u. n~tiv. r.~io~.ij) in-
ciude ou!y t)tc dc.etrificd
point or condm.t.r of )<~vcst po~ntiai
an<i Uns is n.e.ssari)y d~riiic-d
n~ativdy. T)~. )..ositivc r~ion
cons.st.s of tl.c. rcst of spa~ and sinec. It
surrounds thc nc.ti~
rt-g-)o)i )< ].spcrip))i-actic. Sec Art. ]~
Jf now In<-r<.nsc. thé value of 6' thc
n~ativu r~ion will
and n~v m.~ativ. riions will h. f.d
cxp.u~ mun.I
h<.d..s. For cv.ry n~ativc n~ativ.)y
~.tr,h<_d r~ion t),us fonn.d t).e
surround. ]"~t.v. r<iun ac-.p.irc.s un..
As th.. dui~nt d~rc..ofpL.rip!n..x~-
n~ativc. niions .xpand, two ur n.orc ofth.m
.nay .nc.ct ,n a point or a !inc. !f .+1
<hc po~t,v. rc~on fos..s d~rccs uf pcriphraxv. and ti,. p.int
 114.] THEIH NUMI3EM. 137

or thc iinc in which thcy meut is a point or !im; of L'quitibriutn

of the Mth dc~'rcc.
W)icn C bccomcs cqua) to thc positive rc~ion is rcduccd tn
tbc cicctrified point or conductor of hi~'hcst potL'ntiat, and bas
tbcrcforf lost a!) its pcriphraxy. Menue, if cach poit~t or line of
cquilibrium counts for one, two, or ?t aecording' to its denrée, tho
nnmber so made up Ly t))c points of lines now considcrcd will
hc onc less t])an the numhcr of nc~'fitivciy ct~ctri~cd bodics.
Tttcre arc ot))ci' points or lines of ctpuiibrium which occur w!icrc
thc positive n~'ions become SL'paratcd from each othcr, and t]te
neg'ativc' reg-ion aequircs pcnphraxy. T]m number of thèse, rcck-
oncd according' to thcir d~'rccs, is onc less than thc numhcr of
posiiiv<.dy electrificd hodifs.
If\vc cali a point or Hnu of cqniHhrinm positive when it is thé
mcuting'-p)acn of two or nin)~ positive riions, and négative whcn
thc relions whiu)) unitc therc are négative, th(;n, if Dicru :u'c
hodics positivuly and M bodics nc~'ativuly e)cetrinpd, t]tc sum of
<)K-de~'t\'L's of t])c positive, points and )inc's of c'quihbrium will bo
and thatofthc motive ones ~–1.
But, Lcsides this dcfmitc numher of points and )incs of cqui-
hhnum arisin~ from thé junction of di(!crent relions, therc may
he othcrs, of w]iic)) we can on]y ufnrm that thcir numher nmst he
cvoi. For if, as thc n~ativc r~ion cxpands, it mccts itscif, itt
hecomc's a cyclic rc~'ioc~ aud it may ae()))i!'c, hy ruj)t!atcd)y mc't'tin~-
itHu!f~any numLcr of dcgrccs of' cyc')osis, cach of which corresponds
<o t)n' point or line of ~'quihbrinm at which thc cych'.sis was
cstablishcd. As thé négative reg-ion continues to cxpand till it
fiits aU spaec, it loses every deg'ree of' (iyctosis it h:)H acquircd, and
bccotncs at last acyclic. Jtunce theru is a sut of points or lincs
of' cquihbrium at wilich cycl(~sis is lost, and thèse are cqual in
numher of degrucs to thosc at which it is aequircd.
If the form of thc eteeirificd bodies or conductors is arhitrary,
wc can onty assert that the nuntbur of thèse additiona) j)oints or
]uu's ).s cven~ Lut If they arc cicctrincd points or spht'ricat con-
ductors, thc numher arisin~' in t!us way cannot cxcced (M– ])(/ 2),
wttcrc is thé nmnbcr of hodics.
1H.'] Thc potcntial c)os(; to any point 7~ may bc cxpa.ndcd in
thc scrics
/'= r,+/~ /+&<
w))crc //j, &c. aru hono~nc'ous functions of whusc
dimensions arc ), 2, &t-. rcspuctivcly.
 138 POINTS AND LINES 0F EQUILIBRIUM.
[~5.
Since thé first derivatives of f vanish at a
point of equilibrium,
= if Z~he a point of equilibrium.
Let 7f, be thé first fnnction which does not
vanish, then close to
thc point P we may neglect al! functions of
higher degrees as
compared with
Now 77~ = u
is thé équation of a cône of -thc df-gt-ec;?', and this cône is thc cnne
ofclosest contact with thé equipotential surface at 7~.
It appears, therefore, that thé cquipotentia! surface passing
through 7~ bas, at that poiat, a coniea! point touched by a cône
ofthe second or of a higher denrée.
If thé point .P is not on a line of
eq~iHhrium this cône
does not intcrsect itsett, but consists cf i sheets or some smaller
number.
If thc nodal line intersects itself, then thc
point P is on a line
nf cquitihrium, and the equipotential surface
throng!i P cuts itself
in th;tt line.
Ifthere are intersections of t!ic nodal line not on
opposite points
of thé sphère, then is at thc intersection of three or more lines
of equilibrium. For thé equipotential surface must eut
through
itself in each Une of equihbrium.
11.5.] If two shcets of thé same cq~ipotentiat surface intersect,
they must intersect at right angles.
For let the tancent to thé Une of intersection he taken as t!ic
cd'=
axis cf~, then = <). Aleo let thé axis of .T he a
tangent to
~/2
one of the shects, then 0. It fo]!ows from this, hy Laplacc's
(IX2 =
~2
equ;~tion, t)~t
équation, that = 0, or théthe a~is
axis of J is a tangent
of~is tanhcnt to thé the other
~j
shcct.
This investigation assumes that //s is finite. If 7~ vanishes, let
thé tangent to thé line of intersection be taken as thc axis
of~, and
h-t .);=;' cos and~ = ?-sin. 0, thc)], since
r/v
~+~=~'
or ~'+1~. 1~
r/~
thc sn)uL)nn of which c<~uation in
.~ct'nding- powcrs of?' is
= /“+ cos (0 + a)+ cos (20+o~) + &(.. +, cos (~ + a,).
Il6.] THKtR l'ROl'EKTIE~. !30

A.t a point of equitibrium ~j is zero. If the fn'st term tha.t does

not vanish is tbat in )' then
r–o = J,cos(!0+a;)+terms in bigher powers of r.
This givcs i shccts of the equipotential surface = intorseeting
at angles each cqual tu This theorcm was given by Rankinc*.

It is only under certain conditions tha.t a. line of eqnihbrium can

exist in free spa,f'e, but therc must hc tinc cf cquilibrium on thc
surfiM'c ofa conductor whencvcr the e)cetrincation oft!ie conductor
is positive in one portion and négative in another.
In order that a conductor may bc o))positc]y eicctrified in dinerent
portions of its surface, thcre must be in thé field some places w)icre
the potcntial is higher than that of thé body and others where it is
!o\v<'r. Wc t'nust rcmemuer that at. an Innnitc dist:uice the potentia,!
is zero.
Let ns hcgin with two conductors (.'lectrified positively to thé
same poteutial. Thcro will bc a point of cquilH'num betwccn thé
two bodics. Let thc potcntial ofthc (irst body bc gra.dual)y raised.
The point of equilibrium will appronch tbe other body, ~nd as the
process gocs on it will coïncide with a point on its surface. If thé
potcntitd of thé first body be now increased, the eqnipotentia.1
surface round thé first body which tins tbe same potentia) as the
second body will eut thé surface of tbe second body at ri~'ht angles
in a closed curve, which is a line of equilibrium.

~M.s'~aw'.s' 7'~c&/v?/

116.~ An electrified bodyptaccd in a f'chi ofL-lectric force cannot

bc in stahio equilibrium.
First, let us suppose thé electricity ofthe moveable body (//), and
also that of thé system of surrounding bodies (7~), to be (Ixed in
thèse bodies.
Let Fbe the potential at any point of thé moveable body due to
thé action ofthe surrounding bodies (7~), and let e be the e~eet~-icity
on a small portion of the movcable body /< surrounding' tbis ])oint.
Tbcn thé potcntia! cnergy of with reRpcct t.o j3 will bc
3/== S(rc),
where the summation is to be extended to every electrified portion
of
St~nn~ry of thf! ProperticH"f certain Strcam Litte~ /o7. ~V'T/ Oct,.18fit.
St-c ;d.o, T)h)!u.m n.nd'J'~it'-);(~'f'< /«7'"f' 7St); :nw!Itnnkino :md.Stokt's,
in thu /'r"c. A. LS'i7,)'. 4G8 al~' )!.Stnith, 7'n)r. /s'. j!:W/)t.,~H()U-7",
p. 7!
 140 l'OIKTS AND LINËS 0F EQUILIDRIL'JM.
[JIÔ.
Lct e bc the coordinates of any clectrified part of with
respect to axes fixed in and paraltc] to thosc of a~ y, Let thé
coordin.ates ofthe point fixed in thé body through which thèse axes
pass bc
Let us suppose for thc present that the is cnnstrained to
body
muvû. p~t-a!)c! to itsefi, then the absolute coordinatcs of the point
c will bc
.f = = ~+~ =
Titc poteniinl of thc body with respect to B may now be
cxpresscd as thc sum of a numher of tcrms, in eaeh of which
is cxpresscd in terms of e und and thc sum of these
tcrms is a fnnction of thé quantities a, which are constant for
Gach point of thé body, aud of 7~ <r, which v:n-y w!teti t!ic body is
moy'ed.
Since Laplace's équation is satisfied by eaeli of thcse ternis it is
satislied by thcir sum, or
~~V ~~1~
+ + = 0.
"C ~?)''
Now ]ct a small displacement bc given to so that.
= =
t))cn wiH bc thc incrément of thc potcntial of~ with
respect
to thc surronndit]~ system
If this Le positive, work will hâve to he donc to innreasc and
r cl:ll
thL-rc will
'Ill Le a forée Ù' to diminish
l' "} nndl to i-cstorc
tending to
its former position, and for this disptacemcnt tlK-i-cforc t)tc equi-
tibrium will bL' stahte. If, on thc othcr h:md, this qnatitity is
rn~Htivc, thc ibrcc will tend to incrcasc and thu L~uilibrium will
bc )L!)stab)e.
Nmv considcr a spho-c whose centre is thc
orl~-in and whosc
t-adiuti is and so smaH thn.t wl)cn thc point nxcd in t])c
Lody
lies wit)nn this spitct-c no part of Die- mo\-cab!<-
hody can coincidc
with any part of thc external systcm j~. TIi~n, siuce win)in thc
sphère ~~J7= 0, titc surface-intégral

(
~-7/7~=~
taket) over thc surface of thc spho'e.

II~K~ ifat :.ny part of t))e surfnce ofthc i.s positive

sphon'
thf'ru nutst ),u nome (.t)iL-r part r,f thL- stu-facc whurc- it is
négative,
 1 16. ] i~unjfBtuu~ Af.wAY.s u~sTAnn- 1 tl1

and if thé body be displaeed in a direction in which isS

<
ne~a.tivc, it will tend to move from Its origitiat position~ and ils
cquilihrium is therefore necessarily unstahlo.
Thc body therefore is u))staL!c cvcn wl)cn coostrained to move
paral)~ to itsc)f, < it is unsta.1~u w!)C!t altog-cthcr fn'e.
New let us suppose-that the body yJ!is :i conductor. Wc nug-ht
trc:tt th)6 as a case of' cquiHbt'hun of a. System of bodic's, thé movc-
fth)t- ch'ctricity bci!)~ eonsidercd as part of that systcm, nnd \f
nii~')tt ar~ue that ns t!ic system is nnstahie when dcprived of so
many dt.rccs nf frecdom hy thc fixturc of its ek'ctricity~ it must
<7~ bc tmsta.b!G when this frecdom is rcstored to it.
]~tt \ve may consif~t- this case in a. more particular way, thus–
First~ let t)K' efcctric'ity be nxcd in and let it move throug-h
t])c small distance Thé incrément of thé potentia! of duc to
th)s cause )s 1
l'

Next, !ct thc electricity bc aHo\ved to move within into its

position ofequihbrium~ wttich is always sta.1~e. Durin~ tins motion 1
thc potcntini will ncccss:u'i!y bu <w/M~/c~ by a quantity which wc
may cn)I C~
IIcnec thc total incremot)t of thé potoitial when thé ctcctricity
is 1'rueto
fr~c to mov·e
inovc will
wiU be
7

and thé forée tundins~ to hring' A hue~ towards ils orig'inat positiot
will be
C'
where C'is a!n.ys positive.
Now we h:ive shown that is négative fur cert:tin direc-

tionsof/ hence when thc ek'ctrieity is free tu move thé instability

in thèse directions will bc increased.
 CIIAPTER VU.

FORMH 0F THE ËQL'IPOTHKTIAL SURFACHS ANJ) L!NRS 0F

INDUCTION IN S)M['LH CASES.

117.] WF hâve scen that the détermination of thc distribution

of clectricity on t))c surface of conductors rnay be made to dépend
on thé solution of Lapiace's équation
~r_
7/~
l' bcing a function of~ y, and which is alwa,ys finite :tnd con-
tinuous~ whieh vanishcs at an infinite distance, and which has
a given constant va.Inc at tlie surface of each conductor.
It is not in ~fner:d possible by kno\n mathematicat methods
to solve thiH équation eo as to fu!n1 arbitrarily given conditions,
but it is atways possible to assign varions forms to thé function
which shaU satisfy thé cquation, and to dcteiTnine in each case
thé forms of thé conducting surfaces, so that thé function shall
bc thé true solution.
It appcars, therefore, th~t what \e shonid naturally call thé
inverse prohiem of determinin~' thé forms of t!)e eonduetors from
thé potential is more manageabte than thé direct problem of de-
termining thé potential when thc form of thé conductors is givcn.
In fact, every ch'etriea! proutcm of which we know thc so)ution
bas heen constructcd by an inverse process. It is thcrefbre of
~rpa.t importance to thé clectrician that l'e should know what
results have becn obtained in this way, since thc only method by
which lie can expect to solve a new problem is by reducing' it
to one of' <hu cases in \hieh a similar problem bas becn cou-
strncted by thé inverse process.
This historical knowledge of results ca.n be turned to account in
t\vo ways. If we are required to devise an instrument for maMn~
t'b'ctrical mcasurc'ments with thc g')'ea<est accurac-y, \vu may select
<bose furms for the eh'ctrificd surfaces which corrc'spojd to cases
(If' which wc hn<n\ thc accuratc solution. If, on thé other hand,
 <i8.] USE ()F J)IA(!H.\M~. 14:3

wc are rcquircd to estimate what will be the e)cctriucation ofhodies

whosc forms arc ~iven, wc may begin with some case in which onc
of the equipotential surfaces takcs a form somcwhat rescmbnng tlie
givcn form) and then by a tentative method we may modify thé pro-
b!cm. till it more nearly corresponds to the givcn case. This method
is cvIdenUy very imperfcct cottsidcred from a mathematicid point
ut' view, but it is thH only one \vc !)avc~ and if we are not a!Io\ved
tu choose on!' conditions, wc can mnke on]y an approximate cal-
cuhttiou ci' thé ciectrineation. It appears, thcrefore, tha,t wliat wc
waut is a knowtcd~c ot' the Foi-ms of equipotcntia! sur~CL'B and
titius of induction in as many cliffercnt cases as wc can collect
tog'cthcr and rcmembcr. In certain classes of cases) suclt as t!)osc
re!at!ng' to splicres, wc tnay procccd by mathcmatical meDiods. In
othur cases ~'c cannot af!brd to despise thé humttler method of
actuaDy drawing tentative fignres on paper, and selectin~' that
which appcars Icast un)ike tlie figure we require.
Ttlis iattcr method I think may hu of some use, cvGn in cases in
\)uch thé exact solution has becu obtained, for 1 nnd that an cyc-
knowledge of thc forms ofthc equipotential surfaces often Icads <o a
right selection of a mathcmatical metitod of solution.
1 hâve thercfore drawn sevo'a! d'agrams of systems of cquipotential
surfaces and lines of force, so that tlie student may make hitnsetf
ia-miliar wit!t thé forms of' thc Unes. The methods by whieh such
d):t.g'rams may be drawn wiH be exph),ined as \ve go on, as tht'y
hctong' to questions of différent kinds.
118.J ]n thé first n~'urc at the end of tliis volume wc hâve thc
equ!potenti:u surfaces surrounding two points electrified with quan-
tities of electricity of thé sinnc kind and in thé ratio of 20 to 5.
Hère each point is snn'ou))d('d hy a system of et~nipotentia)
surfaces which beconie tnore neariy sptteres as they become smatter,
but noue ofthem arc ac'curate)y sphères. If two of these surfaces,
one surrounding cac]i sptiere, be taken to rcprese!)t thc surfaces
of two condueting- bodies, nearly but not quite spherical, and if
these bodies Le ebargcd with tbe samc kind of clectricity, thé
citiu-g-cs being as J to 1, thcn thc diagram will rcprcsent thc
cqmpotentml surfaces, providc'd wc cxpung-c [tH those whic]i :n'c
d)':t\vj-t iusidc thé two bndics. It appears from the diug-ram tlutt
thé action bctwcen the bodies \\i!I Oc thc samc as t))~t betwccn
two points I):)vin~ thé same ct)nrg'es, thcsc points hcin~ not
uxnct)y
in thé middlc of thé axis of each Lody, but. somc\vh:i.t more rcmote
than the middie point from the other body.
 144 KQt'frOTHXTfAhSUHFAC]~ [j!Q-
Thc samc dia~ram cnah]c.s us to sec \vhat will Le the distritmtion
ofu)cctricity on one oft))cova)ng'urcs, hn'cr atone end th~n
t))cut))er,whichsun'ound bol)) centres. Suci):tbody',ifc]t.'ctrificd
with ach:u'c23andfn'efrom cxtern:t.) it)f)uencf,win have thc
surface-density ~-rcatcst at thé sma!) end, )ess at thc !arg-e end,
and !cast in a circtc sotnc\bat nenrcr thc smath'r than thc hu'g-erend.
There iHonc<'<j[nip<'<cnii!d!j)u'rac'e,indicatcd))ya.dottcd ]inc,
whic!) consists of t\v<' )ohes meeting at thé conica! ~oint 7~. T))at
point is a point of cqniHbrium, and thé surf:M;c-dc'nsity on a body
ofOi~f~rmnfthiHsurrac'c'wotddhcxct'ontthis point.
Thé hnes efforce in this ('asc f'orni twn distinct Systems, dividcd
from om' anothcr )jy a surfac-e nfthe sixth de~rce, indica~cd hy a
dott.ediin~passin~'tin'~u~hthc point oCcqniiihrium, andsome-
what rcscmhHn~' one s))cet ofthc.' hypL'rholoid nftw~ shects.
This din~'ram may a)so hc ta1c(.'nto t'cprc'spnt tlic lines of force
ard cquipotcntiat surfhcc's IjL'tongin~' to t\vo sphcres nf gravitatin~'
niattcr whosc masses are as to ).
119.] In thé' second figure \ve have a~-ain t\o points \hose
charges are as 4 to but thc on~ positive and 1)~' other nc~-ativc.
In this case one f'r thc cquipntcntia! surfaces, that, namdy, corrc-
sponding- to ])otcnti!Ll zero, is a sphère. It is markud in thé dia~ram
hy thc dottud eirctc Q. Thé importance of this sphcrica] surface
\vi)) hu sccn whcn \v<jcumc <o t))c <!)cory ofEtectrical Imag-cs.
Wc may sec i'rom this diagram tha.t if two round bodics are
ctiargt'd with opposite kinds ofuicetrieity they will attract each cthcr
as much as t\vo points Iiaving thc same c!)ar~'cs but pkccd somc-
what ncarer to~-ethcr than thé middie points oi'titc round bodics.
IIcrc, again, one of thc equipotcntial surfaces, indicated hy a
dotted line, )tas t\o ]obcs, an inner one snrrounding' the point whose
charge is 3 and an outer onc surronnding bot)) bodics, the t\o
lohcs meeting in a eonica! point 7-' \v]nck is a point of cquilihrium.
If t!ic surface oi' :) conductor JMof the form of the outcr tohe, a
roundish hody having', Hke an app)c, a ~onica~ dimp!c at one end of
Its axis, thon, if this conductor hc clectrificd, wc shall hc !).h~ to
détermine' thc snpcrficial dunsity at any point. That at thu hotton)
of' thc dhnpic will bc xcro.
Surmundin~- this surface we hâve others having' a roundcd
dimph* \vhieh nattens and nnaHy disappears in thf cquipotcntial
surface passin~ tbrou~h thc point markcd
T))c lincs of force in this diag'nnn forni two Systems dividcd h\' a
surface \))ic)) passes throuj~h thc point ofefjuitihrium.
 .21.] AN!) LINES ()F INDUCTION. 145

H' \c consider points on the axis on thé fm'ther sidc of the point
\vc fmd that thé resu)tant force diminishes to thc double point jP,
\hL'rc it vanishes. It tben changes si~n, and reaches a maximum
ai. J/j aftcr \hich it continuatty diminishes.
This maximum, howcvcr~ is on)yamaxlnnnnre!ative]y tootfter
points on the axis, for if \c draw :t. surface perpcndicular to t))G
:Lxis, 7!/ iH a. point of minimum foi'c~' rctativciy to nci~'hhouri))~'
points oa that surface.
1~0.j yi~m'c 111 reprcsunts thc u~uipotcntial surfaces and lines
of force du~ to an <'lectrin(.'d point \vhoHc charge is !() ptaccd :Lt
and surroLuxk'd hy a fk'M oi' foroc, which, hcf'ore thc intro-
duction of t.)K' ch'('f,)'if!(.'d point, \a.s uniform in direction and
magnitude at e\'t'ry part. In tins case', thosf lines of force which
))t'!on~' to arc contai)~d wiihin !Lsurtacc of révolution whi~'h
has an asymptotie cytindc)', iiavin~' its axis paraUc) to thc un-
disturLcd lincs or' force.
Th~ cqnipotcntiat surfaces t]avc cach of thcm an asymptotic
p)aac. Onc of th~n, indicatcd hy a dottcd linc, bas a eonit'i).)
poiat at~d a )o))c surrouudin~' tt)c poittt Dtosu hcdow this surface
liave one shct't \H,h a dépression nc:n' the axis. Thnse ahovc hav<'
:) c]nst'd portioti surronnding' and !) scparatc shcct \vit!i a s]i~'ht
dépression nciu' thc axis.
If w<' ta~c onc of the surfaces t)c]<)\v as the surface of n con-
ductor, and anothcr a !on~' way hc)ow as thc sni'fucc of anothcr
conductor at a diu'crcnt potentiat, t!)c systcm ofHncsand surfaces
hettvcc)! thc t\o conductorswiti Indicatc thc distribution ofc!ectric
force. If thc h'wcr coaductor is very far from its surface will
hc vcry ncar)y plune, so <h:u. wc hâve hcrc thc solution, of thc'
distribution of Ldcctricity on two stn'facci- ho<h of thcm nearly
p)anc and pnra)hd to cach othcr, cxccpt that the uppcr one bas
a protubc'rancc ncar ils middic point, wbicb is more or less prn-
mincntaccordin~ to thc particularcfpnpotcntial iincwcchoosefor
thc surface.
l!~l.] l'i~'ure IA~ rcprcscnts thc cfjuipotcntia! surfaces and Hncs
of force duc to Un-ce eb'ctrificd points 7~'nnd C, thé charge of//
bci! 15 units of positive c)ectricity, that of j~ !2 units of négative
clectricity, and that of <7 20 units nf positive ctectricity. T))csc
points arc p)accd in one strai~'bt )ine, so tbat
= '), 7~6' = Ki, ./C'= 25.
In tins case, thé surface for which thé potcntia) is unity consistH
of t\vo spncrcs \vh<~e centres are attd and their radii 15 and 20.
V") 1
 MG nQU])'OTENT)AL
St~FAC'RS [l2.2.
Th~' sphcrps interscct. in th~ ..ir.-h. wi.i<-h euts thc pian~ of Ou.
papcr in and 7)~, so U.at is the centre of tl.is cir.-lc and its
rad.ns is F2. T))is (-irctc is an
<-xan.p1~ of n )i,K. ~fcqnihhrium, for
thc t~snitant. force Yanish~s at
cvo-y ]~int nfOns li;ic.
Jfwc suppnsc <~L- sp)u.-)~ wlmsc (~ntr~ is./ tn hL- a
co.uhctor
with n char~ <,f 3 units oC
pr,sihvc ~cciricit~ phx~d und~r
th.. mOucnc~ -JO t.nUs nr p<,si<iy~
L.)~<ri<.ih-at 6', t),~ sh.tt. of
i.hc o~. will )~ ~)n-n<(.<1 hy OR- if ~-c
din~-r~n h~vc «ut n)) <],t.
lincs ~i<hin <h~ sphc~ Thc pnrt.r<his sp),cri..a] surfa. within
thc. srnal) oirc!~ wi]) hc n~t.iv..)y dt.ifi~ ),y ~hc- I.)f!ucn<.<.
f C. A)! thc rest nf t)K.
sphcr<. wi)t positivc.iv c)~tri(k.<L an<i
thc s.n:.]) ci, 7~~ itsolf will L<. a )in<-nf no L.)<.ch-in<-atmn.
A\~ nu.y a).s<. ponsid~- the di~nun t. r~j.n.s.-nt <h.. d.-(.)nn.ation
of <)).- sphcn. who.sc pent~ is <
c.).f,~t-d wi(.), 8 unit.s <,t' )-sitiv~
~t)-io)h-, a.nd inOuL-n~cd hy ]. uni<s
..f),si<.i~p]~t)-i(.ih- ).)a~.<!
at
'i'I.(- dia~-am maya]so he <aL-<'nto
rf-pi-cs.-nt t).c f~asc nra (-n-
thK.tn)- whosc .sur<:t<~ consists nf <),(.
tarder s~mcn<s .,fth. t~-o
sptK~.s inL.ctin.n. i.i 7/ c.har~t ~ith 23 units nj' p~Hiv.. ~.o-
tricity.
shal) return to ihc (-nnsideraf.tnn nf ihis
dia~ram as an
ilh.s< ration Tfiomsnns 7~ Sc.c Art. ] (~.
1~.] 1 a]n anxious t)iat <hcs.'
(Ha~a.ns shoidd ht. ~udit-d a~
illustrations of th<- hu)~.ua~ nf
Faraday in speahing nf ]in~ of
force,' t)K- forces ofan ctcctrificd Lody,' ~f.
In strict mathem~ticat ta~-ua~tho~Tord F<n.~ is nsod tf~i.rni~-
t!K. snppns..d cause of<hc
t.~dt.ney which a matcria) hody is ~un'd
to Itavc towards alturati~n in its state nf
rcst or mnti.,u Jf is
md.if.r..nt ~hcD.cr wc sj~a~ 0)- this ohscrved
tendency or of its
Jm.n..d]at<- cause, since tlK- causn is
simply ini-crn-d from thé cf)bct,
and )ias nf) othcr c'i(t(_'n<'c to
supjtort. it.
Sinco, ho~-vcr, ~-0 a-c nnrsctv.-s In thc pra<.ticc of
dircctino- thc
mot.n ot uur own bodic.s, and <)(' ot).
in<.v; thin~-s in Dus~-ay
wc i.av~ aoquin-d a c.,pi.,u.s .t~-L. of
rL.nu.inherc.d scnsatim.s rdatino-
to UK..s<-a.t,ons. and th<.rc(n,~ nur ide-as <.f-
furœ an. oonnf.ctcd
our mmds w.)h id~s ~'consdn..s
pnw< nf<.xcr(ion,a:.d cd' f..ti.~<-
and of cvcrcnm.n~ or
yi~din.n- to pressure. Th~- id..as, which ~iv~
a c~unn~. and viyidnL.s.s tu thc
purclv abstract idea or f.rce do
not in n)a<hcmatlca)!y trai.~d minds !ead ~o
any practi~ crmr
But in the vu~-ar
langua~. 0)- th<- timc whcn dynamica) .sf.icnc..
was unknown, a)) thc. words
r~atin~. <n pxertinn, such as fnrœ
 J23.] .\KD DNKS 0F !NJ)t!CTJON. 147

cnerg'y, ])o\vcr, &c., were confoun(]c() with cach othcr, thoug'h somc
of <hc .scitoolmcn cndcnvourcd to introducc agrcatcr precision into
~hcirtang'uag'c.
Thc eulLivaiion inul ]~pu!:i]'!z:)t!on ofeo)')'pct dvnamicnt idcas
Hince thc timc of Ca)i)cn and Newton has effcctcd an imim'nsc'
change in t.hc hm~'uag'c and idc'ns of e~mmott ]i(b, Lut it is on!
wiihii) rppent times, and in conscquoncc of t!!c innrcasin~' im-
portance oi' madiincry, that the idcns nf force, encr~'y, and pn\o'
))avc hpcomc aecuratcly disiin~')n~))cd from (.'ac'h other. Vcry f'L'\v,
))owGVc)', cvcn of scit.'ntific mcn, aru care!ut to oh.servc thosc dis-
tinctions hence wc oftcn hcar ci' <hc force o(' a cannon-b:d) witcn
cithci' its cnerg'y or ils momcntun) is meant, and of' thc i'orcc of an
ctcctrincd body when thc tpmntity of its ck'ctnfication is mcant.
New thc quantity nfeteetririty in n bndy is mcnsnrc'd~ according'
to Faraday~ idcns~ hy U)c K/f;' of iine.i of forcc~ or rathcr of
induction, \vhich prncccd from it.. Thcsc lines of force must a!)
<(')'min:)tc Homcwhcrc, eithcr on bodics in thé ncig'hhour))ood, or on
thc walls nnd roofof<he ronn~ or on t!)c c:n'th, or on thé hcavcnfy
hodies,and whereverthcy terminale thcrcis a.quan<Ity ofc!cc-
tricity cxaeHy cqua! and oppositt; tu that on thé part ofthc hody
from whicit they ])roceeded. By examining' the diagrains t))is will
bcsccntobcDtccasc. Titcrcisthci'cf'oyc no contradiction hct.vcL'n
Faraduy's vit-ws and thc mnthematieai rcsitHs of thé o!d DK'ory,
Lut, on thé contrary, thc idfa of lincs of i'orcc t)n'o\s g'rcat If~'ht
on thosc rebuts, and secms to aitord ttu' menn-~ of nsin~' hy a con-
tinuons proccss from Hiu sûmc\hat, ri~d conceptions of' thc o)d
thcory t'~ notions which may bc capaLlL' of g'rcatcr expansion, .o
as to prnvidc room fnr thc ittcrcasc of onr knowh'd~'c bv furt))er
rcscarchf.s.
123.] Thèse diagrams are construc'tcd in thc foHo\in~' manner
First, takc the case of a sin~'h' centre of force, a smat! c'Iectnncd

body with a char~t*

c, 7~. Thé potcntia) at a distance is /'=

hence, ifwc makc \ve shal) iind thc radius of thc sphère
;'=
for which thc potentia) is If wc now ~'ivc to thé vaincs
t, 2, 3, &:c., and draw thé corrc~pondin~' sphères, \ve s)ia]i ohtain
a scrics of cqnipotential surfaces, titc potcntials correspondin~' to
whic)):ircn]casu)'('dhyt))cnatura,1nun)he)' Thc sections of thèse
sphères hy a plane passin~' throu~h ihe!r common ecntre will he
circh's, which wc may tnarh with <hc jjumi'er denotin~' thc potentia)
[. 2
 J48 H'jt'H'uTE~'DA).St'KF.ACHS [123.
nfca.ch. Thèse-an' tndicatodhyth~dot<('d<')!'ch's<)n(.hcri~ht
)):uidofFig-.(!.
If there bu anothcr ccutrc of force, we may in tlic samc way draw
thct'quipotentiul surfaces hc)on~in~'toit,and if wuno\v\vishto
iindtitcformofthe cqui]~tp)tt.i:d sur(:K't'sduti to botil con~'cs
tog-ether, wc musL rumL'tni~r t!)a<jif hc the potcnti:~ due to one
cu)t<rc,:md/~<~at.dn<jt<)tht;()thut',t.hcpu<(.'nt:ialducto))ot.)t\vi]]))('
/j~ /~=/. IJ(;nce,iiKjc':[<,cvf!'yint(']'scction or~hccquipoic'ïitiid
surfaces bc!on~m~' to ~hc two séries wc knn\v hotit :md \c
aiso kilow thc value of/ H'tJtcrcfoi~ wc dra\v a surface winch
j):MSL'sthrou~'h aH thosc intersections fur whirtt thu value of is
thé same. this surface \i![ coineide \vit)i a h'uc <([nipntcniia) surface
at :d) thL'sf in~rst'ctions, at)d if thé nri~ioal systonn of surfaces
)x'drawns))j!iciunt!y close, thon~v surface may Le drawu whh
axy rL'(p)ircd d~rcc ofuccum.cy. T))<; cquipotx'titia! surfaccs duc- to
hvo puints whusc charg'cs arc cquat and ojtpositc nrc rcprcsentcd by
ihu continuons lines on thé i'ig'!it, t]and sidc of Fig-. (i.
This mothod may hc aj'plicd to the drawing of any system of
(.'quipotcntial surfaces \hcn thé potfntia) is <)~ smn nf two po-
tentials, for which we Itave ah'cady druwn tlicequipntcntia] sur~ces.
Thé Unes of force duc to a. sin~f cottre of force are strai~tt
lincsradiaiio~'f'rornt.hat. ccnt.tv. If'\Ycwis]tt<)U)dieatL'L\-tt)(~
Iincst))('in<cns]ty:(s\L'!) as t))edi)'('c-(io))())'t)k'iu)-(;c!tt:u)y point,,
wc must draw thon so that t))cy mark eut ou t))u ~jnijiut~Dtii))
Hm'fuccs ])orttons uvo' whict) thu surface-int.c~TiL) of inductimi haH
dcfinitc vaincs. Thc b<jst way of d'nog this is to suppose nur
ptanc figure to ho thé scctin)) of a fi~-u)'t' in space fot'n~'d Ly thu
révolution uf the p)anc u~'nrc ahnut an axis passin~- t]n'ou~'h tItL'
cc'utrc of' force. 7\ny strai~))t hnc radiatm~' from thf centre and
makin~' an an~lu C with thcaxis will then trace out a cône,
nnd thé surfm'c-ijitc~ra) of the induction throu~h tliat part of any
surf:t0t' u'hich is cui ot!' by t))is L'onc on thc' sidt; ncxt the positivt;
direction of thc' nxis, is 2 A'(l –eos 0).
If wc furttn'r suppose t))is surface tn ht' houndcd by its inter-
section with two p)!t))cspas!i))~<h)-<)n~)ttj)(,'axis, und inclincd at
thé an~-le whosL' :)i'e is t'<pta1 to )):).)f t)ic radius, then t))e induc~io))
throu~')i thé snrfuecso hounded is
/;(] –(.ns~ = 2 Mty;
:m(t <? = cfis'~ (t –2 4~ ).

If wc now ~'ive tn 4' a séries nf va)~)c.s ], 2, 7~wesha)!Hn()

~7- ~.7/' /~<y.

!ig.<

~x <a~
/x~.v <V ~y~
/~<<v/

/x-
 ~3.] AX!) HXHS uF IXDUC'T!')~. 149

itcorrespondin~'séries of vaines of~.and if/?he an inférer, Oie

numher 0)' correspondin~- lines of force, inc)uding' thé axis, will hc
c()H:d<oA'.
Weliavetheref~rca mcthodofd)'a\vlng'hncs of force so that
thc charge ofany L'entre is indicatcd hy thé numhcr <~fh'ncs which
converge to it, and thé induction t!n'ough any surface eut ofTin thé
\vay deso'ihcd is measured by thc numhci' of lincs of furcc which
pe)ss throu~h it. T)x' dottcd sii'i)i~'ht )ii)L's ou U]c Jcft hand sidc
of' J''i~. <! !'L'p!'(~t')it thc lines of' force duc to cach of two ulc'ctrif]<'d
points whosu citnrg'c's arc ]() and –10 rcspcctn'ety.
]f thcre :n'c <o c-L-ntr~s of foi'cc on thé axis of the fleure we
may draw thc hnc.s of (brce fnr cach axis con'CHpondixg' to values
of4', and and thcn, by dnuving- lines throu~'h thé ennsecutivL'
intcrscc'tioMs of thcsc lines, for winch the value of ~t+~ is tlie
samc, wc may fixd thc iincs of forcc duc to hoth cuntres, and in
thé samp w:iy \o may comhioc any two Systems of hncs of ffo-œ
\\hich arc symmctt'icaXy situatcd ahout thc same axis. Thc con-
tinuons L'urves on thc )cft ))and sidc of l''i~ (i reprosent t!)c fines
of' force duc to thc two c)ectrifi(.'d points acti!)~' at once.
Aft<'r thc c()uipotcntia) surfaces and lines of force Iiavc heert
constructcd hy this mcthod thé accuracy of tlic dnnving m~y ~o
tcsicd hy ohservin~' whcthcr thc two Systems of Hnes are cvcry-
whcre odho~'onah and whcthcr thc distance hctwceji consccutivn
('(jnpotcntia! su rf'accsistoOtc distance het~'ccn consécutive ]in<'s
of force as ))a]f thc dist:uiec from thc axis is to thc assumed unit of
]cn~th.
In thé case ofany such System of finite dimensions thc line of
force whosc index numhcr is~))as au asymptote which passes
throng'h t))c centre of~ravity of thc system, and is inchncd to the
axis at an ang'Ie wltosc cosine is wherc is the total
–2
clectrincation of the system~ provided is Icss than Lines of
force \vhose itidcx is ~'rcatcr than 7~' arc finite lines.
Thé lines of force correspondin~' to a. nehl of uniform force para.He)
to the axis arc 1ines pa.ra.hct to the axis, the distances from thé
axis )jcin~- thc s(~[are roots ofan a-rithmetical séries.
Thc theory of' cquipotcntial surfaces and lines of force in two
dimensions will he ~iveu when we corne to thé theory of conju~tc
fnnctions*.
Sec pn.per Ontho Dow <!fK!ect)-icityin Condocti))~Surf:tCM'))yi'rof. \V. J!.
.Snnt)),t'S'Wy/i.,)8t!i'-7"7!
 CIIAPTER VMt.

SfMI'LE C.\S).;S <)P ELKCTIfIFICA'riOX.

7'7V~

124.] Wu sha)) considt.'r,inUK- ti)'stp]ac(.t\vopar:U)R) ptanu

eondnetin~ surf'aec's of infinitc cxtcnt, at a distance e frotu eactt
otho', maintaincd respeL'tivciy at poientinis J :uid j~.
It is manifcst that in this casf thé potcntial \viU Le !),function
of the distance f'ro]n thu p)anu J, and wi)l Lf thé samu ibr a)I
points of any para))~) p)anf ))ct\vc'cn and 7~ cxccpt ncar t)~'
boundancs of'thc' f)L'ciri)icd snrt'accs, which by thf supposition
are at an in(tni<(.')\' ~rcat distance h'om thf point considère)!.
IIcncf, La])iacc's équation heconcs rcduccft to

=
thu intcg'ra! ofwhicii is
/'=<+C~j
and sincc whcn = D, = and wt~'n = c, =

/'=~+(~)~.
Fo' aU points hft\VL'L'n t))e phun's, <)n' rcsnitant cfcctrica) force
isuormattotht.'p):).nes,anditsin:)~'nitud<is
=
c
la thu sn))stanc(.' ot' thc conductors thmn.sc!vcs, /t' = '). IIcnce
the distrihutinn of' c)cct)'icity "n thc first p!am; bas a sm'facc-
deusity CT, here
dcnsitvo-v]t<L'ru /j
_t)_ ~t–~
c

On the other surface, whL'rG thc potcntial is 7~, thc snrfacc-

dcnsity o-' will be cquat and opposite to o-, an(t

t7l<r =–7t=
 124.] ~Uli'LH CASKS. i'AHAfjLKfj ['LANHS. 151

Lut us Huxt. considéra portion ofthc first surface wtmsuarcn

in -S, takt'n .so tttat no ~'ai-t. of.S'isiK-ar tbc buuudary oftiic
surfauL'.
T)tc<)uanti<yof<-tt'ct.rici<yott thissur~cL'isy~='S'<r,and,hy
ho thut
,Ar<. 7')~ thc i'urcc! actin~' ou fvery unit of cicctricity is
tiic wlmtc forc'u :K'ting- on tliu arca 6', t),nd nttractins' towards
t)t~~t.))crp!tiuc,is
,S
= 1 /c',SU
~=.==~=' ,S
87r
n 877
r. c-
ifL'i'f t))c attraction is expi'Hi-scd m tt'rius of thc arcn 6) thu
di)]crcncL' ofpotcnHa~ of thu two sm-the~ (.7)'), :)tid ihc distance
bL't\\cui) thcni e'. Thu attractiui], cxpruMscd in terms of' t)iu ctiar~c
7~ on thu arc:t. 6'~ is
/=
.)
Titu dcctt-ical cucr~y dm; to ttiu distribution ot'ctcch'ieity on thc
:u-t-:t-S',and that ou an arca, .')" on t.))esm-face dcfincd by projueting
~'on<)H!sm'i':K-L'))y:tMys<(jni oNim'soffoi'c~whichmthiscasu
a.['cn«i'[)):dst(jttK'))!ancs,is
Q= A(~+/A),

=.(-),
'~)~
~'s'.
= 8~
if
A-
=
= 7'
T)if iirst uf ttu-sc expr(.'Hsions is thc g'ctici'.d expression oi' dcc-
<ric:dcm.'r~'y.
Thu sccoud ~'ives t)i(; unuf~-y ni tcrms cf the arca, t,hc distance,
and thu (Ht['cœuce of potontuds.
Thu thii-d givcs it in tci-nis ot' thc résultant i'orcu aud t)ic
volumu Sc Itiehidcd butwcc'u thc arc-as and and s)tew.s tt)at titu
unit. of is whcrc! 8 = 7~.
uncr~y in volume 7r~
Thu attractiou bc-t\CL'!i t!ie planes Is/~ or in ot))cr \vords, thcru
is an cleetrical tension (or ucg-ativu pressure) c<~u:).)t-o un evury
unit of area.
Thc fourHi expression g-Ivcs thc cncrg-y in tcrms of thc charge.
Thc iifth shc\vs tha.t tlic eicctrical cnL'i-y is cqual to thc \\ork
which wuutd bu donc by ttic c~ciric forcu if tbc ~vo sm'fiLccs \<'ru
to bc brought to~thcr, niovin~ ~n'attcl to thcmsdvL's, v'ith thuir
eicL-tric uha.t'c~ cunstant.
152 StMPLE CASES. [~5.
To express thc charge i)i terms of the diftcrencc of potcnt.iats,
wchavc
( IS-.1) (l~I).
~=~=7(~).)

T!m cocificic'nt Hic clun'f'c duc to dift'cr-

-iTT 6' == t'eprcscnts
encc of poi.cn<i:t]s c-qual to unity. T)ns oœ())cicn< is caUed thc
Capacity of thé surface duc <,o its pf)sit.ion yclativ<)y to thc
opposite suria<'c.
Lct us now suppose that. thé tnedimn het~'ccn the two surfaces
is nn ]nng'cr fur Lut somc othcr didcctric suhstanf.'o whnsc spf.'cific
inductivc caj~aeity is À~ thcn the chin'g'c d)K.' to a ~ivcn dincruncc
ofpotuntia)s wiH bu timps as g-rcat as whun t)~' dlL'Iccti'ic is air,

'.=~
DK' tota) cnm'g'y will bc

J
8~-i (,*
27~
7r
(*
=A-;S' il,'l
Thc force hct\vc(;)t thc surfaces will ht'

= A'~(A-~
7<'=~5 = 8TT <
C~
~TT
=7~
IIc'ncc thc force betwcen two sm'f:tecs kept. at. ~'ivcn pntcntia)s
varies directly as A', thc spécifie capacity o(' Utc diefectric, Imt thc
f'nrcc hctwt'en two surfaces chm'ed \vit)t g'i\'en quantifies of u)uc-
triL'ity varies ittvcrscJy ns A'.

7'K'« C'fC/L' <S/~t'67// '')'6'.y.

125.] Lct two conccntric spho'ien) surfaces of radii and nf
which is t)x' ~'rL'n.tcr, L(.' maintaincd :Lt pntuntials y/ and
njspectivdy, thcn it is m:iniicst th:tt tl~ poteutiid is n f'tmction
of t)i<' distance from titc' centre. In Uns case, Lap):u;e's cquatioti
bccomes < 2
-7– + = f.
< y
The integ'ral ot' this Is
/'= 6',+6'
and the condition that ~'= \v)ien = nnd = when =
g'ivcs fer thé spacc ))pt\cen thé sp)icri('a) surfaces,
 COXCHNTRXJ Sl'HHinC.U, SURFACH~. 153
~5.]

'= +
b +~1''
~? 1?
1. = </r_= 2.
-r' lï- 1 1

]ffT.,<r., :u'c thc surfiLce-densitics ou thc cppnsed surfaces of a

snUtl sphère nf radius und a s~liuricul hoUow of mdins b, thcn
1
= -1 7T~a-6-~ .1~~
Jf A'j :nid 7~ Lu thc whûlc ch:u'cs ofc)cctrictty ou thèse surfaces,

:l-I~
7~ = ~~(T. = =–
v
a'

Thc of the cncloscd rc is thcrcforn

sphcrc
capacity G rc
Jf thc out.cr surface of thc she!t hc also sphcric:d nnd of mdins <
tho~ if therc are no otftcr eonduet~rs m t)i(! ncig'hboui'Iioûd, ihc
<-h:u's' on <hc ouh'i' surface is
A, = ~6-.
Hcucc t)ic who!e charge on the inner sphère is
n < y~
li u ~=~
and that of t))c ftutcr

~-t~,=~~(~+~.
If \vc put = =o~ wc hâve thé case of a splicre in an innnite
«r it is nu-
spacc. T!ic electric cap~eity cf sucti a spttere is
mt'rica~y cqua1 to its radius.
The cicctric tension on t)~! innt'r sphère pcr unit oi :n'cn )s
1 (~)'
87T '(~)''
Thu rcsnH.iint of this tension ovcr n Iiemisphore is 7r~ ==F
normal to thc hase of thé hémisphère, and if this is hatanccd by a
sui'f':LCGtension cxcrtcd aeross the eircuiar bonuda.ry of thc hemi-
spl)cr~ thc tension on mut of !en~th heing- 2', \Ye I~ve
7''= 27r~.

u ~(~ b J -.13 L
8 8 8<~

(.7~
1(. (~
 154 snu'm CASES. [i~6.
If a. sphct'ical scap bubhic is clectrified to a potcntia) J, t))cn~ if
its radius is < thc c])ar~c \i)t be ./< and thu sm'facc-dunsity
u'itibf 1 <
-l7!' f/

Thc resultant ctectrical force just outside t)ttj surfacu wii) be -i'n-n-,
and iiiijidc tl)e bubbic it is xcru, su that by Art. m thc c!<ctrical
t'ot'cc fm unit of arca of thc suri'ncc will )jc 27ro- actin~' ot'twards.
Hcncc thc c)cctri<ieation \I)l ditilinis)) t)tc pressure of thé air
withih t)tc buLbie by 2Tr(~,or
1 2
·
8~r~'
But it inuy hc sbewn that if 7' is thu tension which tlie ti~uid
film exerts :n;ross a Hue of unit Jen~'th, then tlic pressure from

\vithm ruquired tu kœp the bubbic from coHapsing-is 2 y Ifthc

ck'ctrit.'al force is just suitictunt to keep t)ic bubbic in equitibrium
\vhuu tlic :ur wiLhin aud wiLhnut is :tt the satne pressure
.~=IC7~ 1.

'w ~CM~ 6'y~ 6'Cf~.

1~6.~] Lct thc radius uf thu outcr surface of a conductin~' cyHnJci'
bc and td thé radius of thc inner surface of a )iuHow cyliuder,
)iavii)g- ~)n' s:tniu axis with t!ie first, Lu Lut thcit' p~tuntials
bc J and 7~ respcctivLdy. Thun, mncc the potcntlal F is in ihis
case a. functiou of thé distance from ttm axis, Lap]ace's cquation
bucOLUCS
~r i <

wttc'ncf = ~+ 6~ In~.
Siticu = whcn = and /'==. \vhcn =

f ~)f~ -f-J~Io~

1.~
li' o-~ are thc snrfauc-dctiHities on thc inncr and outer
surface~

.l~r ~1 -J~Z-L
G
Il
~iog'-
ll ~log--b
rG
127.] ] CO.\XAh CYLINDKHS. 155

If and are thc charges on :t. portion of thc two cyhndcrs of

tcn~Ui measurcd along' the axis,

= 2TT<~0-;= ~L~ ==–

lo(r

~J~iL'cupacity "f n ten~th of the interior eviinder is thurcforc

~T~
~'s'.
If the space bctwccn t)~ cyhndcrs is occupied hy a (iic)cctriu of
spécifie capuclty instcad ci' air, thun thc c:).paeity of thé inner
cylinder is j.
!()"'
M
T))e cner~y ot't)ie cicctrica.] distribution on thc part of thé infinitc
<'yHndcr whic)~ \u have considc'rcd is

Fig..5.

137.] Let therc Le two hollow cylindric couductors and

Fig'. 5, of indefmite leug'th~ havin~- thu axis of .<' for their common
nxis~ onc on the positive and thc ctlicr on tliu ncg'ativc sidc oi' thc
ori~in, and sepm'ated hy n short intcrval ticar the orig'iu of cû-
<u'dinates.
Let a ho!)o\v cytindct' 6' of Icu~th 2~bu placcd wit)i its middiu
point :it a distance ou thc punitive sidc of thé ongi:)~ so as to
cxtetid into botit t))u hollow cylnidcrs.
Let t)ic poteutiid of thé positive hollow cylinder bu that of
t))C nc'~a.tivL; otic and that of thu Intern:d onc C, and let us put
a ror thé cup:K.'ity pcr unit of Jcng'th of 6' witli rospuct to J, and
/3 jor thé samu qu:mtity with respect to 7~.
The capacities of thé parts of thé cytindors ncar ttic orig'in and
!ic:u' thc ends of t!tc inner cylinder will uot tje aftcctcd hy the
value of ~rovidcd a consid(ji'aHe Icn~th of thc imn.'r cytiudcr
ciiters each of t)ic Iiollow eylinders..Ncar thc ends uf Hie holluw
 156 SIMPLE C~SES.
r-j~

cylindcrs, and near tbe ends of tbc Inncr cyiindcr, thcre will hc
dis-tritjuti~ns of ~-leptricity which wc arc not
yct. able to pa)cu]atc,
Lut thc distribution nc-ar will
t)n.ori~-i.t nnt alh.rcdbythe
moiion nf ihc inn<'r cylindcr pr~'idud n~ithcr of' its
c-nds comes
n~r t]tR ..ng'in, :md 1)10 distributions at the ends of t]ic inner
evHndcr will mnvc wit). ii, that thc on)y cffcct of t]~ moti<m
will tjc <.) nKTcasc or diminish the
ien~.h of those parts of Dm
inncr eyiinder whcro thé distribution i.s simijar to that
0,1 :ui in-
nnitc cyhndcr.
HcncG t)tc- who]c cncr~y of the system will
bL-,so nu- as it dcpcnds
on a',

C= ~(/+.~(~-Y/)~(/(C-~)~+qnantitius
indopcjtdentof;
and tt)c résultant force parafe) to thc axis or thé cyHnd.-r.s will he

==
= ~(~(C'
!<'<hc cy)indcrs and /j' :ti-c nfequ:)! scctinn, a == :u)d
Y== a(/)(C'(~+~)).
It appcar~ th~rcfbrc, <),:)t <hcrc is a constant
forée actinr,. un
thL. tnncr cyh'ndcr ~ndin~- to draw it into that cule
of thc outcr
cytindcrs from ~]ne)t its poicntia) difrers most.
If C Le numcrica~y ]arg.c and ~+7~
comparatively small, thon
thé ~ref is approxinia~dy Y r~) 6''
so t)t:)t thc difrcroicc of thc
potcntiats of thé two cylindct-s can be
mcnsm-Ml ifwe eau measurc .Y, and the
deheacy et'thc measurcmcnt
will be increascd by rfusing- C, the
potcntial or thc h~r eyhndct-.
This prineipie in a modincd form is
adopted in Thomson's
Quadrant Etcch'omctcr, Art. 21!).
Thc h:Lmc an-ans-cmcnt of three
cylin(h-rs may be uscd ns
mesure of capacity by eonnccHnp- and <7. If the potcntial of
is zcM, and that of and C is tl)cn the quantity
ofe-IcetricHy
on~wdlhc
~7-
so that by movin~C to t!ic i-i~hiti!) bccomcs ~+~th<.
thc cylinder C bccomcs increased cup~citv of
hy t!ic dcnnitc quantity a~, where
t
l
2)c~ri
M and bcing t!)c radii of thc opposed cylindric sur~ccs.
 CIIAPTER IX.

srnHI{ICAL HARMONfCS.

6~/ 6'(// /<~ r~ ?< 7~/6' ~<cû/<v A/

1~8.] Wc iiavc atrcady shewn t]tn.t the potcntia) duc to :t

<jU!)ntity of dcctricity condcnscd at a point wl~osc coo'dinatcs
arc (IlJ
an' (~, Ú, (.),
r), is
i!;
~=, (I)
\vh(.'re is thc dist,:)ncc' f'rom t))c point. (~, 6') tn thc point (~ ~),
and is thé ])~tcn<i:d at thc' point (. .-).
At thc point («, &, c) thc potcntial :md a!! its derivatives Lccutnu
infinité Lut at cvcry othcr point thcy are nnitc nnd continuons,
and thc second dcrivativcs of sutisf}- La]))ace's équation.
IIcncc', the vahc of a.s ~-ivcn hy cquation (!), ma.y )'c thc
actn:d v.due ofthc poicntial in thé spaec ontsidc a ctoscd snt'facc
surruunding- thc point (~, c), but wc Pannot, cxccpt. for purcty
nutthcmuticat purposcs, suj)posc t))is form of thc funetioti tu !n)td
up to and at thc point (< <-)itscif. For thc rcsu)tant force close
tu the point \vou)d hc infinitc, a condition \])ich would ncccssitatc
a di.sc))a)'c- throu~tt the dieh'ctric mn-rounding' thu point, nnd
bcsidcs this it won)d rcquirc an infinité cxpcnditurc of work to
charnu a point with a nnitc quantity ofclectricity.
AVe shall call a ])ointofthis kind an innnite point ofdt'g'rcc xorc.
Thc potuntia! and aH its dcrivative.s at such a point are inimité,
but the product of the potcntial nnd thc distance from t)tc point
is u!timatcly a finite (pinntity c whcn t)n;'dist:tncc is Jinnnishcd
wititoat limit. Tins qnantity is e:d]cd thc 6' of thé infinité
point.
This may bc shewn thus. If/ hc thc potcntial duc to othcr
ctcctrificd hodies, titcn ncar thc point is cvcry\h(.']'c finite, and
thc \vholu potcntia) is
r= /+i,
whcncc = /)-<
 ~S S!'II].;]!ICAL !J{MON!CS. [129.

Whcn is indcnnitcly diminishcd romains

(initc, so that
uitiniat'dy 7' l'.
l~!).!T)'<'rc arc nihcrfdnttsoi'singutar points, thé pmpc'r~n'sof
whic!) wc s))aU ))o\v invcsti~atc. Lot, b~forc doin~' so, \vc must dcfinc
s'onK'(.'xp~ssi<!ns\v))ich wc shaHnnd us~rutinc'mancipatiti~our
idt':)s(r()n)th('<h)':))du)]nf)fsys<('msof'c'o~niin:)t<
An i.sa)ty<)t'fniitu direction in sj<:)('< ~Vcmay suppose
'(. dcimcd in 0:u't<'si~n coordl!):t<.<s hy its thrcedirL-ct.inn-cosinn.s
w, or, )jc<t(.'r still, wc m~y snppnpe a mark madc on t.hc surf:)(~'
"{' a spItRrc \vh(Te titc radius dra\n~'< t))c ccutrL' in Ux' dirccLinn
f'f t)K' axis ineds thé surface. Wc ni:Ly ca)I this
point t)tc Po)c
ofthf :)xis. An axis Las thcj~furc onc pole noL two.
o!~y,
Jf thrnu~h any point a ptanc ht' dra\vn p~rp~ndicuhr to
<hc axin~hc jx'rpcndif'utai' fron-i tlu- nri~-in on t)K' phmc isS

~=/.)'-)-+Mr.. (~)
T))~op<ratinn
M = +~ + M (:i)
is ca)!ed Dtu'LTentiation wit)) rcsppct to an axis \v))f)sc di)'('ct,if)n-
cosincs arc
Din'L-rcnt axfs are dis~in~-)ns))~d t'y di~L'rcnt snnixcs.
Tfu' cosino of th~- a)~')c bt'twfpn thc vcctor and any :txis
is dcnotcd byA,, nnd 0)L' vcctor r<;sn!v~d in thc ditTction of <I)L'
axisby~,whcrc
= + ~+ (.))
Thc cosinc' of'tfte ang-h' bdw~'n two axe! and is dcnotcd Ly
~c = (,)
From OK'sGdffiniiion.s i~ i. évident, tn!)(
<
~= ,-=~. (<')

~j
(
(~ )
~,=~=~

New )(?t. nsHupp~sc tnat <hc j.otf'n~ia] :)) <hc point du<-
(~
te a sin~tdar puint ofany <h~ru< p]acc(t ai. thc ori~-in is
J/(.).
H' sn<-h a j)oin< hc pinocd at 0~ c-x<)-cmi<y ofthf axis <))c'
poi('n~a1at(.)\i)]))c
.V/'(~),(y-).('));
 ~9-] fNFINTTK POfNTH. ~{)
and if a point in ail respects equat and of
opposite si~-n Le p)ac'od
at thé ori~-in, thé potei)tial (lue to thc pair of points will he
r = y!{(.r-~), (~ (~- ~.)} -J/(.
= ~'(. .y.. ~)+tcrms contiuni!]~- /s.
If \L' no\ diminish and incrcasc.Vwithout hmi<th<;Ir jtrnduct
J~ remainin~ constant and c(in:d to J/~ thc uitimatc vatuc of thc
potcntitd ()('t)n' pair 0? points wi)) bc

~"=' (~
I~(-) satistit~s Laphfc's c<)untion, th~n which is t.hc-
difn-rctu~ or two functmns, (..ach o(' which
scparatcty satisn.-s t.hc
Mjnat.ion~ must itscif natisfy it.
ïf ~'c h~-)!t with :u) infinitt- pnint f)fd(~rcc
~ero, for which

~~=~< ("') )
\<' sha!] ~ct for a pnint oft)n' first de~rp~

7-1
''=-

ri
=~~=~ l'- OU
A pnint of thc fii-t de~roc mny hc su]iposcd to consist of two
pninfs nf dt'grce xct-f), )iavin~- L'fjual and opposite- char~s J/ and
and p)accd at the extr~mities nf thc axis Thc Jcns'th
ofthc a\is isthoi supposed to diminish and thc
mag-nitudc oi'thc
char~-c-s to ino-pasc, so that thcir produr-t is ahvays cqua! to
Thc ultimate rcsutt of this proccss when thé two
pnints
coincidc is a point of the first (h'rc~ whose moment is and
whosc axis is /j. A point of th~ first dc~rcc may thcrcforp Le
ca1]cd a Double point.
Dy placin~ two cqual and opposite points of thc nrst dc-~rco nt
the cxtrcmitics of thc second axis and ma~in~- J/ = \u
~ct hy the sam< procc.ssapointofthc st-oond de~rccwhnscpntcntia)
IS
is
7' 7
~='
1
-V

il-i .2.
7"' a (1~)
 S)'HM):;C.\L ))A)m<)N)('s.
[130.
Wn may ça)) a point nf'thc second
d~cca Qundruphp.~int,
f~imsc it is~nstructcd ibnr
hy mnhin~ points apprnHchcach
nth~- and amnrncnLJ~.
Mha:t\voaxcs,u)d/ Thcr/
~«/A~ of DK.sc two axes and t.hc ~7/ nf Die j~omcnt com-
])L']y<]t'n))c<t)~n!)t un-ofthc point.
130.] Lc< usnnwcnn.si(h'r:u] inii))itcpnln<:f)fdog'rpe/havin"-
/axcs,('a(-horw)ti(.)t isticfjx~dhya marron a.spht-t-cor~vtw~
an~n)!t)' c(.u)-dinafcs,a!)d having- also its moment .V;, so ihut it is
d~m(-(tLy2/-{-]mdL~udent.<juant!tics. Itspotcuti~isuhtaincd
Ly (lincrentiati)~ wit.h )-~])cct to thc i axes in succession, H.)
th:t< i<.)n:)y))(- ~-rittcn

1 o.)
/='
Tht.'t'<'s))]if)fthc(~)(.'ratio)iisot'thpf«rm

~= 'A-' (. J)

\\))c~r;v]n,.))isc:tnud<hcSm-f!t~I:)rmonie,isan)nc<io!]of'<h(;
/c<.sinc~A, .of<in-an~]t-.sh(.t.wt~.n/-andt)~nx(.s,and()r<.h~
~(/-)) cosinu~ ~c.()f<h(.an~!cshrL\ec)) Utcdifferc'ntaxcs
t)K'ms(d\-cs. !)i w])a<fu])(. wc sh:d! MU))).«st.thc moment .V;
nuity.
J~'<'rytt'r!nf)rj',(.()nsist.s(.f'pro(tucts<))'<)K's<.(.(.sIiR-s()i't)')<'rnnn
~')j-A'j-A,,
in ~hicii t)n.'t-t' :)rc-.s- cosincs or:)n~-k'H t~twt'cn two
nx< :n)d /–2.s-
<-<'sinc-.s of angles hct.WL-t.-nthc axt-s :H](t t.Iu- radius vectnr. As ~act)
axis is introduct-d Ly onc of Lhc i pi-oc~ssc-s nf
d:f!br~)itia<;ion. t.)tc
syn))~~ of that axis tnust occur nncc iuni on)y once arnox" t)n-
snftixt's of'tlit~c t'osincs.
ÏL'iK~ in c\~rysu<'h prnduc< n(' c.~mcsuDt))~ indicés <~(.ur
t~nc-c,:md nonc is )'ep<~cd.

Tht-)]um)j~-()rdi~r<nt.i)rod))c<s()r.s-(.ns!n~\vi<.))()ouh)('sunix<'s
:)nd /–2.t c'().im.'s witi) sin~)c sufHxcs, is

S ~~)
S..s.

Fo)- if wc talœ any onc of <ht- <HjH.)~n<.<crms WL-ça.) form

from IL 2' an-an~.ments Ly :dtorin, thu ord~r r.f t),c sufiixcs ut
thu
cosinus wit.h double suffixes, r.-um
:n)y nnL' of thcs~ a~ai)], wu
c:ui form thé order <.(' thes~coshtos,
an-an~mcn~s ).y attcri.~
and irom any onc of th~s~ wt. can f'orm '-2.s-
arrang-cmcnts hy
a)tcnn~ thc nrdcr nf'th~ coques with sit~)e sunixcs. ïk.nec, with-
(~ta]t('rit)~.<))(-va)m'<.)'i))('<~rm )t):n-)-it:ci< in 2's-' <-2~
130.] TRIGONOMETHICAL EXriiES.~Oy. 161

différent ways.nnd if \vc do sotoaH theterms.weshaflohtnin

thé wltole permutations of x symhofs, the numhcr of whicfi is t
Lct thé sum of ai) tcrms of this kind bc written in thé ah-
f'revi.ttcd form
fÀ'-2'
If wc wish to express that n. particular s\'mbo~ y oecurs amon~
thc À's on!y, or nmon~ the ~s oniy, u'G write it as a suffix to thc' À
nr thc Thus thé cqua-tiou

X(A' ~) = S (A," ~) + S (A' ~) (t G)

cxprppsos Lhnt thc whoïc syst~m of teyms may hc divided into two
)'f'rtif)ns. in one of which the symholyoccui's aniong' thé dircction-
e~sincs of the radius vcctor, and in the other amnng- the cosinps
nf t!tp an~cs hct\en thc axes.
1-tct us now assume that up to a certain vatuc of i.

== S (~) +~ X (~ ~~+ &c.

-{-X~)+&c. (17)

This is c\'idcnt)ytrucwhen x=! and whenz=2. Weshatlshew

that if it is truc for it is truc for !'+ J. We may write t!)c séries

~.=~S(\)}, (18)
whcre '9 i~dicates a sommation in which ail values of.? not ~rpatcr
than arc to Le ta~cn.
Multiplyin~ t)y t ;('+~ and rcmcmhet'in~' that == ~'A,, wc
ohiain hy (14), for the value of the solid harmonie of négative
dcgrce, and moment unity,
~= !~{y/ 2:(y/)}. (in)
Difterentiating' with respect to a ncw axis whosc symhol is
\vc shotdd obtain with its sig'n reveMpd,

= 6'{~(2.<-2/X(~)

+~(~)}. (20)

Jf we wish to ohtain thc terms containin~ .vcosines with double

suffixes \vc )nust diminish .?Ly unity in thc second term, and wc find
-/J~= ~{~(2.-2/-1)X~)
+~X(/)]}. (21)
ïfwenowma.~e

~,(2~-2!) = =-(/+ !)~ (22)

<hen ~,= ~{~E(/)}, (23)
nnd this vahu' of is the samc as that obtained hy chan~'in~ li
YOL.Ir ~)
 SPHHHICAL HAJ{MONICS.
f~j
into z-+ l in the assuma
expression, equation (tf)), for IJenct.
the as~rnud form of in équation (I.,), if truc for
any v.I.c <.f i,
]s true i<u-thc next hi~iier vahie.
To find thé value ufj,, = 0 in cquation
put (22), and tve ii.,d
7 ~'+'
i+ ~)
axd thcrciorc, stucc is unity,
!2'
'2'Y' (25)
i~
tilt, coetlicicnt
.l;.n
(-I)';Ji:¡'¡"i='
~=(-1)' 12i-28 (26)
(26)

~d finally, ti.. value of thé

trigono~tricat expression for is
I ~l-?S-
~i -S n\1
~(~ 1)a
2t--s (~j_=a r J
1i
11 1 ~q (“)
~=~-I)-(Â.

ihi~s thé most g.ncra)

cxprc.ssion for thé sphcrical surface-
If on arc ii' any
or" po..t :T~- ,kcn on thc sphcrc, thé v.]u. o~-
J~. fur th point
7 a of th.. di.< of~ f~ U. p.i; .u.d J,~
~(<- I)un~ud.stanccs of' t].c points h.om ~c.h othcr. Thc~ i puints

may Le 1>0l0
h~ni~T two ~i
"Tendent cc~tant~ exclusive of its
moment, dl;,
n~,
131.] Th. theory of sphorica! harmonies was ~rsf.
thc third hcok of his ~Ivcn Lv
L~ce
J~ 6- Tj. ~.non
are ti~eforc often caUcd
~~s.]ves hâve L~accs CoefHcients.
h.y bccn ~csscd in tenns cf thé
pi ..ça! ~ncraHy
cuord.nat.s ordinary
and aud contain 2~1
tants arbitrary c~
G.uss appcars~ to hâve had U. id.a
cf th. haLn c
by the po.ti.n of its p.i.s, but 1 h~
L.~ any
with dct~.ned not~
dcvetop.ncnt of this idca
1 '~c. rcrpk-xcd on ac-
ccc~t~
u of thc apparent want of
dc.nnit.n~ of thc idca of a
Co.ihc.nt or .pher.cal harmonie. Lap!ace's
Ly conc.iving if as dériva by
the successive diffcrcntiation
with rc.pect to i axes, and as
of
cxprcsscd in tcrms of t). positions of its
p, jI
~.t"s. )f'F~c,bd.v. H.301.
 J3~-j SYMME'l'muAL SYSTEM. J63

hâve made thc conception of thé g-enera.1spherie:d harmonie of

any
int~~ral dL'rcc pcrfcctiy dcHnitc to myself, and 1 hopc aiso to thoi-c
\v)to inay hâve Mt t))c vag'ncncss of somc <jthcr i'urnis of thc ex-
pt't'6;si(.)tl.
'\Vhcn tlic pûles arc g-iven, t)tc value of tlic harmouie for a g-ivcu
point ou n~ splu-rc is a perfcctty dciinitc nuincrical quaiitity.
Whcn Hn.' form u(' thu i'unction, bowuvur, is g'ivcn, it is by ne
nK-aus su ca~y to hud tlic pôles uxcupt for ImrntonicH of ttic iirst
:uid SL'cond deg'rccs and fur pm'ticui.nr c~ses of tlic hig'hcr dc~-rces.
IIcncc, ibr numy purpo~s it is dusirabit) to uxpt-css thc harmonie
as thu sum uf a nuinbcr of othc)- harmonies, uach of whicli bas ils
.tXL'sdisjtoscd in a symmctrica) mauncr.

~/w~6'<M~ ~e~
13~. J Thu particular forms of' harmonies to which it is usu:d to
n'fL-r a)l othurs arc dcdm-cd from thc gcneral harmonie
by p)auing'
/–c of thc polus ut ouc poitit, \hie)i \vc s]ud! call thf Positive Pote
oi' titc splierc, and thu runi:uning- c pôles at cqua! dititanc-cs round
ouc haïf of the cquator.
In this case À~,A~ A. aru each of thcm cqnul to eosO, and
A; À. aru of titu furm sin 0 cos(~3). Wc' shall \rltc for
cos !H)d fur sinC.
A~o thu value of is unity if~' and y arc LoUi less than ~–(T,
~(.'ro wltcti om; is ~rcattjr and t!ie other !css tluui this
quantity,
aud cns M whoi botli arc fTcatcr.
o-
Whmi u)l thu pu)cs tn'c concc'ntratcd at the po)c of ~he sphère,
the I~rmonic bucom'j a xona) tmn~onm for which <r == 0. As tlie
xon:d harmonie is of ~'rc~t importance wu sh:dl resurvc for it the
symbo! Q;.
Wc may oLt:un its va)uc L'ithci' froni the trigononjctricu! cx-
pt'c's~iun (27), ur more diructiy by dHIuruiititition, thus
.).)+i ,/t
il i
(~
~=~Ti'~(~

0 -h-L_ _1L, ~1)~(~-3) 3) )

i.2.3. 1 2.(2~-t)~ +2.4.(2/-I)~-3)~
( '2t-2~ <
,2K'. [
.iy) ~Q\
'1~:1~
It is often conv~'niunt to express Q; as a homo~cncous fmiction of'
L'o~0 n.nd sin 0, which we shall writc aud l'cspL'ctivcIy,
~) 14
 164 .sr'!n~{K'~L H~RMONK'S.
[132.

==x,. }(-n"
( 2~M ~a M,t-2yt~ n' )' r~\
(~)
In this expansion the cocfHcicnt of is unity, and ail the other
tc.rms .nvolvc Hcnce at the po)c, wJtcrc = 1 and ~=
0, = 1.
It is shc~-n in tr~ttiscs on
Laph.œ's Cocfncicnts that <?.. t.hc
codhciL'nt of/' in the expansion of
(1–2~. +~)-~
Thé oth~i- ).armoni~ of the
symmctrical sy.stcm ~-e most con-
von.cnUy ohtained by the use of the ima~inary coordinates ~iven hy
Utomson and Tait, vo). i.'p. ng,
7~M~,
~=.p+~]~ ,;=~y. (31)
ihc
opération ofdi~rcntiating- with respect to axes in suc-
cession, whosc directions make with each othc.r in the
an~cs
plane of thé cquator, may thcn bc \vi'itten

~)
~+~-
Thc surface harmonie of dc~rc.c and typ~ is foand hy
with n-speet to of which arc at cqua!
dUrcrenti~in~ axes,
intcrvaLs in th. plane ofthc
cquator, whi)e the re.nainin~ 7-
co~ncKlc with that of~,
mn)tip!yin~. t),c rcsnit by and dividin~
Ly, Hence
v(~n.~ r'~ ~i\
C.3)
.T~+~(,)'

=(-U-(~~)~ 2-' t ..v tlzi._° ~e°+ t ~)

New
~+~=2~cos(~+/3), (~)
di -a] 1 + 1
zn cl Q = 1 a_.° ~i 1
~T (- c) (3") )

i
IIcnce
IIence Z
~Tc°> + =
~=2~ ~(~
whcrc tl)c ~etor 2 must bu omittcd whcn <7- = o.
The quantity is a f.tnction of thc value nfwtuctt is givcn
in ~~ornson and M's
7~ vn). p. nn.
It may he dorived from
Ly iht; cquatinn
~(°-) r, °
(38)
=~e..
whcre (); is cxprcsscd as n function of on]y.
 133.]] SULILHAKMuNKJS
0F l'OSITJVEDECREË. 165

Pcrforming- thc diit'crentiatinns on as g'ivcn in équation (29),

\fobt:tiii
~(<r) t !t-(r!<r !2t-2H )
L.1_ ,<T-~
= t)" r– i y 1£ (3D)
2' M t-

Wti may a!so express it as a. homog'eneous functiou oi'~t aud v,

,.Jo
= V
~=~X~tY' -L~Or-J. t-u–2)t~ fJ. v-. 1 /))
,1°)
2~~rt 11
0' n~-r~'
a_ '0 )
1)) this expression thé cocfEcicnt of the Hrst term is unitv, and
<.))cntttcrs tn:ty bc writt~n do\n m order by thé appHcatiun of
L!)]i]:tcc'SL'(juation.
Die foHowin~' 1'ulntious wi!l hc i'ouiid uscfui in E]c(;trodyn:nnicii.
~rhcy may bu dcdueed at once from the expansion of (~
rl~i z '1
n 1
«.)
~=~=~

(..)
~=~='~='

0~ ~~7/<M~/«6'.s'
<:yj~'</ô'<t'e~y~'6'.
133.] Wc h:).vc hithcrto eonsidcrcd tbespheric':d surfaen harmonie
as dcl'ivcd from thc solid harmonie

~=:
This solid harmonie is a. homo~ntjouij function ofthc cooi'dinatus
ot't))u !K'ativc dcg'rcu –(~'+1). Its values vannih at an infinitc
distanc'c and Hucomu infinitc at thc ori~in.
Wu s!taU now shuw that to overy such t'nnction th~rc eorrcspon.ds
annthL'r which vanistn.'s at tlic ong'in and bas infinitu vulucs at an
infinité distance', nnd is thc eorroMponding' solid harmonie of positive
d~'rcc/
A sotid harmonie in ~'unera) nmy bc dcfincd as a homog'cncous
rnnctiott of. :md which saUsncs Laplaeu's équation
rl'=I rl'=l
r_l=
M- <
Lct 7~; bu !).Iioniog'cncous function ofthc dL'g'rcc i, sucti tbat
/A;= ~= (t3)

Thcn !)/i.+ `
<<= (-2~+
r%=I! °" 1 rll' rl~l'
'l'
~=(2/-H)((2;-1)~)~)~+2(2.+!)~ rl,z=
 Y6(; 8)')IK){K'AL !IA!~)()XK~. ~34.
H~ncu

~<
r/a~ r/:
r/
ill: r71.` rll' il=l'. rl~l'. il'=1.
)
rl,r rl y rl,. rl~ rJy- ri ~),(.(~).~)

Now, sincc is ft homng-cn~ous fnnc'tion of nf~tivo dc~rcc -)- L

` `
-=-
T)ic fn's<. twn t~rms thcrc~rt' nf tl)p r)~))t hand mcmLcr nf
équation () t) (h'stroy cach f'ther~ and, since satisfics Laptace's
équation, thé third <et'm is xero, so that also natisfh's Laplacc's
c<[ua,tinn, and is thct'cfnr~ so)id harmonie ofdt'~rf'c i.
Wc shal) noxt sheu' thnt thf va!nc nf thos ~o'ivc'd ft'nm is
of th<' mnst ~ono' f<u'm.
A homog\'t)Cf)Us fnncti<m ofj', .y, nfd(~')'Ct' ~ntains

A (<+!)(<+2)
<t'nns. ~[)<

-V-= + +
~.< <7
is n. hnmnn'oncnus function nf de~TCf /–2, nud tLcrt'forc cnn<:uns
~(<–1) icrm! aod tho condition ~7' = 0 r~juir~s that. <wh nt'
t))(;sc must v:))iish. Th~'c arc Ihft'cfore A <(~ ('quittions bchvc'on
the cccffioicnis nf'thu ~(/+~(/+2) terms cf thn homn~'OK'nds
ft)nct!f)n,]cavin~'2t+! it]dcp''ndont constants in ~)c most~'ncra~
Form nf
But wc h~'c sccn <hat has 2/+! 1 indcpcnJcut cnnstan<s,
thcrc'fot'c thé vahtc of'7/, is nfthe most ~'cncra.l fnnn.

~M/~M c/ /~)'wo;6'.t <'M ?%6'y ~/7~<6Y/}t'

134.] Tho fonction satisncs the condition of vanisait)~' :)<
infinity, 1)ut dncs not satisf~ the condition of bcin~: cvcry\)crc
nnit~~ for it bccnmcs infinite at th~ ori~'in.
Thc function sati:=fics fhc condition of hcin~' finite !)!)d con-
~hmon.s at nnitc distances from t))c' ori~'in, hut doc.s not satisfv thc
condition ofv~nishin~' at an infinitc distance.
But if we détermine n. ohiscd surtace fro;n )hf équation

~=~, (".)
and makc 7/; thc potcntial function \vithin Hu' closcd sm-face and
 KLHCTIMFIKD SPHEHICAL SURFACH. 167
135.]

the potcntia) outside it, thcn hy ma.lung' thc surface-dcnsity o-

satisfv thc characteristic équation
~lll. cll.
(.")

wc shaH )uwc a distribution of potcntial which satisncs all the

conditions.
It. is manifcst that if 7/, auJ 7; arc d(.'rivcd from thc samc vah)c
of the surfucc = will ~'c a. sphcrical surface, nnd thc
surf'ucc-dcnsity wiU !L)sohc dcri\'ed from i.hc same value of J'
Let hc thé radius of' thc sphcre, and let

7/=~.T~ <T=~. (~)

~.=7~'
Th~n at t!)c surface of the sphcrc, where =

~7f
:)n()
cl ==-47r(r;

(/.+l)-~+M'y/=47r6';

\vhc~cc we fmd 7~. and in terms of <?,

4 utC l~
if. = r. = ~1 a r~i+_ (-lfI)

Wt- havennw ohtaincd an ch'f-triiicd syptctT) in which thc potcntial

is CYcrvwhcrc finite and cnntinnnus. T))is system cnnsists r.f fi
sph'ripid surface nf radius elcetrin~d so that thc' snrfacc-densit.y
is c-e!'vwhf'rc 6')' wherQ C is somc constant dcnsity and J, is a
stn-fhct!' harmonie oi' de~-rcf Thc potcntia) inside this sphère,
is and the potcntial
arisin~ from this eicr-trification, cvcrywherc
notsidc thc sphère is
Tht'se vaincs nf thc pntcntia! within and without the sphère
nii~-ht. )]avc hcon oLtaincd in any s'i\'cn c-ase hy direct intégration,
h)~1hc hd)nnr wonid havebwn gt-Mt and thc rcsn)t appHcahIe only
te thc' partictdar case.
a. sphorical
135.~ Wc shall ncxt considcr the action bct\cpn
sut-r:)cp, risidty ~cdrincd accordins- to a spherical harmonie, and
an ('xtcrnal ch-'ctrifiL'd systcm ~-hich wc shaU caH A'.
Lct r hc the potential at. any point due to the system and
is fr.
t))at duc to thc' sph<ric:d surf:)~ whosc surfafc-density
 1(i8
-Si~HIfICAL JUAUMU~'ICS.
f- a
1
Thon hy (h~n's thcorcm, thc. potential
cncrgy ,f on th.
cicctn~ .ace equd to that of-t.hc
d~trHi~udac/ fr

/=Y/
wi~rc the first, i~cg-~tio,, I. to bc cxtcnded oyer
ort).e s..f.cc cfthc .ver. dc.ncni
.sph~ .nd the
J~
~y electrified system
.r~?2~.r"~ 1)~,ml'ans
d~cnbcd T~
.1, "P~<~manncr:dn.a<Iy
sucll a coinl)otiiid 1)oiiit.
If is the clr~,rgc of' u
sillgle point of dcgree zero, t.llcn .lJ,
:f~~
If tiK-re two .d. points, p~,t,~ ~,j ,tiv. t
of H on the cloublc
point will !Je

'+~`c.l;
rllt~J r//1=
'.h. ,c, ,inel hi .inM. ~),~jt,
~=J/
v.h.c .r ti.. ~)

~llr G~
~7'
< ~i
i. y with
lie
.v.
'~i<

l~oiut uf cle~reu i.
.t..r'°''T~ 'l'hut, `~f'tl:c sin~;ulur
I~y (.~rccu'S Pniut on L' is `l; `ll; ana,
IL'"cc, by équation (;
l'
/=J/.
r!l;

un`1 (1~l), ~< 'uatiun..

(n`~)
(.~)'a'n<
-~6'

satisti~a
 ~37-] ~KFACK-I~TEûKALOF T)IE PKODUCT <)F )t.\I:M<)ML'.S. IfjU

iutc~'ra~ of J~ cxtcudcd ovcr cvcry clément ~6\ of thc surface

of a sphcrc of radius is ~'iven hy thé c<juation

-r- (.TJ)
H/y.~6'~ i- 2<+I~<
\vh<rc thc difrcroitmtions ôt' are taken with rospuct to thé ;txcs
of' thc harmonie :md t!)c value of thc difrurcntiat cuL'fHcicnt is
thut :Lt thu cuntru of thc sphure.
136.] Lt't us now suppûëc that is :). solid lnu'monic of positive
d(.'<ruc
clr~;rcu,j uf
ofttie
tllc forni
f«rlll
r '0
f= ) <)
~,y,.
CG~

At tjLc sp))c)'ic:Lt surfhcL~ = < thu viduu of is t))c sm'iacc har-

munic !U)d cquation (52) hc'cornen

~)
f/'r~s'
3~rlb'= ~') 1
(50!)
~)~=

\h(-'ru th(.' va)uc of thu dmbrcntlal cm'tticiL'ïit i~ that ut thu centre

ofthu sphère.
AVhen is mniicricaity diitercuLt front thc surfacc'-intL'r:tI of
thc product vanishfs. Fot', when i is Icss th:m, tht' rc;su)t
"f the dif!~L'cnti:ttio)t in the scuond ntcmbcr of (5 )) is !Lhomo~'t.'ncnus
tnoction oi'.t'tMd.r, ofde~'rcc/< the vah)u ufwinL'h ut t))u
ct'ntt'f of' thc sphère is xcro. n' is cquat to ttiu rcsult is a eonst:u)t~
1)~' value of winch will bc duturmiuL'd i)i thc iicxt artick'. If th(;
diH'er~'ntiation is ca.t'ricd furt))L'r~ thc rcsdt Is xcru. IlL-uco thc
suriace-intc~'ra) vanishcs \h(.'n is ~'rc~tcr thun
137.j Thc inost important case Is that in \vhich ttm )~at'inonic
/J', is diO't'rcotiatcd \ittt rL'spcct to < ncw axes in succcssio!), t)h;
nurncriL'ai vatuc of huin~' thc sanic ati that of hnt thc dirm'tionH
of t)ic axes hcin~' il ~'cticra! diifcroit. Thc iinat rcsnit in ttus c.L~e
is a constant (p)antity~ cach tcrm bcing' t!)c product uf cosincs of
an~tcs bctwccn thc diti'crcnt axes takcti in p:urs. T!ic g-ci~ral
forin ofsuch a prodnct may be writtcn syinho!icaHy

~7M./

w]nc!t indicatL's that thurc :u'f .y c~sitics ui' an~c.s ))L't,wcun puirë ut'
axt-'s of t.))c tirst system aod Lut\vc<)) axes oi' thé second sy~-Lern,
thé; rcmamit)~ /–2.y cosnics hfin~- bct\vct.'n axes onc or ~hich
))c!un~-s to thc fir~L and thc othci' to thu second systcm.
lu cacii product thé sufiix ui' cvery onc of t)ic 2/ axes occnrs
onct', and oacu on)y.
 170
si'UHIMCA), JLU!A)uMc.S.
[1~.
Th..n.f.,if~ “< ~r, Is
t )~
-=.== 2~'( ~)~ i_ys' (--)
(.i,i)
~t.
tiatiol1 of

2J
'·.1,1 ~'I,1 0'
== 08{(-])'
',1. 2-' J S ~:=N ( j~

1)iili`l'(!iltl:Lt111,~this i t1111C5 in slIl'c'('ssinn with

axes, SI) as tu ul:t,liu l'('sprct; tn t1lr nwv
ail, gi\'cn c·nlnl)inatinn nf the :mes in
\1' 1:11(1tllaf, in pail'R,
dilfi'('lItiatillgo ~R ",¡th to s of tlle nc\ :lXPs,
whiull aru tu 1)e ('uml¡illl.¡J witll
o1,h('l' axes or the llü\
int.I'olll1cc t.hu f.-letoi, system¡ wc
2, or 2\ In 1'011-
110 iill'i) J.A.'S,1/111.
11IlnH'ric'aIf;letur is introclunecl.
~L~r~- HeIl ('1'
< ] -)-) s
r
~=. ~(~
Slillstillllillg' t.his 1'('SUItin cylntion
(;ul) wu fiml f~r tll~ \'a1t1l' of
~s~=~
S:IIIW,ll'gol'I', takl'l1 0\'1'1' thp
sllrflcc of a splmrc of' radius ~c,

< ,3'
//J~<= 1
F~/ [

(~).U(~)2~('=')}'(.7) A) )

L
.f. "h.n.
1111'Ilxes uf t.11(~
.?" ono s ~t.n,,
Il!'al's a ('l'l'tailll'dation 10 1.11(,distr'ihntion
-'r- intcyral '¡lIlishl's' In this easl', the
"t'to), t~ ~,J:

/w~r.t
]38.J If O!1P harmonie Ifi giwJ1, th!' c'onelitinn
Lhal a S('('oluI

hy !'ql1aling tlm l'ig-ht 1':111<1siclo ofp(fUalinn

(;~7) tn ~ern.
~~=:=n, in
~j" to ).,tj,.f~
If lte r"two
\'ariabIl's.
T"
K'<'nMtn,(.ti,~n..w harmonie. Mch,,rtth~h. is ('on-
u., r.n,

n 'i'~
,r" ,),“
.),u,v 2;t,.n,. ~h
 '39'] <t)NjL'(!TH ]i.\]f~r<)Nn's. 1711
)'c satisficd in ordcr that it mny bt.' conjn~atc to ihc2/
prcccdin"'
))armotn'cs.
Hcncca System <)f'2/+J ))armoni<'sof(lc~')'o('/mnv hef'nn-
struc~d,cach ofwtnchis ccnjup'atetonn~hcrrst. Anvothur
harmonie of Un' same dcg'rcc may h~ cxprfsscd as tho sum of tins
syst~m ofoonju~atc hnrmonics r'ach tHultiplied hy a (-nk'ic'nt.
T))c sysh'm dcscrU'cd in Art. 132, cf~)sistu)~- nf2/-(-l 1 1)nr-
mnuios symnn'trioal nhout a sin~U' nxis, of\]nc')) thé first is xona],
<h~ ticxt, /1 pairs tcsscr!)!, and th~ last pfLii' scctnt')!, is a ]):u'-
<)('u1:u' cnsc of n systcm of 2/+I harmonies, a)! nf which nrc
conju~'ai~ tn c:)('h ~t.h~r. Sir W. Thnmson has shcwn ]m\v tn
oxpn'ss the pondiHnns thftt 2/+I pcr(t.'c<)y ~'cncra) harmonies,
cnf'h f)f\hi('h,h<-)W('v(')',is ~x~ins a)inc:u- function ofiht;
~/+t harnx~ncH of U)is symmct.ric'id sys1(.'ni, mny ht' pnnjn~ntc
<Q ca<;)) nthf'r. Thoso cnnditinns cnnsist ni' /(2/+1) tincar <ona-
~nns f~onncctin~- thc' (2/-{-I)'\oopjf)!('icnti-!whi<'h f'nicr into t.hc
('xjn'CHsions of Un' ~(.'ncral linrtnnnics in turms of thc syrnnu'tricu]
hnrtnoni~s.
Prof'csst)]' C)if)'~)'d has a)sf) stn'wn hnw t:o fnrm a cr)))jun':tic'sys~cm
~f2/+]s('Rtnri;)th:u']H<T))ios))a\n,H'dureront pôles.
!!oth thL'sc roulis wrc cnmmunic'nh'd h) thc BritisI) Assf)c'iatio)i
in ~7~
13').~ ff \vf hd<c for J'~ thc xnr)~ hnrmoiuc wc oht:)in :t.
n'm:u'k:))~(.' ~rm oi'cqt~ttion (.')7).
In this case all thc :txc's of the second systcm coincidc with ~:u'h
otht'r.
Tho cosim's ofthc form \d] nssume tho r<)t'm A.\v1)(.')'cÀ is t))G
cosinc nf thc nng'k* b~hv~'n tt)c conmon nxis of and nt~ axis of
t])~ fn-st syston.
T))C cosinus ofthc form \vil! a)I bc'cnmc cqu:d to unity.
Thc numhcr of cotnbinations of symbols, c:K'h of which is
disting'uished by two ont of sufnxc.s, no suffix bL'Ing' rcpeatcd, is
Li

~=2'

and when pact) comhinntioti Is cqual to unity this nnm))cr rcpn'~cuts

th<' snm of'thc produots ofthp cosincs~ or Y(~~).
Th<* nun)bcr of permutations of'the rcmannn~' /2.s' svmh.ds of
thf sceond set ofaxc.s <!)kcn n,H tog'c'DK'r is !-2.s-. IIencc
.¡
X(~li ~)= ;2.s~w' ¿¡,J (.!))
~~quntion (;7') thorcforc bceomos, when r, !s thc xonatharmonif,
 17~
17~
SrHHIMCA). HAJtAK~cs.
r,.o
0]ru~ i2i-2 2s
S
l'l'
.= (. (~j_N A f
~f-.).(.

u'- )-
=
2/+Y (co)
whuru J~ dchotus thc value of r.
m cou.ifin~ ~97~< cnI1l1l1on
l'oie <.fa1! the nx.s ci' Q,.

s. < the <e.~y or

''r' it ~s to th. d~munation of tl. Ln
v L "T" '-i~
T' value at
~c.
sp~ I-"t of t).c

of (lr~l'ce G\S'110sc
p on t-lie hulc i:; the 1¡oint
tiieil the :mrlace-intL'gml

~u.~t.d ov.r thc .sphcnca! surfac.))

hc sllherical h.rn.,ni.

1,'1/8. Ilcncc, if wc IIla1.e

~~te:r~

("I)
\vc )nay (.-xj.a)Kt m t))u form

or ~'=~A~+&c.+j.
If,
~'==.ii~
~lTru= J. ~<?~~+&c. + (. ;+
.l.l.ll~url,f-l,II l~2trlb-f-uc.-l-(~? i-1-!).I //7~j.
Jj,'(~rrl,S (,)
((i3)
This is thc cdL.hratcd fui-mul:.
nf Lap~ec for the
series .f
e surface of' a .~I..r. ovur
In ~-i~ use it
.d~ a cer ,.n p.~ .r.. to0
on ~c sllherc as thc
Larmou.c Ç,, aud to iind the ,.L. of
.urfacc-i.~ra)

~<2.~
'r (. whole surf~c of t)~. sphcrc.. Thu rcsult <).; l11)cl'.1t10I1
-'t.P".d .y ,;i
7 a h:
~c .ph. ft~
.tt .)t)y (,<-)]~rputnt )nav t.L'
fuund.
'4-ï'] sniEniCAL MAliMONIC; ANALYSIS. 173

Uni /J', is a gcnerat surface harmonie of dc~rce and \vc wis!)

to hrca~ it up into thé snm of a, séries of multiples of thc 2/-}- 1
conju~'atc harmonies nf that denrée.
Let 7~ bc one of thèse coj~ju~ate harmonies nfa partienhtr type,
and !ptj 7~ bc the part of betoti~'in~' to this type.
Wcmustnmst first.
f!rst finc1
find
il/
~yn,usr pi
.=~7~~ (f!.t)
which mny Le do!~L' by mc:ms of eqnat.ifm (57)~ makin~' ttie second
set of pôles thc samc, each to cach, as thc first set.
~Vf may thon find thc coeilicicnt from thc M~uut!on

(G.)
~=~S'. jJ!.
For suppose cxpandcd in terms of sphcricat harmonies, and ~ct
7~~ hc n.tiytci'tn of this expansion. Thon, if thc <lc~)TC nf 7~is
di!!t'rcnt from titat of 7~ or if, thc dc~rec bcin~ thé t-nmc, 7~ is
co))ju~-ateto7, thc result of the sm'faec-intf~mtinn is xcro. Hence
thé r~-suit of tite surfaec-intc~ration is to select thc cocfncieot of thc
'Kmnouic nft)n* same type as 7~.
Thé most rcrna.r~ahie examp~o of thé actual devdopmcnt of a
function in a suries of spherical harmonies is the ca~culatio!i by
(t:)nss of the harmonies of thc first four denrées in the expansion
of thc mag-nctie potentinl nf the carth, as deduced from observations
in varions pitrts ofthe wor!d.
Ile has dctermincd thc twcnty-fonr coefficients of thc threc
conjngate harmonies of thé first dcg'rc'Cj thc fivc of thé seconde
scvcn of tlie third, and nine of the fourth, all of thf symmetrica!
systcm. Thc mcthod of cidcnlation is given in his 6'e~ew/y~
7~6'.t/ ~M~S' c
14'1.~] Whcn the harmonie 7~, be!nn~s to the symmctrical systom
we rnay détermine the snrfac'e-intc'~rid of its square extcndcd ovcr
the sphère by thc foUo~'in~ method.
Thc value of ri J' is, by équations (3 ) ) :)nd (3()),

=
,:r.
2 a i. ~)~-<)'). 4(lr+]) 1)
and by equations (33) and (5-t),
),
-° ,1er
//(~))~='
i
d~ ( ~l.° )(~3-°~
UL ~~+' 1 7/
l\'rfnrmin~ the difTorcntiations, we find that the only tL'rms
which do not disappc:u' nrc thosc which conhuti Hcnct'
 174 St'IIJ.;ItlC.L HAIfMONICS.
[142.
jt't-fri-fr
//<<?
1 1)
~/(~ ~=. 2 :? -eT i,l ((iG)
.xc-ept wt.cn u-== o, .yhich case j.avc, ),y ~inn (~),
7~ '<7:
/)
~/(~)-~= ((i7)
T)~xp,~sions ~ivc U.c. vatucofthc ofthc.
s..r(ac.-int<ra!
squar. oi any surfac. ),.r,nonic th. sym,nctri.a! s..stcn.
ir<.n tiu.s the vu!u. uft).c
ot ihc hu.ct.on
~.ydud~ ;n~TaI oi- t)~ .quarc
~.i~jt in A,.t.

2 22,r )2
.C'=~
This v.)u. is id.ntica) with ~at
~iv.. by Thoinson ~d 'l'ait, ,nd is
tn'L. ~.U.<mt
cxcL.ptx.n for the c!)~ i.i whidi = 0
14.2.) Thc ,p),eri..a! h.mo~-cswhichH.av. dcsc.Ib<-d
To.nt.ron <hc considération of har.nonics
o"~r.d~.s.
i.a.honal, u.rat.onal, or in.po~i)~ d~n.c, is bcyoud .nv pur~
.d_to, j ~J~~
1 hav. donc ,o
Ly rd-.rri~. thc hannoni., not to a syst..
~"<
1 ~="
of
,'1c,H.d thc Pô),, of thé 1
I.u.,non;c. Wj.at~.r b. t).
~c a hanno.c oi t)~ d.rc. type.
it. is a)way. n.atI.c.n.atIcaDy
).u p~sibk.
Kulat, n of th. posd.on of 1~
th~ po)es .vouJd in ,n.ra! iuvo~
t!.<- solution of a of
sy.t.m .ation. of the d~rc. T).c
of'
J~- i~ in -y
on sphuro, u.sefut rat)..r in ~i,
~~UL. our I<k.as tl.an in
1~. the latter p.rpo~ it~ n,or.
to at.on.the c.on~;i<n~
"<' ~+ 1 eon,u,.atc i.arrnonics
) r" urdinary systcm, in winch
n T~' is I" this systcm
L lil'st
ail ~s
con ..de with h thc axis of
polar coordinatus. Ti.. second <y). is
of thc shllcre, and th. P~
rcn~inin~ on. is on t).e c-juator at th. ur~In
1~ Iu
1"~
IOllgitude,
In thc samc
~y the typ. in which < poics coinc.id. at tlie
P'~ oi the sphère, and the remaini.g.. are placcd wit!. thcir axes
 '43-] FtCiUHHS OFSPHËKICAL HARMU~K~. t'7.')

ni equa) intervals round the equator, is thé type ~o-, if on- ofthe
Ir
potes is ai thu orig-in oF iong~itude, or thé type 2<j-l if it is at
J(m"'itude
1:> C 2(r
lnnnitutlc

14'3.'] It appears from équation (Cf.)) that it is always pos~ihte

to express a harmonie us thé sum of a. systeni of zona) h:u')n')nies
of t)ic ti:nne dc~-rec, having' their potes distributcd ovcr the surface
of thc sphcre. TIic sunptificaUon of this sysicm, ilowcvcr, docs uut
:tpp(.'ar casy. 1 hâve )iu\ve\'cr, for thu .saku <){'L'xhiMti))~- to thu
<.yc nome ot'thciunturcs ofsp)mrica! harmonies, culcuL~d thé xonal
Itarniotiies of th~ thii'd and iuui't)i dc~'rces~ and dm\v)), bv thc
niethod ah'cady dcscribcd ibr thu addition uf iunctions, thu cqui-
potcrdia! Jincs on thé sphcrc for harmonies which arc thc sums of
two xonal iiarmonics. Scu Figures YI to IX at thé und of thi.s
volume.
Fi~ VI rcprcsents t)ie sutn of two xoual harmonies of t)i(; thn'd
dc~'rcu whosc axes arc inclined ] 20° in t!)u ptanf of thu p:L))cr, and
thu sum is t!)C harmoniu ufthc second type in whicli o- ==1, thc axis
Lein~' pcrjtendicular to thé papcr.
In i''i~ Vil thé harmonie is aiso of thé third deg'rcc~ tjnt thc
axes of thé zonat harmonies of which it is thé sum are inchned
'M)", and the resnk is net of any type of the symmetric-al System.
One of t!ie nodal lines is a g-reat cirde, hut t)ic othur twu which arc
intcrseeted by it are not circles.
Fig-. VIII i-eprescnts the différence of two zona! hat'mo'ncM of
thé fourth deg-rœ whose uxcs are ut rig-ht ang-)es. Thc restut is a
te.-serat harmonie for \v!)ich == .1, a == 2.
F'ig'. IX represents thé snm of thé same xona] harmonies. Thé
result gives some notion of one type of thé more ~ncta~ Iia!
monie of thé fourth denrée. In. this type thé noda) linc on ~he
sphère consists of six ova)s not intcrseeting eaeli oth(.'r. Withl)~
tl)ese ovats tlic ha-rmonic is positive, and in thé sc'xtupty connefted
part of thé sphcrical surface winch lies outsidc t)ie ov:t)s, t)ic !iar-
monie is négative.
A)l thèse iignres arc orthcg'onai projeetionë of thé spherieal
surface.
1 have also drawo. in Fig'. V {).plane section throug'h thé axis
of a sphère~ to she\v the cquipotential surfaces and lines of force
due to a sphcrieal surface c)ectrii!ed uceording' to the values of a
spherieat harmoine of thé first deg'ree.
]7(; SPHKRICAL IIAnMONtCS. [i44.
~Vithin the sphère thc equipotcntia~ surfaces are cquidistant
phnies, and thé hnes of forée are strai~'ht lines parane) to thé axis,
t.beir distances from thc axis hein~ as thc square mots of thc
nature) uuntbers. Thc lines ontsidc t))e spbcrc may ht.' takcn as a
rcpre.oitation ofthose \vhieh woldd hc duc to thé earth's ma~nctism
ifit wcre distributcd accordin~ to thc most simple type.
]4~j 11 appc'ars from c'quatinn (;~2)~ hy niakin~ /= 0, that if
satisfics LaphK'c's équation thrnu~hout Ihe spacc ~ccupicd by a
sphcrc of radins t1)cn thc intégral

~=t7r~r,, (<if))

\vhcrc thc mtc~ral is tahcn ovcr thc surface f'fthu sphcr)', ~hpln~
an ch;mcnt of that surface, and ~) is the value nf nt thc centru
nf'the sphère. T!tis thcort'm may bp thus cxprpsscd.
T)tc vidue of <hc pott'ntia! at thc' centre of a sphcrc is thc mcan
vatuc of thc pntcntial fur nn points of its surface', providuti thc
pntcntia.~ hp due to an cicftrinc'd systcm, no part of whieh is within
thc sphc'rf.
It foUo~'s from this that if satisfics Laplacc's cqna.tion thron~h-
nut a certain continuons région cf spafc, and if, thron~hnut a
iinitc portion, howcvcr smalt, of that spacc, is constant, it will
Lp constant throughout the whoh' continuous rc~'ion.
If not., tel the spnce throughout which the potcntia~ bas a
c'onstfmt value 6' he scparated hy a surface 'S*from thf rc'st of
the rc~ion in whieh its values dif~cr from C, thca it will ahvays
Le possible 1o <ind a nnitc portion of spacc touching' 6' and out-
side of it in which is cither cvcry\herc ~rcatcr or everywhcrc
Ic'ss than 6'.
No\v dL'scrihc a sphfrc with its ('entre witttin <S', and with part
ofits surface outside but in a rc~ion thron~hont \vhich the value
of is every\\hcre ~rcater or cvcrywhcre )css than
Thon the mcan value of thc potcntial ovcr the surface of thc
sphère will he ~reater than its va.)n<' at thc centre in the nrst case
and ]ess in thc second, and therctorc Laplaee's équation cannot
hu satisncd titrou~'hont the space occnpicd by thé sphère, contrary
to our hypothesis. It fonows from this that if ==C throu~hout
any portio!) of a connccied region, =~' thron~hout thé \vhoh~
of thé reg'ion which can bc rcached in any \vay by a body ot
finite sixc withont passin~' through eleetrified matter. (We sup-
pose tho body to be of finite sixe becausc a région in whieh is
const:)nt tnay be scparated from anothf'r région in whieh it is
 45.] THHORHM OP OAUSS. 177

variable by an c)ectrincd surface j certain points or lines of which

arc not e)cc-tri(ted, su that a mcre point, mig-ht pass out of thé
région through one of thèse points or lines wititout passing
Hu'oug-h dcctrificd matter.) This remarl<ab!c thcorem is duc to
Uauss. Sec Thomson and Tait's j\M/ 7~.<7~ .JH7.
It mny Lu sne\vn In thé samc way that if Hu-ou~-hout any finite
portion of space thé potcntial has a value w!iich can be cxprcsscd
hy a, coutumous mathcmaticat fonnula. satisfyin~ Lap)ace's équation,
thc potcnti!tt \viH Le expresscd by thc samc formula tht'ougliout
cvct-y })!U't of spacc whicii can bc rcaL'hcd \vithout pitssing t!)rough
ciL'ctrifIfd mattcr.
For if I)i any part of this spacc the value of thé f'unction is
difrcrcnt from that givou by t)ic matlicmaticat formula, then,
since bct)i r fuid satisfy Laplacc's cquation~ ~7= does.
But wittmt a .fmite portion of thé spaec ~=0, thcrcforc hy wttat
we hâve provcd ~=0 ttn'oug-hout thé \vho!c spacc, or F~=/
145.J Lot hc a sphcrical harmonie of dL'grccs and of any
type. Let any line bc takcn as the axis of thc sphcrc, and !dj thc
harmonie be turned into positions round thc axis, the ang~ai'
distance betwccn consecutivepositions Lc'ing' ~c
If \vc talœ thc sum of t)ic M harmonies thus formcd tl!C rcsu~
will hc a harmonie of ?' dcg'i'ccs, which is a function of aiid ofthc
sincs and cosines of M~.
If M is less than t)te rcsu]t wi)! bc compounded of luu'monics for
which is zero or a multiple of M less than Lut if Mis grcatur
than thé rcsult is a xonal hat'mooic. Hcnccthc fonowing.-theorcm
Lct any point hc takc'n on thc ~'cncra.! hannonie y;, and lut a
smaU circlc bc deseriucd ~-it!i this point for centre and radius 0,
and Ici ?/ points hc takcn at cqua) distanci.'s round this circlc, thcn
if Q; is thc va)uu of thc xonal harmonie for un an~Ic C, and if J'/ is
thc va)uc of :tt the centre of <hc circlc, thcn thc mcan of thc
MvalucH of J', round thé eirde is cqual to J/ provided is g'i-catu)'
than ?.
If is greater than ?'+~ and if thc value ofthu harmonie at
cac!t point of' thu circle bc multiplicd by sin~f/j or cos.) where
is less t!]an and thc a.ritlimctica! mean of' thèse products be
thcn if is the value of~.M for thc ang']c 6, thé cocuicient
of' sin 6'~ or cos~~ iu thc expansion of will bc
o f'.)
"r
VOL. J.
 178 SrHEIMCALHAHMON!CS. [i~6.
In this way we may analyse J", into its componcnt
conjug'ate
harmonies Ly mcans of a finitc nuniber of ascertained values at
selceted points on thé sphère.

~OM ~~<CO~ 7/i~MO~'C ~/Ma/y~~ the ~C~/M<M~M

~<oM ~e/y/c~ OM~c~~M~Me~ ~c;
6~M~/c~~ ?/M</c/-~c ~CK o/' ~~o?cM&p/Ma~ ~<sc~ca~ 7~;r~.

146.] ~Vu shall suppose that cvcry part ofthe etectriHed system
which acts on the conductor Is at :t, greater dista.ncc from the
centre of the conductor than thé most distant part of the conductor
itsctf, or~ if the conduetor is sphei-ica!, than the radius of thé
ephere.
Then tlie potential nf the cxtcrna! system, at points within this
distance, may bu expandcd iti a séries of solid harmonies of positive
denrée
TI)e potentia! due to thé conductor at points outside it
may bc
nxpandcd in a series of solid !tarmoiucs of thc samn type, but of
negative degree
1
U = Il,, l'r
~=~+&e.+~ j3l 1" 1 -4- B.)]T (71)
At thé surface of thé conductor t!)e potential is constant and
eqnaL say, to C. Let us first suppose ttic conduf;tor sphericat and
of radius Then putting- = a, we hâve ~7+ ~= C, or, cquating-
the coefUcieuts of thc digèrent dcgrees,

7?,= ~(C-~
7?] =- (72)
=-
The total charg-c of electricity on thc conductor is -C
T)ie surface-density at any point of thc Hphcru bc found
mny
from tlic equation
r/r cl U
4 7r
47TO-=.

=
~3~&c.-(2~+l)~'+~ c (73)

~M~'OM 0~ ~<'C/ 0~ a M(?~ ~/6' Co?~~<C~

Let thc equation of thc surface of thé conductur bc
= ~(I+~), (74)
 NHAKLYSPHERICALCONDUC;TOlt. 179
146.]

wherc F is a function ot' thé direction of and is a nunicrica.1

quantity thé square of which may be ne~tected.
Let the potential duc to thc external electrified system be cx-
of positive degree,
prcssed, as before, in a sénés ci' solid harmonies
aud let thc potential U bc :t series of solid harmonies of négative
is
degree. TIicn thc potential at thé surface of the conductor
oht:Lined by substitutin~ the value of from et~uation (7.i) lu thèse
écries.
Hence, if C is thé value of thé potential of thé conductor and
thé charge upon it,
c=4,+~y,+.+~'y.,
+~~F~+.+~.o'~y,,
1 v
+
-+~)-+~r.+.+~
B -(i+l)Jr +13j (Z-j+ly

~2~ + -~+ 1)J~ ~.+

rc rc
.O'+l)~ (75)
Sinee is very small compared with nnity, we have first a set
of equations of the form (72), with the additional equation

o = + 3 ~j 7~~ -~c. + (~ + 1 ) 7~'r.

+S~J,)-X ((/+ 1) ~(-)7'T,). (7C)
To solvu this cquiltion we must expuud /J~ ~y; in terms of
can ~c in terms of spherical
splierical harmonies. If cxpandcd
harmonies of durées lower than ttien can lie expanded in
!u\vcr than it
spherical harmonies of denrées +
Let thcrefore

u 3~ (2 < + 1) ~T..= X (~ ~.), (77)

thcn thc coenicients will cach of thon bo small compiu-nd with
thc coefficicnts ~j9, on aeconnt of' thé smaUness of .7~ and
thcrcfoi-c thc last tcrm of équation (7G), consisting- of ter<])s in 7~7'~
may bc n(.'g!ccted.
Hence the coeflieients of thé form -B~.may be ibund hycxpanding
équation (7C) in sphcneal harmonies.
For cxampiu, let the body have a charge and he act~d on by
no cxternal force.
Let be expanded in a séries of thc form
7''=~+&c.+~. (78)

Then -). &e.+ 7~, ~.y, = X (7~ .< r,), (7 '')

n ri
2
 180 8PHERICALHARMONICS. [146.
or thc potential at any point outside thé body is
1 a rc`~ ux+i
(1 1
~(~ r~ J3° ~r r'~~+81 1-f- .+ ~+i
~~r,); h~ (..)
(80)
aud if o-is the surfacc-deasity at any point
~V
47ro'=–

or
47r~==.~(l+~~+.+(/J)~~ (g~
IIcuce, if thé surface difiers from that of a thin
sphere by
stratnm wliose deptli varies according- to thé values of a
spherical
hannonic of dc'g-rcc Um ratio of thé dinerence of ths
superficial
dcnsitics at auy twu points to their sum will bc ] times the
ratio of' thc dtftcrence of thé radii of thé same two
points to their
sum.
 CHAPTER X.

CONFOCAL QUADHIC SURFACES~.

of a confocal systcm bc
14.7.] Let thé général équation 1) Q
x"Q ;II" z~a
z-
= 1, (1)
+ A'
;~r~
thé
whcrc À is a variable parameter, which we shall distingnish by
si~x for thé hyperboloids of two sheets, X, for the hyperboloids
of one shect, and for the ellipsoids. Thc quantities
<7,Â~, À~, c, À~
Thé quantity is introduced
are in ascending order of magnitude.
for the sake of symmetry, but in our results we shall always suppose
~=0.. ),
are ~i, A~,A~,
If we consider the thrce surfaces whose parameters
that thé value of
we find, byellmin~tion between their equations,
at their point of intersection satisfies thc equation
(2)
~)(~) = (~)(~)(~).
c
Thc values of y' and may be found by transposing a, b,
symmetrically. to ~1, wc find
DifFerentiating this equation with respect
~1- (3)

of the curve of intersection of

Ifr/~ is thc length of the intercept
and Ài+~Xi, thcn
A. and À, eut ofThctwcen tl)e surfaces
((.1)
)
~=~-+~ (~)(~)(~
aur
Thie investigntion iB chicfly borrowe~l from n very interlsting work,-l.cçnna
ct lea laothwnice. IJI~r G. Laiiié.
dea Trccnace>ulantea S'urfacea
Pans, 1857.
JS2 CONFOCAL
QUADHICSURFACES [14~-
Thu denominator of this fraction is tho product of thc squares of
the scmi-axcs of thé surface
If wc put

7~=~ 2 ~J ~=~2_(~
and if' we m~kc = 0, thcn

~.= (6)
~À,
~A~
It is casy if) Hec-that and 7);, are thé somi-uxes of the centra!
section of A, which is conju~'ate to the diametcr p~ssing' throug'h
the ~ivcn point, and that is pamUcl to and 7~ to ~;j.
If wc also suhatitutc for th<' titrcc paramcters À~, À~ their
values in terms of thrcc fnnctinns a, y, dcfined by thé equat!o!)B
da c
À~ = 0 whun a = 0,
tlAl )b2_A/¡c'2-À1:
~r~7~lT~ 1
(3 f

Ag == & when = 0, (7)

~3 ~A~T~'
(1-y c
À;, =: c \v))on y = 0
~À;j ~/A~A~ (.

thcti r/.?j C-, </a, ~/3, (8)

= = 2~ = D~ r/

148.'] Now let /'bc thé potentiel at any point a, /j, y, then t!ic
résultant force in thé direction of is

(Il- =- -= (li, e (9)

~a~Qj~J~'
Sitx'G and ~j are at right angles to ca.eh oth('r~ thé
surfu.ce-iutegt-:)! over tlie clement of areil is
~T c ~,7~
r18.1 dy
7.=~

=~ ola ~') )
Now considcr thé clumcnt, of volume interccptcd betwpcn t!te
surfaces a, and a+</a,~3+~, Thure will be eight
y+~y.
such donentsj onc in cach octant oFspacc.
~Vc havu fou)id thc surface-intégral for thc c)nmcnt of surface
intcrceptcd from thé surface a by thé surfaces {3 and /3 + y and
y+~y.
 0F POISSON'S
TRANSFORMATION EQUATION. 183
149.]
Thé surface-intégral for thé corresponding clement of thé surface

a (la will le
a-j-~awilibe 2 T) 2
~a
~+~ c f y claz c c
rl.a
since ~i is indepcndent of a. Thé surface-intégral for tlic two
of volume, taken with respect to thc
opposite faces of thé élément
interior of that will be thc différence of thèse quimtitics, or
,/2r-~/) 2
(la de (ly.
~a" e
for thé other two pairs of forces
Simiki-ly thc surface-integrals
will be 7' n
z r a 2 rlzl'.D'=
~y ~1
< e
Thèse six faces enclose an élément whose volume is
7) 2 /) 2 /) 2
= Il a ri (3 dy,

and if p is thé volume-density within that élément, wc find hy

Art. 77 that thc total surface-intégral of thé élément, together with
is zero, or,
the qnantity of electricity witliin it, multiplied by 4~
dividing by ~a~y,
2
d" 1- (1' lle /9'- 1)12D '>1') 00, )
+ +rTp__ C2 z-z
rl a l rl~3zD"
~r~ d,y~U~
re-
whieh is thc form of Poisson's extension ofLapIace's equation
ferrcd to ellipsoïdal coordinates.
is equivalent
If p = 0 tlie fourth tcrm vanishcs, and thc equation
to that of Lapince.
reader is refcrred
For thé général discussion of tins équation the
to the work of Lame aircady mcntioned.
wc may put them in
149.] To détermine thé quantifies a, /3, y, thc auxiliary
thé form of ordinary clliptic functions by introducing
and wlicre
angles 0,
b sin 0, (12)
(~
A~=~8in0,
Â.,=~'sin~r~'cos~, (13)
c (14)
~=~
sin
and thé two
If we put 6 = and +~ = t, wc may call
the confocal system, and we find
complementary moduli of
ü (15)
~/i-~sin~ 0
 184 COXi''OC.\L <D){[C St'RFACHS. [i5o.
an L-Hi~tie intcgral ni' t,))u first
Mnd, which we may \ntc necording
<o<hcus~a1 notation ~(~-0).
Inthc'samcwaywefind

(3
B=y~. =~)-(~),
.j –c,),
whcrc T~ is tlie compicte f'unction fui- modulus

y = = /j,). ()7)
~1-~sms~
IIt'n' a is rcprc.scntcd as :t function of thc an~!c 0, w]nch is
fmiction of thé pin-ameto- À~ a (nnction of~ and thL'nec of'
and~itBnfnnctioBof~itndthcnc-cot'À;
But t)x'sc ang-jes and pnramctcrs may he considcrcd as func(.inns
nf K, /3, y. T)ic propertiL's of such inverse functions, and of thosc
conncct.cd with thcm, arc (.-xplidticd in tlie trc-atisc of M. Lamc on
thatsuhject.
It is casy to soc thn,<.since thc
parameters are perindic fnnctions
of the aux;i)iai-y nn~)cs,
tJK-y will ho pcriodic functions of thc
quantifies a, /3, y thu ppriods of A. nnd A.aru f /(~) and that ofA.,
is27''(/).

/~7/<r fSW/A'.
150~ Jf ]s a jincar fun('tio)]ofa,/3,ot'y,thccquation is
'-attsncd.
If'icc\vcn]:)ydcdnccfromt)n-cquatio))ihcdistril)ution
of<-)cc<ricity on miyiwo confneal surfaces nfthcsamc i':uni)y
m:unt:tin(-(I ~t ~.jvc')! pntcntials, and t)tû
potcntiatat any point
bct~vcctt titem.

.7~6'/)6' ~/6Y'Y.
\)e!t a is constant thé cnrrcspojtdin~ surface is
Itypcrbo!oid
of t\vo shcf'ts. Let us muke the si~-n of a t)ie samc as that of ni
thu sliec't under cnnsideratio)). V~ shall thus be ab)c to study one
of thèse s))ce'ts at a time.
Ijet a~ a~ bc t)tc values of a correspondiu~' to two
single shccts,
wli~thci- ofdiHci-cnt ])yperhn!o!ds or of the same one, and let
bc thé potcntia~s at -\v)uc)i t))cy in-c maintained.
TIicn, if \e makc
= °~ r~ ~'±~ -), ( j g.
(tj-a~
t))c conditio)~ will bc satisficd at thc two sm-~ecs and
throu~-hout
thé spacu bct\v~n thcm. ]f wc makc r constant nnd cqual tu t
m t!~ space ).oy(,nd t)n- stu-fac~'
a,, and constant and eqnat to
 150.] DISTtUBUTION 0F ELECTHICITY. 185

in thc space heyond thc surface a~ we shall have ohtaincd the

complète solution ofthis particular cnso.
Thé résultant force at any point of either shect is

7? =-~=- a (1!))
~t" r/ar~'
or 7?,=~ (20)
C~ 0~ j~;j
If~ be the pcrpendicular from thé centre on thc tangent plane
at any point, and 7'j thé product of thc semi-axes of thé surface,
then = Pi.
Menée wcfind
~j
7tj=-– )
~-a, -rr-'
7~
or thé force at imy point of thé surface is proportional to thé pcr-
pendicular from thc centre on thc tancent plane.
Thé surface-density o- may be found from thé equation

4?r<r=~. (22)
T))c total quantity of electricity on a segment eut off by a plane
whose C(~uation is y = from one sheet of thc hypcrboloid is
c l'1- T rc 23
~=~~(~2 ai-a~~ (23)

Thc qnantity on thé who!e infinite sheet is Hicrcforc infinite.

T)tc timitin~ ~rms of thc surface are
(1) When a = 7~.) tho surface is the part of thé plane of .'rj on
thé positive side of thc positive branch of thé hypcrbola. whose
cduationis
couationis ,.2
uM c- = M
('>1)

(2) Whcn a=0 thc surface is thc plane nf~

(3) When a = -7') thé surface is the p:u-t of the plane of a'~ on
thé negative side ofthc négative hranch ofthc same hypcrbola.

M(; 77.)c~o~~ OM<'~M~.

By making' /3 constant wc ohtain thc équation ofthe hypei-boloid

of onc shect. Thc two surfaces which form thé houndarics of thé
electric neld must therefoM bcbng' to two différent hyperholoids.
l'hc investigation will in other respects he the same as for thé
hyperbobids of two shcets, and when thé différence of potentia.ls
is given the dunsity at any point cf thé surface will bc proportio~al
to thc perpendictuar from thc centre on thé tangent plane, and the
who)e quantity on thé infinite sheet will bc infinite.
 186 CONFOCAL QUADIMC SURFACES.
[i5o.
Z/'M/M~ 7~
(t) ~'hen ~=0 thé surface is the part nf the plane of y~
bc-t.wcpn t)io twn hmnchcs of thc
hyporbota whosc t.quatinn is
wntt<jn ~1jovc, (24).
(~ Whun /j = 7''(/~ the surface is <hc p.-n-t of t))c plane of
which is on thc outsKk- of the focat
ellipse whosc c-quation is
2
~2 r:
+ (~)
=

7~ c ~7~o/
Fer any given oHipsoid y is constant. If two cDipsoids, and y.
Le maintained ot potentiais and thc.n, fur ~ny point in thf
spn.cc betwccn them, wc have

= 5±7(Z:rL~
/[-~
Thé surfacc-dcnsity at nny point is

~=--1- ~7)
7i-
~'hcrc i.s <hc po-pendicular from thé centre on the
tangent phmc,
and 7-j is the produc't ofthe semi-itxcs.
Thu who)t' charge of electricity on cithcr sur~cc is

~=~~=- (~)
afinitcquantity.
Whcn = ~'(/-) the surface of tlie eiïipsoid is at an infinite
distance in all directions.
If we makc == 0 and y, =
~(~), wc HnJ for the quantity of
clectrtcity on an pHipsoid maintained at potcntia! in au inftnitcly
cxtended ne!(],
Q ( )
(~
~=~)-/
Thc Itmitmg- ihrm of the cIHpsoids occurs \vhcn
y = 0, in which
case the surface is the part of thc
plane of within the foc:U
o'Hipsc,whose équation is written abovc, (25).
Thc surface-density on the elliptic
plate whose équation is (25), and
whose cccentricity is is
1 _i
27r~~Y~
y~2
~'(~) 7–
V-

anditschiu'geis
<3=~ (31)
(3])
151.] SURFACES 0F REVOLUTION. 187

.P~ OM~<.
151.] If k is diminished till it becomes uttimately zero, thé
Hysten) of surfaces becomes transformed in the following' manncr
Thc rcal axis and one of the imag'inn.ry axes of each of thc
])ypet'boloids of two shects n.rc indcfinitely diminished, and thé
surface ultimately coincides with two planes intersectmg' in thé
axis of z.
Tile quantity a becomes Idcntica! with C, and the equation of t]ie
systcm of rneridional planes to which the first systcm is reduced is
n
.1 1J'
=o. (32)
(sin a)~ (cosa)'~
Thc quantity /3 is reduecd to

/) = logtan-~
~3= f 2
(33)
~sj)i<~
whcnœwGfind
2 <
1 cosd)= (3.t)
sincb=-) e~+6"~
If we call the exponential quantity ~(e~+e-~) the hyperbolie
cosine of/3, or more concisety the hypoccsine of /3, or cos~ and if
wc cal! (~–e-~) the hyposme of /3~or sin and if by tlie s~mc
amdogy \vc caU
the hyposcc~nt of /?, or ace /3,

1
thc hypocosecant of /3, or cosec
8in/3

thc hypotang'ent of ~3, or tan ~3,

cosl~ ~3

and thc hypocota~G'cnt of or cot

sm~/3
then Àg = c sec and thé equation of the system of hyperboloids
of one sheet is
~+r _,2 2 (3o)
(3~)
(sce~~)" (ta.!i~~)~
Thé quantité y is reduced to so that À~= c cosecy, and the
équation of tlie S3-stem of cllipsoids is

-~+~+ -=~. (3G)

(secy)'~ (ta.ny)''
Ellipsoids of this kind, which arc figures of révolution about tlieir
coojugate axes, are called P!anctary eDIpsoids.
 188 CONFOCAL QUADIMC SURFACES.
[152.
Tho quantity of
electricity on a planetary cl!ipsoid maintained at
potenhui ~hi an infinite field, is

<?=c~ (37)
2"~
wliere c sec y is thé cquatoriat radius, and e
tan is the polar radius.
If y = 0, tlie figure is a circulai- disk of radius
c, and
(y=-3
~2 ~2 r2

Ir

7T (39)
2
152.] Seconrl C~~p. Let = c, then = 1 and = 0,
7T–20
a = log- tan whencc Ai = e tan a, (10)
and thé équation of thc hypcrboloids of révolution of two shœts
becomes
(~t1)
(tan' (see'~=~'
Thé quantité /3 becomes reduccd to and each of thé hyper-
boloids of one sheet ja reduecd to a
p..m- of planes Interscetino. in
the axis of .c whose équation is
2 1-1
z,a
(sin~ (cos~ ('~)
This is n. system of méridional
planes in which ~3is thc longitude.
Thé quantity y bceomes iog-tan
whcnce A, = c cot~y,
and the équation of tlie family
of ellihsoicls is
9
= 2. (~)
(cot/~ (cosce~p
Thèse dlipsoids. in which thé transverse axis
is the axis of revo-
httxin, are called Ovary cllipsoids.
Thé quantity of
electricity on an ov~-y eHipsoId mamtaincd at a
potent)al man infinite field is

e=<-y. (4.1)
If the pohr radius is A =
ccot~y, and the equatonal radius is
= c cosec y,
A+
,~+~7~
log
y=log–27?"" 2-B 15
(~)
154"] CYLINDERS AND PARABOLOIDS. 189

If tlie cquatorial radius is very small compared to the polar radius,

as in a wire with rounded cudsj
!l y'
= log fl @ and (~
y7=log- (4C)
<3=, log~–Iog~
Whpn both and c beccmc zero, their ratio rema.ining finite,
tlie System of surfaces Lccomcs two systems of confocal cones, and
a system of spherical surfaces of whicli thé radius is inversely
proporbional to y.
If the ratio of b to c is zero or unity, thé system of surfaces
becomes one system of meridian planes, one systcm of right cônes
having a commou axis, and a systcm of conccntric sphencfd surfaces
oC which thc radius is inversely proportional to y. This is the
ordinary system of spherical polar coordinates.

C~K~e &<~e6~.
153.] When c is infinite thc surfaces arc cylindric, thc generating'
lines being para.llel to z. One system of cylinders is elliptic, with
thc equation
~2 ,i
–+ -~2 (47))
(4î
(cos~a)~ '(sin~a)~"
Thc other is hyperbolic, with the equation
w~
(cos/3)~ (sfn/3)~
This systcm is reprcsentcd in Fi-. X, at thé end of t)us volume.

CoM/bc<~7~a~o~<W.?.
154.] If in thé général équations we transfer thé origin of co-
ordinates to a point on thé axis of x distant t from thé centre of
thé system, and if we suhstitute for x, À, and c, <+.?', i'+À, <+~,
and <+e rcspecti.vely, and thon makc increase i!idef!nit(!ly, we
obt~in, in thé IImit, the cquation of a system of p~raboloids whose
foci are at thc points a' = b and x = c,
-2
4(x-A)+ y2
,(~+~+~=0. + = o. (49)
(49)

If thé variable parameter is À for the first system of clHptic

p!U'abo]oids~ for tlie hypcrbolie parnboloids~ and v for thc second
System of elliptic paraboloids, we hâve À~ c, v in ascending
order of mag'nitude~ and
 190 CONFOCAL QUADRJC SURFACES.
[i54.
a'=À+~+~–p–~
~=~&)
(5(J)
~-1=~)
6- b
a, -1
A==~(~+c)-~(c-~cos/{.a,
~=~(~+c)-~(e-~cos/3,
3,
= ~(~+~+~(e-~eos~y; (s,)
jJ
æ=
= (~+c)+ (c-~)(eos y-cos/3-
eo8~
a),
~= 2(c-sin~6in~cos~,
2 (~~
= 2(c–~eos/~eos(s!n/{~.
2
When & = c we Iiave the case of
parahokids of revolution ahout
the axis ot x, and
(e~)
~=2~cos~, (53)
z = 2t/~+~sin/3.
T)~ surfaces for which /3 is constant are
planes through thé axis,
ben,g. thé angle whieh sueh plane makes with a iixcd ,~nc
through thc axis.
T)~ surfaces fur which a is constant
are confocal paraho).id..
\M.c.n a=0 thé paraLoloid is redueed to a
straight linc tenninati~
at the or!g'in.
~Ve inay also find thé values
of in terms cf r, 0, and
the .spher.cal polar coordinates refcrred to the <
foeus as ori<.in and
thé axLs of thc parabolas as axis of the
sphère,
a = Jog' (~ cos C),
/3=~ (54)
y = !og-(/sin ~).
We may compare thé case in whieh the
potentia~ is cqual to a,
with the .onal solid harmonie J3oth satisfy Laplace's
eqna-
tion, and are homog-encous onctions but in tlie case
of
denvcd from the paraholoid there is a
discontinuity at the axis and
i has a value ..ot
difTering. hy any nnitc quantity from zero.
Die surface-density on an electrified paraboloid in an infinite
field (ineluding the case of a
straight line infinite in one direction)
is inversely as H,e distance from thé
focus, or, in thé case of
the line, from the
cxtremity of the !ine.
 CIIAPTER XI.

TJIHORY
0F ELECTKiC
IMAGES
ANDELECTJMC
INVERSION.

155.] We hâve ah-cady shewn that whcn a conducting spherc

is undcr thé influence of a known distribution of' electricity, thé
distribution of electrieity on thé surface of thé spliere can be
dctermined by the method of spherical harmonies.
For this purposc we require to
expand thc potential of thé in-
nuencing- system in séries of solid harmonies of positive deg-rce~
having- thé centre of thé sphère as origin, and we then fmd :).
cnrresponding series of solid harmonies of negative degree, which
express thé pott-ntud due to thé electrification of the sphère.
Hy thé use of this very powerfui method of analysis, Poisson
determined the clectrificntion of a sphère under thc influence of
a given eleetric-al system, and he aiso solved the more diflicult
problem to determinû the distribution of electricity on two con-
dncting- spheres in presence of eaeh other. Thèse invcstig-ations
have been pursned a,t gréât
Jength by Plana and others, who have
confirmed the accuracy of Poisson.
In app]ymg this method to thé most
c~ement:).y case of a sphère
under thc influence of a single electrified
point, \ve require to expand
the potential due to thc electrified point In a series of solid har-
monies, and to détermine a second series of solid harmonies which
express the potcntial, duc to thé cleetrification ofthe sphère, in thé
space outside.
It does not appear that any of thèse mathematicians observcd
that this second the
séries expresses potential due to an imag-inary
e!eetriucd point, whieh bas no physieal existence as an eJeetrincd
point, but which may be called an electrical image, bccause thé
action of thé surface on cxtci~ points is thc samc as that which
would be produccd by thé imaginary electrified
point if thé sphcrical
surface were removed.
 192 ELECTRIC IMAGES.
[i56.
This discovcry seems to have been reserved for Sir W.
Thomson,
who has developcd it into a metbod ofg-reilt for thé solution
power
of dectrical probJems, and at thc samc time
capaL]o of bcing pre-
scnted in an dcmcntn.ry gcomctricat fbrm.
His original investig-ations, which are containcd in tlie
C~w~
~M j!6Y~~M;-M~ i8<jg, arc expresscd in tcrms of
thc ordinary theory of attraction at a. distance, and makc no use of
the mcthod of potentials and of thé
g-cncnd thcoi-pms of Ci]:).ptcr IV,
though tlicy were probably discoverc-d by thèse ntethods. Instcad~
ItowfVL'r, of foHowing- the mct]~od of thc author, 1 shall m:d.e frcu
use of thc idea of t!)e potential and of
(.-quipotcnti:d surfaces, whcn-
ever the investigation can bc rcndcred more intelligible
by such
mcans.

~co~ o/c;e
156.] Let and j9, Figure 7, rcpresent two points In !i uniform
Il- 1 J.
d'ficctric mcdium of infinite extcnt.
Let thé char~-t's of and 2~ be Cj
nnd rcspcctivcly. Let 2~ )je any
point in space whose distances from
:md are ~'j and ?~ respcctivc)y.
Then thé value of thc potentiel :)t 7~

r=~.+~. (i)
~'i
Thc equipotcntiai surfacesduc to
this distribution of clectricity are rcprescnted in
Fig. 1 (at the cud
ofthis voJumc) -\v!)en Ci and arc of the same sign, aud in
Fig.. III:
w])cn they are of opposite signs. Wc have now to considcr thn.t
surface for which = 0, which is the
on)y spherical surface in
the systcm. When and c, are of thé samc ijig'n, Uns surface is
cntirL-Iy :)t au infinite distance, but when they are of opposite si~ns
Hicrc is a p!anc or sphericu! surface at a finite distance for which
the potcntial is zéro.
Tite équation of this sur~ee is
<
-L <?“
+ = 0. (2)
~i
Its centre is ut a point C in
prodnccd, 6uc]i that
2
~C:~C.<
aud thé radius of the sphère is
~7? _~l
~–c~
Thé two points J and are inverse points with respect to this
 ~57-] )NVERSKt'OJNTs. ]<)~

sphère, that is to sa.y, they lie in thc same radius, and thé radius is
:Lmean proportional between their distances from thé centre.
Since this sphcrical surface is at
potential zero, if we suppose
it construetcd ofthin meta! and connectcdwith the earth, tbcre
will be no altération of thc potcntial at
any point cither outside or
inside, hnt thc electrical action cvcrywhcre will remain that due to
thc two (dectrincd points and J~.
If wc now kccp the metallic shell in connexion with thé c:u-th
and remove thc point j~, thc
potential witliin thc sphère will hec-ome
('vcryw)terc zero, but outside it will remain thé same as beiorc.
For thc surface of thé sphère still romains at thc same
potentin!,
and no chnngc has becn made in thé extcrior electrineation.
Hence, If an c)ectrified point A be placed outside a sphencal
conductor which is at potentiat zéro, thé electrical action at al!
points cutsidc thu 6p]mrc will he that duc to thc point together
with another point within the sphère, w!)ic)i we may caiï thé
eleetrical image of A.
ln the sarne way wc may shew that if .C is a
point placed inside
t)'e spherical bbe)), thé eicctrica) action wiftiin thé
spliere is tt~t
duc to J~ together with its
image
157.] Z'c//M~/oM of ~M ~e~ca~ Image. An clectrical image is
an electrincd point or system of
points on one side of a surface
which would produce on thc other side of that surface thé same
electrical action which thé actual c!cctriflcation of that surface
really does producc.
In Optics a point, or systcm of
points on one side of a mirror
or Icns which if it existcd would émit the
system of rays which
actua!!y exists on thé other side of thé mirror or lens, is called a
v~MM~ image,
Electt-ica! images correspond to virtual
images m optics in being
related to the space on the other side of thé surface.
They do not
correspond to thcm in actual position, or in the merely approximate
charactcr ofoptieat foci.
Thcre arc no 7-~ electrical images, that is,
imaginary electrined
points which wouhl produce, in the région on thé same side of thé
ctectrincd surface, an enect équivalent to that ofthe clectrined surface.
For if the potcntiat in
any région of space is cqual to that due
to a certain eJectrification in thé same
rcg-ion it must be actually
produccd by that c)cctrincation. In tact, thé eleetrincation at, any
point may he found from thé potential near that point
by ~hc
application of Pnisson's couatioti.
Vf)!) 1 (J
 194 HLHC'1']!!(; )MAnHs.
['57.
Lct bc the radius of' t]te sphct'c.
Let/'be the distance of-thc dectrified point from thé centre 6'.
Let <"b~ t)ic charge of Uns
point.
Then thc Imn~ oi- the point is ~1
7~, on tlie same radius of' thc
sj~hereat a and t)~ ch~r~ oft)~. im~u is -<'
di~fancL.
Wc h:).vc shewn t)mt t.his
im:i"-c
will produec the same cffcct on tlie
opposite Midu ofthesur~ccast!)e
:totn:tt eicct.riilca.tion of thé surfitee
ducs. Wc sindt next dctct'tninc the
surtacc-dcnsiiy of t]ns clectritica-
tion at any point of the sphcrica!
surface, :md for this purj)ose we s!udi
m:Uœ usu of thu D~ot-um of'
Coulomb
Art. 80, that if~ is thé résultat forcu at thc snHacc ot'a
conJuctor
:md(]rthci:!upL-r<ict:ddensity,
7)'=4770-,
bc-ing- measm-cd a\vay frum the sudacc.
~Vc. may c.oi~ider 7.' as t)ic rcsuttaat of twu
fur~.s. a rei,~).siun
~on~. ~1! and
:1Ct111~r lllonb
~ti.~ mul an attractwIl
an
~Il actlllg'
attraction L' J (G, `~jy~tin~- ong 7~.
aabng. 111.

Rcsniving- t).csc for~-s in th<- dircc-tions of ./Cand 67', wc n.id

that thé cotnponcnts of thc
repuisio~ arc
< ca,
a!ot~- ~C', and a)ong 67-
Thosc oj' thc attrac-Lion m-u

"s' c~.
7 "i ~g-
New .nd ~6~ = ,o that thc ccn~on.ut..f
=
the attraction innytjewrit.tt-n

'S- ~C', idong

and -c-~
Thé cumponents of the ~ttrac-tion a,,d thc.
rcputsion in th.
dn-.L.t.un o( J6' ar. cquu) ~nd
oppo.itL-, ~nd thuruforc thf. re.uitant
ior~ is ~ntn-cly in tf~ direction of- t)ic
radius 6~ Tins on!y-
conhrms wliat v-e !.aYe
n)rcady pruvcd, t).at thé .ph.rc is an o<,ui-
pot.nt.a! .urfac., .nd thc.rd.re a .surface to whicli thc
resuttnnt t
t~r~' )s (-vcrywhcn. p.Tj)~))di<-u)ar.
 f5~-] ])ISTtf)HI'T:ON ')F ELECTIHCtTY. 1~5

Thé restant force mcasnred a!ong- 67', t)u; normat to the surface
in thc direction towards thc side on whicii is ptac~d, iH

(3)
If is takcn insidc thc sphère y' is )ess than and we must
mcasurc A' inwards. For this ensc thcrefore

rc al':v
ln all cases Wt; may write
l
''=- (-)
whcre ~</ arc thc sc~m~nts of any line throng-h cutting- the
spherf, and t)icir product is to bc taken positive in ait caHCH.
158.] From tint, it fot)ows, hy Coutoml/s t!i(.'orcn), Art. 80,
t.)utt thc surfaec-density :)t 7-* is

~.J~ i (ü)
"=-nr~
Thé density of thc electricity a.t any point of thé
sphère varies
inversety as tite cube ofits dis~ncc froin tlie point J!.
Thé effeet of this superficial distribution, together with that of
the point. is to prodncc on the s:u-ne sidc uf titc snriace as thé
pomt a putential equivalent to that duc to e at y/, and its image
f atj9, and on thé other side of thé surface thé potcntia.1 is

everywhm'c zero. Hcncû Hie effeet ci' t!)C superficial distribution

by itself is to produce a potential on the side of cquiv:d~nt to
that duc to the at and on tLc opposite side n.
im~c –c.
potenti:).) eclual and opposite to that of f at
Thé wlioïc charge on the surface of thesphcrc is evidently –<;?.
v 't'
sincu it isis équivalent
'1 to thé
tiie image
imitge at R.
B.
Wu hâve therefore iu-rived at the ioDowing theorems on the
action of a distribution of deetricity on a spherical surface, thé
surface-dcnsity being inversely as the cube of the distance from
a point J either without or within thé sphère.
Let thé density be given by thé équation
c
~=~' (7)
wliere C is some constant quantity, then b\' équation (C)

C =-C 8
-t77~
() 2
 '~Erj'Rrc n).\<iM.
rj~,
T''<-action ofth.ssuperHciat distribution on appoint
<o,n separated
by the surface is equa) to that ofa of eJectrieity
quantité
J'
con(?entr:;t('dut.
Its action on any point on the samc side
of thé surface wit)i is
equaitothatofafjuantityofek'ctricity
~TTC~

concGntratcd n.t thc imag-c of~.

Thew]~le qnantity of electricity on thc sph.re is .qn~ to t),c
quantitias If is ~Jt)nn t!.c sj~cr~ and tn the
first
if' is oft~e second
without the sphore.
Thés. prop..sit,ons were estatdished
hy Sir W. Thnmson in his
or.g.~) ~comctrical investigations with referenc-c to the
distribution
oi cIcetrK.ty on spherical
eonductor~ to which thc studcnt ou~ht
<o rcicr.
150. ] rf a system in which the distribution of dectricity is
kno~n placcd in the ndg.hbourhood of a
conducting. sphère of
rad.u, ~hic-h is .naintainc-d at
pot.ntiat zéro by connexion with
i'.c <-a~i thcn thé d.ctritications dne to t),e several parts ofthe
System will bcsupcrposed.
Let &c. b. thc. dcct.-iM points of the System, &e
.r d~t~ces fro~ thé centre of the
sphère. ~their
charg-cs, thcn thc images & of thèse points wiU he in the
same radii as <.he points t thcmsdves, and at a-')
distances &c.
from thé centre ofthe sphère, and their
charges will ho

-<&€.
1 y~
Thé potential on the outside of thc
sphère due to thc superficial
e eetr,hca<.on will be thé same as that which
would be produeed Ly
the system of .a,.es &c. This System is ther.fore eal)~
thé e)ectt-]c~) )mag-c of 7~
thc systc-m &;e.
If the sphère insfead of
bcins. at. potentiai'zero is at potentia! 7-
must superpose a distribution of
eh.etrieity on its outer surface
havms- <he uniform surf.tRc'-density

n
'ÏTT<7
Thé effeet of Uns at all
points outside the spj~re will be e.jua! to
 i6o.] ] IMAGE OP AN ELHCT1!IFIEU SYSTEM. )')7

that of a qnantitv ni' electricity p)acp(t at its centre, nnd at

all points inside thé sphère thé potential will be simply iucrciiscd
by r.
Thé who)e charge on the spliere due to an external system of
innucncing' points ~j, &c. is

1.' a el
& (1»
(9)
A~ ~&c.,
./t1 y~
from which cither the charg'e A' or tho potentia.1 may be cal-
euhtted when the o<hcr is g'Iven.
Whcn the ctectrined system is within thé spherica,) surface the
indnced charge o!i the surface is equal and of' opposite si~-n to tlie
induci!)~- cimr~u, as wc have hcfore proved it to hc for cvcry closcd
surface, with respect to points within it.
160.] Thé energy due to the mutua.1 action between an ciec-
trified point e, at a distance/' from thé centre of thc sphère g'rf'ater
than thc radins, and thé electrification of the sptierica! surface
due to the influence of the electrified point and the charge of thé
sphcre, is
~r ~7'
.v =.. d")
(~. ~) = ~)).
whcrc Fis the potential, and F thé charge ofthe sphère.
Thc rcpu]slon between tho electrified point and the sphère is
therefore, by Art. 92~

~"(~)
l -u` J)~(-
Hcnce tlie force bet\vcen thc point and thc sphère is alwnys an
attraction in the foUowing' cnscs–
(!) 'When thé sphère is uninsulated.
(2) ~V!ien thc sphère bas no charge.
(3) When thé ctcctrificd point is very near the surface.
lu order thiLt the force may bc repu!sivL', thu potential of thé

sphère must bc' positive and greater tl~aii ~r.i and tho

charg'e of thc sphère must he of thc same sig'n as f and greater

~'(2/)
~-7~
At thé point of cquitibrium tlie equilibrium is unstabtc, thé force
 1<)8 ELECTRIC IMACHS.

bcing an attraction ~hen the bodie. arc ucarer and a

répulsion
~-hentheyarnfart!)Gro(r.
Whcn thc
pnh.t is ~ittnn the sphc.rica) surface Lh..
~etriHcd
force on the electrified point i.s atwnys .u~y fro~ the centre of
the sphère, and is
cqua) to
e~f/
~)'
Thc s.rfacc-d.nsity at t.he point <ti.e sj.herc ncar~t < thé
otectr.ned po.nt whc..e it )ics outsidc thc
spix-re is
= r
l'(1 ~+~) )>
(/ )-
~(3/)j'
(~)
Thé
surface-density at the point of t!.o sphère Hu-th~t fr.m the
electrified point is

~=, '~<-( l l
(/jt
=-J~ 7s + 1
s
~~< ti~(V+~)~ j" ()3)
r./'(.+~ ).
~hen thé charge of th<-
sphère, )ic.s b~tw~

and ~V-~)
/(/ .(.+~
th<.e!eetrHieation will i.e n~-ative n. the e]eetrif!cd point, and
positive on thu .ppositc sidc. Therc. will bc a circuhu. line of division
thc pnsitivc.!y and the
nc~ti.e)y ch-ctrifi.d parts of the
between
surface, and this line will Le a hne of
~niHbrium.
If
(14)
--(~-7)-
the equ.potcntia) surface ~]nch cnts
the spl.erc in thc line of
!num is a sph.rc whose centre is the cqui-
electrified point and whnse
radms is
TI.e lines of force and
c.quipotentfa! surfaces b.]on~in~. to a c.ase
oi Dus k.nd are g.,ven in
Ffg.ure IV at th. c.nd ufthis v~me.

7w~~ /Y~ C'7/~ .S~

161.] If the ~.o e!e.tri~.d points and in Art. ]5(; are
w,th .qna! ct.ar~ of electri.ity of
~~r,f,d o< ,.ro opposite si~. thé
potentiai thé p.a.u, everv ipoint of~hi'd
~r~ ~cn is
)s
pqutd~tant from Jand
l62.] IMAGES IN AN tNFINITE PLANE. 199

Hcnce~ if A be an electrified point whose charge is e, and

a pcrpcndicu~ar on thé plane, produce ~.Z)
~0 B so that 737~ = y/j9, and place at j~
i< charge cqu~ to -e, thcn this charge
nt 7~ will bc thc i mage of M)d will
produec at al] points on thc same side of
thc p1a.ne as an on'L'f:t erjuat to that
of thé actual cicotrineation nf* thc plane.
Fer the pntc'nti:d on the side of duc
tn and JI ftdfns thc c-onditinns that
\7'= 0 cvcrywhcrc cxccpt at and
that = (1 at thc plane, and thcre is only
one form of ~which can ful~l thc'se conditions.
To determine thc rcsuhant fbrcc nt thc point P of thé p~nc-, we

observe that it is compoundc-d of two forces cach eqoat te

one aeting- a!ong- y/P !md titc ntho' ~ong PJ~. II~nco the restdtant
of thusc forces is in a direction paraUc) to ~7~ and equa) to
c
y/ 7~
Ucnce 7)!, the résultant force measured from the surface towards thc
spacc in \vhich lies, is

(1;3)

and t))c density at thc point 7~ is

nr\
~='2~ 2T~ll'~s

0~ ~7<'c/<,v;~ /)~'<?/A'/o?~.

]62.'] Thé mcthod ofck'cirical images ]cnds dircctiy to a, method

of tmnsformntion hy w)n~1) wc rn!iy dérive from any cicctrical
prohicm of which \vc knnw thé '-ointion any mtmLer of* other
prnbicms \yith their sotutions.
Wc have Sfcn t)]nt the imn~c nf n point at. a. distance )' from the
centre of a sphcrc of radius 7)' is in the same radius and at a distance
sueh that ?'/=7)* Honc-c the image of :). system of points~ lines,
or surfaces is ohtaincd from thé ori~'i~d systcm hy thé niL'thnd
~no\vn in pure ~cometry as thc mcthod of' inversion, and d~cribod
hy C'has)~ Salmon, and uthcr mathcmaticians.
 200 ELECTJOC IMAGES.
[!Ô2.
Ji'~ ..nd Lw. points, and t!~ir imng~ 0
being the
centre
centre of invct'sifxi -rtut 7);
inversion, :~d Il +h,,
the radius of~r ~.)
the
sphère ofinversion,
~==~=o/o~.
Hence the triangles 0.~ 02~ ~rc simitar,
~0~:0~0~
Fi~.U. j a qu~tity
If
ore)cctricity bu placcd at
its potcntial aL will b<'
bc
~=

Ii' be placed at its potentiid at j~ will bc

/-=
.r~'
la thé theory of clectrica!
images
~OJ:0~.

~=~
ci- thé potcntiat at duc to thé at Ais to thé potential
electricity
atthe .f~ j,,
.n~ ~P~.I
not on the
.1 ~"d'U"
duc to any system
~T' Potential
of ck-ctrific-d bodics is to that
at the ~mag-e of thc
to at 7/ d.e
System as is to 0~.
If bc thc dLstance
ot-any point from the centre, and t)iat
if the ~<o" of -'I that .f
of li ?"
he
'L ~~1 ~ents at and
also ~'<~
t.hc eorrc.spondh~
it'
Inc-suifacc "f and votumc-densitic.s
oF.I.ctricity at tlie two pointa
the o~nat aud
~rn, t). potential
at duc to titc inverse
systûm, thcn
= = ~c
~4=~' ~=~=~,
~=~=/ 1
]{ 7'=~'
r' -*(18)
.r 7~ /=~.=/
n
1
J
If in th.. opinât systcm a certain surface i.s th.t of a ~nd..ctor,
.s.-<-Th..m-<.n
.n~ T,ut'.< A~<n~ ~o~y,
 CHOKH'nUCAL TimOHUMS. ~01
163.]

and bas thcreforc a constant potential P, then in thé transformed

system thé image of thc surfine will have a potential P But

by placing at 0, thc centre of inversion, a, quantity of electricity

equal to –7~7)*, thc potential of the transformed surface is reduced
to zero.
Hence, ifwe know the distribution of ~cctricityon a conductor
when insu)ated in open space and char~'ed to thc potential P, wc
can find hv inversion thc distrihution on a conductor whose form is
the ima~c ofthc th'st utider thc innuenec of an ctectrin~'d point with
a charge –)' placed at thc centre of inversion, thc conductor
bein~' in connexion with thé ea,rth.
163.] Thc fuHowin~ geomctrical t!icorems are uscftd in studying-
cases of inversion.
Evcry sphcre hecomes, when invertedj nnothcr sphère, unless
it passes through thé centre of inversion~ in which case it hecomes
a phme.
If thé distances of thc centres of the sphères from thé centre of
invosion are r/ and and if their radii aru a and H~,and if wc
define t!~e ~M!M~'of thé sphère with respect to thc centre of in-
version to be thé product of thé segments cut on' by thé sphère
from a line through the centre of inversion, then the powcr of the
first sphère is < and that of the second is ~–a~ Wce
t)avc in this case
~L. n~
a a a-–a- 7L-/w
or thé ratio of thc distances of' the centres of thc first and second
sphères is equal to the ratio of their radii, and to thé ratio of the
power of' thc sphère of inversion to thé po\cr of' thc first sphère,
or uf thc powcr of thc second sphère to the power of thé sphère
of inversion.
Thé centre of either sphère corresponds to tlie inverse point of
the othcr with respect to thé centre of inversion.
In the case m which thé inverse surfaces are a p)anc and a,
sphère, the pcrpendicutar from thé centre of' inversion on tht- plane
is <o thé radius of inversion as this radius is to thé diamt'tcr of
thc sphère, aud the sptterc bas its centre on this pcrpendieular and
passes throngh the centre of inversion.
Every circlc is invcrtcd into another circle unicss it passes
through thc centre of inversion, in which case it bcconies a straight
tinc.
 ELECTRIC IMAGES,
fi~
Thé angle between two surfaces, ci- two Unes at their
intersection,
is not chan~'ed by inversion.
J':very circ)e which passes throu~h a point, and thé ima~c ofthat
point with resj)ect. to :Lsphère, cnts t)ic sphère at
ri~-ht. an~es.
Hence, any cirele whieh passes tht-nu~i a point an~cuts thc
sphcre at ri~-ht nn~cs passes tjn-ou~h thc ima~-e oftho
point.
164.] We mny ftppiy fitc mct))od of inversion dcdncu the
(Itstribution .f (-Icctricity on an uninsulated
spticrc under the
influence of an clectrificd point f-rom the nniform
distribution on
an ]nsu]atcd spho-e not inf!ncn(;ed
by nny r.thpr hody.
If the e)Gctrif!cd point hc at <a!œ it for the centre of
and if inversion
is at a. distance. from the centre nf thé sphère whose
radius is the invertcd n~re will bc a
sphère whose radius is
and whose centre is \vi)ere
distant/
/i~
u ='7=~ -,f"«v (20)
Thc centre of eithpr of thèse sphères
corresponds tn the inverse
point of the other with respect <o or if 6' is thc centre and thc
Jnversc point nfthe first s])here, wi!) he thé inverse point, and
t!)e centre ofthc second.
Nnw let a quantity of eh-etricity bc communicated fo the
second spbcre, and !et it he uninftuenecd
by externa! forces. It
will heeomc nniform!y disirihntcd over t))e
.sphère with a surface-
densttv
~== 7rTT (2!)] )
('>
Ks action at any point on~side thé
sphère will be t!ie same as
that ofa charge p)a~-cd at 7~ thé centre of the sphère.
At thc spherica! surface and within it thé
poteniia! is
=
f~)
a constant quant ity.
Nn~ let ns invert, this
systcm. T))e centre bceomes in t))e
myerted System thé inverse point and t),e c)ta!~e at 7~
hecomes at 7~ and at any point
separated from 7~ hy the
surface thc potentia) is t))at due to this
ehar~ a< 7A
Thé puientia) at any point 7~ on <he
spherica] .nrf:.ce, or on <he
santé sxte as is in <hc inverted system
~L

<
l6~.j SYSTEMS <J]'' IMAGE! 203

If\vc now superpose on ~his System a. ch.u'~c e a t. where

(2~
a ~=-
t)ic potcntia) on thc spherica) surface, :i.nd at ai! points on the same
side a.s 7~, will bc rcduccd to zéro. At all points ou thc samu side
as thc potential \viU hc that duc to :t charge c at J'j and a cliarg'c

</ at

But
Bllt =-e,,= -g,, (2J)
rr, e.f e`

as we ~bnnti bcfore for thc charg'c oft)te image aL

To Hn(t thc <!e))s1ty at any point of thé first sphère wf hâve
7~
(2.)
"=~;L~'

Suhstitntin~' for thé value of 0-" in terms of tlie quantifies be-

Inng'in~' to thc (!rst. spt~rc, we find the samc value as in Art. 158,
.==-
~r (26)
~~rrrfll'a
4~

<?? 6~6'~M o/*~'«ccc~?'t'e /w~

165.] If two conductin~ pl:mes into-sect :)t an ang'ie which is
:t subm)!!ti)))c of two ri~tit angles, thcrc will be a finite system of
images which wiH comp!etc)y dctormine the cIcctL'iHc~tion.
For let J07~ bc a section of thc two conducting' plaucs pcr-
pendicular to their line of inter-
section, and let thc nng-te cf

intersection .OjS = let 7~

?
be an ctectrifk'd point, and Ict
~0 = 7-, nnd 7~0~ = 0. Thun,
if wc (h'a~v a circle with CL'utre 0
!uid radius <97~, a.nd Hnf] points
which are the successive images
of7~ in thc two planes bcg'innin~'
with (97~, wc shfU! find Qt for thc
ima~-n of in 0~, 7~ for tim image of iu 0. Q;, for tbat of7~
in 7~ for t1)at. of~, in 0.1, nnd for t)mt nf7~ in
If \c ha<! tx~'un with thf~ ima~c of 7~ in ./0 \vc shnnid hav~
round the s:ni]C points in thc reversu nrd~r P; Q~, 7- Q~
provittcd JO~ is a submu)tip)c oftwo right an~us.
 204 HLHUTRJC
)MA(iM.
r~~
.t~ r ? images round ~dc.
at mtcr~s .qnal ~0~ and the in~rmcdia~
'1 i,n~
n.~nitud.. J~ncc if
s~uiti,,), or 2.. th~ will be a Hni~ m.mL.r of-
;n. and~nc of' thèse will fall within thc
,n,.i. j If,
.o~-v. will b~-n~i~
..ub.ukipleof~
~~d~r' of a finitc sc!'i('S of
rlectrifiml l,oints.

mure will be M native

!f.==~ ima~.s &p,
cqua) and nfoppo.itc ,~n to and ~,tiv, images P
~eachcqualto7~andofthesame.sig.n.
Thé an~c. hctwecn s.,cc.c.s.Ivc
images of- <)~ samc ~g.a is
If wc cunsi.l.r .ith.r »
o(-th..onductin~ pfane.s as plane of-
.try wc.H find the positive and
n~ativ. ,~a~ pl.ccd
syn~h.,c.a))y w.th r~.rd to t)..t plane, ,o ~.f fbr
is .native cv~y j~ifi.
i~e in the sa.. ..u.i .f
.n~t)~.c n~a!,
~iat dhst:.ncc on t).c <.rrns!tc sidc ofthc
pJanL.
n-
.-< now invert this systcn. witi~ rcspc.ct te any point, thc two
Planes tw..p.e~ or sphère .nd
beco~ plan. intersec~
at an thc inf)ucncing. point
angic buing wlthm this angle.
Thé successive images lie on the circle which
passes throu..).
and intersects both spho-~s at
right :u~!es.
To ~.nd thc po.itiun of- th.
i.n~es~e' may cither makc use of
the pr,nc.p!c that a point and its
in~.c are in t!ic samc rac]i~
ot the sp)iore, and dnw snc.ccssive chord.
ofthe circlc
~t and passn~- throug-h tlic centres of t!ie bes-inni,~
twu sniicres all-
tcrnate)y.
To find the charge whieh must bu
attrib~t.cd te each ima. take
any point in thc circlc of intcr.sc.etion, then thc
d.ar~ ~cl.
image is proportional to ils distance irom this
point, and its si~n
is posit.vc or négative
according. as it bc!ong.s to thc first or tL
second systc~n).
166.J Wc hâve thus found t),c distribution of thc
ima<.es wi~.n
.ny s-pace bonnded by a eondnctor consisting of two
spj~riea't's.u.faccs
.necting.at an and kept .t potential zéro, is
ang-!e~,
9L initnene.d hy
an clfctnned point.
\Vc may hy inversion dcduce thé case oi- a
cunductor cons.sth~
l66.] TWft !NTE]i!-iHCTING
SPHH;<HS. 2(~

oftwosphcrica! segments meeting atfn'e-entering angle ,chargcd

to potential unity n~nd phtecd in frce space,
For t)iis purpose we invci't, the System with respect to 7- Thc
circlc nt) which t)u' images formei~y lay now h~cotnes :t sti'ftight.
line thmogh the centn's of'the sphères.
H'thé figure (II) rcpresents
a section throu~'h the liue of
centres ~7~, and if~ arc th~
point! whcrc thé circlc of in-
tersection cntstimphtncof the
papcr, ~])t'n, to findDtc suc-
cessive images, dr;nv 7~/ a
radins of'thc Mrst circle, and
dra\v T~C, 7~7~, &(' ma.)dng-

ang-]cs- ~t &:e. with j~J.

Thé points C, 7~ &;c. a.t\vhich they eut the lineof centres will
hc tlie positions of the positive images, and thc charge of each
will he rcprescntcd hy its distances from j~. Thé htst of thcse
images will bc at the centre of the st'eoDc! circle.
To iind tlic n(~ttivc images dra.w 7~7~,J9Q, &c., making'angles
'n' 'n'
&c. with thc linc of centres. Thé intersections of thcse
M M
Unes with tlie Une of centres will ~-Ive the positions of thé negative
images~ and tlie ehm'e nf cach will he rcprescnted by its distance
from .D.
Thé surfacc-density at any point of either sphère is the sum
of thc sur~cc-densities duc to thé systcm of images. For instance,
the Huriacc-density at any point S of' the sphère whnse centre is
~is

=
4~~ +(~ +(~C=)~ +&c.},

who'c 7~, <7,&c. arc thé positive series of images.

When is on thé circlc of intersection thc dcnsity is zéro.
To iind the total ch:u's'<' on caeh of thc spherical segments, wc
m:ty find titc suriaec-intc~r:t! of thé induction throug-h tha.t seg-ment
ttuc to cnch of thé images.
Thc tot:)I ch:u'gc un tlic segment whose centre is J due to thé
image at whnse chnrgt- is j~~ Is
 20C ELECTRIC !MA(iH.S.
[167.

~).
where 0 is thc centre ofthe circle of intersection.
In the same way t)ic
charge on thé same segment due to the
at 7~ is ~(~+ r~), and so on, lines such as M measured
~mage
n'om to thc left heing reckoncd
négative.
Menée thc total charge on the
segment whosc centre is J is
~(/~+~~+~6'+&e.)+~(~+0~-j-OC~&c.),
-~(~~+.)-&c.)-~(0~+<3~+&c.).
167.] T)ic method of cicctrica! images may be appHed to
any
sj.ace bounded hy p!anc or sphL-rient surfaces all oi-hieh eut one
another in angles whic-h arc
subimdtink.s of two right angles.
Jn ordur that such a system nf
s~herica! surfaces may exist, every
so!id angle of the figure must Le
trihedra!, and two of its angles
must he Dght !mg)es, and the third either a
rig.)it ang)e or a
submu!tip]c oftwu right angk's.
IIence the cases lu which tl)e num))cr
ofinn.ges is finite arc–
(!) A single sphcricat surface or a ]))ane.
(2) T~-o planes, a sphère and a p)ane, or two sphères
intci-sc<-<iDg
at an angler. ~c

(3) Thèse t\vo surfaces with a t).i)-d, which may he either

or sphenea], cutting hoth plane
orttiogcnaXy.
(-1) Thèse three surfaces ~iti) a j-ourth
eutting thé first two
orth.~na!)y
'J aud thé t!m.d at an ang)e Of thèse four surfaces
J~a
one at L ast must be spheriea).
We hâve ah-eady examined the first and second
cases. In thc
first case we hâve a
singic image. Jn thé second case we hâve
2~-1 images arranged in two séries in a circle ~Ineh
passes
tin'ough thé innueneing point and is orthogona) to hoth surfaces.
ln thé third case wc hâve, Leside-s t!tL-se
images, their images with
respect to thé third surface, that is, .1.- images in a)! besides t)ie
'nnuenemg ponit-.
In t!.e fourt)~ case we first draw
tlu-ough t).e innuencing point
a circte oi-D.ogonat to the nrst two
surface., and détermine on it
thé posions and magnitudes of the négative Images and thé
M-t rnsKive images. T)ie,~ thro.gh each oft)~ese 2~ points
meludmg thé mOueneing point, we draw a cirefe to
thé thn-d and fourt.h suruK-es, and détermine on it orD.ogon~
two séries uf
 !68.] TWO ~HERRS CUTTINU OI{TUOCiOX.\).LY. 207

images, iu each séries.

We shal) obtuin in this
way, besides thé
innueticing- point, 2M/t positive and 2 MM' négative images.
Thèse 4 M ?/ points arc thé intcrsect.ions of M circtes w)t!i ?' other
drdcs, nud ttiesc cil-ctcs belong to thé two ci' IInus of
systons
curvature of:tcyetidc.
If (;ach of Htcsc points is ch:u'g-cd with thé
proper quantity of
electneity, thé surface \)tosc potuntial i~ xcro wilt consist of M+~
splicres, forming two so-Ics of \vhich thé successive
sphcres of t)ie
H'-st set Intersect at aug-]cs a)td thosc oftije second set :Lt an~s
/< °

winte evcry sphère ofthc fh-st set is orthogonal to evcry sphère'

of thé second set.

6'~ < .Z'o c/ See Fig. IV tt thé

0/
end ofthis vohimc.
168.] Let :md 7~ FIg-. 12, Le thé centres of t\o spitcres cutting-
each other orthog'ona~y in and
7~ und let thé st.rnight )ine J~ eut
thé linu of centres in C. Dieu C
thé image of J with respect to
tlie sphère and aise thé imitée
of with respect to the sphère
whose centre is J. If ~7) = a,
-Z~ = then J7~ = ~/a~ and
if wc place at 6' quanti tics

oi'clectrieity equat to a, aud re.peetivc.Iy, thcn Loth

J-
sphères will be equipotcntia! surfaces whosu potcntial is
unity.
We m:t,y thcrdbi-e détermine from this
system tlie distribution of
electricity it) thu folluwln~- cases
(1) On tlie conductor 7~~formcd of' the Jarger serments of
bnth sphères. Its potential is I, and its eharg-e is

–L==
a+/3- ~+j~-C~.
v~+/~
This quantity titercforu mcasurus thé
eapautty of such a figurc
when frou i'rom thc nidnctivc :tction ototho- Lodics.
T))c dL.nsity at nny point of tiie sptturc- whosc ecntre is and
thu dcnslty at, ~ny point of ihL-
Q spl~rc whosL- c-cntrc is :u-(.
r~spcetive!y

,Ina
.~(')')-' ` J
1w~ .~('-(~)'). _·
20S ELKCTRK' )MA(iHS. [i68.
Ai ihc points ni' intersection, 7~, 7/, thé df'nsity is xcrn.
Ifonc ofthc sphères IsvcrymuHh ):n'L')'<!):n)thco<I)cr~ t)n;
dcusity at thu vcrtcx oft))c smaUcr sphft'c is t~ttmat~)y thrce times
t))at at thc vcrtfx of'ihc htr~er spix'rc.
(~) T! ~ns 7~ rnrmc~ hy thc two snia!tc!- s.~Men<s of
the spLercs, eh:u'g'<d with :t (ju:Uttity of eloctricHy =
Va~+/~
nnd ~c<c(l <m by points and 7~, char~cd with qu:Lntities a and
is also at poicntin) ftnty, :md thé dcnsity at any point is cxpressed
Ly<)~s:t!n('formulât.
(:t) T)u' mcniscus T~Z-Q~ formcd hy the dificrpnec of thc
pcg'mcnts char~'cd with a quaniity a, and acted on by points
-M/3
an<l C',ehargcd rc'spcctiv<y \it!t quantifies and )s a.tso
,=
Va~ -+
in cquilibrium nt potentiel unity.
()) Thé othcr meniscus ~Z~7/ nnder the action of~ and 6'.
~c may also deduce thé distribution ofc!cctric!ty on the foUowing-
interna! surfaces.
Thc !io)lo\v )c!)s /Ç~ under thc' inOucncc of the interna!
clontrified point C'at Hu; centre nf th~' circle .7~
Thc hoUuw nn'niscus under the innm'nce of a point at the eoitre
of thc c<jnc:).Vt'surface.
Thé huHow )ot']nG<!of thc two hn'~cr serments of' hoth sphcres
undcr thc inftuutxie oft)]c threc points .j 7~,
i!ut~ instt'itd r)fworkin~ out t])c solutions ofthcsc cases, we shall
npp)y the princij~c "f (~(.'ctricnl images to dctcnninc the dcnsity
of the ck'ctricity induecd at thc point of' thc cxtcrnal surface of
thc coadm-tor Y~Q7/ hy the action of a point at 6' chargcd with
unit ofch'ctnciiy.
Lct M==~ ~=~ 0~=7-7~=~,
jy~ = a, ~z' = /?, ~7~ = +
Invcrt thé sy~tcm witit respect to a sphère of radius unity and
centre
TI)c t\vn spho'cs will remain sphères, cuttin~ each other ortho-
~onany, :md havin~ their ('entres in t!)c same radii \vith and 7~.
Jf we indieate hy aecented )cttcrs t)K' (juantities correspondiog' tu
thc inverted system,
L
a
~t~ ~–a~
/3~+(~)(~)
=.' ~(~
 108.] TWO .S)'in';I{t':S CUTTINCi ORTJIOOONALLY. 20U

If, in thé inverted system, thé potcntial of tlic surface !s un!<y,5

then thc density ~t ihc poiut 7~ is

-('-(~
If, iu thc origina.! systcm, thc density it 7~ is oy tl)cu
f7 1
y=7~

and thc potcntial is ]~y ptacing' nt 0 a. npg'a.tn'c charg'c oi'

et~ctricity c([n:)l tu unity, t)ic potcntiid \vi!J becomc xcro ovcr thc
'-urfacc,:tndtItu(l~usityat~\vi)!Lc

.=~ ~(1. (1 )
~+(~)(~j2~~
This ~ivc's Hic distribution of dcctricity on onc of the sphcrica.t
surfaces duc to a charge piaccd ut 0. Thc distribution on the
ot!)cr spherica! surface may bu found by exchang'ing' and b, a and
/-), and puttin~ y or instcad of'
To find tlie total ctiar~'c inducud on thé conductor by thc clec-
tri{ied point fit 0, let us examine the inverted system.
] t!ie iuvcrted system \c )inve a charg'e a" at .f, and at
j/
:md a négative dta.r~'c a point 6~ in thc linc J~/f,
+ /3' ° at
â -t-
\/a~
suc)) that C' a"
!{' ~= ~= ~6"= wc iind

/3~ -)-
=~c n~ a'~
a~ {3'2
/j~
a +
Invcrting' this system thc charges hccomc
a _a /3

1 ~L- =-
\/(~+/~ c~ \/a~~+~~Q~
II~ncc <))(' wltoïc cha! on t)]C conduc~or t)uu tu a unit, of'
nc~ativt; t'h'L'triciLy at (~Is
a /3
rc -t~ l
\/M~+~a~–ft~~3'~
~t;IJ'

vor..). r
 KLECTRIC IMAGES. [169.

-Z)~t <~7~7y c~ ~/{~M/

/Yt.W<' </<;7t'
~3.') Let thé radii nfthe sphères hc a, y, then
/<'C =
!:C- "o.
+ />0' j'J /)
Let 7~A', Fi~. ] 3, be the fcc<,
~f the pc'rpcndieuhn's from ~7~6'
on ~te f)pj~).sitc sidL's uf th<; tri-

~v-j' fu~h-, and jet () bc thé intcr-

scetioii of pcrpcndicuiars.
\<\
image °~
tlie and also thé image
~r~
cf C in the sphère /3. AIso 0 is
~~o image of in the sphère a.
~_J~
Lot cha.r~cs a, /3, and y be
pJaccd at and C.
T))cn tlie charge to be placed
Ti~. 13. at 7~ is
/3y_
~+?'/T-J-'
,V~ /JW y 2
Also ,IP = y- + -y a2a2
~< the .< <-
sidercd as tlie ijnag<- of is
_1_
--+y 2a
~r+7'~+a~ /i l i y
+ +
A/Va- -? /32
In thé same way ~-e
may find thc system of' images whi~.h are
e!ectr~eu))y ~uivak.nt ta f.,u.- sphL.ri<~) surfac.c.s at
pnt.ntiat unity
mtcrsechng at )-)g)it ang)~.
Jf'the radius ofthc fom.t)t
sp!)ere is and ifwc makc the char.œ
a< the centre nrt!ns
sphère = o, tl~.n thc ehar~ at t],e interseet~n
of thc line of centres of
any two sphL.res, sav a and with their
plane of intersection, is i

Thé charge at thé int.rscction of the plane of any threc centres

w)th thé perpendieular from j~ itj
1
+-~======,
v.
 170.] FOt;H SPHERES CUTTINO ORTHOGONAIJ.V. 211

and the charge at thé intersection of the four pcrpendiculars is

_1

'V~7+8~ ;2

A~~ V~/y <S;~f~c6-~Mc/<~ ?<' 7~<' ?/ //e

~c~'o~ r/'<?M ~7cc/ 7~<<
170.] Lot thé four sphères hc~,7~7~, and let the e!cctrincd point
hc 0. Draw four sphères ~i, 7~, 7~ of winch any one,
passes through 0 and cuts thrcc of thc sphères, in this case j9,
C, and at right angles, Draw six sphères (~), («c), (~~), (~c),
(~/), (c~), of which cnc)) passes throu~h 0 and through thé circle
of intcrseetioti of two of t,hc orig-inal sphcrcs.
T!]e threc sphères 7~, CI, 1)1 will intcrscct in another
point hesidc's
0. Lot this point be called A', and let 7~ C", and 7/ bc thé
intersections of Cj, J9j, of 7~~ .7~ and of 7~~ 6j re-
spectivcly. Any two of thcsc sj.hcrc's, 7~, \vi)l intcrscct onc of
the six (c~) in a point («'~J. T))crc will hc six such points.
Any one of thc sphcrcs, ~7~ will intcrscct threc of thc six (~),
(~r), (~) in a point < Thcrc will hc four such points. FinaHy,
thé six sphères (~), (<?~, (r<~), (~/), ~~), (~e), will intcrseet in one
point S.
If we no\v invert thc system with rcspef't to a sphère of radius
7)' and ccnti-c 0, thc four sphères 7~, C', wi )1 b(j invertcd into
sphères, aud thc other ten splieres will hecnmc planes. Of thé
points of intersection the first four 7~ C', 7/ will hccomc thé
centres of thé sphères, and thé othcrs will correspond to the othcr
e!even points in the precedin~ article. Thèse fiftecu points ibr)n
thé image of 0 in thé sy~ton of four sphères.
At thc point ~-f, \vhie]) is the image of 0 m thc sphère we
must place a ch:)rg\- pqna) to thé imag-e of that is, where a
rr
is thé radius of the sphère and « is thé distance of its centre
from Û. In the same way we must place tlie propcr charg-cs at
7~~ C', 7~.
Thé charges for eaeh of the othet- ch'ven points may be found from
thc expressions in the last artiete by substituting- c/, 5' for
a, /J, y, S, and multiplying- the resuit for each point by thé distance
of thé point frotn 6), \vhere
a {3 b
~=- «.,
~=-
P2
 212 J':LE<1')!)(; IMAGE!
['7'.

'S~6VM /t.SW<
171.] \Vhcn a spa~ is Loundt-d hy two sphcrica] surfaces which
do not inicrsect, tl.c suec-cssivc
Ima~s of :m innuencing- point.
Within Dus spacu fonn two infinitc .serinai! ofwilic.h lie L~yond
tl.t..sphcrica! surfais, and thcrdbi-e iulnt thc condition of t!tc
appl:ca))i!i<y oftitu mcHtod of\.)c(;trical imag-cs.
Any hvo iion-InicrsL.cLing. spiic.n.s may Le inverti intu two
conccntric sphère Ly nssu.nins- as 1! of
point i.ivc.-sion L.iUtur
ot thc two connnon I)tvc-rsc
pui)tts of ti)c pair uf sptiL-rcs.
sha!I b~In, thcrcfore, ~iiii thc case of two unin.stdatcd
co.tccntnc spiK.rica) surface, suLj~.t to Oie induction of an ck.c-
trjhcd point pl.tccd h<t\ucu t!)~n).
Lot thc radius of 1! first hc and that ofthc sc-cond and
let thc d)~(ancu oft)K!
inftucncing' point, h-om thé (jcutru hc =
Thcn all t!)~ succcsHivc
iniagcs will )jc un thc samc radius as t!~
mf!m;))cn)~- poin<.
Let ~S'. ''L- thc ima~c of in t)~ j,st sj.hci-G, that
of (), 'n O.c second .sphe. i),at
(), oi'7~ in <hc first ..pi.L.rc. and
Moon thcn

~=~
~.0~=~
atso <
also =
I. Ol'I !ic"w'=~
6'=~
°
~~i = '), ~c.
IIcncu 6' = ~cr)
6'~ = ~("+2.~)
If "'e chai-~(. of is d~notL'd hv
th.n
/~=. ~=~ I.
N<.xt, k.t Lu fhc ima~c of in thc.cond sphcr~ 7~ t]tat of
~i in tlie first, &c.,
~= 0/Y=
()/ = =
~/=~ r~/=~ J
7Y=/
Of i,nag.cs all t)~. ~i~, ~j the Q~, <;
th~
7 s and ~s hc)u, tu t)ic (i.-st sphcrc, and a!) thc ~'s and
to titu second.
 ~72.] ] TWO SPIIHKHS NHT INTJ~RSECTING. 213

Thé images withm the first sphcrc form a converging' serins, thé
sum ofwhich is

e~–1 1
This thereforc is t))L' qunntity nf cicctricity on the first cr u~erior
sphère. T))c images nu(,sidc thc Hecond 8]']]~rc fnrm a. divcr~'ir~
sc'r!(.'s, Lut thé suri'ace-intcg-ra! of cach with respect io thé sphcnca.t
sui'nK'c is zéro. Thé charge d' ck'eh-icity nu t,hc cxtcl'ior sphefica!
surface is tho'eforc

~(~)\~-)
))-
Ifwc suhstitute fnr tliesc expressions their values iu tcrms of
'9J, M, and 0~, wc tind
7~
charge on
~=-7~
<~ ~P
charge on =
P
Ifwc suppose the radii of'ttie sphères tn hccome infinite, thc case
bccomcs that ofa point placcd be'twecn two para)]c! p):m(.'s j~and J~.
In this case thèse expressions hceomc

t on
<= 7.
eharg-e

charg-u on = ·
–7~
172. J In ordu]' to pass from t])is case to that of any <-wo splieres
not mtcrsccting- cach
other, wc bcgm by
f!ndm~' thc two cnm-
mon inverse points
~throt~h ~-hiehnl)
circ~s pass that are
ortho~o~at to ))ût]t
sphères. Then, invcrt-
ing thc System with
respect to cithcr of
thcsc poitits~thL' sphères
Lccnmc cnnccntric, as
inthcnrstcasc.
Thc radins 0~7~ on which the successive images lie bccnmcs
un arc of a circle through 0 nnd (7, and thé ratio of 0~ to OP is
 ELECT):!C IMAGES.
[1~2.

cqual te Ce" where C is a numcrical wh.'eit for simp!iei<v

quantity
wc may mnkc equat to unity.
We tlrercibre put
~1
n = lo l?'71
s fl 10~r a.~l
.=~ f~l' U~l ,=. b ÛIl
Let /3-a=~, M-a=C.
Then ail the successive images ofV will lie on the
arc ~/7~~
Thé position of t!ie image of 7' in is Qo wherG

11(Qo)=log U' = 2a-u,

0 ~(~)='Og-~=2a-K.
T)iat of in 7~ is 7~ whcre

zc 0~* 1
(Pl) 1
~(~)= tc-t.-2 zr.
M+2o-.
!og~ =
Similarly
~(P.) = M+2~, M(~) = 2a-M-2.
In t!~ same way if thc successive
~)~ M/ o, images of~ in J? 7~ O~L.
&c.
arc Q~ 11 Qi ~c., J
~c(~(~,&c.,
( ~0') = 2 7<, M(7~/) = M 2
~(P/) = 7~-2~, M($/) = 2/3-~+2~.
Te find thé charge of any
image 7~ we observe that in thu
mvcrted ~urc tts charge is

~v~ (ll'
In the or.in:d figure we must
multiply this hy 0~ Hence the
charge of7', in thé dipolar figure is

C'7'.(/~
If~c makc ~==./0~ and ça!) the parameter of the
point P, then wc may write

< .t

or thc eha~e of any ima~. i.s

proportional to its parameter.
If we makc use of thc curviHncar coordinates M
and such that

e"+V~ = ~+~ 1
.~+\Y~+~'
thon _~sin~M14 ksinv
cos ?~ cos ~=–7–cos/'M–eos~v
 1~2.] TWU SPHERES NOT INTKUSECTING. 215

~+(y–~cott')~ = ~cosec~
(x + COt M)~+ = COSCC
.T -)-y–A. k-2 .r-t-y'}A. k~
cot v =
COt ) It-il==
C(jt~/<
2~ 2~-

~/cos il 1(,
~= \/COS M eos
COS¡;
<
Smcc thé cha.rg'c of cach imagée is prnportional to its para-meter,
and is to Le takcn positively or nc'g'~tivL'Iy accordi))~' us it is of
thc form or < we ûnd
.P~/cns/M–cos:) v
'/cos~(M+2~cr)–cos~ v
7~ Vcos M ces U

\~cos (2 a–K–2~~)- cos~

.y 7~cos/eos!' -i)
~/C06 (K 2 N-cr) –COS
v

T~cos A « –ces o
QI'
\~eos~(2/;i–?(+2~T3-)–cos~
Wc hâve now obtiuued thé positions and charges of thé two
infinite series of images. We ba.vc next to détermine the total
charge on the sphère by ~nding thé sum of~U thc ima.g'eswithin
it which are of tlie form Q or -Z- Wc may write this
~=" 1
-Pvcos~?<–cos~i v
Vcos~2~~)–cosu
~'=~ 1
–PVCOS/COS~ ~(.
In the samc way the total induced charge on is
m 1
Pvcos~cos~ ~]
VccsA(?<+2~~)–cosu
–7-7–
l
~'=c°
–-Pvcos/cos~ ~°
~o
\/cos~(2/3–?(+2Ncr)–eoa~
In thèse expressions we must rememher that
2 coa &u= c" + c' 2 sin /t M= (:<
fmd the other functions of ?are c)enved from these by t))û BMuo deOnitionf as thé
corrMponding trij~onometrica] fnnctmna.
Thu method of :i])plyi))g diput~r coorftina.tea to t))i.s CMe w~H ~iven by Thornson in
Zt'o)t)')'H<o./nt/)-))n<f")' 18~7. Sec Titutn-im/H rej)ri)it of7~cc<<-t'CM<
/~f')'f, § 2~ 1, 212.
lu thu tnxt 1 ))av<! mitde use of thu investigation of Prof. K~tti, A''tf)W C'twc~<u,
vot. xx, fur t)n! Mmtyticat )m;t)n'd, Lut 1 h~ve rutainud the idc;t of eicctricat iningea aa
used hy Thuutjion it: his ori~in:d investi~atio)), ~)' A~ 1853.
 t)1
KLKCT]:rc IMAGES, fr-~

1~ Wc. shal) app)y th..sc- n~]~ tn tt.e dct.crmi.~ti.m of <,h.

..ap.iy and i,uh,cti<.n cr <
cc<n<s sp)~.r.s ,v)~so radii are
and nnd the distance orwh. c..ntrcs is
In thi.s case

Æ' = ~~+~_+c'2~~r~
2<?'

.shi/.a= sit~3=

~~i~
potl'111ia iero.
TI.cn D.c cf-. cL.~c
im.~s placcd a< t)~ c.ntrc
or he sphcrc .succ~iv.
..) h. ihu.c of Du. ac< u..
di.t..ihuLion cf d~ri.it,.
A!) <.h. ,ma~ w.)) I,c .n t)~ axis f~v~ t)u. pnics~mc.
and tie
<'on<,r~onhusp))<.TOs.
T)K- values of~ and fo,. the contre
nfific sphci-c arc
le = 2 a, = o.

Ucncc wc mns< .substitut.. a or

sinlca j., y~ and
.=r)in th. étions.
r.Lcri~t)u.< ~iis.jffcrmsparf.ofth.
<a~ ..fj. thus find ror thc co.nicicnt
ofcapachycf~ ,l

~=
fJ,
=

"="
S)))~(.fTn-–a)

f.'r the œcfiicicnt ofin.hiction of on 7~ or of~ ou

~<=K }
~=- = 7>
"1 St!t/t~Ti ûT
and for thc eoc-flicient
of'capacity uf7i'
~<=t0 J
~==
'}I
/-S ~'="
sin~(/3+~~)
To ca!cu)atc O.ese
.juanU-tics in t.rms nf.nd ihc mJII ofihp
.~si~~e Lct~en their
~i thc ioHowfn~- cen~~ lls(!
qunntitics
J~ e = I
~~Vf~f- V.;¡ (12 +. ci
k
y
~=v?'+'
ou
-Il- =,i» = e-,7
= (v~ 1-j- k) ( VX: !)
-="–(~)
 174.] TWOELECTIMFIMD
SPHERES. 217
Wc may now \vritc thé hyperboHc sines in tcrms of~, ?' thus
~=~ 2~
!7.«. ~=n i

/)
~=~ 2/*
~=- ––r'
1.8
~<=~ 2~
~=
~j--

Proeceding- to the actua) cateulation wc find, ~U~e~' hy this

proccss or hy Ui~ dircet Cidt'utation of t!ic sticccssivc images as
sh~wn in Sir W. Thnmson's papL'r, \hich is more convcnient for
tl)(.' c'arlicr part. nftite scrics~
~t li «~sl~-
= + + ~+~) +~"
<~
'< r'I) ~(~.T~ ~) (t. ~~)
r~
= + + +~lf'C.
(~)(,
174.] Wc have then th~' FoUowlng cqnations to détermine thc
charges 7! atld 7~. oi' thc two sphères wheii ~ectri~cd to potentials
and rcspectively,
=~ ~'?..n
=~+~h. ·

If we put y, = 7~
=
7~=~~ /=– A;,=~

~cc = 7)', i

then the équations to dt'termine thé potentia)s in terms of thé

charges are 7.~ y,' 7~
=~7~+~.F~
nnd~ and~); :u'c thé coefUcients of potentia).
Thé totat encr~y ofthe system is, hy Art. 85~

~=~(~+~y,).
l= ~+2~~+~),
1( [~72 r V")
=
~(~'A.+2.+7~)
 218 ELEC'I'RIC IMAGES.
[i74.
The repnMon ).etwœn the spticrM if
thcKfme, by Arts. U2, '):

2.!j~
l ` ~l;: ~lc 1.
dc I
2r7 ~a` ')1' If' r}jJul.
1 rlc + 'u + fi''1.2rIpbI.
=~+~~+~ rlc rlc
where c is the distance bctwccn t)]c ccnh-~ of the
spires
Of thèse two expression, for thc repu)sion, ti~c first, which
expresses .t in terms of thc pctcntials of thé
sphcrcs and thc
variations of thé eoofRcicnts of
capacity and induction, is thc most
conventcnt for ca!cu!ation.
Wc have tlierefore to d.-ffcrcnti.ite t),e
~'s with .-cspeet to c.
Thcso quantities arc expressed as functions
of/ a,/3, a..d nnd
must bc d.frcrc.nt.atcd on thé
supposition that and are coûtant
i'rom thc équations

~-=~sn~a=&sin/~=<
singer
we<!ud ~a__6in~acos~/3
~siïi/cr --w--

~/3 cos~nsin//3
~c ~si)t~~
~TB- 1
7~
M eos/acos //j
~c sin~~
whcnce we find

cos/qcns//3y, ~=c.(~_a~s/~)cos~Tr-a)
~c singer ~=o
c(~n~r~p–
COS/! a COS /3 -=~ JCOS .VtT
Zr
y
~c sin~sr ~=1 1 (sinl~p'

a C08 //3
~t==e (.~-)- ces a) cos (/3 + cr)
~h COS
~c sin~~ k- ~="
c(sm~(/3-~))2––
Sir Wilham Thomson bas c~cu!ated thé
force betwcen two
of equal radius scj~r~d
chères of one by any distance less than t).e
diame~r of them. For greater di.~mc.s it is not
to use more thaï] two or thrce of thc successive nc.ccssarv
Tt.e series for thc dificrentia] coefHeicn~ of In)an.cs
the ~s with respect
to c are easily obt~ined by direct
diaere~tiation
t/5.] TWO SPHERES IN CONTACT. 219

2< 2~~(2e~)
(c2-<~ (e~+ac)2(~
i) ~~(3e~)
e2 e~(cs-

~~3
{(5eS~~)(~-a~)~~} ~c.,
+
~2 _2'_ ~~2 _2

~M,_ 2~c 2~~e(2ç3-2s~)

(~)2 (e.i ~).~)2 (~ a~ ~-)~

T~oM o/'j~Yec~ci'~ <?M

y~o ~~< Ci??<~c<.

175.~] If we suppose thé two sphères at potential unity and not

influenced by any other point) then, if we invert thé system with
respect to thé point of contact, we sha.11have two parallel planes,
distant a,nd from thé point of inversion, and electrified by
2ct 2
the action of a unit of electricity at that point.
There will bc a series of positive images, each equal to unity, at

distances + from the origin, where 8 may have any integcr

y (- -)
value from -oo to +00.
There will a!so be a. series of négative images each cqnal to 1,
the distances of which from thé origin, reckoned in thé direction of
1 ~1 1~ ·
~are~+.(~+~).
When this system is inverted hack again into thc form of thc
two spheres in contact, we have a eorresponding series of negative
images, the distances of which from thé point of contact are of the
form is positive for thé sphère and négative
/1 1\ wherc

for the sphere Thé charge of cach image, when the potential
of thc sphères is unity, is numcrica.Dy equal to its distance from the
point of contact, and is aiways négative.
There will atso he a séries of positive images whose distances
from the point of contact measured in tho direction of the centre
of a, are of the form ·
1 /l l\

When is zero, or a positive integer, the image is in the sphère

When is a. négative integer thé image is in thé sphère
 220
~ECTJ{ICJMAGES.
rrllcl
Thc.f.f.nr~ ~f, 11ï75.
~-i~
°~
'°"i. t~
? j J
:=:c 1
)– -~L -s"°-
8"

thcl11 in the £01'111

"r~

"n, J],
]5;, =
~==~ ~=-.1
'~+~
~+~
=
=~
"='{.<)-
fa.
l expres.ihlc
~-P~scd, ~r ~nco, ho~.vc,,
L

"=–~+~(~
=
~-Mt-~L.
~~+~ -f-b
cot.
~c
~lli-'
is ille or o~Iel,
.l~ -~f=~ ~nn.!U)!m~
-t==~
= 27(2~rn" 1)
=~{+&),
-2=).n..)~.
"n~osph~isv. n
HICcll:l1'gc
ch~c on o. co~I.cd
cc~mlr,lrccl.,<,h
wit,h the s ~1v

L Il ~~=_ ]
,C~=r.
~=! ~Ppl'oxtmatciy;
or
F~`=
j~==~
G G

"°~ or
eacli "ph<'l'e
h,y tlie surface, Zn this
wuy ~s·ebet, a the Z1~C
 ~77-] SPHERICAL HOWL. 22]

"l7r<r''2-i&' u

== =-
477~ 4~~
TI~
=

IIcncc, if a vcry small sphère is made to louent a vcry !:u'g-c onc,

t!tc mcan JensHy on thé small sphère is
cqual to tbat on the large
sphère multiplicd hy or l.C'id')3C.

~6'f7<'i!'OM ~A7<'C~ /C~~M /0 //<? M~<?0/ ~~C~Y/< .7~K'

176.] One of' thc most rcmar~ahic illustrations of the pnwcr of
Sir AV. Thoinson's mcLhod of Eleetrical Images is Furuished
by his
investigation of thc distribution of dectricity oa a portion of a
sphcrical surface bouudcd hy a small circle. Tttc i-csults of this
invcstig-ation, witl)out proof, wci-c commuQicatcd to M. LiouviHc
and publishcd in Ilis ,/OM~/<~in 18~7. Tiie complutc
Investig-~tion
is s-ivcn in the ruprint of Thomson-'s AYcc~e<~ Article XV.
1 am not aware that a. solution of the probicm of' the distribution
of etectricity on a noite portion of any curvcd surface lias bcen
givcn by any other matitcmatieian.
As 1 wisb to cxpiain thc method rather tbiui to
vcrify titu
calculation, 1 shal! not enter at Icog-tli Into cither thé ~-eomctry
or tlic intcg-ration, but refer my rcadt'rB to Thomson's work.

-0~M/ A7fc~t-'<7~(/~ ~M A7/o~

177.] It is shewn hy a \vcn-!(nown method* that the attractiou
of a shell boundcd hy two simDar and
simi):u'!y situated and
conccntt-ic clhpsoids is sueli that thcrc is no rcsuttant attraction
on any point within thc sbc]l. If wp
suppose thc tbickncss of
the sitcl! to ditninish indcfiuiteiy w!iHc its
dcns!ty incrcascs, wc
ultunaicly arrive at tbc conception of a surfacc-dcnsity varyin~-
as the pcrpcndicular from thc centi-c on thc tancent plane, nnd
smcc thc resuttant attraction of t))is snpurficia! distribution on
any
point witbin rbc ctiipsoid is xcro, c!cctricity, if so dish-ibutcd on
Utu surface, will bc in L~tuilibrium.
Hcnce, t!tc surfacc-dcnsity at any point of an cDipsoid nndis-
iurbcd by cxtcrnal inffucncc Yaries as the distance of tht.'
tangent
plane from thc conti-c.
Thom.sonand Tait HA'tt~ttY~
.tt7M~)/n/, § ~20, or Art. 150ofthis booh.
 ooo
222
EL.CCTIIIC
ELECTRIC JAtAGES.
[i78.
-Z~MM ~C~ CM
the ~1~
tt'c the
th~i~third vanish, we arrive equal, and .aki~
at thé c~c of a circulur
disk and an
expression for thc surface-den.ity at,
any point fsu~n-t
potential
~.t~d i~~d~d
~y o" one side
and if A7~Z be a cbord drawn of~d~
tlu.oug.h t!ic point then
a =
2~A~.PZ'

?/
FaL- any point () as the centre
~8.] of inversion, and let 7~
the radius of thé sphère of
inversion. Thcn thé plane of the
< bec~e. a .pherical surface
passing tiu-o~h and the 'd
~Ifbcc~e, a portion
of the shherieal surface Eounded by a de
o shaHcal) tins portion of the surface
thé
If S' is thé disk electrified to
putentia! and free from external
influence, then its electrical image S will be
spherical segment at
electrified by the influence
electricity hlaced at Q.
We have thercfore
hy thé process of inversion obtained
soltitioii of thé prob~n of thé tlie
distrihution of
bowl or a plane disk when under clectricity on a
tlie influence of an
point in the surface of the sphère or eleet~.d
plane prodnced.

p.~ e
~~<M/
Thé form of the
solution, as deduced by the prineiples
given and by the geometry of aJre.dv
inversion, is as follows
If' C is the centra!
point or pôle of thé sphericat
thé distance fron. C to bowl and
any point in thc e~e of the
then, if quantity q of
segment,
placed at a point Q in the
aur~e of thé sphère
produeed. and if thé bo.I is maintained
at potential zero, 11.
density at any point P of 11. bowl will be
<r=–JL.
2~ ~r~
and bein~ thé .tr.ight lines jcinin~ tl. points,
It i. t)~t this c-xp~si.n is
r~arkabicsurface of
of thc sphenca! iudcpendent cfthe radi.s
whieh t!œ is a Dnrt Tt ?t
appHc.LIe withouta.t~t. ?
f. u~ case fl~.f
 i8o.] SPHERICAL BOWL. 223

T~MM-e 0/ ~r~ J\~M~ ~C~~ ~0!M/.P.

Now let us consider thé sphère as divided into two parts, one of
whieh, the sphcrical segment on whieh we Itave determincd the
elcetric distribution, wc shall call thc ~OK' and thc other the
remaindcr, or unoecupied part of' the sphpre on which thc in-
f)uencing- point Q is p!accd.
Ifauy nurnbcr ofinuuencing points are placed on the remainder
of thé sphcrc, the cicctricity induced by thesc on
any point of thc
bo\I !D!)y be obtaim-d by the summation of t!)c dcnsitics induced
by each scparatcly.
179J Let the whole of thé rcmaining surface of the sphère
bc unifonuly clpctrificd, thc suriacc-density being p, then thé
density at any point of thc bowl may bc obtained by ordinary
intégration ovcr tlie suriace thus electrified.
We shaiï thus obtain thé solution of thc case in which thé bowl
is at potentia! zero, aud c'tectrined by thc influence of thé
remaining
portion of thé sphci-ical surface rigidly electrified with density p.
Now let the who!c systetu be insulated and placed within a
8p!icre of diametcr/; and let this sphère be uniformly and rigidly
electriftcd so that its sarfacc-density is
There will be no résultant force within this sphère, and therefore
thé distribution of eicctricity on thé bowl will be unaltcred, but
the potential of all points witliin the
sphère will be inereased by
a quantity w!)L'r<'
If =

Hence tlie potential at evcry point of thc bowl will no\v be

Now Ict us suppose tliat this sphère is conccntric with the
sphère
of which thé bo\v! iorms a part, and that its radius excccds tliat
ofthe lattcr sphère by an infinitely stna!)
quantity.
We liave now the case of thé bowl maintained at
potential ~and
innneneed by thé re;naind(.-r of the sphère
ri~idiy dectrified with
superficial density p + p'.
180.] We have now only ~o suppose p+p'= 0, and wc ~et thé
case of thé bowl maintained at potentiat and free from externat
inftueneG.
If a is the density on either surface of the bowt at a
given point
when thc bowt is at potential zero, and is inuuenced bv thé rest
of thé sphère eicctrined to
density p, then, whcn t!ie bowl is tnain-
tained at potentiat F, wc must increase tlie
density- on thé outsidc
of thé bowl by p', the density on thc
supposed enveloping sphère.
 224
HLECTJftcIMAGES,
r~j
The rcsult ofthis
iuvcstication <h.~
t.he sphere,
sphère, a.thcchord
the eliord of of
of the
tf radins of
o the ho«.1,? and?' the
~7- chorcl
thc pole of the
bowl, tlicii tlie surlitee-
density cr on the in.si~lo of the lJO\1 is
l.
m- 2-(Il2 -tan-~ -wa~u2
"=~v{V~
of
poillt is r
cr +
~~u~
To compile -n~
~on]yrcr,uu~h te ~1 surf.
?, ~~<ou of a ~horica! Lo~.)
1811 ? ~7 the
181.] Let it ~T?~ ~1 surfaces.
an3· point of the Low1 b3· a ~y ~1 at
C111,llltlt. of elcctricity· p]ace(1 at a
Invcrt hroclucecl.
t
iiivl-rsion hcing fi, The
bowl S will he invertccl into its
and <~ P.in~111 imnge S',
h. "r
dctcrnn'nG thé- ~nsitv chan' now to
7- at
po~ti.)
1>otcntir~l 1", sueh that '1. -1"li', and is not influcncecl
externa! f.rc.. I>y ~y
''Y any
Thc d~ity ..t th. 7~fth~
,r--

~y.r of

TheK.u)tofthi<,),mt,.M,,Mf.w.~
I~<: <hc n~nre r~prc.sGt~t a
section
~<thL.cpnt,.c,<9,f,fthc~~rc
thc pote, ,,f t].c Low!, and thc in-
"ncn~ point; is ~j~~
eorrc.sponds hi thc invcrtcd
~i"ch to U)c
~-n'-c unoccupied po)(. of thc
r'm
oft''cLow!,andmayhefound
~y t)ic' fo!)ow)))g- construction.
Dra~- tin-ou~t the ettords
~Dd 7-7. t)~ jf the
r.ns nf t)ic sphcn. of inversion
to
Le a mc-an proportint.ni
~.n~ ijetw~c-n thc
..t. ~T.'] 1
i8i.] SPJIERICAL BOWL. 225

imnge of A~. Bisect thé arc J~CA" in D', so that F~=~ and
draw j~~j~ to mc<jt thé sptiere in j~ is thé puint requircd.
A!so tiu-oug-h 0, the centre ci' the sphère, and
Q drnw 7/C'QR'
mecti))~ thé sphère m 77 tuid Then if be ~ny pomt in the
bowl, the sut-face-dcnsity at on t)iu side which is sepamtcd from
<2 by thé eompktcd spherical sm'racc, Induced by a qutintity of
electricity at will be
y ~7/r~ c~ ~'tan-1 tr~/c~
2~
~llll'.1' i~~ir~~
~~Q~«~=G~l~ L7~)
[I~(~G1'~=~ Jr
3J}
whcrc dénotes Die chord drawn rrom C', the
puic of t.Iie bow),
to the rim of thé buw).
On tht; side uext tu thé sm'fiK'e-denslty is

_y_ Q/Q7r
'271~/7/

voi..r. q
 CHAPTER XII.

U. C0~.r,

of ~-S.1~
L.ledri('al C(1uililJl'il1rnltas lu·ert
cases iu w}¡ich the
sulved is \'L'I'Ysll1aI1. The 1'1'01Jl<!ffi
.ri..I h~ rnethocl
-'I the metltod,
aml ~cthods of' T' ;th.d
orclc.tri~
eleetricml il1l:lg'e:-)
in. 1and of
,f lIlVCt'S1U11
Po~rfu) in t),<. cases tu ~.hich uru iitiJI11Iure
t~ catt Jll' ~'1~ T'
s..r~<s
S11l'¡¡I(~eso.<-
f' the
~d Heeonc! cle~hrccis -c .f
d<L. the oll~- onc, as f;w as r
in which know,
L~h th.u.p.~ and the
known the H.f.~

~i!r~r~
electrical tJ1l' thcory of
CC1llililJl'iull1)and in that of
the contllletion of ctrrrents,
~:1::r" spal'e of two dimensions
< if oilly.
< ~u~ ..d.
ûf' all t.lt(! eoil(Illetor8 are
ycuerutucl by '~<-I~.
the motion of,
I.ara!ic] <o t)~ a.is oi- .J f straight 's lines
c~
ceases tu Leb. thé
the axis
case is so fil!' f'roll1 ~s
.f t hu
elc~carieal lrtrt, consiclerecl tlrut. the
c- nctimu uf'<i. the cliotartt \rjpart un the tidd
then the dec.tn.itv will fiel(] 1I1ay
ill;iy IJl'
be llcgleetl'd,
u.if; )"
~ti~iinc, a.d 1~ eonsid "L
f
plancs pc-rpendi. to
Potcnti~ and the d.trih.tion '~y~"
of ~city~jU
,t.. ,r t,c hujetions of.
and~onfy.
If p dcnntcs thc <~u:)nti<.v
~e isi.
base nf.-L~ < :ut ~te1cment wl. wltose
.L,~ Url~~
Uf ;lI'c;l whosL.
~S'ItOSIhase. ~~<t
is is t)K. till. Hn~.
lillear dement r!s ana
lwight llllity, th.. tlll'Il
or~

0.
~+~+~~=
 ~3.] PROBLEMS
IN TWODIMENSIONS. 227
Whcn thcrc is no free électricité this in redueed to the equation
ofLaptacc, ~j~
M.6" )* y t/
~)'
Thc g-encrat probicm of eicctric cquilibrium
may be stated as
fb!Io\s
A continuous space of two dimensions, boundcd
by cLscd curves
C~ ~c. bcin~ ~Ivct), tu ~Ind thu form ut' :t futiction, f, Huch that
:t.t DtL's~ boundarics its vah]e may bc &c. respccti\-c]y, being-
co!ist.:uit f'~r cao)) boundary, :uid tbat u'itbiu ihis space
m:),v L<j
t;vci-yw]tcrc inntc, contiunous, und sin~tc vatued, and may stttisiy
jLap):K;c''s équation.
1 am not awarc tftat any peri'ccHy ~eno'ul solution of even this
question bas bcun ~-ivc'n, but thu nK-t])od of transformation ~iven ni
At'L DU is appHcabic' tu this case, and is much more
powci'fui th:m
any knu~n jncthod apphcaHc to t))rcc dhmjusiouH.
T!m inL'Htod dcpL-itds on Du.- pi-opcrtiL's of conjugatu functions of
<wo variabtcs.

~C/M (/' G'<' ~'K/<

183.J T\vo quantitics a and /j arc said to Le conjugatc hmctious

oi' and ~y,if a + 1 /3 iH a function of.t' +
It ioUows from t)iis ddinition that
~f< ~/3 ~a ~/3
,-= and --+-=0; 0 Ci)
1
~c rl~ and + rl.r
~.f
~aa ~a ~/3 =
+ 0( )
=
IIcncc both funetions satis~ A!HO
Lap)ace's équation.
~a f/~ ~n f/~ ~/j
~a ~a 7
-1- (3)
+ +
If.c and arc rcctang-utar coordinatcs, and if i:, thé intereept
of thc curvc (/3 = constant) bctwccn thé curvcs a and
a+~a, und
thc i)itcrccpt of a hetwcn the uurves /3 and then
+~,
~.<t )
~a 7t' 1 ( 1)
(~
und fin; eurves intcrsœt at rig-ht ang-Ics.
Ifwc suppose tht- potcntia) /'=/t-a, whcre is some con-
st)U)t, Utoi wil) satisiy Lapiaœ's cquation, and thé curvcs (a) will
bu cquipotcntiat curvcs. TI)c f-urves
(/3) will be lines of force, and
Q2
 228
CONJtJGATM ONCTIONS.
f-jg.

tJ.o.rf.e.i,.t.f,, .f. u.h.j. .nth.ph~.f

v.uuLh 7T~u) ut tin' ~xtrem)tt<js ot thc curvc.
u of .oudin~ <o va!.a.s nf- in arit!unctic.!
If d~n on < h. ,.h.
P < scr,c.s
to es..on<,i values
of~ .yi~. thc .nn.n.non
thé di~.n.c U.~
..i,j
t~nc..F
small
~th u "r"r'r'
~)L))t)K. phmu 's
i. <Hn. d)Vi(k-dwi))beu)~iin:)(L-)v!.ft)~ )

u.tud~ b.i.~ inv,j, j,j.,rtiu,ud to

<l.i!nt
Iit.orn~rc.,rt).. ~ui,,o<cn<I.! fines (.)~cl~d .rvcs
-c.Ios.u~ c.ntuu.ou.s sp. b.tw.cn th.,n,
ihc .urfa.cs ~.y ,c t c.
.ond~rs at potcntfats
Jhc (/.+/)\
'~ct. <p.u.t.ty of <.)ccincity upon any onc oi't)~.
Lctwccn t)K. lines or fur~
/3, and /3, will h. (~
Thc number of
.-q.n-pot.ntia! )in.s b.~J. tw./c'onduc.to.-s ~iH
d.<-
.d. of
will
V 77~ if.
<iuant]tyuit.t,.(.trt(.)tyu})()n
must state some "<' n.os< i,npo..tan<. th.o~s
In ~vin,. th.~
?h -ion.d <-hc diOcrcntiaI or
-< o.u.d
< co~i~
d.(.ut,on, ..hi.h .“).. us. ufin.n.ry
sy~).).

'T~'T~ ~<<-M
J~' lu .c rrirrl.
rc.,yrcl M..
llrir Ilr:rrrrCllurl.~ ,y~+~
,"v +;v urttl J -l-J" rvill

J~r
'or
= 1
an(
~y ~<'

th~rcturc- < + ~(./ +.)

Also
Atsu
:'nd =

tlicrcibrc (-~ + ~") </ (. .~)

01-.c +~ and ~+~ arc. conju~te with rcspuct to and

 185.] ÛIfAPHK' METHOD. 229

~<; 7t'<M'.M/<.f~/< (V' 7'C/~M 7~C~ /~C <S'~W. 7~

~7r~(;t.
Let a function (a) 0!' A' and be R-ra))1ncany reprcsentcd hy a
séries ofeurvcs in t,1<c plane of~ eac)iof thèse curvescorre-
spnndin~- to a value of a \vhich he~ongs to :). séries of such values
increasing-hyacomtnondino-ence~ë.
Lot any ot))cr function, of.p and hc rL'prf'sented in tl)c samu
way by a series nf cnrvcs con't'spnndin~- <n a scrics of values or /3
ha.vin~' thc sa)ne common difiurc'ncc as ihosc ofa.
Then <n n'prpscnt iltc function a+~ in thc samu
way~ wcmust
draw a series of' curies throu~'h <he intcrspctions of' thc two rormer
series from thc intersection nf thé eurves (a) and (,3) to that of' the
(nn'vcs (a-{-S) an() (,3–8), thcn throug~h thé intersection of (a+28)
and (/3–28), and so on. At. oae!i of thèse points t1)e function will
hâve thé same vaiue, nameiy a+/3. Thé next eurve must Le dra\vn
t!n-nu~)i H)e points of intersection of u and ~+8, of a+8 and /3,
of K+28 aud /3–8, and so on. Thé function ~einn~'in~ to this
eurve will be a+/3+o.
In thisway,\vhen thé séries ofcut-ves (a) and thé séries (/) arc
drawn, the séries (a+/3) inay he const.mcted. Titcse thrce series of
curves may hc drawn on spparate pièces of transparent paper, and
\vhcn t))c first and second )ia,vc bc(;n propcrjy superposed, the third
may he drawn.
Thé combinat ion ofeonju~te funetions hy addition in thisway
cnahles us to draw Heures of many intercst.in~ cases with very
little trouole whcn wc )<now how to draw thc simpicr cases of
whieh they are eompoundcd. We Lave, however, a far more
powerfut method of transformation of' solutions~ depending- on t)io
fo!!o\ving' thcorem.

185.] TuKOŒAr II. .T" f~A' /? 7r/

?~cr/ /~f. r~ .r' ~f/ ~H</y c~c
,r/OH.s' ?/ /-<<< .v /?? 76' <}eCOM-
~<7 ·
./H~/f ~o~.v ~'y7~ /6'c~/ /o y.
~.7~ r//
1'01' = +
rl.r 7/.?'~+7y~' r1~ cl.r.
~<

~7'
 CONJUGATE FUNCTION.S.
f-jgq
IJ'7" 1"11 i
and ~.=
<v
== 1 1 dl:'

and these are the conditions that ,1~"

and :1/' should bc -i.~ conjlyratc
~rj;~r"
This n~ay also Le sh~-n frnm th.
original clefinition ofcon,-u~
funct,ons_ For ~+ i,
i f.i.n of ~+
+- 1 .s a t
.f Y.
~-1 y fun~n II, c"+
isa.funchonof~-+~]~
fu, same may that are ~)"
-"i'e func~-o.s
and ,y'.
Tliis theorem may he
in~rrrctcd ~raphieaUy as fo))o~vs
Let y be tnk.n as rcctan~)ar coorclinntes, andlct, the curve.
con.e.cn
series bc dra~n o. A d..)~. sy~
p.j, .r ,r~ .ij) O.u. 1)(--
drawn ~n~ ti. p. i~. iit<.<- Lct <hc p.p. rtlso
ruMw~ horizontal ..dv.a) lines .t. j Jet
these lines be n~cd .J.~
wi~ th.p.n.h- v.h.cs ~d
Ncxt, Jet anothcr pic. o{- pnp. ).. h~ which a~dyarc
made rcc~n~uhu. c.o,-dina<es and a douh).
sy.stcm of curv..
~drnwn caeh eurv. hcn~ n~r~.d~it).
c.rr~ndin~Ya)ue
~.Yr,. T)us ~t~ of ~rvitin~ <~rdinat<-s Jj., .p.n~
point for point, to thc ~.tDin.ar .sy.s<n .fconrdin.ics on t~
nrstptccenfpajx'
IIc.i.ce, if ~e f, any numhci- of pnints on thc cnn-c
~st papcr, and nr~ t).. vahu. of .r~ on the
and at ~hcs, points, and
~.rkhc corrcspo.d. p. ~t
a numhcr 0~
po.nts on thc transfornu-d <m-vc Jf ,1,, the
same for all th.
s.cond p.pcr douh).i~ r-fcnrvcs ofa din~nt
but r.nn
same of P-1thc papcr into I.-ttle
squares.
 l86.J THEOIŒMS. 231

186.] TjfRonH~rIII. F /.<~?~y~M< a/ ~M~y',

~?/ ~/Y'fw~/y~/c/)/Mc/ ry' ;?' ~M</ /M
r/~r ~V~
+ ~r. +
(~~ ~) =~/ ~)
Ilie ~M ~C/~</ ~f/C~M the MW<?//W;7.S'.

Fnr r/r_r~
= ~w/ 3
~c </y'<;

~Z~'Y ~~7_ ~?
< ~.7
~7~ ~r~'y
f/

~7.P' < r/
nnd ~r
__=- _L~
-1- j- ~r~
r/< "t' ~y~
~7' <
~s'
Addin~ thc last <wn cqu:tti')ns~ and rcmcmbei'Inp' the conditions
nfcf))iju~ttGfunc<io))8(I),wci)!)d

r r ~/r ~/t'
~y
rl.r~ rly~ rl.r ~rrl,r r/y!
rÎJ r!J rl;r ~j
rlJ
r
r'~
~<-
II~nf'c

/Y~r rl 1 rl lr rl rl.t' ~l j rl,e' rl

0( /.v =~(~
¡. + ~) (~ ~)~~

r/~r lr
~~+~)~
If /'is a potoitin)~ then, hy Potsson's équation
~r
-0 y
~+~-+4~=0,
and we mny write thc rcsutt
J

~p~=~
or thc qnnntity of t'~cctrifity in corrcspondin~' portions of two
systt'ms is the s:)mo if thé coDi'dinatcs of one system are co])jug'atc
l'iiiietiolis of thosf of' thu otiier.
 2~2
CO~JUGATE rUNCTIO~s.
Fjg

~;< M.

~J=~.
x = nnd J~ ==
~~7 .f''oill le
For ~+ ~~j~ (. yr-
T~OR.~ V.

+ =

aii(l
~~?/ if 2Pi, = °
27i'=]os- and
)~ 0 = tan-i

e ~.7/

For 7~ .nd 0 are «onju~tc onctions of and

arc conjugal functions cf. and

EXAAn.LE I.
v As an examl'le of' thc
,~ener.zl method of trwsformation
of invcrsion ir tv-o dimenyions.

tf a M
~?~ = 01' = aeP, anci D direction, and
fl0p, and if a~, ire thc -~r
coordinntes rectan~ular
.f~
p = 100'~Jæ2 + 0 = tan-Il!
~=Iog~+.~ 0=tan-
~=~cos~, 0,
and 0 are c<mju~te y=~ 0, ]
functions cf~ and y
If p' = ~rpand ()'
~rB,p' and B' will he
and 0, ~~i:l-~ conjl1gatc flin-etions of p
we have

~=~, r ) ~=-< o,
which (c»
of ordinary with turning the
figure 1800 round OA.

7MW.M)t
M,. 7-,M A'Km~M.,
I. this case ,f
corresponding
 I89,J ELECTRIC IMAGES IN TWO DIMENSIONS. 233

points from 0, e and thé total electrification of a body, <S'and6"

superficie ficm~nts, ~nd F' aniid t']pmcnts, o- and o-' snrfhce-
densitics, p' :md volume densities, and f// corresponding po-
tentiels~

(~)

EXAMPLE II.X7('e/)'<' ~/<y~ !'M 7'f 73/M~s'.

189.] Let A be thc centre of circlc of radius ~Q = b, and let

))c a charge at then thé potential
ai any point P is

and if thc circlc is a section of a hnDow

condneting- cylindcr, the surfacc-density
I;
at any pomt (~ !sis ·
2~~
Invert thé System with respect tn a point 0, makin~
0 = w. and ~s == (~2
éi
thcu wc hâve a charge at equal to that a.t whcrc =
w
Thedensityat~is

~TT~' F~
and thé potcntial at any point P' within thé circlc is

~)
This is équivalent to a combination of a charge at A', and a
charge –~at0~ which is thc image of A', with respect to thé
cu-dc. Thc imnginary charge at 0 is equal and opposite to that
nt.
If the point jP' is dcfinpd by its polar coordinates referred to t!ic
centre of thc circi~ and if we put

then (10)
 234 CONJUfiATH1 PL~CTfONS.
~90.
~dth~potcntialattht-point (p,C)is
< = A' b~. (< c- cns -+ ~P)

-L-(~2~~c-ns~+e~)+2/n ftU
Thisis
t.h.pnl.-ntiatatt),.
atth. P"in'-(~~du.-t.a.).ar~p)aeod
p.,nt “), ~ith thc conditi. t)..t w)~n o.
<, /='
Jnth,s<.as.pand~.rc
th.~j~ fun~nsin
..s ti. .f <).i..f t! radi.s voetoi-
,<tio,.s'(.).
v.otor of'
of ;tp..n I)oint Io
thcn~msnf )~. h,n
t)'"(-n-and6'i!,nn:)n<rt~
Thé .rc is t)~. c.]y
sh~.nj.r poin~in t!u-.ssyst.n, <.fr.dina<cs.
.n.I the Hn.-int~1
.f- ,),~
..c..rdin~ n.s thc cl<.s..d curvo cxclude.s or incfudcs U~.
conLrc.

Ex.un-L! m.y~
1~] N~ ].< ..nd /3 )..anyc~;u~ n,iinns of. ,nd
sud. t!.at th. c.u.ve.s (a) arc
c,u;ot..ti.I .rv<s, and O.c .urv'~
ar. lines .f fore.. due h, ..y.
~urnt..( ,j~
the~i,~ an<[ ..n.)c<-<nfi..d .ystcm disj~edm ~~y
mannor.-t<a<.c.riaindi.sh.n<.c.f)-cm<hur,i..in
L.<us.p)~~h.< ~h.
,vhid~h.p~n<I;s~i.
.<).
~.i"]nt<;)tnK-or)~)n].cswit.])int))is<.u)-v~.
~nth.~rv~(~L,hv~ntnscurv.andttu.nr;~nv~]he
r~scd cnrv.s surroundin~- thé <,ri~in, .nd all
th. curv.s (a) will
.nth.ri~n,andwin c..tth.cu,(.) ortho~naUy
~c ofanyp.int.fh.n t. r.urvc (~) will bc d.-tcrm-
.ned Ly~rdu.s
th. vn u.s <,< and at t)..t. p.Int, ..j ,(.1)..
'nd p.int (,v.)s
.( the cur~s in th<- p.sitivc
din.ction, t).. value ..f
Wti) )m-n'ase hy 27r for caL-h
comph.te circuit,
]r now suppnsc th. <-urve t. bc thc.
(.,) s~ti.n nf t!,c inn.r
.u.-r~ o) a h.))<.v
,y)i,.d..r «f ..y r. ~aintai,<) at
zero ].,t.<;a)
undcr i),. u.O.u.nc. o<- i
char~ .f]in..ar d.nsK. on a lin..f
tlie thc origiu i. i, thé
the prn,c.t,< t Ilt'n we ~ay
l~rl;jec'tirm, <)“ ll'a\'c thé
Icavc
n1113~ the ~.rnat
('xl{'mal
~hK-h
c.)<.<.fr~.d o~n
sy.s<<.n ou< .f<-nnsidcrati.n, and wchave for t!K. potcntia!
:t.t.anypo)nt((t)withit)thcenrvc
~=27~), .j~
and for the ot' electricity-
q.ant.ty nny part .f the cm-ve ail
bc-twecn the pomts corrcspnndin~-
tn a)td /3.
~=2A'(/3,).
*!St~('r<))rs./o,j~)~~]
 i90.]] XEUMA.NN'S TRANSFOKMA'rrOX. 235

If in this way, or in any other, \e !~)vc dctcrmined t!)c dis-

tribution ofpotcnt.Ia) for thc case of' a s~Ivcn curvc of' section whcn
thc charge is p!.)Cfd at a ~ivcn poijit titkcn as nri~-in~ wc may pass
to thc case in which tl)e ph:u'~c is phtccd at any other point by an
application ofthc ~encrai mcthnd oftransformfdion.
Let thc v~UL's of a :)n(! for thc point :tt which the chfn'c is
placcd bc n, and /3j, Ihen substituting- in équation (H) ft–an for
:)nd /3–/3; tnr 0, wc ~md for t])c potcntial at any point \vhosc co-
nrdinatcs arc a and /3,
= 7~!o~- (]-2~cos(/3-/3,)-t-)

A' !o~ () -2~ 'o cns (/3-/3j) -(- <))+ 2 ~'(H) a,,). () -J)
T!)is ('Kprcssion for ~hc potcntial ht'comcs xcro whcn a=a~, and is
t!nitc and continuons '.vithin thé cm've a" cxccpt at thc point f:),
at \vhich point thc' fh'st term hccomes infhiiic, and in its immédiate
m'i~hLourhond is tutima<c!y cqua! to 27~']o~ \vhcrc is thé
distance from that point..
AVc hâve ~hcrcforc ohtaincd thc mcans nf dcdncing' thé snhition
<'f0rccn's prnhtt'm for a c))ar~'c :)t any point \viuun a closcd cnrve
w))cn thc sohttinn for a charnu at any other point is knnwn.
Thc char~'c indnccd upon an ch'mcnt of thé curvc a,, hctwccn the
points /3 and /3 +~/3 hy a ctmr~'c p)accd at thc point a, is
A' ]–~(~-M,,) r~
2 r 1r- .u 2~
27r (l:ï)
cu,(r3-/jl)-t-L'·lral--nU)
eus (~jy+7~"i- r~IJ.
From this expression \e may find thc poh'ntia! at any point
n,/3, \ithin <hc cL)sed <'urvt', when Dx'vainc of' tho potcntia! at
cvcry point nf thc' <oscd f'm'vc is ~'ivcn as a function of /3, and
thcrc is YtO(dt'ctt'incation within thc c)oscd curvc.
For, by Thcorcm JI of Chap. III, thc part of thc potcntia) ut
al /3j, duc to <hc maintenance of thc portion ofthe closcd cnrve
at thc potcntnd is ?/ wht'rc is thc charge induced on by
nnit of cicctrification at nj/3,. IIcncc, if is <hc potcntial :)t :).
point on thc (dosed curvc dcfmcd as a function of and </)thc
potcntial at thc p~int a, /?, withm thc c)oscd (.'urvc, thcrc bcii)~' no
c)cct)'ifieat.ion\vit)nn thc curvc,
i r-~
(i-)r~
(~~ (tE~)
7r ) 2 c~) cos (,'3-) + e2(~
 23f!
cONJt~TH FirNCTJOX.
r~
Ex.
y, 75ilJe r~ rc
<y~
If)!,] In tim case of an infinite
with to plane filC't'of a ~onc1uetol'
tll(-- char~ed
a distanc.~ surftcc-density cr"~ w~lind for tll(-- I"ia!
f,.cm the p].n, hutential

= 77

Assume a straight itFelf.

linu in 11lr -1-s a polar axis, -<'
and transfill'm
into
~L. ..J"
=
~Psin~,
at)ft
M'eq))f)t)titynr~j,j~, a
.y, 1)1.eatitli
't..
'I~
= n-~< <
Nnw )(.t us m:)~~
n = j tlmn, "ince
c;ince p' ancl
an(1 0'
U' are
arc·
"on.j~.t.
to te p .nd
and 0, the
.<. ~u~~
eclnations
e'-),
~t~icl
~=~

If we \l'it!
"r'°'t, for rrep'~ o will lie 1,1)(>clistancu from
~1; the axis, and

~W r~~ g111 ilOs

~s,

~=fT,,

~W]nhc('qnn!toC'\vhpnc\ 7j 01'n multiple of 7j,

the inclination
-t- of <c'cetnc
lhat when ~=27r-c Ihp nm-~ so
the face
that must
«'e mu.st tllerefm'c
~cref.rc malce

~(~=~, ~_J~
27r-a'
_n
~t

\G'
'=~0" Z r ll
ïr

~=.(~.
Th.
suHhcG-d.nsity
'7 n=r
(T ==

~27T-Q~~)
 i92.] ELLIPSES AND HYPERHO LA S. 237

Whcn thé angle is a salient one a is !css th:m 7r, and Uie surface-
density varies aceordin~' to sonic inverse powcr of the distance
from the ftlg' so that ut the cd~'u itR~if t!)c density becomcs
infinite, :il<hou~'h thc whoïc ch:n'c rc'ekonL'd froin the (;dg'c to any
~iuitc distance i'rotn it is always UnitL'.
Thus, w)tcn a=0 thc cJgn is iniinitL'Iy sharp, )ikc thé cd~'c of a
mathetnaticat p!anc. In this case thc doisity vnrius inverscty as
thc s(~uare roc~ of the distaneu from t!)c cd~'c.

AVitun a== the c'dgc iH lit~o th:Lt «t'au cquiiatcrat prisjn, aud thu

dcnsity varies iuvcrscly as the po\vfr of the distance.

Whcna==- thec'd~'('isari~'h<u)~'I(. and tin'dcnsity is in-

vcrscty as thc cuberont ni'thc" distance.

~Vhen a== thc <*d~'eis Hkc t)t:).t ot'a reculai' hexagonal pristn,
2 Tf
ttnd thc dunsity is invcrscly as thc iburth root of thc distance.
\Vhcn a == 77thc ud~L*is oblitcmtcd~ and tin' dcusity is constant.
Whun a= 77ti)c ud~'u is likc that in thu inside ot' thc hexa~'onat
pnHH)~ and thc dcusity is ~<'c'< as thc st~uare root of thc distancL*
froHYthc' cd~u.
~V!)Cti a={! TTthu cd~'c is a n'-entrant rig'ht ang'I~, and t)K' deiisity
is dircctiy as tLc distance front t)i<j cdgc.
W!)cn a=,?; 7T thu cd~c is :t rc-(.'ntrat~ an~u of' U0°, and thc
dfnsity is dircctty as thc square oi'thc distance froin thu edg'c'.
In rL'ality, in n!l cases in which t)n; dcnsity bceomes infinité at
any point, thcro is a dischargc < cicctricity into the dictuctric at
that point, us is explaincd in Art. 55.

EXA.UPLE V.–7~A'6'6' </M<//«AtA'. Fig'. X.

1!)2.] AVc-havf- seen that if'
= cos yj = sin~, (! )

;c and will t'f conju~'atc functions of </)and

A)so~if ;i\='cos\p, ~==–sin~, (2)

and will bc conjugatc functions. IIencc~ if
2~=;~+~=(~+6-)(-<)s~, 2jy=~)+~=(~6')sin (3)
and y \i!! a.)st) bc conjug'atc iunctiutts <jf and
In this case t)ic points for whic)i (~ is constant !ic in thé cHipsc
whose axes are ~+f-~ und ~–<
 2*~8
<ÛXJL~TE FffNL'TJf~s.
r
rn)
th~rn~ J1~ 1'.
Tiie points 1~)r whi('!J t~, i, coustunt liu il! the
hyperlJo]a wlu)~e
~t~ t~i.
o.r

n0.. '~=~
t. ,,t )
C
h.
.r > 1, til u, y lng (,1'-I- ~n~ 1),
< 1, (;j)
(,,
1/1= 71",
7F, ~~f.),
=
(1) log ( ,¡- .) .r),
tve Ilavr the ease (JI' and 1/1t hl' llm.tion of
-i~~ /11)\
l'ledri('i(y lIu\in, l'rom thu
the .t,t.,t,
!d.f ,i. 111'gati\'1' tu tIll'
-1 mul -f- .h. the lr,trt, of illc axis
+i,1, 'h~
IJl'}IJJIlI tllu": limits J~'i~
"")-t,<h" JeiIlg'

it. ulao imlmrviuu, wu lI1a}' :;ul'pose

fo
l'!t'I't l'il'ity,
'T~
).r~.t?'r'
1·rc·:oltli 2, c.lmyucl \l'it li
I¡alf ,1 1l1lit
'?'' of l'JI'l'Í)'iC'ity
r'
H'mth, ,h.t~f,(,H.,jr.. "f~t), l>r Illllt (If Il'ngth.
~i .r.L,
bJ'(~:ldth
~.h~h. `? lms 1)('('11 ( 'lIt a.t,i,f
.t, away' tilt' plane uu um~ sicle <:hu!'g'ed tu
.L.i~
~x"
.<
sUrf¿IL'PStruatecl of' ill
Clwpt(, X. '?r' '1'/)(, f01'lIls n1' tlm
~.i..Fi.X. ~n~an. CI!l'L' art'

~XA.\)I'L).;
VI.–i.'j. ~J
'<f. «'hcru
.eV.~ ./=~

~i~~ ut'y and I/J.

!'es/,eet tu tllcsu Ill' ('onrdinat.es uru Fig, X with
~J~~ gi\'ell in l~i~. l1.
mio of'.r~ in thc· Iirst
~r" /¡gUl'l' will lrcluy to a sel'ies .r
nf' liuus paralIL'J
~"r:" :?' ~J'- "i..
Htt.L.r..y-<77. \))crc //).s;mv
'J'i't'j)~itiv(.va)u~s nf.< ); tOl'I'esl'°ud to \dUl'S
~1~°
"-=-.
")=~(,j
 f95-] 0~ .\X ËLËCTIfIFIED PLATE. 23~

Thc ne~tivc values of .p' on thu same lines \vi)l

eorrt'spnnd to
vaincu ot' Ics.s t!)an unity, for \vin<)i, as wc havu ~'t'n,
.t-'
~=o, ~/=(..os '.<;== ces '< (8)
Thc propcrtics ofthc axis ofy in t))n tirst. \iII
ii~m-c hcdon~ h)
a séries oflinc-s in th<-second ii~-urcpandic! forwhic)!
to.
/=~7r(~+.~). ). (.))
Ti~ va)uo of a]<)[)~-t)icsu Ii)i(..s i.s = 77 (~-j- for al) points
))ot)i positive aud m.utivc, and
= ~~(~+ ~/r +1 ) = t< + V~ +1/ (i")
H)4.] H' wc cojisid~r as t)ir potc'ntiai function, an(t as Lhe
functionof i!ow, wc)n:Ly consiticrUn' case ~oh~thatof ait in-
dt-inntL-)y lon~ strip of jnetal of'brcadth 7r~ \vith a non-conductin~
divisioil L'xtcndi))~ ironi tlic ori~m
indcfiuitcty m Un- positive
dirc(;tio!), and t))us dividin: tin.' [)osit,e pai-L of tjtc sh'ip into two
.supar:dc c)iatnn;)s. Wc may suppost.' this division to ht.' :), nnrrow
sn< iti t)ic sficet (jfmet.d.
If a ou'rt'ut of doctricity is mad(; to f)ow :don~' onc oi' <h<~c
divisions :)iid Lack a~-ain alon~- t]ic othfi', t]tc cntr:mcc and L-xit oi'
Lhc curn'nt h~in~ at an indcnnitc distance on thc positive sidc of
thé ot-i~'in, thu distribution orpotuntia! inid ofcuri'cnt. wi]Ihc
~-Iven
)jy thc funetions (/) and l'L'spcctivciy.
]f, on i!ic otht'r iiand, we maku the potcntia], und thc
fnnction of Oow, thun t!ic case will Le that of a cun-cnt in thc
~nn~d dn'ection of~, itûAvin~- throu~h a st~ct in which a. nmnLfr
of'non-conductin~ divisions a,ru p)aecd p~rallel to .)-, ~tc-udin~ frotn
tlK' axis o)'~ to an indcHmte distance in thc uc~ativ~ din-ction.
195.] AVu may idso apply thc rcsnits to t\vo important casus in
station) etcctricity.
(!) Lct .L f-ondnctor in thc fhi-m ofa p)nnt- s]n.'ct, honndcd by a
strai~'id cd~-c bn< <)tl)t'r\i~~ untiniitud, hc jdnccd in. t)ic idanc of.<
on thu positive sidu of thc ori~-in, and lut two infinité
condnctin~-
plancs bc p):tc-c-d par.dh-) to it nnd at distances on cithor si(]c.
Thcn, if~ist))cpoicntin) function.its vatuuisO fo-thcjniddic
condudor aud ? for thc t\vo phuics.
L~t us considt. t)n' qnaïttity ofcfuctricilyo)! a part ofthc middiu
conducto)', L-xtcndin~ to a distanct' in t)iL- direction of~ and froui
thc ori~'In to ;< = ;<.
TI)e ciccti'tclty on th~ part of this strip cxtendin~' from
.T] to

.j~
 240
CO~L-GATH F~-CTtONS.
r~~
Hence from t~c origin to ~= the amount is

~'=~+~1). (u)
If ~ishn-~c
compara ~ith~thi.sbeco.ncs
~'=
.17i
~H'2~,
2
= ~+~)<)~2
1~6 (12)
<).c <juantity of-
H'~c cd~ cfcctricit.y en <h, p!an. hounded
sh-a~.),t than it ~u!d by thc
~t,, i~ b~n if
;rL'~ fj )
w;
tt distance froin thc :ri~
jouudarv ~m) it
.t.
~r.
LuunMary of the plate,
J'7,
struihllt liuu, in l~i~r. XI. 'l'lle vertieal lines
represent lines of
~i~
tlu·sis that un the hYI)()-
the (leilsit3, 15 tiiiiibi-iii over both
planes, }>l'oùllced to
.y'n''J.u:?;
196.] H)K.tr,t) c.md.n~rs arc .m.timm formed of,. “)..)<,
.hy,.y ~.t~ h.).)
i~. ,di.~ < < pht.d.d~M.
1 J
'-h'" ~~t ~~d
the )h"dl t.mee h.t~ t~. ,,h<~ treat tLe as
..)Tr.x,n,.td,. .t.
o.), ° ~t~
hy .i. t,t. plate ,~t,~
c.xt.d..d by ..t,,j, of ,t,. J,
~5,?"°;°" I" the same as
"'h);)t,nuj):H'is!)utn(.a)-thcbound:)ry
-n.).~f"'
t).c..hstanec h..< ~.c-n t).. !ar~ circu.fcre.c.
p)at~ !<.

'=~~ (1~
an<!t!,chr.adth ofthcaddih-ona) striais
lm~· o
a
(.0
that Oiccxtcndcd aruai.s

~=~ 7,' (,~

 196.] DENSITY N'EAR THE EDGE. 241

Co~CC~'OM/b;' /~6 ?X/'C/'MM~0/ the TV~.

Since thé middle plate is ~'eTteraIIy of a. thickness which cannot
bc neg'iccted in comparison with the distance betwecn the plates,
wc may obt~in a bettcr rcprescntiition of ttic facts of tlie case by
suppoaing' the section of the intcrmedia.tc plate to correspond with
thc curvc =
Thc plate will be of ncar!y uniform thickness~ ~3=2~ at a
distance from thc ttoundary~ but \vi)I be roanded near the edge.
Thé position of' the actua) ed~'c of the plate is found by putting

had bcen addcd to thc plate, tlie dcnsity bcin~ assumed to bc every-
w)iere thé same as it is at a distance irom thé boundary.

J9f~y M~)' ~f ~T~e.

Thé snrface-density at any point of the plate is

(20)

When :B''=0, thé density is 2 ofthc normal density.

VOlj.I. R
 242 CONJUGATE FUNCTJONS.
rjoy~
At times the LreadHi of tho
strip en t! positive side, thé
density is Icss than thc normal density Ly ahont L_.
At timcs the brcadth of t!K.
strip on <he n~ative side, the
density is about of U.c normal density.
Thèse r.s.)ts indicatc the
d~rcc or a~n.cy to be expected in
this meO.od to p)nt.s of Hmitcd
~I.'ymg- cxtcut, or 1,, ~~i
~)ar,t,cs ,nay cx;st not vcry f.u. fro.n thc boundary. The same
<hs<nbut,on ..u)d c.st in th. of.. infinite J<. of .in:i~
Pat<s ~,a] distances, t). potentials cf thèse plates
bcing
a) .rna(cy + and -r. In <hi. case
butwccn t!tc p)a<cs cqual to
197. j (2) Ti,. second case shall consider is t!,at of an infinite
ncs of p)an.s paraIJe! to~ ,i. di~anccs
.7~=.~ ..d all ~by
lY of'yz, so only on side of this
1' .'ne. If wc n~ku thc potentiat funciion, wc
may re~rd the.c
pfanL-s as condnctors at potcniid zero.
Let us consider thc curvcs ~r
which is constaut
lien y= that is, in t),o
prolong-ation ofcae)i of thé planes,
~c have
we navu y1 i t
~=~og-~(~~<
when y= ~+~)~, that is, in tlie intermediatc.
positions
~=~!o~(~-6. (22)
Ilence, .vhcn is Jar~ thc curve for
winch is constant is
an unduiat.n~ line whose mcan distance fr~
t].c axis of is
!&
app)\)Xtmat(.]y
app)'()ximatclJ'
~=~2), (23)
and the amph-tnde oft! undnIaLions on .ither sidc of this )Ii,c- is
t"+<
(2.1)
Wh.n is large this becomcs t),,t ~o curvc approa~.s
to thé forn. ofa
stra~~t line parallel to t.. axis uf~ at dis~~
h-om on the positive side. n~ancL
If w~ snpp~e a
p)aue for w!,ic)! .?/ =“ j~< Il
Pct..t.al ..hit. th. sys~n. of p.
plan./i. k t a diflérent
since ~,=. of
the c~.t,< on thc. plane is
c~l to H.at winch wou)d
) t"th~"T i'T
na) to that of the sen.s of
planes, Lut at a distance ..rcatcr
than that of tlie ed~es of the
planes Ly Jo~ 2.
 199.] A QROOVED SURFACE. 243

If B is thé distance betwecn two of the planes of thé series,

= 7r~ so that thé additional distance is
1)
l
a=~
/2s)
7r

198.] Let us next consider the space inctuded between two of

t)ic cquipotentiat surfaces, one of which cousists of a séries of parallel
waves, whilc thc othcr corresponds to a !arg-c value of <~ aud may
be considc'rcd as approxima.tcly plane.
If is the depth of thèse uudulations from thé crest to tlie trou"'h
of each wavc, then wc find for the correspondin~ value
of

IIence, if is thé distance from thc crcsts of thé wa.ves to thc

opposite plane, thc capncity of tlie system eomposed of thé plane
surface and the unduiatcd sur~ee is thc same as that of two pla.nes
at a distance + c~ where
-S 2
77 ~==_Io~ (28)
1+~~
139.] If' :). single groove of t)iis form bc made in a conductor
havin~- the rcst of its surface plane, and if' thc other conduetor is
a plane surface at a distance J, thc capacity of thé one conduetor
with respect to thé other will bu diminishcd. Thc amount of this
diminution will be less than t!tc -th part oi' t!)c diminution due
M
to M such gt'oovcs side hy side~ for in thé latter case tlie average
clectrica! force hctwccn tho conductors will hc )css than in thc
former case, so that thc induction on thc surface of caeh groovc will
bc diminishcd on aecount of the nci~'hbourin"' g'roovcH.
If Z is thc teug-th, J~ thé brGndth, and 7J t!m depth of the groove,
the capacity of portion of thé opposite plane \huse area is will bc
 244
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS.
[200.
and for a slit of infinite
dopth. puttin~ 7) = =o, thé correction is

To find the
surface-density on thc séries of paraît pkte. wo
must find rr 1 ~l`~; cvheu = o.
lincl r. 0. ~o
= ~hen W, find

Thé av.ra~ dcnsity on thé plane plate at distance J from thé

cd~s .f th. series cf p.,tcs
= ']7j Hence, at a distance from
the uf nnc of the plates
~e ,qua! to the surface-dcnsity is
of
°~ tliis
-J
.y~" ==
I~T average dcnsity.
density.
nuxt Ilttcmpt
distribution of electricity these results tlre
in the formcd
figure by rotating the
~I~ case, Poisson's
eduation will assume the form

thcv~r function in
thc value of this ~o~ that tlie first two
terms d)sappc:u-, Md thcrcfbre

.r f
nvc~g.tcd there is a d~trib.tion surface-density ah-cadv
to the of electricity in ~coLcordi~
,u.t stated, thé distribution of
sented by tlie curves in potential will be repre-
Fig. XI.
Now from this
~urc it is ~.nfe.t that is gcnerally very
smal! o.cept ncar t.I.e houndaries of 7111-
the plates, so that thc new
~r may ~y represented by what actually
h .air
the plates. near tlie edges of

Ifjhercfore
~e
int~rate~y between the !imits ~=0 and
and from ~=-~ to
~=~, ..=+=., we shall find the whotce
additioMi charge on one side ofthc
plates due to thé culture.
 201.] TJIEORY OP TIIOMSON'S GUAKD-RING. 245

This is thc total quantity of eicctricity which \vc must suppose

distributcd in spacc near thc positive sidc of onc of thc cylindric
plates per unit of circumicrence. Since it is only close to t!n; cdgc
of thé plate th~t thé dcnsity is sensible, wc may suppose it all
condensed on tlie surface of thé plate withnut :dterin~' sensibly its
action on thé opposcd p):ine surface, and in cn.lcuhttin~' thc attraction
hetween that surface nnd thé cylindric surface wc ma.y suppose this
electricity to belong to thc cylindric surface.
Thc supcrficial charg'c on thc positive surface of the plate per
unit of Icngth would hâve bccn if there had becn co curvature.

Hence this charg'e must bc mu)tipHcd ~jy thc fa.ctor (l +

-~)
to ~'ct thé total charge on the positive side,
In thé case of a disk of radius ./)* placed midwa.y between two
infinite parallel plates at u. distance \ve find for tlie capacity
.1 1

7~<w{/ r'7'~ûM.s' C/<M~.

201.] In some of Sir W. Thomsnn's electrometcTS~ a large pi~nn

suriace is kcpt ut one potential, and at a distance ~<û'om this surface
is placed a plane disk ofradms 7~ sun'otmded by a large plane p]ntc
ca)l<id n, Gt)a.t'd-rin~ \vit)i a ch'cular aperturu of radius 7~ concentnc
with tlie disk. This disk and plate are kcpt at potpntia! zéro.
Thc intervid bet\CL'n tt)c disk and thé ~'u:n'd-platc mn.y be
regarded as a. circulât' ~roove of infimtc dcpth, and of breadth
7~–7~, which we dcuotc by -S.
 CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS.
[202.
Thé charge on the disk duc to unit potentia! of thc ]arge disk,
supposmg thc dcnsity uniform, would he
-~L.
c!iai-~ on one side of a stmi~-ht ~ronve of brcadth
The 7.' and
teng-th Z = 27r~, nnd of infinite dcpth, wnuki he

'Z+7'
But since the g-roovc is not
strai~.t, but bas a radius of curvatnrc
-?, this must be mu!tip]icd hy the factnr
(J + -~).
Ï~
Thc w!)olc charge on thc disk is thcrnfo-e

The value of a cannot be

~-t-catpr than
2
a =---~)o~2 = l~ 1
77 0.22~nMt-!y.
If~is small cnmpared with eithpr .f or 7~ this
oxprcssinn will
S-ive a suH.cient!y ~ood approximation to thc
charge on thé disk
<inc to ~uty of diiïbr~cc of pntcntia). Thé ratio of to 7~
may havo any value, but the radii of the disk
)arg-e and of the
~uard-ring must cxeced 7)' hy sevcral multiples of~.

EXAMPLEVII.–Fi~ XII.
202.] Hdmhohz, in his memoir on discontinunus Huid
motion*
has pointed out the appiieation o(' scvcrn!
fnrmuiM in which the
coordin~es are cxpresscd as functicns of tt.e
potcntial and its
eonjug-ate function.
One of ihesc may hc appticd to thé case of an
electrified plate
of nmtc s)xe p)aced parallel to an iniinite
p]ano surface connected
w)th the carth.
 202.] TWO EQUAL DISKS. 2-t7

thcn and will be conjugale with respect to and and <~ and
will he cot~ju~-atc with respect to x :md
Now let and bc rcctang'uh~r coordinates, and let Le thc
potential, thcn ~<~ will hc conjug-ate to bcing' any constant.
Let us put = 7r, thcn ==~-n-j A'= (r/j–~).
If f/j varies from –ce to 0~ and thcn froin 0 to +00, varies
from –oc to and from to –oo. Hcncc the cquipotcntial
surface for which /=~ is a.plane paraliel to ;Kat a distance <~==Tr~
from the origin, and cxtendin~' from -oo to .T =
Let us consider a. portion of this p)n.ne~ cxtcndin~ from
= –(~ -)- ~) to = and from == 0 to = c,
let us suppose its distance from thé plane of a; to bc = b = ~7r,
and its potential to be 7"= =
Thc charge of electricity on any portion of this part of the plane
is found hy aseertainin~ thé values of c/j at its cxtremitics.
If thèse are and thc qufmtity of electricity is

</)will have a négative value <~ a)td a positive value (~ at tlie edg'e
of~he plane, wherc = </)= 0.
IIcuce thé charge on the négative side is –c~(/)~ and that on
thc positive Bide is e/'(~.

If \vc np~lect the exponcntiat tcrms in ~j wc shall find tliat the

charge on thc negative surface excceds that which it wouM hâve
if thc supcrfieial density had been uniform and equat to that at a
distance from thc boundary, by a quantity equal to the charge on a

strip of brcadth = with tlie uniform superficial density.

Thc total capacity of tlie part of the plane considered is

 248 UONJUGATE FONCTIONS.
[203.
Thé total charge is C~, and thé attraction
towards thé infinite
plane is

me equ.potentiat lines and Unes efforce arc given in Fig. XII.

Ex~tpLE VIII.-7' Fig. XIII.

203.] In many electrical instruments a wire g-ratin~- is used to
prévit certain parts of thc
apparatns from bcin~ electrified by
induction. ~e know that if a conductor Le
entii-dy surrou.Kied
by a metallic vessel at the same potential ~vith
itself, no electricity
can be induced on thc surface oi- t!,c
conductor by any eIcctriBcd
body outside thé vesse!. Ti~. conductor, howc.ver, when
surroundcd Ly metal, cannot be comptetely
seen, and tl.ercforc, m certain cases,
an apcrturc is left ~.hi.ch is covered
with a ~rati~ of fine wire.
Let us nivest.-g.ate tj.c effcct of this
grating in diminishing thé
effcct of electrical induetiou. W<. shaH suppos. the
consist of a series of g.mtin~ to
para)k.) wires in one plane and at cqual
.nt<-rva)~ the diameter of the wircs
being small comj~u-cd with tlie
distance bctween tbcm, whih. the nearc'st
portions oftl,e dc.ctrined
bod.es on tite onc side and of the
protcetc.d conductor on the otiicr
are at distances from t!,e
plane ofthu sercL.n, w],ich arc considérable
comparcd with t!)c distance bet~n consécutive wircs.
204.] TIie potcntiat at a distance from the axis of a strais-ht
wire of infinite Jc.~th
char~ud with a quantity ofdectricity A pcr
unit of
nf lcngth
]cn~th isIs r )
-o~+6'. (1)
c may express this in tcrms of polar eoordinates referred to an
axis whose d.~tance from the wirc is
unity, in which case wc must
make = 1I+2/-oos~+~,
2
-E- r c~os0 -1-r=,
~)
and if wc suppose that the axis of
référence is a)so cbar.ed tn with
thé hncar dcnsity À~ \ve nnd
 205.] INDUCTION TIIROU-GH A GRATING. 249

where x and arc reetangular coordinates, will be the value of thé

potential duc to an infinite séries of fine wircs parallel to z in thé
plane of~, and passing through points in tlie axis of x for which
a; is a multiple ofr/.
Each of these wires is charged with a linear dcnsity À.
Thé term in.volviiig A.~indicates an electrification, producing a
constant force iu the direction of y.
a
T]ie forms of the equipotential surfaces and lines of force when
À'= 0 arc given in Fig. XIII. The equipotential surfaces near thc
wires are nearly cylinders, so that we may consider the solution
approximatcty true, even when thé wires are cylinders of a dia-
mcter winch is nnite but small comparcd with the distance between
them.
T!ic equipotential surfaces a.t a distance from thé wircs become
more and more nearly planes paritue! to that of thc grating.
If in thé équation we makc = < a quantity large compared
with wc find approximatelv,

If c is thc radius of thc wires of tlie pratin~ 6' being small

compa.rcd with ~) wc may find thc potential of thé grating itself
by snpposin~ that tlie surface of thé wire coincifics with thc cqui-
pntcntia] surface whieh cuts thc p!anc ofyz at n. distance c from thé
axis of z. To imd the potentia! of the ~-ratin~ we thereforc put
x = c, and y = 0, wlience

205.] Wu have now uLt.uncd expressions repretienLtin~ thé etcc-

trical stnte of a system eonsisting of a grating of wires whose
(liamt'ter is srnall comparcd with the distance hetween them, and
twu plane condncting' surfaces, one on caeh side of the ~ratin~,
and nt distmices which arc ~rca.t compared with thé distance
between thé wircs.
 COXJUGATE FUNCTIOXS.
fao~.

~hen thc wires are

innnitely thin, a hccomes incite, ami thc
~rms in which it is thé denominator
disappcar, so that thé case
is reduccd to that of two
parallel planes without a grating ° in-
tcrposcd.
If t!~e grating is in metallic
eomm~mication with one of thé
ptancs say thé first, r= and thé right-hand side of thé
equation
becomes Hence thé
dcnsity induced on thé first
plane wh<-n thc grating is iaterposed is to that which would
have
bcen induced on it if the
gratina were rcm~ved, thé second plane
bcing maintained at thc same potential, as 1 to 1 +
a1 +
Wc should have found t].e same value fbr thé
effect of the grating
in dimnn.sh.ng thé electnea! inHuence
of the first surface on thé
second, ,fwe had supposed thé
grating connected with thé second
sur ace. This is évident
since and enter into thc expression
in thc .samc way. It is aiso a direct
rcsult of the theorem of
Art. 88.
The induction of thé onc cleetrincd
plane on thc other through
the gratmg is tlie same as if thc
grating were removed, and the
distance betwcen thc planes increased
from b, +~ to

If the two planes arc

!œpt at potential zéro, and U.e G.atin<.
electrified to a given potenti~, the
quantity of e!ectricityon the
~rat.ug. will be to that whieh wou)d be induecd on a
arca placed in thé samc position as ptane ofequal

2~~isto 2~~+a(~+~).
 206.] MRTJÏOD 0F APrnOXIMA.TIO~. 251

This investigation is approximate on]y when and & arc lar~-e

comparcd with and when a is large comparcd with c. Thc
quantity a is fi line which mny be of any magnitude. It becomcs
infinite when c is indeHmtety diminishcd.
If we suppose c = there will be no apertures between the
wires of thé g'ratm~, and thereforc there will be no induction
through it. We ought therei'ore to hâve for this case a = 0. Thc
formut~ (H), howcver, gives in this case

which is evidently erroueous, as thc induction can never be attered

in sign hy mcans of thé ~t'ating. It is casy, however, to procccd
to a hi~her degree of approximation in the case of n, grating of
cylindrical wircs. 1 sha.1! mercly indicate thé steps of this process.

~o~ p/ J~n'Ma!
206.] Since the wircs arc cylindrical, and Rince thé distribution
of electricity on cach is symmctricat with respect tf) thé diameter
parall~ to thé proper expansion of thé pot<;ntiat is of thé form
r == C:,log- + 2 C. y' cos 0, (14)
where ?' is thé distance from thé axis of one of thé wires, and 0 the
an~tc hetween r and y, and, since the wire is a conductor, when
)' is m:(de equal to tlie radius must he constant, and tlierefore
thc cocnicient ofeaeh of thé multiple cosines of 0 must vanish.
For the saké of concisencss let us assume new eoordinatcs &c.
such that

hy R'iving' proper values to thc cocnicients j~ we may express any

potential whieh is n. function of' )) and cns and does not becomc
infinite exccpt whcn ?;+/3 = 0 and cos~= I.
 Iri the clse of' tlie
I with two
l 11== -{31 and conducti
boing r~
~ng- 77 r~=~32, that of the plane of the
~=0, there wi!I b~ of~c~at,-ng
grating
Thé first
i~n,~there series will series Of images cf the
being consist
electr~ed. Thé axes of of the grating
~h an
electrified, ihc~ both sides, equal ~~IF~ther
The axes of these simillirly
ill1aginary cyIinders lie in pLu~s
PlalIlcs
~osceq.,tiou~reofthef~

"hic), an infinite series of

th. ~I? consist of f.,
~m. q.~titi~ and opposite to thc
in th. ~J~'i'°, equal
same of
and the sa.me
oft).. &c. are
sign. The vaes of thcse
~MtioM are of the form images °~are in planes
'Ms w).e
wliosc

on whether the
~ether I1l1mber of images is odd
potcutia! duc to an inanité or even, I-Ience
,cr T the
it
it tie
thé funetiou
faction ~,+ but if we add to
.ljr~ CC,the
thc"conditions
? of the problem will
Le sufficient
b.
~r~ We may first
détermine and ~h the
conducting. planes, in terms of of the two
1~ and C. We must of
thcn determine "? andP~s thc two
any point of thèse p!au (TI the
surfzce-clensity
~n.ity
8'ivcn by the cation. ~'d are

to a!I thé the grating itself

in~es in t<-r~ of'
terms
adding. to the
adding thé result
resuh cosines of ~ItJp~
of
~~cos~+C.
~~In~
~he terms
tcrms indenendenf nf /)
thé ~0~ of 0 then
grating, to ~c ~sa~' the potential of U.c
equated to zero °gives an the cosine of 0~
~I~
efficients. equation 'n
between thc
the indeterminate cc-
co-

to /tr~
eliminate all these found
coefficients and to leave sllfficiellt
~.ne in two ~at~
equations to
..d and
~csecquatious~lbcofthcf~
206.] METHOD OF APPROXIMATION. 253

The quantity of electricity induced on onc of the planes

protected
by tl)e grating, the other plane being at a given différence of
potential, will be thé same as if the plates had been at a distance
 CMAPTER XIII.

]';LL;CTI{OSTAT)C )y.STI{UM):NT.

0// ~7cc/c
/M~c;y.
TnR instruments whieh wc !,avc to
considcr at pr~t
divided into t.hc ibDowin~. classes rmv )..
(1) l:lcct,rical
~-i p~ or
uluct.rifirution.
(2) MdtipH~ for inc~.sin,c~r;Jk.aLi.n h. a kn.w. r.tio
-L ~ctric
ch~~
charges, p.t..t.I..nd
(4) Ac~mu)ators, for )~)Jin~ ]ar~ dc-etrica!
eh~c.s.

~~c~< J/M< <

207.J In thc c-ommon ck.ctriea! .naclunc
a.p!at. o.. ,v)!n~
~llsS is niade to l'l'volve sn as tu l'ub
ab:lillst a sl1l'1iwc of lcatllcr,
of zinc alll mercUl'Y, 'l'hc surf~ce
clectrificcl
nebatively. As tlie clecarified /lU'(¡W(' of'
fl'<J11lthe nebrative eleutt-ilieit-ioii tlle ~;lass move, tlw,ly
of' thr it
¡l('qllÍ1'ps :1 high
of sliii-1) nletal
~t.s in c~ne~on with thc .ouductor of thc
j ive clcctrification machine. Th. I)i)si-
of' the g1ass ilHllleps u
ne~rutive electrifieation
i, the 111()l'(!llltl'11SC'the
:d t)tc ncarer sllarhcr illc: points
tticy are to the ~ss
th~ machine
the air 1'et \l'een the ~S-c t'.r.h
-in(l tlie poiuts,j flic blass loses
its part uf
whieh is tr-l1n!f(~I'l'edtu the
the 111sül:ltecl pl'ime points su to
coiidizetor of the l\1:lvhine, and to
any Utllel'
~r~
T11G11U1'LIOII Uf' the glass which is
aclvancill~ tnward5 the ruLhcr
I)o.,3iti%,echarge than th;lt whieh is
lcaving it
~r~ and the coiidtictoils in com-
munication with it, bccome
ne,~ativc·1y electrified.
 208.] ELECTROPHOHUS. 255

The high]y positive surface of the

glass where it leaves thé
rubber is mon. attraeted by thé ncg-ative
eharg-e of the rubber than
thc partiaUy discharg-cd surface whieh is
advancing- towards the
rubber. Ti)c etcctrica! forces thereforc aet as a
résistance tu the force
employed in turning- the machine. The work dune in turnin~ the
machine is thereforegreater than t!)at spentin
ovcreonnng-nrdinary
friction and other rcsistances, and thé excess is
emphjyed In pro-
ducin~ a state of c!cetri(ication whosc energ-y is equivaicnt to tins
excess.
Thé work donc in cvcrcoming- friction is at once converted
into
Leat in thc bodics rubbed
tog-eUicr. Thé eleetriea) energ-y may
be aiso convertcd eititer into mcchanien!
ener~-y or into hcat.
If tlie macinne does nut store
up mcdianica! cnerg-y, al] thc
cm.rgy will be converted into heat, and t!)e o.dy dIU'crencc betAvee.i
the heat due to friction and that due to dectrk-a) action
is that thc
former is g-enerated at thc rubbing- surfaces w)u)c thé !atter
rnay bc
g'e)icr:)tcd in couductors at a distance
Wc have seen that thc clec-trical
charge on thc surface of the
g'Iass is attracted by thé rubber. If this attraction were sunicienti~
jntcnsc there wou!d be a dischar~c hetween thé
g]a.ss and t!ie
rubber, instead ofbehvce.i thé n-)ass and thé
coHectin~- points. To
prevent this, Oaps of si!k arc attached to t)ie rabber. Thèse become
ncg-ativcly cteetrined and adhère to thé. g.!a~ and sn dhninish thé
potentta) near thc rubber.
Thu potentia! thercforc inereases mnre
g-radna])y as thé <.]ass
moves away from t!te rubber, aud therefbre at
any onc point there
is less attraction ofthe ch:u.g.e on thé
g.]ass towards t).e rubber, and
consequcntty less dang-cr of direct discharge to thé rnbbcr.
In some ctectrica) mae)iines ttie
moving- part is of (.bonite Instead
ofgh.ss, and thc rubbers of woo) or fur. Thé rubber is then e!ce-
tDiied positivety and thé prime conductor
neg-ative)y.

.?%C~7c<o/7/~ <?/' /r/

~08.] The consista of a p)~c of rcsin
cicetrophorus or of cbo:ntu
backcd with and of
métal, plate mc't..L! of <hc samc sixc. An
insuintin~ handie can he sercwcd to thé back of <.iUier of t!~c
p)~t~. Ttje cbonite has :t me~l
plate pin whic-]i connccts thu n)e~l

hv'f~~r~<f~ ~~? bc ti~t ~y '.sconvertcj into heat

htct.on. part of t).u cner~y may tt-sfurincd intu clectri~t ct.erL?v -Ln<)
in n~L uf
short
t~~irJ~'c rct it cL.se
intotu the rnbbn~ surfaces. Scu Hir W. Tho.nnon On thé E)L.<.tn
dy~a.mc Quahtics ofMchda.' /<7. ï' 185C, ~.OSu.
 256
ELECTROST~TIC INSTRUMENTS,
f~oû.
plate with thc métal back of the ebonite
plate whcn thé two plates
arc in contact.
The ebonite plate is electrified
negatively by ,.nbbi,~ it with
wool or cat's skin. Tf,c ~et~
plate is thcn bro~ht near the
ebonite by means of thc
insdating. handle. No direct diseharp-e
passes between thé ehonite and the metal
plate, hut thc potential
of thé np-t~ plate is rendered
ncgativc Ly induction, so that when
it cornes within a œi-tain distance of
thc ~eta) pin a spark passes
aud thé metat plate hc now carried to a
distance it is found
to have a positive cha~c w!u-ch
may he com.nunicatcd tn a eon-
ductor. The meta) .t th. back of the ebonit.
p!ate is f.und to
a négative charge equal and
opposite to the char~ of the métal
have
plate,
In using thc instrument to
charge a condenser or accumulator
one of the plates is laid on n
conductor in communication with
hc e.rth, and the other is first laid on
it, then remov.d and apphed
te the électrode, ofthe
condenser, theu iaid on the fixed plate and
thc process repeated. ïf tho ehonite
plate is iixcd thé condenser will
'e ehar~d If
positivc!y. < mda) plate is nxed U.e condenser will
"e charged
npgativcly.
Thé work donc by thé !~nd in
separating thc plates is always
greater than the ~vork don<- by the e!er.trica! attraction
durins. thé
approach of thé plates, so that thé opération of
char-nns. thé con-
denser involves the expenditure of work. Part of this work is
aecountc-d for by Uic
energy ofthc charged condenser, part is spent
in produe.ng. the noise and heat of thé
sparks, and the rest in
overcommgr other résistances to the motion.

Ou ~M<MC/~
~7~< ~-6-M/M/
209.] In the ordinary frictiona! electrical macin'ne the work donc
in overconnng. friction is far
~reater than that donc in increasin~
the electrifieation.
any arran~ment by which the elec-
trification may be prodneed
eiitii-ely by mechanical work against
t"e electrical forces is of scientinc
importance if not of practicit
value. Thé first machine of this hind seems to have
been Nieholson~s
Kevolvmg Doubler, in the 7~ ?'M. for
1788 as 'an instrument which
by the t.urning ofa Winch prodnccs
thé two states
ofE)ect..icity without friction or communication with
the -Larth.
210.] It was by means <,f the revolving doubler that Vo)ta
succeeded in <~ve!opi,~ from thé
eieetrincation of the pile an
 210.] THE RHYOLVING DOUBLER. 257
e~cctrincation cnpabie of itirecting- his eh'ctromcter. Instruments
on t)ic sitme principle hâve hccn invcntcd
indcpendeutty by Mr.
C. F. Vartey and Sir W. Titom.son.
Thèse instntments consist esscntiaDy of insniatcd conductors of
varions forms, some fixcd :u)d otiiers movcable. Thé moveahic
conduetors arc eaDed Carriers, and thé nxed eues may be called
Inductors, Rcc~ivcrs, and R~cncrators. T)~ inductors :md rcccivcrs
arc so formcd that whcn the carriurs arrive at certain points in
then' rcvotution thfy arc atmost ('ompL'tc]y surroundcd
by a con-
ductin~- Lody. As thc iotluctoM and n'ecivcrs c'annot compictcly
surronnd thc carrier and :tt <ht- same timu aHow it to movc
rrc'cly
in and out without a cnmplica.tcd arran~mn~-nt of mo~eabtc
picccs,
thé Instrument is not thet)rc'tiL'aI)y peri'cct wilhout a
pair of rc-
g-cncrators, whic)i store thc smaU amount of
up cicetrieity which
thc car)-icrs rctidn whcn thcy cmer~c from tho rL'ccivcrs.
Fer thc prcscnt.~ )to\cvcr, wc may suppose thc indnctors and
rcccivurs to sun'ound the carrier comptctcly whcti it is within them,
in w)ucii case thé thcory is nutct~ simphned.
'\Vc sha)) suppose thc machine to consist of two inductors and
6', and of t\vo rec~'ivcrs j~ and 7~ witli two cnrriei's and 6'.
SupposL' thc inductor J to Le positivt'ty ch.'etriiicd so that its
potentiat is nnd that Lhc carrier 7''is within it und is at potentia.!
7' Then, if Q is thc cocfiieicnt of Induction (taken. positive) hctwccn
and 7~ thc quantity of utcctricity on thc carrier \viH hc Q (-
If thc carrier \hitc wlthiti thc indnctor, is put In connexion \vith
thc earth, then 7*'= 0, and the charg-e on the carrier will hc –Q~,
a nc~-ative quantity. Let thé carrier he curried round till it is
within the rcccivcr 7~, und lut it then corne in contact with a sprin~-
so as to Le in (jleetric'at connexion with 7]'. It will thcn~ as was
shcwn in Art. 3~, hecome conudetely dischar~'cd, and will com-
municate its who)e neg'ative cnar~-c to t)ie rcccivcr j~.
Thé carrier will next enter thc inductor 6', which we shaH suppose
e!)ar~cd nc~tivety. ~Vhilc within 6' it is put in connexion with
thé carth and thus aequires a positive charg'e, which it carrics off
and communieates to the receiver J~, and so on.
In this way, if ihc potentia)s of thé inductors rcmain aiways
constant, thc receivers 7~ and 7~ rceeivc successive charges, whieh
are thé samc for cvcry révolution of' thé carrier, and thus evcry
revohttion produces an equa.! incrément of electrieity iti thc re-
ccivurs.
SpcciHcatiun of Patent, J~). 27. 18G", Nu. 2UC.
VOL.1 s
 258
ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[-210
But by pntti~ thc inductor in con~tnuc.ticn with thé re-
ceiver and tlie mductor C witli thc recciver
the inductors will 7~ the potentials
and
11: tlie receivers in each
continually incl'ease.
an~ "~T~
0 that of
and 6 and when thc carr.er is within
]et tlie char~ on A
and 6 h. .~1 that on tlie c.n.ier
then, since ~0 potential
~T; is zero, in contact
it'to Q Jf The its charge is
this charge .nd cc~nu,ni~
te lf tlie capacity o~ 7~ and 6- is
thcir potential will bc
changcd from ~to

If the other carrier has at same

~crn~ to it will change thé
potential of~ ..j 0 from U to
if
rl l-' Q' i.s
<3~ is tho
tlie cordent
coefficient of indu.tion
incluction h.t~een
bctwcen théthe carrier
~d C, and thé capacity of and 7~ If,
"J' theref<n.e and
two inductors
and L d
aftcr M+ i
ha]frc-vo)utions,

t-T" from these that the

so that whatever be thé~u.ntity~/+.~ con-
t.n~Dyd.mm~hes,
trifieation the receivers are initiJ~ F elec-
tiltimately oppositely clectrificd, so that
On the other to -q.
hancl, the quantity pU-l
1"coiitintially
-?)Umay excceù or fall short of inereases,
the 'cnec will Jl'at first,
increased in a geometrical ratio in
cach
 21t.] THE HECIPROCAL ELECTROl'HORUS. 259

révolution till thé eleetromotive forces become so gréât that the

insulation of thé a].paratus is ovo-comc.
Instruments of this hind may he used n)r varions
pm-poses.
For prodncing a cop.ous
suppty of electricity at a hig-h potentiat,
as is doue by means ofMi-.
Varh-y's large machine.
For adj'usting thé charge of' a
condenser, as in tlie case of
Thomson's dcctromctcr, thé charge of which can he iucreased or
diminished hy fcw turns of a very small machine of this
kind,
which is thcn eallecl a Rcptenishcr.
For mu)tip!yin~- small din'crcnccs of T]ic inductors
potential.
may he cl.argcd at first to a)i excœdin~y small potential, as, for
msiancc, that duc to a thcrmo-elcetric pair, thcn, by turning- the
machine, tlie di(ïcrcnce of potentials may he coiitintiilly
multiplied
tt)] it hccnmcs capable ofmeasurcmcnt
by an ordinaryelcctrometGr.
By detcrmining- hy L'xpcrimont tlie ratio of increase of this dincrcnce
due to cach turn of thé machine, the
original dcctromotive force
with which the inductors were
(.hargcd may he deduced from thé
numi)cr of turns and thc iina! electrification.
In most of Dièse instruments tite carriers are made
to revolve
ahout an axis and to come into thé
propcr rositions with
to the inductors by turning an axie. Thé connexions are respect
made hy
mcans of sprints so p)aced t!<at thé carriers corne in
contact with
them at thc proper instants.
211.] Sir W. T!tnmsnn*, howcver, has constructed a machine for
mtdtiplyin~ e!ectrie:U charges in which thé carriers arc drops of
water fa))ing out of thé i.iside of an induetor into an
insn)atcd
receiver. Ti~c receiver is thus continually
suppiicd with eicctricity
of opposi~ sign to that of tl.e induetor. If thé indnctor is
electrified
positively, the recciver will reccive a contintially incre~sing- charge
of négative cicctricitv.
Thé watcr is made to escape from thé reccivcr
hy means of a
funne), thc nozzle ofwhich is a)most sm-roundud by the metal of
thc receiver. Thé drops faHing from this nozzle are thei-cfore
nearly free from eicctrincation. Another inductor and receiver of
the samc construction at-e arrang-ed so that the inductor of thé
onc system is in connexion with the receiver of thé other. Thé
rate of increase of charge of thé receivers is thus no
longer constant,
but increascs in a geometrical with
progression the timc, thé
charges of thé two receivers being of opposite signs. This increase
goes on till the falling drops are so diverted from their course
by
Proc. 7f. &, Jun<-2n,1807.
s 2
 260
~LECTHOSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[212.
the eicctrica! action that
t)~y fa)I outside of the rcccivcr or even
SLilke the mductor.
of ~ou is dnnvn
fron' that of'~TF'
nom thc i:tl]jn~- drops.
212 ] Sc.vc.nd othcr electrical n..chi..cs !v. bcen constructed
in .!uch t!~ pnne.ple of d.ctric
induction is ~<~d. Of thèse
most re.n.rk.bic H.at of IIoli., in wl.ch thc
carri. ~ass
itb'T~ r" 0~
Sparks are prcvented from ,assing betwccn the
t.boa.-d.
e parts
by ~ean. of t. one on .ach'sidc
c the ~vo)v,ng.
ap~atus carrier p)ate. T]~ machine is ibund to bc
very
~<- 0-
"T same in ~~cr
1 instruments f"
the ~ë- and
dc.vcl.ped out of tlu..une idc., hut~s H.. carrier
an u~.at.n. plate .nd the inductcrs ar. h.pcrfcct
the conductors,
<I~.cuM than i.
t'.u case w!rc thé carners are
g.od c-.nduc.tors uf known furm
and are char~d and
discharg..d at dcfinito points
213.] In thc ck-ctrica! machine,
ah-cady describcd .spark. oceur
whcnever thé carrier comus in
cont:)cbwlth:teonduetor:tta
diftcrc-tit potcntml from its
o\h.
~.o\v \vc- I.ayf shcwn t!iat
wlicncvc'r this oc'curs there is
a loss or ejicrgy, and t))urefurc
t))c whoju worh
pmpjoyc-d in
turning the ma.hidnG is not eon-
vci-tudiiitoc)t-c<.t-i~tiouinan
a\-ai)aLJe ibrm, hutpart is
spent
in producin~ tlic hfai and noise
of dcctne Mparks.
1 )..ve thcrefore it
thou~ht dcsiraDe to sh~v how an dc.h-1~1
~c n..y be constructed wl.ich is not
subj.ct to this loss of
e'y. I do net propose it as a useih.
foi of ~Ji,
~ple cf thc method by which ti.
~trivanc. c~
to pl'cw'l1t loss uf work, ~1
Jn tltu
In thc 'h'HL
iip-urc Kt,
L.f .7, 7,f,
M 7~ C'
7~ represent !)o'!o\v ii~f]
cond.ct.s, se arnu~cd t~t the ~.n.r
within .h p.s..s in s ce
.i th. 0, u~
 213.] MACHINE WITHOUT SPARKS. 261

carrier when it is at thc middie point of its

passage, but C, C' do not
eover it so mucli.
We shaiï suppose J9, C to be connected with a Leyden jar
ofgi-cat cap:K-ity at, potentiul and y/ 7/, C' to bc conncctcd wit.h
another jar at potentia!
7-' is one of thc carriers
moving- in a circle from to C", &c.,
and tf)uc))it)~- in its course certain
springs, of which and a' are
connected wit)i and and c, arc connected with
respecMy,
thé earth.
Lût us suppose that when the carrier P is in thc middle of
thc cocfïjcicnt of induction bc-twccn P and is The capacity
ofP in this position is greater than since it is not comp!ctc!y
surroundcd hy the rcccivcr J. Lct it be ~/+
T!icn if <]te potentiel of P is U, aud that of thé charge
on 7'I)! be (J+~r.
Now h-t P bc in contant with thé whcn in the midd~c
spring
of the reccivcr il, thon the potcntial of P is r, thc same as that
of~, and its charge is th~refore F.
If 7'* now !c:n'cs thc spring it carrics with it thé charge a F.
As leaves it its potential diminishcs, and it diminishes still more
\vh<-n it cornes within thc influence of 6", which is
negatively
ciGctrifIt.'d.
If when 7~ comcs within C its coefncient of induction on C is
-C', and its capacity is C"+~~ then, if is thé potcntial of P
thc ehai'G'c on P is

thcn at this point U thc poictttint nf will hc rpduced to zéro.

Let 7~ at this point eomc in contact with the
spring e~ whieh is
connected with thc c-:u'th. SIncc tt)e potentin,] or .P is equal to that
of thé spi-in~ there will Le )io spark at cnntact.
T)u.s conductnr 6", by which thé carrier is cnabtpd to he connected
to carth withnut sj~ark, answcrs to thc contrivancc caHcd a.
regcno-ator in hcat-cngincs. We s]iaH tiierefore call it a Rc-
~'cncra.tnr.
Now ]et 7~ move on, htil] in contact with the
carth-spring- e', till
it comes into the middic ofthc indnctor 7~, thc potcntial ofwhicli
is If' –7? is thé eodUcicnt of induction b~twccn nnd 7~ at
Dus point, thcn, since ~'==0ihe on 7~will hc –7~~
charge
Whcn 7~ moves away from the cnrth-spring it carries this charge
with it. As it moves out of the positive inductor 7? towards the
 00~
ELËCTItOSTATtC INSTRUMENTS.

M~tiv. r~ive, its p.t.nt.a) will he

th. ~.dd~. of ,) At
if it its

itn(l 11 1sl IS grca11'r 1.han its

J1nmerical value will IJ(~
~reater
iB~ is some point hefore 1'
mid(lJe o('rl' wllere its llotential reaehes the
is At tlis point ]et it come
:='1~:S: will he no
shark since the two hodies at the same hotcntial.
on to thé midclle of~~ still in Let -il move
contact with the
at the same potential with .r.
Duri~ this n~~ it
~.iv. At the nJd~
.~d carrics :T'
C, where ,ts p,nt,a) positive
is ruduccd to zero .nd
tcu..).f n
indnctor J3', dUl'ing which motion it ncga1.ive
acquires a positive
~hchiL c]lar~,re_J~'l''
hna!!ycommmnea<.c. to t!,e positive
of r~ivc.r~ and tlie0
cycle opérations is rcpt-atcd.
Duri~- this cycle thc po.itivc receiver ha.s ]ost a
~d 7. ehar~ ~and
H
is
–r< l
Simi)ar)y the total ~,n of native I,
~ctri.-ity
to bu as close 10 the
the carrier as is consistent with surface of
iii8til~ition, B and 7~' rna3· be mrtde
~T~.S. so as to surrounc1 the
carricr it is within tlicm, a and ci," nearly
mny he made very small,
::f. "°"- Leyden jars ~=;
c\'er.r l'evoll1tion.
Thé conditions to L. f.Hed
Ly t)~e r~cncrator. are
c~=~ c'
either large or ~r- to
Vl'l'j' close to the eaniers,

~76-6-
7~C~~M.
214.J An ~.etro~tcr is an instrument
c..tr.c.U by means of which
charges or ~tn-c.t p.t~ti.~
~rmncnts n..y L
Ly means ot-which thc ~istenc.<' of
"f difrer.ne.f- r.1. or
potential .y c t b
d T- ?' not
~H.~i.,nn.
An dc.ctt-~f.opu if ]~Iectroscopes,
suftif-ientJv s.-nsiLh. m..u L.. c"oscnpc.s.
 ~15-] COULOMB'S TORSION BALANCE. 263

the absence of electrification. For instance, jf we hâve two charged

hodies and 7~ we may use thé method dcseribed in Chapter 1 to
détermine which hody bas the grcater charge. Let thé body
he carried by an insu!ating support into U)e intcrior of an insulated
closed vessel C. Lct C he connceted to earth and again insulated.
Thcre will then hc )ic exterual etectrineatioa on 6'. Now Jet
he removed, and ~itttroduccd into the intcrior of C, and thé cdec-
trification of C bestcd by an clectroscopfj. If the charge of J~ is
cqual to that of Utero will be no electrification, but if it is greater
or t~ss Uiere will be cicctrincation ofthe same hiud as tha.t of~ or
thé opposite kind.
Muthods of this kind, in which thé thiu~- to bc obscrved is thc
non-existence of some phcnomenon, are called MM/~or zero methods.
They requirc only an itistrument capable of' dctccting' thc existence
of' the phenomcnon.
In another dass of instruments for the reg-istration of phe-
nomena thé instrument may bc dependcd upon to ~'ivc atways thé
samc indication for the same value ofthe quantity to he registered,
but the readings oftitc sca.)e of the instrument are not proportional
to the values of thé quantity, and the relation hetween these
rcadings and thé corresponding value is unknown, cxcept that thé
one is some continuou~ fnnetion of the othcr. Sevo'al eicctrometers
depending on thc mutua! repulsion of parts of the instrument
which are simiLu'Iy dcctnncd are of this c!ass. Thé use of such
instruments is to résister phenomena~ not to measure thcin. Insteud
of thé truc values of thé quantity to be measured, a séries of
numbers is oht.unL'dj which may be used after%ards to détermine
thèse values when thé scale of thc instrument bas been properly
investigated and talrulatcd.
In a stiH hi~-her cluss of instruments thé scate readings are
proportional to tbe quantity to be mcasured, so that all that is
rcquired for the complète measurement of' t~c quantity is a know-
Icdg'c of thé coefUcicnt by which the scale readings must be
multiphed to obtain thc truc value of the quantity.
Instruments so constructed that they contain within thcmscivce
thé means of indepcndently dctcrmiuing' the true values of quan-
tities are called Absolute Instruments.

C~M~ 7b~M ~~KCP.

215.~ A great nmnbf!' of t.he cxpcrimt'nts by which Coulomb
 2~
ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS,
~Tl l~ r~j
MtaMi.M t),(.fh,),mmta)
hw.s.fdt.t.tn.,h. werc macle mell-
~Sf.hc.
.cof.j.id.w~ ~.T.
two fo,
one forces, the
t),.
clcctric:ll"Mm~.i),b,i.,mby
action Iletwecn t.he
splll'I'l's, and the
2 g-lnss
torsion ('onsists OF :I
horizontal arll1 of
snspenclcd hy a fille wire or glass goum-lac,
fihre, and carrying at; one etttl
goJlt. 'l'hl' sushension wirc is
fastenecl abovc to thc vcr(ical
axis of an arm wl¡jeh can lIe
rou~ h.) movccl
.°"
"<-<'
°' :l'
spltere is so 117O11Ilteclon an
~1~T: inslllating stL'1ll that it ('an be
into thc case ehar~·ecl
tllrouylt a llolc, and JJl'ol1ght so that
~r~~
~~b~h~
splwrc isi,t.asccrtuimcl
.).r. 1>yn1l'nns of a ~t.U.).d
g'l"aduated circlc
e.
en~·r,2ved on
t.
in equilibl'il1T11in a hnowot a.nd tlie suspenùeù
.J~ position such that the torsion-mm sphere
makcs
the ccntre of the fixecl
~t:t~ spllere,
of theth. tc,on-a~
torsion-arm, and il' l~' is the f' force
betwecn the Sl'hCl'CSthe

~t?
the fixed spllel'c,
t).c..)~ "S'<itht1.c,~th,gh
t.ltrott,~lt which the electrical force
torsion-arm must h:L\'C ileen 0 r/ and if twistecl the
~lt is the moment °''of
~1
:L~
p({COs~O 0 IlI(0-r/,).

force betwecn the -eo'=~

spheres nt the distance 2a sin p.
of the
torsion-:trm, and l' the time of n clnuhle <t~T~°:Y'
~r vibration oE'the
".<- arm
~t.
= -L /y'2

what force we arc

mClll'il11'ing, The force 11ctillg' on the
-~r~ sI1s11ellded
 215-] INFLUENCE 0F THE CASE. 265

sphere is due partly to thé direct action of thé fixed sphère. but
partty also to thé electrification, if any, of the sides of the case.
If thc case is made of glass it is
Impossible to détermine thc
ctectrinca.tion of its surface otherwise than by
very difficult mea-
surcments at evcry point. If, howevcr, cithcr thc case is madc
of metal, or if a metallic case which a.Imost
compictdy encloses thc
apparatus is p!accd as a sci-ce]i hctween thc sphères and the glass
case, the dectriHca.tion of the inside of thc metal screen will
dépend
entirely on that ofthe spherns, and thé electrification of the glass
case will liave no influence on tlie In this way we may
sphères.
avoid any indcnniteiiess due to thc action nf thé case.
Tn illiistrate this hy an ('xampic in which \vc can ctitenta.tc ail
thé efïc'ets, let us suppose that thé case is a
sphère of radins l,
that the centre of motion of thé torsion-arm coineides with thé
centre of the sphère and that its radius is that thé charges on
the two sphères are j~ and and that tl~c an~-je hetween~ their
positions is 0, that thé fixed sphère is at a distance from the
centre, and that is thé distance hctwecn thc two small
spiteres.
Nc~lectin~ for the present thé cn'ect of induction on thé dis-
h-ihution nf electricity on the small spheres, thc force !)ct\een
them will he a repulsion

n.nd thé moment of this force round a vertical axis

through thc
centre will bc
7~ si)) C
r'
The im~c of duc to thé spherical surface of the case is a
point
in thc samc radius at a distance /2 with the
ai acharg-e –j~
i
moment of thc attraction betwcen 7~'and this
image about the axis
of suspension is

If the radius of thc spherical case, is

large compared with <7.
 ~~iM
ELMTJiOSl-ATIc (:
INSTRUMENTS.
r~6
from the centre, wc
the second and tlrird tcrms of may neglect
the lactor in the
whole denominator. The
;r;t~J':

7~
216,J In ail electrometc1'1:1 the
1).Irt is a Ltotly
chul'g'ed
.xB? ditrel'ent l'rom that of
.aM bj. certain
as in C.n.b.
insulated body ~thod, an
"n 'L'tiL'ifctSt)K<'<t is the t
\l¡ich
whtCijt, is the
ihedu'ff-j. ~].;<~
direct ol>ject off measurenleut. ~tf~c-h~r~e
rne,,jsLii(n~ïileijt. l'c ma.t~,
co.n~th.M~~
w.th d,t~ llotwvcr,
with cliffércot of line wires,
conductors. 'j'he charges of the
l¡aHs will thon
.r~ potcntials of these couùuctors auù on
t.he potelltial of the caw o(' tlie
instrutncnt. 'l'hl' charge on cach
~y. to its radius
excess of' its potential ovcr hy tile
that 01' the casc ofmultiplieclthe
=~ of the halls are small instrument,
case. l'rom each other and comharcd with tlieii-
casc. sides or
opcïun~- of the
.T.
"E"T' not
mcasl1)'ements of this °"~
Iiiiid, owing
to tlie smullness of the
fhrce
~tr?r' the (linbi-ellee of
tcntiuls is small. A morc convenicnt furm }10-
is that of the AttmC'tcd
.l~
<n.h,.et<,d by Sir W. S~w H..r,.i~
L~~ht
brol1ght to T) have sincc
grcnt perft>ction, hoti/t)
t.,6-,a,tpc,.f~.ti. botli in theory and
Sir~F.Tb.nt "tructi. construction, by
hy
l~~hentvc-o disks at,
potentials arc brol1ght filce to
lace
~=~ thl'rc will Le a
c~lecl;rification on the ncarly uniform
opposite file es and very little
elcehification
.S. are no other C(-)11(luetoi's
or 1)0(lies in tlie neighboul'llOod.
The on
1·ositive clisk will l~c thc
al>lwo,itnately 1>roportiotl:ll to ils arca, antl to
E~ itllll iuvurscl3~ as the
betwcen thcm. ùist:mce
t~ area. of the disks
large
*M'77'nt);j5.]834.
~S!r~
llrilax)r ~y
:1 aHOCialiun, Dumlci:, 1S(i~. Th.
 217.] PIMNCIPLE 0F THE GUAKD-RING. 267

and t!ie distance between thcm small, a smaU diiTerenec of

potential
may give rise to a mcasurable force of attraction.
Thé mathcmatical thcory of the distribution of
electricity over
two disks thus arranged is given at Art. but sincc it is im-
202,
possible to make thc case of tho apparatus so large that we may
suppose thc disks insulatcd in an infinite space, thé indications of
tlie instrument in this form are not
easify interpreted numerically.
217.] Tiie addition ofthe g-uai-d-rin~ to the attracted disk is one
of the chief improvemcnts which Sir W. Thomson bas made on tlie
apparatus.
Instead of suspcnding- thé whoïc of one of thc disks und determ-
ining thc force acting upon it, a central portion of tlie disk is
separated from thé rest to form thc attracted disk, and thé outer
ring forming- the remainder of thé disk is fixed. In tins way tlie
force is measured only on that part of the disk where it is most
re~ular, and thé want of uniformity uf thé decLrincation near the

edge is of no importance, as it occurs on tlie guard-ring and not

on thé suspended part of thc disk.
résides this, hy connecting thé
g-uard-i-ing with a. metal case
surrounding the back oF thc attracted dislc and all its suspendin~-
~ppamtus, the electrification of the back et' the disk is rendered
 268 ELECTRO.STATrc INSTRUMENTS.
[217.
impossible, for it is part of tbc innfr surface of a closed hollow
conductor all at tho samc potentia).
Thomson'H Ahsolnte J~t'ctromctcr thcreforcconsists
esscntiuHy
of two p!tra))d pkttcs at diffcrcnt. potontials, onc of \vhi<-]i is made
so thitt a certain arca, no ptu-t of winch is ncar thc
cd~c of the
ptate, is mov~'abic nndcr thc action of electric fnt-ce. To fix our
i<!cas \c ]n:)y suppose the at,trac<;cd disk and
~-unrd-rin~ uppcrmost.
T))c (ixcd disk is hoi-ixonta.), ~nd is mountt-d on an
insuiati)~ stem
which has a mpasural)!c vcrtie:)! motion g-ivcu to it.
hy mcans of
a mio-ometo- scrc~ Thu ~-Uiu'd-ring- is at tc-ast as
Jar~-c as thc
f:xcd disk; its )o\vcr sur~ce is tn)]y p)anL; and
paraDd tu the fixcd
disk. A doticatc bahuicc is crccicd on thc to whieh
~ard-rin~
is suspendcd. a Hg-ht movcaDe disk \vhich aimosf fi)!s t))c circular
np~'turc in the ~nard-t'ing- without ruhhin~- a~-amst its sid~'s. Thc
)o\VLTsurface of the suspcndcd disk must he
truly p)anc, and \c
mnst ))avn thc means of knn\ving' when its plane coincides with that
ofthc )<)\r surfact- of thc ~nard-rit.g, so as tn form a
sh]~)c plane
intcrruptcd only hy the Mn-~v interval bctwcc-n thc disk and Its
g'ttard-ri)i~
For this pm'pos~ thc !o\vcr disk is scrcwcd up tiJt it is in contact.
with the s-uard-rin~ and th~ suspf.ndcd disk is aUowcd to rest
upon thc lowcr disk, so timt its lower sur~cc is in thé samc plane
as that of thé g'uard-rm~. Its position with respect to thé guard-
rin~- is tlien ascertained hy mpaas of a system of fiducia! marks.
Sir V. Thomsnn g-encra!]y uses for this
pnrposc a b)ack hair
attacix'd to thc' mcveahic part. This hair moves
up or do~-n just
in front of two h)ack dots on a white cnfum'Hod
g-round and is
viewed along- wit)i these dots by means of a p]ano convcx k'ns wit)i
the plane side next the cyc. If thc hair as sec))
tlu-ouf-h the lens
appears straight and bisccts the interval t)et\vccn the b)ac-k dots
it is said to Le in its .M;o~, and indic'atcs that, the sus-
pcnded disk wit]iw!)idt it movcs is in its prcper position ns rc-gards
hcigitt. The horizontality of the suspendcd disk
may hc tcstcd by
comparing the rencxion of part of !U)y objeet from its uppcr surface
wit)~ that of thc rcmaindcr of thé same
ohject from the upper
surfaee of t)ic gnard-ring-.
Thc balance is then arranged Ro that when a known
weight is
placed on the centre of the suspendcd disk it is in eqmlibrinm
in its sighted position, the whole appara.tus
being- frec-d from
clcctri{!cation hy putting- every part in metallic communication.
A metal case is plaecd over thc
guard-ring' so as to enclose the
 &ï8.] THOMSON'S AUSOLUTE ELECTROMUTEH. 269

balance and suspcndcd disk, sufHcicnt apL-rtures hcing- left to sec

the iiducial marks.
Thé ~-uard-rin~ case, :md suspended dis), are all in meta)]ic
communication with (;h other, but are insu)atcd from thé other
pnr<s of thc app.u'atus.
Now !ct it Le rcquu'ed to mcasure tl)c dif!bt'cucc of'
potcutjti!~
of' two conductors. Tin; c~iductors arc put ni communication with
t)te uppcr and lowcr dis)~ rcspcctiv~'ly
hy mc:ms oi' wircs, the
W(.']~-ht is takun otr thé suspcndcd dink, and thc Jowcr disk is
movcd up hy mcans or thc mio-ometcr scrcw till thc c!ucti-ic:d
attraction bi-i))~-s thc suspcnded disk duwn to its si~'htcd position.
Wc thcn know that thc attraction bct\ccn the disks is cqual to
t)tc wci~ht which brou~-])t thé disk to its sig-htcd
position.
If bc thc immcrica.1 vatuc of thc wci~ht~ and thc force of
gravity, thé forcu is aud if J is t)tc arca uf thc suspcndcd
disk, /) t!ic distance hctwecn thc disks, and thc différence of thc
potentiats of thé disks.

~io.J blucc there is always some in dutcrmining' t)ic

uncertainty
mtcromctcr to J~ = 0~ und sincc crror
i-cudmg' corresponding- any

Let UHftenotu thé mdiuH of thu .suspcndcd disk by Vt'. ~t<) that of the
of the gunrj-rin~ ~erture
hy 7; tlien thé bre:K)th of thu Mnu)~r i~turval betwcon thtj
d)Hk tmd thu rin~ will hc _C=~7~.
If thu di~tatlec between the HUHj)un.)cddisk ~n() the
htt'ge fixed dink in D, :).m)
the d)<rcre))ee of jxttcntiitlH betwee~ t)n;se dinks M r, theu, thé iuve~tifation in
Art. ~01, tho quant:ty of electricity on tlie KUHpL'ndeddisk by will bc

)of'' ô)
~)n;re a=~ or (t=0.220035(/Jt').
11'
If t))C surface of tho gu:).rd-rit~ iH aot cxactiy in thu )~anc of the xurfiMo «f
thu suspended disk, let us suppo, ti~t. t.ht: di~mco hctweeu t)iû fixed disk Mut
tho ~~r.i-nng is not D but 7~-)-:=~, theu it :tppbara from thé inv~ti~ti-.n in
Art. ~-j that thuro will bu an additiuaat uf eluctricity near the edge of
char~o
the disk un Mcount of itfi height z abovu the gcnerat surface of thé
Thé whoto e)]:u~e in thi« ca.~ is t.)n.rG<(jn; guard-rin~
 27(1
ELECTROSTATJC JNSTRUMENTS.
f-

is small, Sir ~y· most

~t°w°~,r"°" f}'holUsoll prel('l'S to makc all his
measurements
electromotive force 1:
Tlms, if 7' and
,t. ~f

If"OrIl1st.ance, in nrcier to
measnre the electromotive force of a

P'?~ if
~V r.-
~~°'j ~'5:
:lt a constant t'
potential. Tliis is tcsted hy
eonl1CctilJg the lower
p. d~J J 1 L
:t' ~t-' disk of is connected :°t

t~
troinetei- a and the furce ~y ~e-
d 1'l'quired to hring the sushended dii3j~
its sighted to
position constant,
COl1dCllser
co~hn~rti)) till the
U, ~e.J° of
"'th.
the
secondary electrometer is in its sioiited
< position,
~ri.
r" :°"
earth
v-u may call 1'. "E;
If' we now connect, t-11(~
positive clectrode of the
JJUttery to carth,
of the }Jrineipa]
wi~ LJ r~ ülcctrometer to the
?.
will 1~ ~n the d.~
+' ~n' u!c.ctromot)vc iorce of
tlie battery. Let
~X of the micrometcr in
this Cfise, and let If}je the
reudin~ tlie sushendecl is connected wit.h 4L--

~~r~t~ disks force z may

''Mt.MeM.
distances. W),n .)“ clistance is tooconve~~Hy
'Vllt-'n the meam~b
small a small
change of
change in

di:<k. the A, U.
X~S~S~r~.
correeterl clulntity

-nnj.t:nue(t())H){~
in thc ~ard-rin.~
~== r.~h~ nf.~erture
fLs.~nceb.tween <ixe() ami ~.snon~ed d!
=~
fc,°°-u63.5(lt'-It).
l~lJ iH ernnll We "ect the .cccnd
mny neblect the lnat tenn.~{~)~ t.nn, .“) ..j.
 ait).] GAUOE ELECTROMETER. 271

force varies inverscly as thé

square of thé distance, so that any
(ji-ror in the absoute distance introdnces a
)ar~e en-or in the rcsult
un!ess thc distance is
hu-ge compared with t].e limits of crror of
the nncrometer scrcw.
The euect of sm~t
Irreg.u1a.-itics of form in tho surfaces of' thé
(hsks and of the interval between them
diminish according to the
tnverse cube and hi~hcr inverse
powers of the distance, and ~-h~
evcr bc thé fm-m of n
corru~ted surface, thc cminences of which
just rcach a plane surface, thé ch.ct.rica) effcct at
any dist~ee
which is considerahic to
comparecl the hrcadth of the corruptions
is thé same as that of a
plane at a certain small distance hehind
thé piane of thc
tops of thc eminenccs. Sce Arts. 1 !)7, 198.
By means of thc auxiliary .-lectrification, tested
hy thc auxiliary
clectrometer, a propcr interval hetwcen thé dis~s is securcd.
Ti!e auxiliary electrometer
may hc of a simpler construction, in
which t)Lcrc is no provision for thc
détermination of thé force
of attraction in ahsotute mcasurc, sincc all that is wantcd is to
secure a constant electrification. Snch an dectrometcr
ea))ed a may be
electrometer.
Tins method of
using- an auxihary cleeti-incation besidcs t)je eh~e-
trification to be measured is callecl the
Heterostatic nu.D.od of
electrornetry, in opposition to thc Idiostntic method in which
thc
who!c efTect is produced
by thc eicctrification to be incasnred
lu several forms cf the attracted disk
dcctromc-tcr, thé attraetcd
~k is placed at onc end of an arm
which is supported by being-
attachcd to a platinum wirc
passing throu~h its centre of' gravity
and kept stretched
by means of a spring. T!~ other end of thé
~-m carries t!ic hair winch is
hro~ht to a sighted position by
aitenn~ thc distance betw~n thc disi~ and so
of the eh-ctnc attraction adjustins- thé force
to a cons<ant value. In thèse electro-
meters this force is net In ancrai determincd in absolute measure,
but is known to be constant,
provided t)ie torsional e!astieitv of
thé platinum wire docs not
change.
Thewholeapparatus is placed in a Leyden
,ar, ofwhich the inner
suriace is charg-ed and connected witli thé
attracted disk and
~ard-r.ng.. The othcr disk is worked a
by micrometer scre~v and
is connectai first with thc carth and then
with the conductor w~.c
potcnhal to be measurcd. The différence of
a readin~s maltipiied
by constant to be determined for cach elcetrometer gives thé
potential requircd.
219.] Thé clectrometcrs aircady described are not
self-actin~
 272 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. [2IC).

but rcquirc for cach observation an adjustment of a micrometer

sercw, or somc other movcment which must bc made by thé
obscrvfr. Thcy arc thercfore not fitted to act as self-registcring in-
struments, whic)) must ofthemsch'es move into the proper position.
This condition is fuhiUed hy Thomson's Quadrant E]cctrometcr.
Thc ch'ctrica] prineipic on w)iieb this instrument is founded
may
bc tbus explaincd
und j~ are two fix~d conductors whic-It
may be at thé same
or at dillcrent potentials. C is a. movcabic conductor ut a high
potcntial, wliich is so p)accd titat part of it is opposite to thc
suriace of and part opposite to that of~, and that thé
proportions
of these parts arc altered as 6' movcs.
For tins pm'posu It is most convolicnt to make Cmovcahie about
an axis, and ma!.c thc opposcd surfaces of~,
of'~?, and ofC portions
of surfaces of révolution about the same axis.
In this way thc distance betwct'n t!ic surface of C and thc
opposed surfaces of j' or of~ remains aiways thc same, and thc
motton of C in the positive direction
simply incrcascs the area
opposed to and ditnitnshes the arca opposed to yA
If tbe potentiats of and are equ:d there will be no force
urg-in~- 6' frotn J to but if thc potentia! of C di<!ers from that
of~ more than from that of J, then C will tend to move so as
to inerua.se thé arca, ofits surface opposed to j~.
Hy a. suitabic arrangement of tbe apparatus this force may bc
made nearly constant for différent positions of C within certain
limits, so tliat if 6' is suspended hy a torsion nhrc, its dcnexions
will be nearly proportional to thé différence of
potentials bctween
and multiplied by the diifei-encc of t)ie potential of C from
the meau of those of Y/ and 7~.
6' is maintained at a high potential by means of a condenser
provided with a replenishcr and tested by a gauge electrometer,
and and arc connected with tlie two conductors thé diucrence
of witosc potentials is to ht; mcasured. Thé !iighcr thc potential
of C tlic more scnsitivc is thé instrument. This clectrification of
C, bcing- indcpcndent of the e~ectri~~cation to be mcasured, places
this e)ectromcter in tbe heterostatic class.
We may apply to this electromcter thc general
theory of systems
ofcondu.ctors given in Arts. !)3, 127.
Let C denote thé potcntials of t]te thrce conductors re-
spectively. Let (~ &,e be thcir respective capar-ities, thé coefficient
of induction between and C, <y that between C and J, and )' that
 ~19-] QUADRANT ELECTROMETER. 273

betwecn and .S. Ail thèse coefficients will in général vary with
tlie position of C, and if 6' is so arrangcd that tlie extremities of J!
and B are not near those of 6' as long- as thc motion of C is confined
within certain limits, wc ma.yasccrtain thé form of these coefficients.
If 0 represents thc deftexion of' C from towards B, then thé part
of the sur&ce of J! opposed to C will diminish as 0 Increases.
HeïicG if~ is kept at potential 1 whilc and C arc kept at pot~ntial
0, tlie charge on will bc <ï=~–a0, whcrc and a are
constants, and a: is the capacity of
If A and 7~are symmetrica!, thé capacity of B is =
~+aC.
Thc capacity of C is not attcrcd by tlie motion, for thé
only
effcet oftbe motion is to bring a différent part of C to thé
opposite
interval between J and 7~. Hence = c-Q.
Thé quantity of e)cctrieity induced on C when j9 is raised to
potential unity is = ~–a0.
T)ie cooffieient ofindnctioïl bctwcen and C Is y = ~+a~.
Thé coci!i<;icnt of inductio;). hct\veen and -S is not altered hy
the motion of 6', but remains )' ==
Hence the clectrical cncrg'y of thc system is

conductors J and J~ arc in the furrn of

a cyHndricut box completc!y divided
into four quadrant.~ separately insu-
lated, butjoincd by wires so that two
opposite quadrants arc connectcd witli
and tlie two othcrs with B.
Thé conductor C is suspended so as
to be capable of turning about a
vertical axis, and may constat of two
opposite Hat quadrantal arcs supported
by their radii at their cxtrcmities.
In the position of equilibrium these quadrants should bc partly
VOL.I. T
 274 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. [220.
within A and partly within and thc supporting radii should
be near thé middte of the
quadrants of the hollow base, so that
thé divisions of the box and thé extremities and
supports of C
may be as far from each other as possible.
Thc conductor C is kept
permanently at a high potcntial by
being connected with thc inner coating- of thé Leyden jar which
forms thc case of the instrument. and are connecter thé first
with thé ~rtl., and the other with thé
body whosc poteutid is to he
measurcd.
If the potential of tins
body is zero, and if thé instrument be
iu adjustment, there ought to be no force
tending to make C move,
but if tlie potential of is of ttie same sig-u as that of C, then
C will tend to move from to with a nearly uniform force, and
thé suspension apparatus will bc twisted till an
called into p!ay and produces equal force is
equitibrium. For donexions within
certain limits thé deflexions of C will be
proportional to thé
prodnct
(~)(C-~(~+~)).
By iucreasing- t!ie potential of C thé sensibility of tlie instrument
may be inerea~d, and ibr small values of (J +F) thc force will be
nearly proportional to (~N) 6'.

0~ ~e ~M/Mc;~ <j~7<'c~ ~~M~a~.

220.] lu ordor to determine large différences of potential in ab-
solute measure we may
employ thé attracted disk electrometer, and
compare thé attraction with thé effect of' a weig-ht. If at thé same
time we measure thé difference of
potential of the same condiietors
by means of the quadrant electrometer, we shall ascertain tho
absolute value of certain
readings of the scale of the quadrant
electrometer, and in this way we may dcduce thc value of thé scale
readings of thé quadrant electrometer in tcrms of the
ofthe suspended part, and thé moment of torsion potential
of the s~peasion
apparatus.
To ascertain thé potential of a
charged conductor of finite si/e
we may connect t)ie conductor with one
electrode of tlie electro-
meter, while thé other is connected to earth or to a
constant potential. The electrometer body of
reading. will give thc potential
of the conductor after thé division of
its electricity between it
and the part of thé electrometer with
which it is put in contact.
It K dénote thé
capacity of thé conductor, and J~ that of this part
 221.] MEASUREMENT 0F POTENTIAL. 275

If thé condnctor is not

large compared with thé electrometer,
TT will be comparable with and un!css we can ascertain the
values of K and tlie second term of thé expression will have
a doHbtfut value. But if we can make thé
potential of the electrode
of thé eicctrometcr very nearly to that uf thé body before
equal
making- contact, then ttie uuccrtaulty of the values of K and
will he of little conséquence.
Ifws know thé value of'the potcutia! of the
body approximately,
we may charge thé eleetrode by means of a
repiciushcr' or other-
\visc to this approximate potential, and the ncxt
experiment will
give a eloser approxiinatioji. In this way we may measure the
potcntial of a conductor whose capacity is small compared with
that of tho electrometer.

To j!/<?rM;ethe ~O~Mi'M~
~My~'ûM~<? the
321.] 7~i; J~~o~ Place a sphere, whose radius is small com-
pared with thé distance of etectrifled conduct)rs, with its centre
nt thé given point. Connect it
by means of a fine wire with the
earth, then insulate it, and carry it to an electrometer and ascertain
tlie total charge on the sphère.
Then, if Y be tlie poteittial at the given point, and a thé
radius of thé sphère, tlie charge on the
sphere will he -~==~,
and if he thé potentiel of thé
sphère as measured by an elec-
tromcter when placed in a room whose walls are connected with
thé earth, then
= a:,
whellce = 0,
or thé potential of thé air at the
point where thé centre of the
sphère was placed is e~ua! but of opposite sign to the potential of
the sphere after being connected to
earth, then insulated, and
biought into a room.
Tins method bas been
employed by M. Delmann of Creuznach in
T 2
 276 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[222.

measuring thé potentitd at a certain hcight above thc earth's

surface.
&'M~ ~A'~o~. We Iiavc supposed t!)e sphère placed at thc
givcn point and first connected to earti), and then Insulated, and
earried into a space surroundcd with couducting matter at
potcntial
zero.
Now let us suppose a fine insulated wire earried from the elec-
trode of thé electrometer to the place \vhcre the potential is to
he measured, Let thé sphère be first
dischar~cd compk-tcty. This
may be donc by putting- it into thé inside of a vessel of thc same
metal whieli nearly em'rounds it and m~kitig- it touch the vessel.
New let thé sphere thus dischargcd h<- carricd to the end oi' the
wire and made to touch it. SIncc tlie sphère is not dcctriiicd it
will he at thé potential of tlie air at the If thc électrode
place.
vire is at thc same potential it will not be afiected
hy thc contact,
but if thc électrode is at :L dinercnt potential it will
hy contact
with thé sphère he made nfarer to that of thé air thitn it was
before. ]3y a succession of such opérations, thé
spherc being-
ahernatcly diseltarged and made to to~cit H)e électrode, the poten-
tial of the électrode of thc cicctrometer will
coutinuany approach
that ofthe air at the given point.
222.] To measure t]ie potcntial of a conductor without touching
it, wc may incasure the potential of thé air at any point in the
neighhourhood of thc conductor, and calculate that of the eonductor
from thé result. If there he a hollow iicarly surrounded
by thé
conductor, then t!to potential ftt any point of the air in this hollow
will he very nearly that of tlie condnctor.
In this way it bas bcen aseertained by Sir W. Thomson that if
two hollow conductors, one uf
copper and thé other of zinc, are
in metallic contact, then thé potential of thé air m tlie hollow
surrounded by zinc is positive with référence to that of thé air
in thé hollow surrounded by copper.
.?' ~o~. If by any means wc can cause a succession of
small bodies to detac): themselves from thé end of thé
électrode
thc potcntial of thc electrode will
approximate to that of the sur-
rounding air. This may hc donc by causing shot, filings, sa.nd, or
water to drop out of a funne! or pipe connected witli the électrode.
Thé point at which tlie potcntial is measured is that at which
the stream ceases to bc continuous and breaks into
scparate parts
or drops.
Another convenient method is to fasten a slow match to tlie
 223.] THEORY 0F THE PROOF PLANE. 277

electrode. The potential is very soon made

equal to that of thé
air at thc burmng end of thé match.
].;ven a fine metallic point
ts snfHcient to create a
discharge by means of the particles of the
~r when the di<ibrence of
potcntials is considérable, but if we
w)s)i to reduce this differcnce to
zero, we must use one of thé
methods statecl above.
If we only ~vish to ascertain tlie
sign of thé diQerencc of thé
j'ot<-nt.als at two places, and not its numéral
value, we may cause
drops or ~n~s to be discharged at one oft!,e
places from a nozzle
connected with thc other place, and catch thé
drops or f!)inM
ni an insulated vessel. Eacli
drop as it faHs is eharged with a
certain amount of clectric:ty, and it is
ttic vess~]. Thc charge of' the vessel completely discliarg-ed into
thcreforc is continuaUy
ctunajating, and after a sufHeient number of
drops hâve fallen, thé
charge of the vessel may he tested by thé ro.est metliods. 'Thé
s.gM of t.he charge is positive if thé potential of the nozzle is
positive
ndatively to that, ofthe surrounding air.

MEASUREM.ENT 01.' SUJU.'ACE-DENStTY OF KLECTHIFICATION.

y%~v~ep~7v~.
223.] In tcstin~ thé resutts of thc mathematical
theory of thé
distribution of' d~trieity on thc surface of conductors, it is
to bc able to measurc thé neccssary
surfacc-dcnsity at dirent
thc conductor. points of
For this purpose Couiomb a
employed small disk
of gilt paper (ttstoncd to an
insnlating- stem of gum-lac. He ap-
plifd t)ns disk to various points of' thc condoctor
by placing it
so as to coincide as
nearly as possible with tho surface of the
coaductor. He then rcmovcd it by means of thé
insulating stem
nnd measurcd thc charge of thc dislc
by mcans of bis electrometer.
Smcc the surface of tbe disk, when
applied to thc conductor,
np:u-)y coincidcd with that of tbe conductor, he concluded that
thc sm-faœ-density on the outer surface of thé disk was
nearly
c-qua! to that on thc surface of thc conductor at that
place, and that
thc charge on the disk whcn removed was
nearly equal to that
on an area of the surface of thc conductor
equal to that of one side
of thc disk. This disk,
\v!icn cmpbycd in this way, is called
Coulomb's Proof Plane.
As objections have becn raised to Coulomh's use of the
proof
plane, 1 shall make some remarks on thé theory of the
experiment.
 278 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. [224.
The experiment consists in hringing- a small
condnctinp- body
into contact with thé sur&ce of thc conductor at thé
point whcre
thé density is to bc measurcd, and then thé
rcmoving body and
determining' its charge.
We have first to shew that t!te charge on thé émail
body when
in contact with thé conductor is proportional to the sur~tcc-
density which existcd at thc point of contact before thé small body
was placed there.
Wc shaH suppose that aU the dimensions of thc small
1)ody, and
cspecia!)y its dimension in tlie direction ofthc normal at thé point
of contact, are small compared with eit!)er of the radii ofcurvuture
of tlie conductor at thc point of contact. Menée thc variation of
the résultant force due to thé conductor
suppo.sed rig'id!y dectnfjcd
within tlie space occupied by the small hody may Lu
neglected,
and wc may trcat thc surface of the conductor near the small
hody
as a plane surface.
Now Ute c!)ar~c which the small hody will takc
hy contact wit)t
a. plane surface will bc proportional to thé résultant force normal
to tlie surface, that is, to the
snrfacc-dcnsity. Wc slm)l ascertain
thé amount oftitc charge for particnliu' forms ofthe
body.
'\A'ehâve next to shew that whcn the small
hody is rcmovcd no
spark will pass bctwcen it and the conductor, so Dutt it will carry
its charge with it. This is évident, becausc when the bodies arc
m contact their potentials arc the samc, and therefore thé
density
on tlie parts nearest to t!)e point of contact is
extremc]y small.
When the small hody is removed to a veiy short distance from
the conductor, which -wc shaH suppose to bc cicetrifjed
positivcly,
tlien tttc electrification at thé point nearest to thé sma!I
body is
no longer zero but positive, but, sinec the of the smaH
charge body
is positive, the positive eh'ctrincation close to t!)e small
body will
Lo less than at other neighbouring' points of the surface. Now
thé passage of a. spark dépends in général on thé
magnitude of tho
resuUant force, and this on thé
surface-donsity. Menée, since we
suppose that thé conductor is not so high!y electrified as to be
discharging clectricity from thc other parts of its surface, it will
not discharge a spark to thé small
body from a part of its surface
which we have sbewn to have a smaller
snrfacc-density.
224.'] We shall now consider various forms of tbc small hody.
Suppose it to he a small hémisphère applied to thé conductor so
as to touch it at the centre of its flat side.
Let thé conductor he a large sphere, and let us
modify thé form
 225.] THE PROOF PLANE. 279
of thé hémisphère so tha.t its surface is a, little more than a hemi-
sphere, and meets thé sur face of thé sphere at right angles. Then
we have a case of which we have
already obtained the exact solution.
Sec Art. ]G8.
If and B be thé centres of the two spheres
cutting- cach other
at right angles, Z)~' a diameter of thé circJe of
intersection, and C
tlie centre of that circle, then if is thé potential of a conductor
whose outer surface coincidcs witti that of thé two
spheres, thé
quantity of electricity on thé exposed surface of thé snLere is

If a and /3 are thc radii of tlie sphères~ then, whcn a is

la.re'e
compared with /3, ttic charge on -Nis to that on A in the ratio of

Now let cr he thc uniform suriace-density on whcn is re-

movcd~ thon the c!)arge ou is
4Tro.~<r,
and therefore the charge on 7~is

or, when 7? is very small compared with a, thé charge on thé

hem!sphere 13is equal to three times that duc to a surface-density o-
extcnding- over an area equ:d to that of thc circular base of thc
hémisphère.
It appears from Art. 175that if a small sphère is made to touch
an e!ectrif!ed body, and is then rcmovcd to a distance from
it, the
mean surface-density on the sphere is to the
surface-density of thé
hody at thc point of contact as is to 6, or as 1.645 to 1.
225.') Thc most convenient form for the proof plane is that of
a circular disk. ~"c shall thercfore shcw how thé charg-e on a
circular disk laid on an elcetrified surface is to be measured.
For this purpose we sha.U construet a value of thé potential
function so that onc of the equipotential surfaces resembles a circular
flattened protubérance whose general form is somewhat like that of
a disk !ying' on a plane.
 280 ELECTROSTATÏC INSTHUMHNTS. [2~5.

Let nr be thé surface-density of a. plane, winch we shall suppose

to bc that of
Thé potential due to thia electri~cation will be
F==-.47rn-
Now let two disks of radius ho rig'idty dcntriiïed with sur~ce-
densities and + 0- Lct thé first of tI~-SGLe placed on the phme
ot'.ry with its centre at thc origin, and thc second paraUel to it at
the very small distance
Then it may bc shcwn, as ve shall sec in thé thcory of ma~
netism, that tlie potential of tho two diskn at any point is <?,
where M is thc sotid angle subtended by thc edge ofcither disk at
thc point. Hencc tlie ])otcntia! of thé whole Hystcm will bc
= 4 TT0- -)- (t) fT' c.
Thé forms of the cquipotcnti:d snrfhces and lincs of indur-tion
arc givcn on the ]eft-hand side of Fi~ XX, at thé end ofVo!. II.
Let us trncc thc form of thc surface for which ~=0. T))is
surface is Indicatcd by the dottcd hnc.
Puttin~ the distance of aoy point from the axis of = then,
whcn ?' is much less than a, nnd r is sma.)!,

M = 2~–2~ +&;e.

Hence, for values of considm-aDy less than a, the cqnation of

the zéro cquipotcntia! surface is

Hcnce tlus cquipotc'ntia! surf.trc ncar thc axis is nearly f)nt.

Ontsido thé disk, wliore ?- is ~r~tt-r than M is zéro when is
zero, so thnt <I)c pia~G of~ is part oi'tite ~quipotcntia.1 surface.
To find w]icrc Uicsc two parts of thc surfuce mcct, let us find at
,77~
wha.t point of this == 0.
plane
When )- is vcry ncar]v cftua! to
 220.] ACCUMULATORS. 281
like ~ure of radius )-“ and
nearly uniform tluekncss and ofthc
part of t!ie infinité plane of which lies bcyond this Hgurc.
Thc surface-integral over thé whole disk gives thé
charge of
electricity on it. It may be found, as in the theory of a circu!ar
current in Part IV, to be

0~ .~c~'e ~~y/wp~M ~M~ the ~~jK;-cwc~/ Ca/jae~.

226.] An Accumuhtor or Condenser is an apparatus
of two condueting ZDsurfaces consisting
separated by an Insulafiag ti dicleefric
mcdium.
A Lcydcn jar is an aceumulator in which an Insidc
coating of
tinfoil is separatcd from ths outside coatnig- the
by glass of which
thé jar is made. Thc original Lcyden phia! was a
glass vessel
containing water wiieli was separated by tho glass from the hand
which h(dd it..
Thé outer surface of any insu]atcd conductor
may hc considered
as one of tlie surfaces of an accumulator, thé other
being t!tc earth
or t.hc walls of t)ic room in which it is and thc
placed, intervening
air being the dicicctric médium.
TIic capacity of an aceumulator is measured
by tlie quantity of
eicctricity with which tlie inner surface must hc cliarged to make
the clifierence between thc potentials of t!ie surfaces
unity.
Since every electrical potential is thé sum of a number of
parts
found by dividing caeh electrical element
by its distance from a
point, the ratio of a quantity of electricity to a potcntial must
have thc dimensions of a linc. Hence clectrostatic
capacity is a
Hnc'ar quantity, or wc may measure it in feet or metres
without
arobiguity.
In electrical researchcs accumulators are uscd for two
principal
purposcs, for receiving and rctaining ]argo quantifies of electricity
in as small a compass as possible, and for
n~asuring- definite quan-
tities of electricity by mcans of thc potcntial to winch
they raise
thc accumulator.
 282 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[22~
For thé rétention of electrical
charges nothing bas been devised
more perfect than the
Leyden jar. The principal part of thé !osa
anses from the
electricity ereeping along thé damp iincoated surface
of thé glass from thé one
coating to tho other. This may bc eheeked
in a gréât degree
by artificially drying the air within the jar, and
by varmshmg the surface of tlie glass where it is
exposed to thé
ntrnosp!ierc. In SirW. T!mmson~
sman percentage of ]css from electroscopes there is a vcrv
day to day, and 1 bc)ieve that nojie
of this loss can bc traced to direct
conduction either through air
or tlirough glass when thé is
glass good, but that it arises chiefly
from superficial conduction
along the varions insulating stems and
glass surfaces of tlie instrument.
In tact, thé same eicctrician has
communicated a charge to
sujphunc acid in a large hulh witii a long neck, and bas then
hcr-
mctically seak.d the neck hy fusing- it, so that thé
charge was com-
plète y surrounded by glass, and after some
years the charge was
found still to he retained.
It is only, howcver, whcn
co)d, that glass insulates in this
way, for thé charge escapes at once if thé
a température bp!ow IOO°C. glass is heatcd to
Wi~n it is desired to obtain gréât
capacity in small compass,
necumulators in which thé dictectric is s)tect
caoutchouc, mica, or
paper tmpregnated with paramn are convcnlent.
237.] For accumulators of thé second elass, intended for thé
measurement of quantities of electricity, all ~hd
dielectrics must he
employed with gréât caution on account of the
property which they
possess caHedElectrie Absorption.
The only safe dielectric for such accumulators is
air, which has
tins inconvenience, that
ifany dust or dirt gets into thé narrow
space between the opposed surfaces, whick ought to be
occupied only
by mr, it not only altcrs the thickness of thé stratum of
air, but
may establish a connexion hetween thé opposed surfaces, in which
case thé accumulator will not hold a
charge.
To détermine in absolute measure, that is to
say in fcet or mètres
thé capacity of an accumulator, we must either
first ascertain its
form and size, and then solvc thé
problem of the distribution of
electricity on its opposed surfaces, or we must compare its
with that of anothcr accumulator, for which this capacity
problem )ias bcen
solved.
As thé problem is a
very dimeult one, it is hest to hegin with an
accumulator constructed of a form for winch thé
solution is known.
 228.] MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.
283
Thus the capacity of an insulatcd
sphere in an uniimitcd space is
known to be measured the radius of thé sphère
by
A sphere suspended in a room was
ransch and Weber, as an absolute standardnettially ~e'd hy MM Kohl-
with which they com-
pared thé capacity of other accumulators.
T)ie capacity, ho~vever, of a
sphère of moderato si.e is so small
when compared with thé
capacities ofthc accun~ulators In common
~e that tho sphère is not a convenient
standard measure
Its capacity n~ht he groat!y incr~ed
by snrrcundm~ the
~hcre with a hollow concentric spherical surface
of somewhat
~rcatcr radius. Thé capaeity of thc mncr surface is
then a rourth
proportional to th. thickness of t!.e stratum of air and
thé two eurfaccs. t!~ radii of

J~7'~r~ this arrangement as a standard of

capaeity, but the d.fhculties of working thé surfaces
of mak~ them truly .phericaL
truly concentric, and of measuring thcir distance
and thcirradu with
suScientaccm-acy, arc considérable
Wc arc thcrcforc led tn
prêter for an ahsolute measure of
a form in which the capacity
opposed surfaces are parallel planes.
The accuracy cf thé surface of the
can hc easily tested,
and their distance can be mcasured phu~
by a micrometer scr~ and
may he made capable of continuous
variation, which is a most
important property of a measuring instrument.
The only di~eutty
remaining arises from thé fact that thc plane.
must necessarily be
bounded, and that thé distribution of
near thc houndaries of thé electricity
planes bas not been rigidiy eaieillated.
It is truc that if we make them
equa) circular disks, whosc radius
is large compared with tbo distance
between thcm, we r.aytrcat
the edges of thé disks as if
they ~re straight lines, and calculate
the distributiori of
electricity hy tho mcthod due to Hdmt~dtz, and
described at A.t. 202 But it will be
noticed that in this case
part of thc electricity is d.strihuted on thc back of cacl~
that in thé calculation it bas been disk, and
snpposed that there are no
conductors in thé neighbourhood, which is not
and cannot bc the
case in a small instrument.
«- the
S~W. Thomson, which we arrangement, de to
maycall tbe Guard-ring. arrangement,
by means of w!nch thé quantity of
electricity on an insulated disk
may be exact!y determined in terms of its potential.
 00~
°"
ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[228.
?~c <y~Y/7'~ ~w.a~
is a eyiindricat vcsse) of
conductin~ mariai of which tlie
outer surface of the
upper face is accuratcty plane. This upper
surface consisis of two parts,
`
a disk and a broad ring-
–(_ surrounding- the disk,
separated from it by a very
small intcrvid all round,
r- just
U~ sufHcicnt to prévint sparks
pass.n~. Thc uj)ppr surface
~_°~
-B– of thé disk is
accuratc)y in
yi~. 20. the sa;ne plane with that of
t!'e ~uard-rit)~ Tho disk is
supportcd by pd)fu-s of Insuhtn~ material G' 6' is a meta! ()isk
t)~' Mdt-r surface ofwhich is accuratcty
plane and para))t.t to
The disk C is considcrab!y than
h~pr Its (Ustane~. from
adjustcd and me~nrod hy means of a nncroinctcr
screw, wl.ic-h
is not given in thé ft~ure.
This apcunudator is uscd as a.
mcasurins- instrument as foHows
Suppose C to Le at potf-ntia) zcro, and t!K. disk and v~se! 7~
hoth at potcnti~ The-n therc will bc no ctectriHcation on the
back of tlic disk bccausc thé vcssel is
nearly doscd and is aiï at the
samc potentia]. T).cre will bc very Uttic electrification on the
ed~es of t),c disk bL.cau.se 7~ is at the same
potcntial with the
d.sk. On thé face of thc disk the electrification will
bc nearly
nn.form, and therefore <hc whotc charge on the disk wiH t)c almost
L.xact]y reprcsented by its area mu)tip)icd by thé
surface-density on
ap)anp~as~ivenatArt,.]24.
In fact, wc !earn from the
investig-ation at Art. 201 that the
charge on thc disk is

r~±~ ) 7
8J 8,/ Q)
where 7i' is the radius of the disk, 7~ that of the
hole in the g.nrd-
ring-, thé d~tanee hctwecn J and C, and a a
quantity ~'luch
cannot cxcccd (7)'7i')'
If thc interval be~vecn thé disk and the
g-uard-rm~ is small
eomparcd with the distance bchvecn Y/ a.id 6', ttm second term will
be vo-y small, and the
charge on thc disk will he nearly
.h'= ·
~7~+7,
"8~
 ~29.] COMl'ARISON OF CAP.\CIT)ES. 285

Now let the vessel be put in connexion with thé earth. Thé
charge on thé dish will no longer bc
uniformly distributcd, but it
will rcnuun the samc in
quautity, and if wc now discharge wc
shall obtam a
quantity of' .tricity. the vaiue of which we know
in terms of thc. original difrercncc of potuntials ~nd th. mesur-
able ~uantitius 7)', and

0~ the ~W~M~ ~e 6~M<A/ ~MM7/?-

229.] Thc form of accumulator winch is bcst fitted to hâve its
capacity determincd in absolute mesure from thé form and dimen-
sions of its purts is not
gcnera!!y the most s.iitab)c for e)L.ctrie.L!
cxpcr.ments. It is desirable t))at thc mc-asures of
use should bc accumulators capacity in actua!
h~ving-onty twoconducting surfaces, onc
of which i8 as
nearly as possible surrounded by tlte other. T!)c
g-u:u-d-rin~- aceuMutator, on thc other hand, bas three indupendcnt
condHcti!]~. portions witich must bc chargcd itnd dischar~-cd in a
c-ci-tain ordcr. Hc-nce it is dcsiraUe to be ab)c to
compare the
capacities of twn accumulators by an dectrica) procoss, so as to test
accumulators whicii may afterwards serve as
secondary standards.
1 shaH first shew how to test thc
equaHty oftbe capacity of two
g-uard-rin~- accumulatord.
Lct bc the disk, thc guard-ring with thc rest of thc con-
ducting vessel attachcd to it, and C the large disk of one of thèse
accumulators, and let and C' be the con-espouding- parts of
thé other.
IfcitherofthcsG accumuhttora is of the more simple kind, having
only two conductors, we have only to suppress or 7)", and to
suppose to be thé inner and 6' t!te outer
conducting- surface. C
lu this e:~e being understood to surround
Let thc foDowlng- connexions be made.
Let 7~ bc kept a)ways connected with C', and J~ with C, that
is,
let each guard-riug be connecta with thc large disk of thé othcr
condenser.
(!) Let y/ bc connected with and C' and with J, t)ic électrode
of a Leyden jar, and ici be eonncotL-d witit and 6' and with
the carth.
(2) Let J, j9, and C" be insulated from J.
(3) Let be insulated from 13 and 6", and A' from J~ and C'.
(4) Let J~ and C' bu connected with and 6' and with the
earth.
(5) Let A be connected with
 286 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. [229.

(G) Let and A' be connected with an electroscope

We may express thèse connexions as follows

Hère thc sign of e(luality expresses eicctricul

connexion, and thé
vertical stroke expresses insulation.
In (!) thé two accumulators arc
charg-cd oppositely, so that is
positive and négative, tlie charges on and ~r being uniformly
distributcd on thé upper surface opposed to t!ie
large disk of each
aecumulator.
In (2) thé jar is removed, a)id in (3) the
charges on and arc
insulated.
In (4) thé guard-ring-s arc connected ~th the
large disks, so that
the charges on il and though unaltered in magnitude, are now
distrihuted over their whole surface.
In (5) is connected with ~f. If thé
charges are equal and of
opposite signs, the electrification will ho entirely
in (6) this is tested by means of thé destroyed, and
electroscope
Thé electroscope \vi!I Indieate positive or
negative electrification
according as or lias thé greater capncity.
By means of a key of proper construction, thé whole of these
opérations can be performecl in due succession in a very small
fraction of' a second, and thé capacities
adjusted till no olectri-
fication can be detected by the
electroscope, and in this way thé
capacity of' an accumulator may be adjusted to be equal to that of
any other, or to the sum of the capacities of several
so that a system ofaccumulators accumulators
may be formed, each of which has
its capacity determined in absolute measure, i. e. in feet or in
metres,
while at thé same time it is of thé construction most
suitable for
eiectrica! experiments.
T)us method of comparison will.
probably be found useful in
dctermining the specifie capaeity fbr electrostatic induction of
différent dielectrics in the form of plates or disks. If a disk
of
thé dielectric is interposed between and C, thé disk being con-
siderably larger than tlien tlie capacity of thc accumulator will
 2~9.] SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY. 287

be altered and made cqual to that of the same

accumulator when A
and C are nearer tog-ether. If the accnmutator with thé didectnc
plate, and with and C at distance .r, is of tho same
t~e same accumu!toi- without t!.e capacity as
dielectrie, and with A and C at
d.stancc.~ then, if' a is thé thickness of- thé and K its specifie
d)etectnc inductive capacity referred to air as a
standard,

~= a-j-a;
Thc combination of threo cylindcrs, described in
Art. 127, has
been employcd by Sir W. Thomson as an
accumulator whose capa-
city may be mcrcased or diminished by measurabic
quantities.
TI.e experiments of MM. Gibson and
Barclay with this ap-
paratus are described in thé ~-o~~
7~/ ~c~~ Fcb 2,
1871, and 7~<7. 1871, p. 573. Tf.ey found the spucifie in-
ductive eapacityofyaraam to bc 1.975, that of air
being unity
 PA RT II.

ELECTROKINEMATICS.

CHAPTER I.

THE KL~CTRIC CUHRHNT.

when a conductor is in
230.1 WH hâve seen, in Art. -15, tliat
eicctrioal pquilibrium the potential at cvery point of thc conductor
must he thc same.
If two conductors A ami are chargcd with clectricity so that
the potential o~' is Itigher than tha-t of' then, if they are put
in communication by means of a metallic wirc C touching t)oth of
and the
them, part of thu charge of A will be transferred to 7~
y)otcntia~ of and will become in a very short timc cqualized.
are observed in
231.] During this process certain phenomeua
tlie wire 6, which M-cca.llcd thé phenomena. of thé electric conflict
or current.
The first of these phénomène is the transferencc of positive
electrification from to and of négative electrification from
manner
to This transfcrence may bc also effected in a. slower
with and J9
by bringing a small insulated body iiito contact
call electrical con-
:tltern!tte!y. By this proccss, which \vc may
of cach body
vection, successive small portions of thc electrification
arc transferred to thc other, la either case a certain quantity of
from one place
electricity, or of thc statti of electrification, passes
to another along a certain path in the space between thé bodies.
Whatevcr therefore may bc our opinion of the nature of elee-
wnich we hâve described
tricity, we must admit that the process
conHtitutcs a curreut of electrieity. This current may be descnbed

j
 2~2.] THE VOLTAIC DATTERY. 289

as a current of positive electricity from d to or a current of

n~ativc electricity from to or as .1 combination of these two
cm'rcnts.
Accordin~ to Fo.-hncr's and Wchcr'-s theory it is a comhination
of a current of positive with an cxaetly cqual currcnt
dcetricity
nf n~ative electricity in the opposite direction throu~i thc same
substance. It is n~cessary to rcmL'mhcr this
cxccedingiy artificial
Itypothcsis t-c~ardit~ thc constitution of thc eurrcnt in order to
undcrstand thé statement of some of Weber's most va!uab~
cx-
pcrimfjnta! rcsults.
If, as in Art. 3f!, \vc suppose units of positive electricity
transferred from to and A' units of négative
electricity trans-
fcrred from to in unit of time, then,
accordin~ to Wcber's
th~ry, 7~=~ and 7~ or ~i.s to Le takun as the numerical mcasurc
of thc currcnt.
Wc, on thc contrary, makc no assnmption as to the relation
hctwecn 7~ and jV, hut attend
only to t)ie rcsult of thc current,
uanic-iy, the transfercncc- of /+jV of positive ek-etriiication from J
to and wc sitall consido- 7~+~ the truc mcasurc of tlie
currcnt.
Thc current, thcrefor~ whieh Wcher would cat! 1 wc shall call
2.

0~ <~M~ C/CM~.
232.] In thc case of the current hehvcen two insulated con-
daetors at différent potcntials the opération is soon brou~it to
an end by thé equaHxation of tlie
potentials of thé two bodies,
nnd the cun-cnt is thereforc esseiitially a Transient currcnt.
But thcre are mut);ods Ly wluch tlie difrcrcncc of
potentials of
thc conductors may hc maintained in which casu thé
constant,
curt-cnt will continue to How \vith uniform
strength as a Stcady
Current.

7%c ~o~~ .~c/y.

Thc most convenient method of
producing- a stcady current is hy
mcans of tlie Voltaic Battery.
I''or tlie saké of distinctness wc shall describe DanieH's Constant
Battcry
A solution ofsu]phatc of zinc is placcd in a. cell
of porous carth-
cnware, and this cdt is placcd in a vcssel containing- a saturatcd
solution of sulphate of eopper. A picce of zinc is dipped into thé
sulphato of zinc, and a piece of copper is dipped into the sulphate
of copper. 'WIrcs arc soldered to thé zinc and to thû copper above
VOL.1. 11
 290 THH ELECTRIC CUIMtENT.
[233.
thé sui-fnec of thc Hquid. Tins cumbination is callcd a ceU or
c')emcnt ofDanieD's hattery. Sec Ai-<. 272.
233.J If thc cen is insulated hy hein~- ptaced on a non-con-
dnctit.g stand, and if thé wire conncctcd with thc cop))er is
put
In contact, witti an i.tsuiatcd eonductor and thc wire eonnected
~it!t thc zinc is put, iji contact, with 7~, another insulatcd
conduetor
ofthe samu mctat as th~i Itmay bc she-wn hy mL'ans of'n dcHeatc
c]ccti-onieter titat tin- potcntlal oi' cxcccds that of 7~
by ~i-tain
quantity. Tj.is diHbrcncc of potc-ntiais is eaUcd t)ic UlucLi-omotivc
Force of thc DanicII's CcH.
If :u)d are MW disconnoeied from thc ccil and
put in
communication Ly mcans of a wirc, a tnuisiL-nt currcnt passes
throu~h thé wire from to 7~, and the potcntia!s <~ and
bccomc (.quai. y~ and may t])cn bc char~.d a~aiu hy thé c-cH,
and thc' proccss rc-pc~ted as
!o!~ as t]u. (.cl) wHt work. But if
and he connecta hy mcans of thc wire 6', and at thc samc
tnnc conn.-ctcd ~ith t.Itc
hattcryas hcforo, then t)n. ce)) wi)) main-
tain constant current tliroug). 6', and also a constant dift.-M.ncc
of potcntials bctwccn and /A This diffc.ncc wi]) not, as wc
shait sec, hc cquat to the whoic cf~troniotivc C.rcc ofthc ~!), fût-
part <t))is foi-ce is ~)c-nt in maintiuning
t))ccur)-entt!n-ou~h't!m
ce]] Itself.
A nmnher or cells
jdaecd in séries so that tlie zinc of t)ic n.
ce)! is eonnc-eted hy muta! with Die
copper of thc second, and
on, is caUed a V.dtaie Hattcry. Thé ch.ctromotive force of
snc!) :i hattery is t!ic sum of thc eiectromotive forces
of thé cells
of whiel. it is composed. If tLe hattery is msniatcd it
may he
charg~d wit)) cicctricity as a who)e, hut H.e potentiat of thé
copper
end wi!! always exceed that of the zinc end
hy thc efectromotivc
iorce of thé hattery, ~hatever thc ahsolute value of
cither of these
potent.afs may be. TI.c cells of the hattery may he of
very varions
construction, contuinmy dinere.it c)iemica) substances and différent
meta!s, provided they are such tliat chcmical action docs not
on \vhcn no current i.-o
passes.
~34. ) Let us now considcr a voltaic hattery ~-ith its ends insuJatcd
trom each other. Ti~ copper end will be
positively or vitreonsly
e)ec<nfied, and t)~ zinc end wi)I he
neg-ativdy or resinousiy deetrincd.
Let thc t~-o ends ot' t)ie
hattery hc now connected hy means
oi a wn-e. An efeetric currcat wi)l
commencu, and wi)l in a very
short tnno attaiu a consent va)ue. It is t!.en
said to he a Steadv
Lurrent.
 236.] ELECTROLYSIS. 291

.P/6'.y fy'~e c'

235.] ~ic cun-pnt forms :L closcd circuit in the direction from
copper to zinc throu~t tlie wires, fmd from zinc to copper through
the sohtticns.
If thé circuit bc broken
by cutting any of thc wires winch
conncct thc copper of one ccl[ with i!ie zinc of thé next in
order, thé
currcnt will bc stoppcd, and thc
potential of thc end of thc wire
i.t connexion with the copper will hc found to cxcecd
that of thé
end of thé wire in connexion with the zinc
hy a constant quantity,
iianicly, tlie total electroniotive force of thc circuit.

.7~c//YV~/c ~<w D/' ~6 C~<?/

236.] As long- as thé circuit is hrokcn no chemical action
goes
on in thé cells, Lut as soon as thé circuit is
comp!eted, zinc is
dissotvcd fron the zinc in cach of t!ic Daniel}
cells, and copper is
dcpositcd on thé coppcr.
The quantity of' suh)!)ate of zinc increases, and thé
quantity of
sutphatc ofcopper diminishcs untess more is constantly supplicd.
TI)c quantity of zinc dissotvcd and niso that
ofcopper dcposited Ig
Utc same in each ofthe Danictrs cens tlie cn-cuit, what-
thro~hout
<'ver thc sizc ofthe plates of the cell, and if
any of thé cells hc of a
<mn.-rcnt construction, the amount of chemical action in it bears
a constant proportion to the action in thé Danicll's
cell. For
instance, if one of the cells consists of two platinum
plates dipped
into sulphnnc acid di)nted with watcr,
oxygen will be given off
at the surface of' the plate whcre thc cnrrcnt cnters the
liquid,
namciy, the phttc in metallic connexion with the copper of Daniell's
cell, nnd hydro~cn at the surface of tlie plate where the current
)cavcs the liquid, namely, the plate connected with thé zinc of
Danlull's cell.
T)tc volume of' thé hydi-ng-Gti is
cxactty t\viec <hc volume of thé
oxyg-oi ~ivcn off'in thé same timc, and t)ic weight ofthe oxygen is
cxactiy cig-ht timcs the wcight of thé hydrogen.
In every cell of thc circuit the weight of eaeh snijstance
dissotved,
depositcd, or decomposcd is cfjnal to a certain quantity called thé
eJcctrochcmicat équivalent of that substance, nudtiplicd by the
strength of the current and by the time during which it bas
bcen iio\ving-.
For thc cxperimcnts which estahHshed this principe see thé
scvent]i and eighth séries of
Faraday's ~6-~MCM~/ 7.~?-
U 2
 292 THE ELECTRIC CUHRKNT.
~07.

ofthe apparent, exceptions to thé rute. sec

~/? an
~icdemam~s
~poscd In this way are caiïcd
F)~
L)ectro)y<.s. TI~ pro.ess is caHed Thc places where
thc currcnt cnters and k.aves the H)..t.rolysis.
d.ctrolyte arc called E)cctrodcs.
Ut these th. ch-ctrodc
Ly which t),o .un..n<, cnt.rs is called tlie
Anode and that by ~ich it !,aves the is ca!!cd thé
Cathode. Thc compcncnts iuto which thoelectrolytc
arc called Ions electrolyte is resolved
that which appcars at the anode is
called tl~
Auion, and that which appears ai thé cathode is ca!)cd
thc Cation.
0 t)~.sc tcrms
~re, 1 Micvc, invci~cd by Faraday with
hc )~p of Dr. ~hi,
Wh~]!, thc fn-st thr~ u.~dv, .k-ctrodj c!cc-
Lroiys.s, and c!cctro)ytc have hccn and the mode
of conduc .m o( t).c current in ~ncrally adoptcd~
win-d. this kind of
and transfer of the components déposition
place is ~!c.ctro!ytic
Cuncluction.
If a homo~ncous
dcctrolytc is placod in a tuho of variable
section, .nd the d.ctrode. ar. p)nccd at the .uds of t)n.s
it is r tnbc
that when currcnt
t!.<- nodc and thé cation at th. w-s
cat],od., thc quantities of the~
ions h.
ek.ctroc)..mical)y équivalent, and su.h as t.o be together
.Tt'r to a ~Yl" of ~trolyt. In th~ther
~ts of thé ube, ,v!~<her thc section bc
large or small, uniform
or vary, the compo.iti<~ of thc
clectrolyte r.mains .naltcred
ir~cc thc amount of
dcctrolysis which takcs place across every
section of' h. t.h. is thc s;ime.
Whcrc the sition is small J
~1
than
but the total amount of cach ion
which crosses any complète
L~<
scc~ o ti.. d..tr<~te in a given time i.s thc .a~ for aÏÏ
H.c .trench sections.
of the currcnt may H.creforc be
meusm-cd by thc
amount of' electrolysis in a
g.ivcn time. An ins<un.nt hy Jh
is caHed
"IT a Â'oltanicter.
Thé str.n~t)i of the current, as t!n,s
n~urcd, is the same
at evcry p~.t of the
circuit, and the total quantity of the elee-
in after any
P~
of' electricity
HIC finie, passes any section in

238.] If we introd~ a vo)tametcr at one

of a volta.c part of thc circuit
hattery, and break the circuit at
anotherpart, wc may
suppose the me~uren~nt of thé carrent, to be conducted
thus.
 239.] MAGNET!C ACTION. 293

Let the ends of the broken circuit be A and let A bc the

and
anode and 7~ thé cathode. Let an insulated bat! bc made to touch
and j9 altcrnatcfy, it will carry frnm to 7~a ccrtaiti measurabic
quantity of cleetricity at each This qunntity mny le
journey.
measured by an cfectromctcr. or it may bc eatcuia.ted by mul-
tiplyin~- thc cicctromotive force of thé circuit by the ckctrosiatic
capacity f.f thc baH. Eicetricity is thus carried from A to on the
insulated ba.U by a proccss which may bc called Convection. At
thc same time electrolysis gocs on in tlie voltamcter and in
tho
cells of thc ba.ttcry, and thc amount of
electrolysis in each ccH may
bc eompared with thc amount of
clectricity ean-icd across by thc
insulatcd ba]!. Thc qn~ntity of a substance which is
electrolysed
by one unit of electricity is called an Elcetrocliemical cquivalcnt
of that substance.
Tliis experiment \von]d bc an cxtremely tcdious and troubiesomc
one if conducted in this wa-y with a baU of
ordinary magnitude
and a mangeable battcry, for an cuormous number of journeys
would hâve to bc made beforc an
appréciable qunntity of'thc electro-
!ytc \vas dccomposcd. Thc cxpcrimcnt must thercforG be considercd
as a mcrc illustration, the actual mL'asuremoits of eledrochemieal
eqniva!cnts Lcin~- conductod in a difterent \vay. Lut thc cxpcri-
mcnt may be cousidercd as an i!!ustratio!i of the
process of elec-
trolysis Itscif, for if' \ve rcg-ard clcctrolytic conduction as a species
of convection in which an cicctrochcmif-al
équivalent of tho anion
trave!s with negative electricity in thc direction of thé
anode, whilc
an équipent of tlie cation travels wit!i positive in
clectricity
thc direction of the cathode, thc whole amount of transfcr of clec-
tricity bcin~ one unit, wc shall liave an idca of thc process of
electrolysis, which, so far as 1 kno\v, is not ineonsiëtcnt with ]<no\\Ti
I;)cts, thou~h, on acconnt ofour ignorance of the nature of electricity
and of chemical compounds, it may be a
vcry impcrfcet repré-
sentation of what really tnkcs place.

~Mc/;c ~(' ~e C'<?~

239.] Oersted discuvercd that a magnct placed near a Htrai"-ht
electric current tends tu place its~f at
right !uig!cs to tlie phmc
passing throug-jt the mng-nct and t))e current. Sec Art. 475.
If a. mnn \vcre to pjacc ]iis body in the ]ine of thc current so
that the current from coppcr through thé wirc to zinc should How
from his head to his feet, and if Le wcre to direct his face towards
the centre of the magnct, then t!]at end of the
magnct \vhich tends
 THE ELHCTRJC CL'J{];J.;XT.
r~o.
to point to the north
wonld, wllen tlle eurrent (lows, tend to
point
~J~P~~
Thc nature and laws of t)u.
ctectr.ma~nctic action wi!) L, J;~
cusscd whcn < thc fourth part of ihis i~tisc
=.:=~ is thc faet that, t Io·
cttarent lias a mabnetic aetion clcctric
is everlecl ontside the Clll'l'l'n1,
and hy which its existence can !Je
ascertained ana its
inteilsity
n or iiitrodiieitib
the itself. ~inytliin~
anything iiito
into
The amount of thc
mngnetie action has bcen asecrtained to h.
strictly proportional to the strcnbtll, of tlie curr~nt
as n1eHsurcd

iudepcnclent of the uature of the conductor

in which the etii-rent
is (lowinb, wllctltur it he a metul
or an elccfrol3·te.
240,] An instrument which indicatcs the
strengt.h of an electric
is ('ulled a Ga1 vanoll1ct(!r,
Galvaiionieters in ~.eneral consist of
one or more coils of 8ilk-
which Il muguet is
horizontal. stispeiided witli its axis
Wlieii 11currcnt is
passod throug'h the wirc the
tends to set magnet
coils. If we ~1T: ~t~~
suppose t.J1Cplane of t,he coils to bc
hlacecl j~,irallel
and the current to (low
the east to round
in of the w~.J
of the sun, then the
mag'nct within will tend to set itsclf
witll
~t~ direction as that of the cm'th con-
siderecl as a gl'cat
ma~.Itet, the noi-tli polc of the carth
being similar
/J.1IlO
gahranomcter is the most convenient
instrument for mea-
~S~ of electric currents. We e shall thercfore assume
laws of t!
~~truchns- such an instrument in studyinn. t!ie
~r~T~
an dectric <urrmt our of the l1rinciples of
,,f part.
an clectric currcnt is of "'°'°' say that
a certain we suppose that tlie
strcngth
measurcment is
l~
 CHAPTER II.

CONDUCTION AXD RESISTANCE.

~4L] ÏF by means of an dcctromc'tcr wc détermine the clectric

potcntia) at diu'orcnt points of a circuit in which a. constant electric
curreut is maintainc-th \vf nha)i nnd that in
any portion of the
circuit consisting ofn, sing)c metal ofunifbrm
température thron~h-
cut, the potential !tt any point cxccpds tLat at any other
point
f:u-th(-i- on in the direction nf t])G currcnt a
by quantity depending
on H)c strc!)gt)i of thc currcnt and on thé nn-tiu-e and dimensions
of the intervening- portion of thé circuit. The dif[crcnee of thé
potcntials at the fxtrcmitics of this portion of the circuit is cal1ed
thc ];;xtci-nal cicctromotive force acting on it. If the portion of
the orcmt under considération is not
homo~-eneous, hut contains
transitions from onc substance to anothcr, from metals to elec-
trolytes, or from hotter to cohier parts, there may Le, besides thc
(.'xtcrnal clectromotivc force, Internai eicctromotivc forces w]iich
must bc ta)œn into account.
Thc relations hetwccn ]':)cctromotivc Force, Currcnt, and Résist-
ance werc first invcsti~ated hy Dr. G. S. Ohm, in a work
puh]jshed
in ]827, cntiticd ~/f G'Y/t; ~~c ~~CM~c~ ~M;e~6~
translated in Taylor's & ~/e/ Thc rcsult of these in-
vcst)~'at)ons in the case of homogencous conductors is commonly
ca!!cd OIim's Law.'

O~M~' Z~
~e c~c~-6'Mp~e~M ~<-<?c~ ~e <T/~w/'<e~ ~r<
o/' <c/7 is the ~/w/c<; ~c ~e~~ o/' //<' t-My~-cM~ the
7~MCC of that part ~6' C;CK;7.
Hère a new term is introduced, thc Résistance of a
conductor,
which is denned to hc the ratio of thé ctcctromotivc force to
thé streng-th of the current which it prodncps. The introduction
 296 CONDUCTION AND IfHSISTANCH.
)-2.2.
of this torm woud hâve bccn cfno
science value unicss Ohm
h.id shewn, as he did
expérimenta! that it corresponds to a reai
Phys..d q.ant,t,, ~at i~ ihat It I.a. a <I~<.
which is
altered on]y when t)tc. nature ofthe cnn.luetoi-
is a)tei-ed
is "~Ie-
pGndcnt oft)ic strcn~-t!) nfU.c cur.-c.it
Oowino. thro~h it
In the second p)acc thc rcsisiancc is
indcnendcnt ofth. c)octn-c
the
~ntaincd, and of ti~, d.nsity
ci tlie (h.str.buth.n of
cjpctncity on the surface nf the conductor
It dépends cnth-ely on the nature o(- the
materia! of whichthc
condn<.tor,s co~poscd, the stat<- uf
ae-gregation of its parts, and its
tcmno'aLm'c.
Thé rcsistanec ci- a cond~or
may he measnred to ~ithin one
tcn thousandth or evcn onc In.ndrcd
thousaudth part of its vainc
and sn condnctor.s ],av. Loc.n t.stcd that our
assurance of thc
tn, of~~y
Chm Law is now very )u-g.h. In thc
s.-xth chaptcr wc.
snail trace its applications and
conscqucncus.

0/'7A-M<' <~ //6- 6'<<'

~42.] ~Vc hâve scc.n that whcn an c!cctro,notive fore. causes
a currcnf. to How
tin-ou~-h a conductor, e)cctricit.v is transfcrred
from a phcc o h~hcr to a
place of )o~cr potcntia!. If thé transfcr
been madc hy convection, that
is, hy carryi,~ successivc
)~I n.. bail fr~ tl.e en, place to <he
c!.a.~sdonc othcr, ~r~wouid hav~
Lcen hy thc ctcctrica] forces on the ba)!. and this
been urncd to account. mi~ht ).avc
It is actua~y turncd to account
in a
rai-t.a! manner in thnse dry pi)<- circuits where tho
ciectrodes hâve
t).e f<u.m of hd!~ and thc carrier
L.n is ~dc to swing liL.c a
pcndulun, between th. two beHs and strike them
this way t attern.tely In
dc-ctrica! action is ~de to kcep up thé
ci the pc.duiuni and to propagato thc sound of thc sJngin~
bc]). to
distance In the case of ti,c
conductin~ wire wc I..vc thc samc
of dcc .cny from a place of
hi~ te a place of low potential
jansfer any external work
w,<hont
bcing. donc. The principe of thc Con-
therefore Icads us to .ook for i'ntcrnal
~rvat~n
thé ofEnc~yIn an wo~n
conductor dcctrolytc tins interna! ..ork
ci the séparation of its con..istspart!y
componcnts. In othcr conductors it
cntu-eJy cotiverted nito heat.
into case the r'ct
th~ c tro.nct.vc T'~force of
tl.c .antity .f ck.ctricity .ch
tlie thc cicctromotive force
But into is t!.c passes.
prodnct of thc currcnt into th.
 244.]
J COMPARISON WJTJI l'HENOMMNA 0F HEAT. 297

résistance, and the quantity of clectricity is the product of thc

currcnt into the time. Hence tlic quantity of hoat multiplied
hy
the mechanical pquivalcnt of unit of heat is equal to thc
square of
the strength of the current multiphcd into thc résistance and into
the time.
Thc heat dcvo!oped by electric currcnts in ovcrcoming' t!)c ré-
sistance of conductors bas heen determincd by Dr. Jnu!~ who
first est:t.h)ishcd that thc Itcat prodnecd in a given timc is
pro-
pnrtional to t))H square of thc current, and aftenvards by c-in'cf'u!
absolutc nn'asurcments of all tlie quantifies coiiceriied, vcrifiud the
equation J77'=6'
where is Joule's dynamica! équivalent of Iicat, 7/ thé nnmber o('
units of heat, C the strength ofthc cun'cnt, 7~ the résistance of thc
conductor, and t the timc during' which thc currcnt flows. T))csc
rcla.tionshctwcoi L'!cctromotive force, work, and heat, \vcrc firstfutty
explaincd by Sir W. Thomson in a paper on the application of thc
principic of mechanical cffcet to thc mcasurcmcnt of ciectromotivc
forces
243.]] Thc analog-y bctwœn thc thcory of' thc conduction of
electrieity and that of thé conduction of béat is at fil'st sight a!most
comptete. If \vc take t\vo systems gcomctrlca.)ly similar, and sucb
that the conductivity for heat at any part of the first is
proportional
to thc conductivity for electricity at tlic
correspondin~- part of thé
second, and if wc also makc thc température at any part of thc
first proportional to thé cicetric potential at the
corrcspondin~ point
of the second, thon thc flow of hcat across any area of the first
will he proportional to thc flow of
cleetricity across thé corre-
sponding arca of thc second.
Thus, in thé illustration we have given, in which flow of clec-
trieity corresponds to flow nf hcat, and electric potcntial to tem-
pérature, electricity tends tn flow from places of high to places
of low potential, cxactiy as hcat tends to now from
places of hi~-h
to places oflow température.
244.] Thé theory of potential and that of température may
thcrefore be made to iHustratc onc anothcr; there is, however, ono
remarkable dinercnce betwccn thé phenomcna of electrieity and
those of heat.
Suspend a conducting' body within a ctosed conductin"' vessel I)y
a si!k thread, and charge the vessel with clectricity. The potentiat

*itV..V(~Duc.JS51.
 ono
COXDUOT!OX .~D JŒ.SI.STAXCn.
f f< r~
of the vessel and of 111
within it will lre
inslantly rni¡;('d, lmt
versel l~e elcctrificd, aud
whe1.hcr t.he body within be
aJlo\('d 10 l.'pIllC'iu ('ontact.
vessel or not., no witlr thc
signs of c~lectrific,rt.i~n will
nppl'nr witlrin the
sltew :lI1y dl'clricaJ ('/ll'ct.
takrn out. wltett
]3ut if the vcssc~l is
raisecl to a high
Ille lmolv
samc 1empcra1un', Imt,
sideralJle 1inw, if- only Vt'1<'l' col'
it is 1hen 1akcn it
and will l'cmain 80 till it liaS will Ile f(ml1<l hot,
contil11wd to cmit h(,:11-, fclr son1l' limc.
:s~ fi
i Il the f¡It't, 1 hat
ho(lil's aru capalJle of
absorJJing and cmi1ting' llc,It, wlleh.ns
1hq
L.ve.
o.t Le A. body
h.).t a certain
~W~~ .t,dc).,n. n~
"~d~.t.e potential of. M~ "?
,°'
1.0 t hl' bo(ly. any clc~ct,ricit~y·
a 1)0(1y first, hmÜ.d lncl
the closecl \ï'ssel. 1hm p1aC('<1illsicle
TIlt' ou1 of t,lle Vl'si'cl will l,c a1. fil..SI
tHn),mt,e or .un.o,),M at ]le
),r, but it't soon
will till

It. ~f~r:°'j'~7'
is impossible so to
e1edl'ify a hody, flnd so to C'xlwl'inwnt.
it in lt
°
~(.fd.eMi.ation but .h.)),ft.°
was for ''t'i').m
ph.eno,rr in
~.ti.
"<.fan.M.
I!Mtm,yMi~),e)' b,,t
tridtv
cxt..nm) )nt)~.n,ntht,.nt..rMr"f, ,J'
'y'mv<.M have no
it is '<- of .).
tricity so ns to prL'vcnt it from 'J'y
IJeing in imlncti~·e
Tllcre is nothing'
t.Lercfurc among eleciric
phenoll1cna h ieh
F~ of a hody for hcat.
once from the doctrine This fc,]lo«·s 1t
which is as5ertccl in tllis
.L Lreatise, 1hat
~°"

of to
a.n3· Sl1JJstance ly- qii
~E~ aclclitional~y(Ilialitity of
e)c<,t,,c.ity ,nf..<. Sec Art. ), ,°"'1"t.ty<,r
 CIIAPTER III.

ËLHCTROMOTIVE FOHCE BETWEEX BODIE.S IN CONTACT.

y/C PoteJlti(ll8 0/c~ 6~

34.6.] 1. we define thé potcntial of a hollow
as ti~e potcntial of thc air inside the condnctin~. vessel
vcssc), ~e may asc<.rtain tins
potential hy menus of an cleciromctcr as dcscribc.d in Part 1,
Art. 222. 2.
If we now take t.wo hollow vessds ofdifrcrcnt
metals, say copper
and zinc, nnd put thcm in mctaDic contact witli
cach ~hc.ind
t)n-n test the potentia) of thé air insitle each
vcssc.), thL. potcntud
of tlie air inside thé zinc vcssel will bc
positive ns comparcd with
that inside the copper vcsse!. The dln'cr<-ucc of
potcntials dépends
on thc n~.tn.c of thc surface nf thc insidcs
of the vosscis, Lc.in~
grcatcst wl.cn the zinc is bri~)it and when the
eoppcr is coat.d
Wtth oxide.
It appcars from this t.hat whcn two
différent mciais arc in
contact therc is in g-cneral nu dectronmtivc force ncting- from the
one to thé other, so as to ma!œ the
potential of tlie one cxcccd
tliat of thé nther hy a certain
quantity. Tins is Volta's thcory of-
Contact EIcetricity.
If wc take a certain metal,
gay copper, as the standard, t.hcn
if the potentml of iron in contact witli
copper at the zero potential
is I, and tliat of zinc in contact wit]i
coppo- at zero is thcn
tt)e potentinl of zinc in contact with iron at zero wiH
bc ~-7~
It :tppe:.rs from this rcsult, which is truc of
any three mctals
tliat the (hifcrcnecs of' potential of
any two mctals at the same
tcmpcratnrc in contact is equal to the dincrence of Hieir
potentials
when in contact with a third
metal, so that if a circuit hc formcd
of any numbcr of metals at thé samc
tcmpcrature t1.crc will he
etcctrica] cqnihhrium as soon as
thcy have aeqnii-cd their propcr
potentials, and thci-e will be no eurrent kept up in tlie circuit.
 CONTACT POUCE,
9% 1
r

metals

t!~ pctcntia)s cf tl~ ~d.cc

contact
the electromotive force at ~.at
ihcclectro.otivefc~ the metallie jl1netion is no
and a continuous c~t longer jJflJanCl'l],
Is suphlieci
is lll), 'fIle ellprgr of this el1rrent
suppliod hy
by the
thé chcmical
chemij uction which f takcs
electrolyte the place }JctwCl'J1thc
I~-

1~
cau
~ion .f action pctcn~~t means in
cxpcru~nt dufto in
SirWTI~
contact witli
with ..crHcal
a vertieal zinc
~r~ cylinder,
f- 80
:Jr" that whcn colltcr
arc aHo~ed io pass filings
~rou.h the f
cth.r.nd from th. funncfnci they
and then f.H into an
in.
thon found te bc rccc.i e~ 1
c!,ar~d .~ativdv
as thé min~ co.tinuc t.
p.ur into t
cyl.nd~ witlr
cylincler wit). the
thc copper
coppcr fuuncl
Lue in it h.
ltccomes charged more and
more pnsit,-vc]y

~Y~ in ° ~°°' "M "~i'~c.r

to f]K.rmeiv. T),~ ?
each filing
<:h:ll'g'l'd
~nuc'! to t!~ reccivcr m. '~at.vc currc-nt ironi thc
~1~. eu. n.
t.
t).. i (by hcini,~ current,
P~s t~o.gh
t'-rcu~h thc
throl1g'h t 110 ~~Dic june
metallic ~1-' and
junctinni.. from cohltcr fromto zinc, jl1st as in
ordinary voit. the
arrangement bu~'n t~ force
but gravit j', which causes
filings to far11, in the
~r< chite of the clcctrical attraction
hetween the
flll1n!1 and the
negntiwJy chargecl fJlings.
the thcot·y of eont.'wt dcc-
tricity is SUpI1Jict! hy the of Pclticr, tJlat, when a
cliscovery
of
~~t~dcctneitv crosses fhr~ p.' enrrent
cnrrGnt
thc is
hcated whj t" junction
is in thé othcr directe 'tt
I
in passai that a current
11 r nl?1 ~rc-d
~cets with
meets heat, ~sc it
with resistanco,
~ta so that the
coolinb cflect on the wholc
~t~ tXt.
between the
1 ~ca
~T;~ ,.3~
 249.] PELTIEH'S
PHENOMENOX. 301
duc to ordinary resistance, and tlie
generation or absorption of heat
at tite junction of t~o mêlais. Wc shall cal! thé first the fnetionat
génération of heat hy thc current, and, as \ve have sccn, it is
proportional to the square of the current, and is the same wliether
the eurrent bc in thé positive or the
ncg-ativc direction. Thc second
we may eaU t!ie Peltier effeet, which its
changes sign with tbat
of the current.
Tiie total hcat g'nncrated In a portion of a
compound conductor
eonsisting- of two metals be
may expressed by
Il C-t-il
~c~-nc~, t,
</
where 7f is thé quantity of heat, thc mechanical équivalent of
unit of hcat, Il thc résistance of thé conductor, 6' thc eurrent, and
thc timc n being- the coeflicient of thc l'eltier cficct, that
is,
the hcat atjsorbcd at thé junction due to the oF
passage unit of
current for unit of timc.
Now tbc hcat g-eneratcd is
mechanically équivalent to thé work
donc ag-ainst, electrical forces in thé conductor, that
is, it is equal
to the product of tbc cun'ent into the electromotive force
producing
it. IIcnce, if is tlie extcrnal electromotive force w!ilc!t causes
thc eurrent to now throug'b the conductor,

~7/=c~=7~nc~,
whencc F=7~-J'n.
It appears from this équation that tbc extcrnal eicctromotivc
force rcquired to drive thc current
througb thc compound conductor
is less than that duc to its résistance atone
by tbc etectromotive
force .n. ncnee ~n represents the cteetromotive contact force
at the junetion acting in t!ic positive direction.
This application, duc to SirW. Thomson*, of thc dynamical
<I)eory of béat to tlie determination of a local e!ectromotivc force
is of ~rcat scientific sincc tbe ordinary method of
importance,
connecting two points of thé compound conductor with thc élec-
trodes of a galvanometcr or
electroscope by wires would bc useless,
owmg to tbe contact forces at the junctions of thé wires with
tbe materials of tbe compound conductor. In thc thermal method,
on tl)e other hand, \vc know that the
only source of cncr~y is the
current of electricity, and t)!at no work is donc
by thc current
in a certain portion of' the circuit cxccpt in
beating- that portion
ofthe conductor. If, thereforc, we can measure thé amount oftito
~of. 7?..s'.7!))t.. Duc.15, t831 ;u).) y~M. 7~ ]8~.
 302 CONTACT
FORCE. [250.
curreut and thé amount of hcat
produeed or ahsorbed, wc can
determine the dcctromot.ive force
rcquired to urge the eurrcnt
throug-h that portion of the conductor, and this mcasnrcment is
entirely independcnt of the cffcet of contact forces in other
parts of
thé circuit.
Thc Gk'ctromotive force at t!)c
junetion of two metals, as dc-
tcnnincd by this mcthod, docs not aeeount for Votta's cicctromotivc
forœ as dcserihcd in Art. 21 G. TIie latter is in
gênerai far greater
t))au tlta.t ofthis Articic, and is somctimes of
opposite sign. Hence
t.he assumption t).at thé potc.ntiid of a metal is to bc
mcasurcd by
that ofthu air in contact with it must Le
crroncnug, and the grcatcr
part of Voltii's cicctromotivc force must Le sought for, not at the
junction oft))e two meta]s, hut onc or hoth ofthc surfaces which
sL-paratc thc metals from thé air or othcr medium which forms thc
third ch'ment ofthc circuit.
~50.] Th~ diseovcry hy Sccbcck of thermodeetric currents iu
cir<-ui<s of dif)'cr(;nt mchds wiDt Utclr
junctious at différent tem-
pératures, shews that thèse contact forces do not a)ways hatance
eac!. ot).er in a comp)eie circuit. It is manifest, however, that
.n acon.picte circuit ofdiHerent metals at uniform
température thé
contact fnrces nutst balance each other. For if this \vere not t.he
case therc- ~on)d be a currcnt formcd in thé
circuit, and this currcnt
mts-))t Le cmp]oyed to \vork a macin'nc or to g-encratc heat in ttie
circuit, that is, to do work, wln)e at tlie samc time thcre is no
ex].enditure ofenc~-y, as tite circuit is all at the ..nmc
tempcrat..re,
and no chemical or othcr chang-e tal.es
place. Hpiicc, if the Peltier
eHeet at the junction of two meta)s and bc i-eprcscnted hy n~
whcn H)e currcnt Hows from then for a circuit of two mctais
to
at t!)c samu tcinpcraturc wc must hâve

n.+n,=o,
and for a circuit ofthrcc metals \vc must hâve
~+n,n.=o. ·
It follov-s from this équation tliat thc thrce
rdtieren'ects are not
mdependent, hut that one of' them can Le deduccd frnm t!.e othcr
two. For instance, if we
suppose c to bc a standard mctal, and
)f wc wnte = ./rr, and = ./n, tlien
~n. = ~-7\.
Tbc quantity~, is a function ofthû
tcmpcraturc, and dépends on
thc nature of thc métal a.
~L] It. bas also been she~ by Magnus that if a circuit is
 251.] TJIHRMOELHCTRIC PIIENOMENA. 303
formcd of a si.~)e métal uo eurrcnt witi be
formcd m it, Iio~-ever
the section of t),c conductor and thé
température may varv in
dtft'crt.'nt parts.
Sinec in fus case therc is conduction oi- ]ic~<,
and consequent
d~s.p~.on of cn~~y, ~e cannot, as in tf.e forniQr case, consider t)ns
rcsult as sc.U'.cvident. TI~ eJcct.rotnot.Ivc.
fore., for instance, Lot~en
two portions of circuit jnight i.avc
d~peuded on whcthcr tlic
eurrent was passing. from a Hiiek
portion of thé conductor to a thin
onc, or tlie rc-versc, as ~l! as on it.s passmg-
mpidty or s!ow!y from a
hot portion to a cold ouo, or thc
reverse, and this would hâve made
a eurrent possiDu ni an
unequaDy hcatcd circuit ofouc metal.
Hence, by the samc rcasoning- as in thc case of Pctticr's phc
nomenon, wc iind that if the passade a cun-cat tln.ouo.)t a
conductor of onc mctal produccs
any thermal cft'cet wi.ieh rc
vcrscd whcn thc cuirc-nt is rcvcrscd, this can
only take ptace w),c.i
t).c currcnt f!ows from ptaces of
hig-ti to p)aees of low température
or the reverse, and if the heat
generated in a eonduet-u- of one
mctal in f)owing- from a place whcre the
température is to a
place where it is is 7/, tin-n

and thé c!ectromntlvc force tcnd.ng. to maintaih the ctirrcnt will

)jc~.
Ii' be the températures at thi-ce pomts of homo~-neous
circuit~ wcmust]iave
~+~+-~=0,

according to thé resuit of ~ragnus. Hc~ce, if~-e suppose to Le

thc xcro temperahn't. and if we
put

wLerc is a f'uuc-tion of thé

tetupcrattire thé fbt-m ot' thé
fuucUon dcpL'ndin~ nu Uic nahu-c of thf niet:i).
If \vc n.nv eonsidcr a (.ireuit n(' two mctats and in w!uch
ihc h.mpcmtm-c is .1 w)tf'rc thc pui-n.nf,
passes from r/ to :md
~)crc- it p~c.s frnm to t))e c.foett-omot.ivc force wi)! bu
= ~7~+
(),+.+ ().
~hct-c 7~, si~niHe.s thc va)uc oF fur thé )upt:i! at thé tempéra-
ture a', ~r
 304 CONTACT FORCE.
[252.
~encrai thcrmodcctric currents, it follows that 7' nnd Q arc in
gênera] dînèrent for thc samc metal and samc température.
252.] The existence of thé quantity Q was first dcmonstrated by
Sir W. TI)omson, in thé mcmnir \vc have referred
to, as a. déduction
frcm thé p])enomenon ot' thermodect.rie inversion discov<-red hy
Cumming~~ v.ho found that thc order of certain metals in the thcr-
moeleetricseale is différent at high and at low
tcmpcraturcs, so that
fnr a certain température two metals bc
may ncutral to cach other.
Thus, in a circuit of' copper and iron ifo)iejunction bc kcpt at the
ordinary température whilc thé température of' thé othcr is raised,
a current sets from c-npper to iron
through the hot junction, and
thc cl~tromotivc force continues to increase till the hot
junetion
h~s reaclled a tonpcraturG 7', which, according to Thomson, ia
abont 28 t'C. Whcn thc température of thc hot junctinn is raised
still furUtcr thc dcctromotivc- force is
rcduced, and at last, if thé
tumpcraturc bc raised hi~h cnoug-b, thé currcnt is rcv~rsed. T!ie
reversa) of the cun-ent may bL- nbtaincd more
easily by raising thc
tcmpuraturc of thé co)der junetion. If thu température of botli
junctif~ns is above 7' ttiu currcnt sets from iron to copper through
tln' botter junctio)i, t)iat is, in thé reverse direction to that ob-
scrvcd when hoth jmtet ions arc hclow 7'.
IIenet-, if onc of tbc junctions is at tlie neutral température l'
und tbe othcr is eithcr hotter or co]dur, the current will set from
coppcr to iron through thé junetion at the neutral température.
~53.] From this faet Thomson reasoned as foiïows
Suppose thé othcr junetion at a température ]o\vcr than y.
Tlie current may bc made to work an
enginc or to ~eneratc bcat in
a wire, and this expcnditurc of
energy must be kept up by the
tMnsfor.nation of into electric cner~y, tliat is to say, hcat
musL (~sappcar somewltere in thé circuit. Now at thc tempera-
ture l' iron and copper arc ncutral to each
othcr, so that no
revcr.sib)e thermal cf!L-ct is produced at the hot
junetion, and at
the co!d junction there is,
by Pelticr's principle, an évolution of
heat. IIeuce tlie only place where t.he heat can
disappcar is in thc
eopper or iron portions of the circuit, so that either a current in
iron from hot to cold must cool thc
iron, or a current in copper
from cohj to hot must cool the
copper, or hoth thèse euccts may
t:)!;e p)ace. By an e)aborate series of ingénions experiments Thom-
son succceded in deteeting the réversible thermal action of thé
curant in passing- het\veen parts of différent
températures, and
C«Ht&r;e ?'r(~«c<toK~ 18li3
 ~54-] EXPERÏMENTS 0F TAIT. 305
he found that thc current produced
opposite effects in copper and
mjron*.
Whcn a stream of a material nuid
passes along a tube from
hot part to a co)d part it iicats thc
tube, and when it passes
from eohi to hot il, cools the tube, and thèse effets
thé spécifie capacity for hcat of tlie dépend on
uuid. If we supposed elec-
trieity, whetbcr positive or n~ative, to be a material Huid we
m~-ht me~sure its speeif.e heat hy thc thermal effect on an un-
equally heatcd conductor. Now rl'homson's experiments shew that
positive electrieity in copper and ue~ative
cleetricity in iron cany
hcat with them from hot to co!d. Hcncc, if wc
supposed either
l'ositivG or np~ativc electricity to bc a fiuid,
capable of being
heatc-d and coo]cd, and of
communicating- heat to other bodic. we
should find the supposition contradicted
by iron for positive clec-
tricity and by copper for negative electricity, so that wc should
have to abandon both hypothèses.
This scicntific prédiction of thc rcvcrsib)e c(!ect of an
elcetric
curant upon an uncquaHy heated conductor of'one métal is
another
instructive example of thé application ofthc of
theory Conservation
ofEner~-y to indicatu new directions of scicntific research. Thomson
bas a)su appHcd the Second Law of
Thermodynamics to indicate
relations bchveen thé quantités which \ve I)ave dcnoted by
and Q, and bas Invfstigated the possible titermoelectric properties
of bodies whose structure is difFerent in dif!'crcnt directions.
He
lias also invcstigatpd tbe conditions nndcr which
experimentaHy
tbesc properties are dowloped by pressure,
ma~-nctization, &c.
254.] Professor Taitt bas recently investigated the cJectro-
motivc force of tliermoetectrie circuits of dinerent
metals, having
their junctions at difïerent températures. Hc nnds that the c)ee~
tromotivc force of it circuit may bc expressed
very accurately by
thc formula
~=~+~],
where Il is the absolutc tcmpprattu-e of thc hot
junction, t))at
of thé cold jnnction, and the température at wlticb tlie two metals
are neutral to each other. The f:)ctor a is a coefncicot depending
on thc nature of t!i(j two metals
composing the circuit. This law
bas been verified through considerahle
ranges of' température by
Professer Tait and bis students, and lie hopes to make thc thermo-
electric circuit available as a. thermometric instrument in bis

'OutheHtpctr~ynMnicQutJitieHof'MetfUH.' 7'y<)7.T;'n)i<18CO.
t ~-oc. /<.6'. ~(~ Scsiiiut)1870-71,p.3û8, ~so Dec. 18, 1871.
YOL. I. x
 SO~ CONTACTFORCE. [254.
cxpcrimcnts on thu cutiduction of hcat, :uid in othcr cases in w))ic)L
t))c mercurial thermomctcr is not. eonv~u~tit or has not
a suaient
ran~'p.
Acc.(.rdH~ to Taits thcory, the ()).antity which Thomson caDg
~he s))fcific ht.at of ci~Lricity is
propt.rtiooat to the absotutc tem-
l'craturc in ~<h j,u!-<;mctal, thou~h i<s ma~aitudu and (ivcn its
~-n vary in difK.runt mutais. Frmn Uns )m )i:)s dcduccd by titcr-
tnodynantic princip]~ <hc. follu~i, ,-c.suits. Let /< G
thc. hcats of electricity in thrcc
b~ sp~ificLe mutats and let
~r. thc tL'tnucraturu.s at w)nch pairs uf thèse mctats arc
nuutra) to cad) uthci', titun thc couations

thu rdat.o.) of t)ic nL.utra)

'i-s.s telupc.ratur~, t)ie va)uu of thu
i~tticr dtcct., and thc etecti-uniutivc fui-CL-uf:t t)i(.-rmoc!cctric circ'ut.
 C'IIAPTER
fV.

)';LECTItnt.YS!S.

/;76V/~Y~C C~P;
~55.] 1 HAVH ah'cady statcd that w!)ca an eteetric current In
any part of its circuit passes throu~h œrtain compound substances
caiiud E!cc)!'otytes, Hm passan'c ofthc cnrrcnt is aecompanic-d
by
a ccrhtin chc'mica! procosscnilcd K)ectrn)ysis, in wtlicit thé substance
is rcsolvud into two cotnponc))ts caUcd lo~s, of which onc, o:t]!ed
thc Anion, or t)t<; cicctroncg'ativc compoicnt, appc.o's ut tt)c Anode,
or place wix'rc ~hc current cntcrs Otc (;!cctro)ytc, and the other,
catK'd the Cation, appenrs at ttic Cathode, or ihu p)at'c whcrG the
cuD'ent )e)n'es the c!cctro!yi(t.
Thc complète inv(.-st,i~ati~)i ofHIc<-<rn)ysis b(dong's quitc as much
to C))cmistry as to EIcetricity. Wt.- s)):tl! considcr it from an
electrical point of vie\v, withr~ut discussin~- Us application to the
thenry of thc ennstitution of'(;)icmic'at compounds.
Oi' a)) ~trica] pix'nonn.'na {'k'ctrotysis a.ppcars thc mnst )ike)y
to i'urnish us \it!i a reat insight into thc truc n~tnrc ofthe cluctric
(-urn'nt, hccansc Wt- nnd currcnts of ordinary maitur and cun~-ats
ot'(dc<'t['n'ity fonni)~- essentii).) parts ofthe s:urm p)]cno)ncnon.
It isprcbabty rorttiis very rcason (!mt, in thcprcscnt imper~'cUy
form~d statc oi' our ideas ahout c-tectricity, thu théories of eicctro-
)ysis :u'e so on~atis~K'tnry.
T)~ Cun<)amcnt!).t law of ctoctrotysis, which was c'stahlishcd by
Faraday, nnd ccnfirnn'd hy t))e cxpcrimcnts of Bcetz, Hittorf, aud
othci'H do\n to thc pi'cs~nt time, is as ff.db\vs
Thu nun~hcr oi' cicctrochemicat cquivatents of' an ulectrotytc wt~ich.
are dccomposcd hy thc passade of'an electric currcntdurit)~ a g-ivon
timc is cquat to tlin numhcr of units of ck-ctricity whic)~ are tmns-
fcrrcd by the current in thé samc timc.
Thé c'Icctrochemical u(piiva!cnt of a substance is that quautity
X2
 308 ELECTROLYSIS.
[255
of thc substance which is
clectrotysed by :L unit current passing
Hn-ough the substance for a unit of timc, or, in othcr words, by the
passage of a unit of cicctricity. When titc unit of electricity is
detined in absolute mesure t)ie absolute value of the eicetro-
chemical cquivah'nt of each substance can bc determined in
grains
or in gra-mmes.
Thé etcctroebemicat équivalents of difTerent substances are
pro-
portiona) to tbcir ordinnry chemical équivalents. The ordinary
chemical cquivafcnts, )in\vcver, arc thc mère numcriea! ratios in
which t]m substances combine-, whel'eas ~be dcctroc])emica!
equi-
vahnts are quantités of mattcr of a dL-tG)-minat<3magnitude) dc-
pcndin~- on the dt-finitinn oft)u- unit of electricity.
J~very c)cctro]y<c consists of two componcnts, whieh, during the
G)cctro)ysis, :)ppcar wberc the cnrrcnt enters and Icaves the o!ec-
trolytc, and nowbcrc cise. JIence, if wc conceive a surface described
within thc substance of' tbe cb-ctrotyte, tbe amount of
electrolysis
which takes p]aec through this surface, as measured
by t)io e!ec-
trochcmica! cquiva)cnts of tbe components tmnsfcrrcd across it
in opposite directions, will be to tbe
proportional total elcctric
current tbroug'b t.hc surface.
The actual transir of Die ions throug-b the substance of thc
electrolyte in opposite directions is titcrcfbre part of tbe pbcnomenon
of thé conduction ofan electric current
through an electrolyte. At
evcry point of the electrolyte through which an clectric cun-ent
is passing tht're are also two opposite material currents of the
anion
and tlie cation, which have the same )Ines of How with thc
electric
current, and arc proportional to it in magnitude.
It is tho-cforc extremely natural to
suppose t!tat tbe currents of
thé ions are convection currents of
electricity, and, in particular,
that every molécule of tbe cation is
cbarged with a certain fixed
quantityof positive ctcctricity, wbleb is the same for thé molL-eu!cs
ofali cations, and that cvery molecule of thé auion is
eharged with
an equal quantity of négative
electricity.
TJie opposite motion of tbe ions
tbrougb thé electrolyte would
then be a. complète pbysicat représentation of thé dectrie
eurrent.
We may compare this motion of tlie ions with the motion of
gases
and liquids through each other during tbe
process of dinusion,
there being tins dinurence between thé two
processes, that, in
diffusion, tbe diiiercnt substances are only mixed together and'tbe
mixture is not homogeneous, wbereas in
electrolysis tbey are cbemi-
cany combined and the clectrolyte is bomogeneous. In diffusion
 257.] THEORY OP ULAUSUrs. 309

thé determining- cause of thc motion of a substance in a

givcn
direction is a diminution of thc qnantity of that substance per
unit of volume in that direction, whereas in
electrolysis thé motion
of cach ion is due to the cicetroniotive force
acting on thé charn-cd
moiccutcs.
S56.] Clausius*, who bas bestowcd much study on thc thcory
of the molecular agitation of hodics, supposes that the molecules
of a!l bodies arc in a statc of constant agitation, but that in solid
bodies each molecute ncvcr passes bcyond a certain distance from
its original position, whercas in (huds :i mo!ecu)c, aftcr
moving
a certain distance from its ori~-ina) is as
position, just !Ikc!y to
move still farthcr i'rom it as to move baek a~in. IIcnce thé
molécules of i), fluid a.pparcntly a.t rest are
continually ettan~in~
thcir positions, and passin~-
in'cg-ularly from onc part of t!)e i)uid
to another. In a compound fiuid Im supposes that not
only thé
componnd mo)cculcs travel ahout in t!)is way, hut that, in thé
collisions \vhich occur hetwecn tite compound molecules, tlie molc-
cuies of which they are composed are oftcn sep:n-atcd and
c!tan"'e
partner~ so that the samc individnal atoni is at onc time associated
with onc atom ofthe opposite kind, andatanother timc \vith another.
Tliis proccss Clausius supposes to go on In thc liquitl at a.)) timcs, but
when an eicctromotivc force acts on the Hquid the motions ofthe
moiecu~s, w)tie)i before \G[-c indi([erent)y in all directions, are now
innuenccd hy the eicctromotive force, so t))at thé
positivety ehar~ed
mo)ccu1c-s ttavc a g-reatertendcncy lourds thc cathode than towards
thé anode, and thé neg-ativcly eharg'cd molecu!cs have a
greater
tendency to move in the opposite direction. IIence thc molécules
ofthe cation will during their intcrvahj offreedom struggle towards
thc cathode, but will eontinua.)]y be chcckcd iu their course
by
pairin~- for n. time \vitli mo)ecu]es of the anion, which arc also
strugg-H~g t!)roug-h the ero\vd, but in thé opposite direction.
257.] This theory of Clausius cnabics us to undcrstand how it is,
that \vhercas thc actual décomposition of' an clectrolyte
requires an
e!eetromotive force of finite magnitude, the conduction of the
currcnt in tlio clectrolytc obeys tlie !a\v of OIim, so that
every
cleetromotive force within tttc electrolytc, cvcn thefeeblestjpruduccs
a current ofproportionatc magnitude.
According- to thé thcory of Clausius, thé décomposition and
recomposition of thc e!ectrolyte is coutinufdly g-oing on even whcn
there is no current, and thé very feeblest clectromotive force is
l'o~. ~)t. )x). ci. a.338 (1857).
 Qt
310
HLECTKOLYSiS.
t-g
uf h~nt to~vc this p,.c~s a certain dc~e of' dirccti.n, and .0
of' thé sa.nc ph.no.n.non. ~.ch
P~t WiD~ < ci.ctrclyte,
~ri:" h~v.ver
finite
o thc .on~juch <L.
~un.~ a fimt. démotive fur.
électrode the ions At t!)C
.c..u,n.)a«, for < tlle
~n~ as <h.y .nv. at the ~.<.<L., in.ad find~. ~Ls
the opp~t. iotl .nbin.ith ti..n, arc ~d into ,n
~"1'7
~i:'
comlim·. The e!('ctl'OllJo1i\'cf¡/J'el! "'<-
rcclniretl to 1)1.0(111L.e t.his ('lIed
fnrtns au °pl'°sing t')I'('1I'Omntivl'
wllic·11 t¡)I'CU
:S:1~ produces a rt'l'r:,ed currcllt \111'11 othel' eltl(:trnnwti\"e
f:II'('cS
"'lwlI this l'l'CI'St,(1 l'ledl'oll1(,tive
the accumulation fil!'Cl', o\ring to
Clf thc ions :lt. the
ulel'tJ'ode, is observecl, tlie the
~=~d;:f~
258.] One ofth. b.st.n.th.ds ofdct.rminin~ wl~thor budv
~7~ to
.~d <o j.as. a c.urn.nt 1' ~~S
th, it r<n. ~nc. ti,.c, and
t),cn dis
-'I
hem ~,<) a <
~)van.,m..<cr, t., ..),s.rvc ~].).h,,
<Iuc to p..a~t,on .f <j.
nletcr. Such IL
ClIl'l"l'nt, ]Jci1Jg' to teetiliiiillfloii nl' dilli.'rt'Ilt
lmcn lias
l'lect¡'olytit':¡IJ.y tlecoll1poset! file ~>ri~ina.l l'1IJ'l'L'1If,froiii the
Ih.s n..<h.d ean .Hc. he
't~y appiicd where it. is difficuh.
hvd.~tch~~a..n~ds, todet.ct th. prince
~d(.c.omj,os,<,o,, at ~h.. <.h~r< cft~~
S.o Art ~i
25H"J -11- as wc flavu ~utu~ the
theory of electi-olysis alll)ears
wllic'll w· (lo not
ulldel'sIaIH], ly nlcans nl' the ('Ul'l'el1ts 0(' the
.h. cr.
t o~h .t V.
.h.n.n ). ),
d~ ..), ,h.
~t U. tlie a
unlt,ss thc lI1olt'cI¡]l's t'ail .M b
li-olil oac pal"t t 0:11101
hl'I' 110 clcc-
t:tlW pla('t', W that t111! 5111)St:IllCC lI111st
iu
a ccmoluctor. orclcr to }¡e

'L'
willlin the eluctrcllytc are ad.llally charhml witll cerbLin (h.fi nitc
L.r-
 200.] MOLHCULA1! CJtARCiH. 311

trotytie currcnt is simply a currcnt of cnnvection, wc find that this

~emptin~ hypothcsis icads us into vct'y diHicn!t ~ronnd.
Jn the jirst piacc, wc must assume that in every
cicctrotytc pach
mok'cu!e of thc cation, as it is lihcn~cd at thc cathode, commu-
nicatcs to thc (~thodc a cl)n)-n-p of positive cicctricity, thc' amnnnt
nf whieh is thc :amc Fot- L'vo'y mo)ccu)c, ])ot n)dy of that oatinn
Lut of al) oth~r oations. Jn thc s:)mc' \f).y t'ach n)o!cc'n1(; of <hf
anion \vh<'n hlh'ndcd, communicatcs ~o <hc anode a charn'c of
~c~ativc L'k'ctt'icity, thc nnmcrica) n):)ii<udR of which is ihc samc
as tLat of the positive! chnr~c duc to mo)ccute cf a cation, but
\vith si~n rc'vt'r~cd.
If, ittstcad of a sin~]c ntotootit', w considcr an assonhta~o of
molef'uk's, constitutin~- nn ct~ch-ocht'micn) c<[u!va]<'nt of thc ion,
thcu <I)c' total char~'c ofa)) Die motc-ctdcs is, as wc havcsccn, one
unit ofch'ctricih', positive or nc~~ivt'.
2GO.]] \\c do not as yct )<))o\v how many mok'c'u)cs ~hcrc arc
in nn (')cd.)'O('hc'mica) couivnh'nt ofanys~L~ancc, hnt thc motecuinr
thcory of t'hcmi~try, winch is coi'roho)':n~d hy Yn!)ny physic:u con-
sidt'ratio;)s, supposes t))nt thc mnnho' of' tnolcodcs in an (.dcc-
t)'0(jhpmi('!tl cquivatcnt is thc samc for all suhsianccs. AVe t~av
Htcrcfoj'e, in moh'c-uhn' spccu)a<Ions, :)ssnmc thnt thc numhcr of
n)o)ccn)cs in an cicctrochonica! c()uiv;dt'nt is A, a numhcr unknowt)
at. prcs(;nt. hut \vhic]) wc may h<'t-caftcr (ind incans <o dctcnninc~.
Each mo)cc)th~ thcrcforc, on ~jci)~ lihcratcd from t)ic statc of

comhin:)<iot~ parts with a charge w))osc mn~nihjdc and is

is
positive for thé cation and nc'ativc for <hc anion. T))is dcunUc
quaatity of c')cctricity wc shaH <))) thc moiccular charge. If it
\vc'rc kno~'n it would hc thc most natura) noit ofc)cctricity.
IfHhcrto wc !)avc oniy ino'cascd thc précision of our idcas hy
excrcisin~-our imagination in iracm~thc c)cftrification ofmoh'cutcs
and H)cdischar~(; ofthat c)cctri(ic'ation.
Ti)c nhcration nf thc ions and thc passade of positive dcctricity
from thc :).nod<'and into thc cathode arc sinn)!t;mco))s fac<s. T))e
mns, whcn )i!)t'ate(), arc no< char~'cd with ciectricity, !u-ncc, whcn
thcyarc in combination, iiicyhavc t)tc mofccular charg'csasahovc
dcscrii)cd.
T))c ciccirincation of a mo)ccn)c, ])owcvcr, thon~-h oasi]y i-pol<cn
of, is n(~ so casi)y conccivcd.
\\L' ~now that if two nictals arc hrong'ht jnto contact at any
Sec note toArt-.f!.
 312
ELECTROLYSIS.
[260.

pont, the rcst oftheir surfaces wiH bc clectrincd, and if the mêlais
are in thé form of' two
plates separated by a narrow interval of ah-,
the charge on each
plate may bccome of con.side.-ah)L. magnitude
Something !i).e this may bc
supposc-d to occur when the two
components of an dectro]y<c are h combination. Eaoh pair of
mo)eeu)cs may bu snpp.~ed to touch at one
point, and to have the
rest of their surface ebar~d ~-iLh dcctricity due to tbe e!c.cti-o-
mottvt; fbi'cu of contact.
But to cxp!ain thc
phcnomcnon, we ou~bt to shcw w)ty tite
charge tin~ produc.d en cad. mo~.u)e is of a f:xcd
a.nount and
why, w))cn n mo)ecu!c of chiorinc is eombinod ~itb a n~~cc-ute of
zinc, t!.e molecular cba.-g.es are the .sa,nc. as ~bc.n a
moic.cu]. of
chbrme combincd ~Itb a mob~dc of
coppcr, :dtboug.]i the ck.c-
tromotn-e force bct~v,.<.n e)dori,u. and ~ine
is mueb H-rcatcr than
tba ch!orino and coppcr. If t)~
t bci~en cba~i~- of the mo!ccu)c.s
tbc ~cct of the d~tromotivc force of contact, why sbo.dd
e ectromot.ve forces of <)ii!.rent intcnsitic.s
producc exacte cqua!
charges ?
Supposa howcvcr, that wc ]cap over this
dimcu)t~ by simpfv
asscrting. thc faet of thc constant value of tbe n~<~)ar
and that we cal! this constant c~ar~
mok.cuhu- char~ for couvcnience in
description, o~ w~c/< ~<
Tins phrase gross as it I~ and out of
harmony with the rcst of
this treat,se, will cnaMe us at least to
statc c)car!y what is kno~
about c)cc rolysis, and to
apprcciatc thc outstandi.~ dinicn)ties
Rvery electrolyte mnst hc considcrcd as a
binary compound of
its anion and its cation. Thé union or the cation or both be
compound bodi~ so that a molécule of thc anion cr the may
cation
may bc formcd hy ~m.iber of moi~ucs of simple bodies A
mo ccntc of the anion and a mo)eculc of
the cation ccmbined to-
gether iorm one moh.ctde of t)ic electroivtc.
In order to act as an anion in an
electrolyte, the molecule which
so acts must be
c),arg-ed wit)i ~~at wc have called one n.olecuic
e)ectrieity, and in order <o act as a cation the n.o!ccu]c
cfn~vcbe
clia~-cd ~itb onc mo]ecu)e of positive eh.ctneitv.
mustibcse charges are connected v'it)t thé
mo)ceu)cs on!y when t)~v
are eondjincd as anion and cation in
tbe dcc.trolytc
Wi~en thc mo]ccu)cs arc
c!cct..oiysed, thcy part u.ith their cl~r.es
to the électrodes, and
appear as nne)eetrined bodies wbcn set ~.ce
from combmation.
If the same molecuje is
capable of acting. as a cation in onc
 201.]J SECONDARY l'RODUCTS 0F EDCCTHOLYSIS. 313

electrolyte and as an anion in anothcr, and also of entering- into

cunipound budics wtuch are not electrolytes, then we must suppose
tttat it receives a positive charge of
electricity when it aets as a
c-ation, a négative c))arge when it acts as an anion, and that it
is without charge when it is not in an
electrolyte,
lodine, for instance acts as an anion in the iodides ofthe metals
and in hydriodic acid, but is said to act as a cation in the bromidc
ofiodinc.
This theory of molecular charges may serve as a mcthod
by
w!)ic]i we may rcmembcr a ~ood many facts about
electrolysis.
It is extremely improbable that w!ien we corne to undcrstand the
truc nature of electrolysis we sha)l retain in a~y form thc
theory of
molecular charges, for then we shall have ohtaincd a secure basis
on wtncli to form a truc theory of electric eurrcnts, and so hecome
indépendant of thèse provisional tlicories.
261.] One of thc most important steps in our know!cdg-<j of
c!cctro)ysis bas bcpn thc recognition of t))c secondary chemical
processcs whieh arisc from the evointion of thé ions a,t tbe elec-
trodes.
In many cases the substances which are found at the electrodes
are not the actual ions of the electrolysis, but thc products of thé
action of thèse ions on the elcetrolytc.
Thus, when a solution of sulphate nf soda is eleetrolysed by a
current which also passes throu~h ditute sulpliurie acid, equal
quantities of oxy~'en are g-ivcn ofl' at the anodes, and equal quan-
titics of hydrog-en at thé cathodes, both in the sulphate of soda
and in the dilnte acid.
Hut if tbe deetrolysis is conduetc(L in suitable vessels, such as
U-st~tpcd tuhes or vessels with a porous diaphrag-m, so that thc
substance surroundi))~ eaeh etuctrode can bc cxnmined separately,
it is found tbat at the anode of the su]phate of soda there is an
équivalent of su)pburic acid as weH as an équivalent of oxygen,
and at the cathode thcrc is an équivalent of soda as we)l as two
équivalents of hydrogen.
It wou)d at urst sight sccm as if, aecording to the old theory
of tbe constitution of salts, the sutphate of soda werc electrolysed
iuto its coistituents sulpburie acid. and soda, w)ti)e the water oftbe
solution is electrolysed at the same time into oxygen and hydrogen.
But this cxpfanation would involve thé admission that the same
current which passing through dihtte sutphuric acid
electrolyses
one equivalent of water, when it passes through solution
ofsutphate
 ~UTHOLY.SfS.
r~~j
of soda ch.ct.rolyscs onc
cqnivalcnt nf Lhc salt as wo)) as one
vaicnt of thc watcr, an.) this ~vou)d hc om,i-
contrat to thc )aw of
cit-ctrnc-hcmicnt f'fjui\'ah'n<s.
Butifwt..npposcthat the components of
sutpl.atc nf soda arc
.0 and Na() but SO, and Na.-not.ulp.nn.ic acid and.
sn)ph,on and sodi,,m-t),cn t)n. s.dphion t.-aveis to <hc anode
and is sd. h~ ),nt
bd,~ nnabic to cxist in a frcc stato i<. t,rc.~
into su]p!n,nc. a<-id and
~P oxy~en, onc <.quiva)<-nf. of cac.h ,\<
t~ ~mc tnne thé sodi~n is s..t
frc.e at thc cathod., and 'O.urc
decomposps th.at<-r of t!,c solution,
forcing one ~nivd.nt. of
Mdaandtwonf'hydrn~-f.n.
In the di!~ su)p)uiri(. aeid t).e ~ascs oc!)<d at thc <.](.<.<rodes
arc ih. constitu.nt.s cf u-at.r,
name)y nnc vojumc of ~n ~d
hvo Y.h.r..s of
)~ydro,n. T).er. I. also an incrca.se
ac.d a) <).. anod< h.,<. its amomit is oi~ulphuric
not .qua! <o an eqmvah.nt.
It is dnub<fn! ~hcthc..
pure watcr is an dcctrfdytc nr n.,t Thc
~at.r thc parity of' i).. wat~ the
~eat.r ~he r.sistance to dcc-
c..ndac.ti<~n. Tiw. minute <ra<-cs 0~ for~n
t~yt-c matter an.
sufheK.nt to a ~at di.ninuti.n of- th. ,!cctricn! n.sistance
ot watt.r. t pr~u..c
)~ dcch-.o résistance of ~-atci- as
dc<<mincd h~ di~brcnt
nhscrv.rs has vah,.s ,o di~rcnt t).at we <-a,mot co,,sld<-r it a. a
~,anti<.y. Ti.c. p..r< thewat.Tt),t.i<s
.l~rnnn.d
a..d cnutd «btain rcaHy pun. ~ter it is résistas
doubifu) ~-),.t)~T it
wnoid cun()uc<, nt :)i).
As ion~as ~t.r was consid.rc.d an
<<.otm]y<c, and was, i,,d..L.<I
taken as < type .f~h.o.yt.s, <). wa. a str. r~ f.;
mamta.nn~. ihat it is a binary <-omp.und, a.d that
two votumcs
o hy<!ro.H.<.narc.
chomi..a)!y <.)uiva)..nt t.o onc voh, of nxy~
]i. !u,w..vL.r, wc. admit i))at watcr i.s not a.i
e!tr<~te, we ar'~rœ
to suppns. that
.qua) vojumcs of r-xy~n and of hydrr~.ii are
'c
~)cm)ca))y cquivatcnL.
Th.- dynamica) ~,<.ory of ~.scs Icad.s us to
suppose ~hat in p<.rf..c.L
vo)nn~.s aiways contain ai,
~.s<ua .<jua) .uunbcr nrn~i.cu)~
an<) that. <hc prindpa] part of' <h.
spc<-ifi<-t,,at, t).at, nain.ty, ~i.h'
dcr.nds on t!u. mn<i.n of a~i~ation .f <].c ,].cn]~
amnn.. ea<.h
o hcr, ,s thc samc. for cfjnal nu~hcrs of moiccuic.s of
all
ir<-nc. are )cd to prc.f.r a ch.nnca)
sys~m in ~!n<.h ~]
volun~s or oxy~n and oi' I.ydro~n ar. r~urd.d as <.pn-va).nt
and winch water is r~arded as a
compound of two c<nnvak.n<s
ot and one of oxy~.n, aud thercfore
hydro~.n
of dn'cct r.rohah!v not capaDo
clectroty.sis.
 202.] DYNAAHUAL THEOJ{Y. 815
WhDc c!cctro]ysis fu!)y cstabtishes the dose
rctationship hct~-ccu
cicctricat phcnomena and titosc of chcmieal combination, the fact
that cvery cticmical compound is not au
dcctrolytc shews that
chcmica) combination is a procès. of a hi~hcr ordcr of
compicxity
t!)an any pm-ciy cicctricat phcnompnon. Thus thc combinations 0!'
thc meta)s wit)i cach othcr, though
they are g-ood conductors, and
thor components stand at dii!'crent
points of' the scale of eieetri-
<icahon by contact, are not, even when io a f)nid
state, dccomposcd
Ly the current. Most of' the conihinations of thc substances which
:)ct :)Manions arc not condnctors, and therefore are not
c!e(;t)-o]ytc's.
I!estdn.s t)n'se we have many compounds,
cnDbumng- thé same com-
ponunts us clectro)ytes. Lut not in equivalent proportions, and thèse
arc also non-conductors, and Hiereforu not
ch'ctrolytcs.
~M ~< C'f~o~ < ~c~y~ 7~7<'6'
2C2.] Considur any voltaic circuit consisting- part]y of' a, Lattery,
part)y oi'a wirc, and part)y ofan t.']uetro!ytlc œl).
Durin~ t)]c passade of unit of' dectricity through :my sfetion of
thc en-ont, one dectrochcmieal cquivak'nt of cach ofthe
substances
in thé cc))~, whethcr -vottaic or eh'ctro]ytic, is
c)ectro!ysed.
Ti~ ainount of mL'chanicat to any ~ivcn
cnergy cquivalcut
chonica! prot-t.'ss can hu asccrtaincd by convcrtin~- the whole encrs-y
due to thc proces3 into heat, and thcn
(.'xpressing- the hc'nt in
dynamicat measurc hy mu)tip)ying' the nunibcr of thermal units by
Joule's m~(;!)aniea) c(~nva)cntf'fheat.
~V))ere this direct mcthod is not ap])!icab)c, if we can cstimate
the Itc'at given out hy t)tc substances takeo first in thé state hefore
thc propcss a.nd t)ten in thc state after the
process dnrino. their
reduction to a nna) statc, which is the samc in both cases, then the
thcrtnal C(puvale!tt of the process is t))c différence of the two
(juo.n-
tities of hcat.
In thé casu in \vbich thc chomicat action maintains a. vo)ta.ic
cn-cuit, Jo)!)<; found that the !tcat dcvctopc'd in thc vo)tafe ccUs is
less than that due to thc ehc'mical process wit])In thc ce!), and that
the rcmaindcr of tlie iteat is de\'cloped in thé
connectin~- wirc or
whcn therc is an chcctr.'mag-netle en~-inc in thc circuit,
part of thc
hcat may hc accouotud for hy the meolianicat \vor)c of thc
cn~inc.
For instance, if the électrodes of the vo)taic cell arc first con-
neeted by a short thick wirc, and afterwards
hy a !on~- t)nn wire,
t!tc heat dcvc]opcd in tite cell for each ~rain of zinc dissolvcd is
~rcatci- in thc fh-st case than the second, but the heat
devetoped
 1
316 ~LKC'rjtOLY.S!H. [263.
tbc wire is greatcr in the
second case than in tbe first. Thé
sum ofthe béat
deveicped in t),e cell and in thé wire for c-ach grain
of zinc dissolved is thé samc in
both cases. This has been esta-
blished by Joule by direct
experimcnt.
T]~ ratio of thé heat
generated in the cell to that generated
in ~i'-e ;s <)..t of' thé résignée of thc cell
to that of tlie wire,
so that ;f the wire made of sufricient résistance nearlv thé
~o!e of thé heat would be
generated in thé wire, and if it were
made of .~hc.cnt
condacting po~r nearly thé whole of thc heat
would )je s'cncr~ted in thé cell.
Let thc wire b. made so as to
hâve ~eat resistance, then tlio
heat generated in it is in
equal dynamica) measure to thé produet
o thé quantity of'
eleotncity which is transmitted,
~c multiplied by
force made to pass
the wire.
263.] New during t!ic. time in which an electrochemical
valent of tl,e substance in thé equi-
cell undergoes t!~ ehemieat
which gives rise process
the current, one unit of
through thé wire. Hence, t~e heat electricity passes
of one unit of developed by tl~e passage
electricity is in this case measured by thé electro-
motive force. But this heat is
that one <-Icctroe).mieal
equivalent of thé substance gc.nerat.es, whethc.r in the
cell or in the
wire, wh.Ie undergoing thé
given chcmiea! process.
Jcncetl~efol!o~ing important theorem, first proved
by Thomson
(~JA/Dec.]85!):–
~The electromotive forée ofan
eleetrcchemica! apparatus is in
absolut, measure equal to thé
mechanical équivalent of t!~e chemical
action on one electroehemical
equivalent of-thc substance.'
The thermal cquiva~uts
ofmany chemical actions have been
doter~ned by Andrews, Hess, Favre
and Si.ber.ann. &e., and from
these tt.en.meeban.ca!
équivalents can be dedueed by multiplication
tjy the mccitanical équivalent of heat.
Tins theorem not only enables us to
caleulate from purely the~al
data thc elcctromotive force of
différent voltaic arrangements, and
the electromotive force
required to ea-eet eleetrolysis in dinerent
cases, but afforJs thé means
It lias ]ong becn known ofaetuaHy measuring chemical aflinity.
that chemical aflinity, or thc
which exists towards the tendeney
going on ofa certain chemicat change,
~.ronger in some cases than in
others, but no proper measure
cfthis tendeney could be made till it
was shewn that this
in certain cases is tendenc-y
exactly equivalent to a certain electromotive
 263.] CALCULATION 0F ELECTROMOTJVEFORCE. 317

force, and can therefore bc measured according to tlie very sume

pnnctptea uscd in thé moastirement of electromotive forces.
Chemica.1 afiïnity heing therefore, in certain cases, reduced to
tho form of a measurah!e quantity, the whole
theory of chcmical
processes, of thé rate at which thcy go on, of tlie displacement of
onc substance by another, &c., becomes much more
intelligible than
when chcmica! afunity was regarded as a quality
~e;«?~, aixl
n'reducible to nnmerical measurement.
When the volume of thé products of electrolysis is greater thau
that of thé electrolyte, work is donc
during thé clectrolysis in
overcoming- thc pressure. If thé volume of an clectrochemica)
équivalent of the electrolyte is inereased by a volume \vhe'n
elcetrniysed nnder a pressure thcn thc work donc during thc
pa~sa~e of a unit of eleetricity in ovcrcoming pressure is 7- aud
thé electromotive ~orce requircd for electrolysis must incindc a
part equal to !)~, which is spcnt in pcrfbrming Dus mcchanicaï
work.
If the products of electrolysis arc gases which, likc
oxyton and
l'ydrogcn, are much rarer than thé electrolyte, and funil Boyic's
law very exactly, will be very nearly constant for Die samc
température, and thé electromotive force requircd for c!cctro!ysis
~'i!l not dépend in any sensible de~rcc on thé pressure. IIence it
has been found impossible to check thé electrolytic decompo.sitlo!i
of dilute su!phuric acid by eonilning- thc dccomposcd
gases in a
small space.
Whcn the products of electrolysis are hquid or solid tlie
quantity
?~j will inerease as thé pressure increases, so that if is positive
an inerease of pressure will Increase tlie electromotive force
required
for eicctrolysis.
In thé same way, any other kind of work doue during electro-
lysis will have an enect on the value of thé electromotive force,
as, for instance, if a vertical current passes between two zinc
electrodes in a solution of sulphate of zinc a greater electromotive
force will he required when thé current in tlie solution nows
upwards than when it flows downwards, for, in thé nrst case, it
carries zinc from thé lower to the upper electrode, and in thé
second from the upper to thé lower. The electromotive force
required for this purpose is less than the milhontli part of that
ofa Daniell's cell per foot.
 CIIAPTER V.

H~CTMOLYTfc P()LAH)X.\TfO~.

an ch..<tr.c cun-t.t is pa.st~

~64.] ,~N thro~h an c!ect,
hound<.dhymL.<,d L.Icctrod.s, <)“ accu.nu)a<ion ~-thc iuns ut the
L.IcL.trudL.sproducL-s thé ph~.ornenon ca))<.d Poiarization ~)uo)i
in an .tcctromotiv.. f.rc. nctin.~ in t),, <,j,p<j<~ j,
con~ts
te < hc curant, and prod.K.n~. an
apparcnL inc.rcasc oi-1),. rcsistancc
VMien a continuous currenL is
(.mpi.ycd, the rcsistancu appcars
to inerease mpid)y f.-oni thu commencement
t.hc eun-cnt -md
at last ~ac-hes a value n.ariy ~n.ta.,t. Jt' ttic forni of t)K. ves.d
the d.ctro)yte is eontaincd
e),a,~d, the n.sistancc
u~vinch
altered in the .âme ~y as a simi!ar
eha~c offor.n of a rnctaiiic
ecnductor wou)d altcr i<s r.sis<an< huL ~n ad<Ii(iona)
apparent
resistance, dcp.ndin~ on thc natt.ru of
th..h.ctrnd~, ha. atways
to bc addcd to thé true rcsista.ncc- nf the
eh'ctrotytc.
~65.] Thcs~ pt.cnomena hâve )<d somc to suppose that thc.ru is
a finite electrom~tivu force rcquircd for a cnrrent
to pass ttu-ou-.h
an dect.-oiytc. It bas bcen shewn, ho~-cv.r,
hy thc rcs.arche~of
Lcn.. W~.rnann~ Paa!wf, and ~ccnt)y by
those of ~eu.nan.
MM. F. Roh!r.u~ch and W. A. Nippo)dtt, that the c<,n
duct.on m thc c)<-ctrc)ytc itsdfoh~ys Ojun'~ Law ~ifh <)~ s.un(.
prcc.s.ou as in mcta]]ic eonducto. and that thL. apparent rc.s:st..nee
thé boun<hn~. surface oi' H~
ck.ctrotyte and thc ~cctrodL.s is
t'nhrc)yduutopo)ar)xaticn.
266.] Thc phenomcnon ca)!cd po)arixa<iun manife.ts itsdf in
the case ofa cr.ntin.u.us current
hy a diminution in the ~u-rcut
tnd.c~n~ a force cpposed to thL. cL.rrL.nt.
1~ tance isatsu per'
cL.n-L.das a furL-c oppo.cd to thL. curn-nt, hat ~c
can distingui.h
· lul.
<.j. "<fr'<Ju)vI'<f!s
ti'«H.)H).(.xxxviii.H.t;8<!(()ct..h..r,]S6:)).
 267.] DtSTtNGU~HK!) FRoMIfEStSTANC)' Hl!)

hc~vecn thc two p))enomena by

instnntancousjy rcmnvin~- or rc--
vo'sin~' thé cicctromotivu force.
Thc resit-tin~ force is always opposite in direction to the cm'rent,
.~nd thé nxtci-nat clectromotiv~ force requircd to ovct-come it is
proportion:~ to t.hc sti-cn~th nf thc currcnt, and c)t:u~es its direc-
tion whcn t! du-cction of t!x. curant is It'thc t'xtcrnat
chang'cd.
t'tcctromotive forcc bco~ncs xc'ro thc current nimpty btops.
Thé dcctroinotivc furce dne tu potarization, on thc otitcr )~nd,
is ni a fixcd direction, oppnscd to thé eurrent which
produec'd it.
IfDve e)ect,rotnotivc force which produccd thc currcnt is remnvcd,
thu potarizition produccs a cnrrent in thé
opposite direction.
Thé din'L-rence bctwecn thc two phenomcna
may ho eompa.rcd
\vit)) thc dincrcnce bct\vec[i t'orcit)~- n current of' \dcr
throu~h
:t )on~- c:q)il):uytubf, and forcit]~- water throu~h a htbc (.f'modcratc
tc'n~t!i up into a cis~'rn. In thc nrst. case if\c i-umovc tlie pressure
\v)n(.i proJnuc's t))(- no\v t))(; currc-t)t will silnjdy
s)op. lu thc
second Otsc, ifwc rcmovc <.))cpressure Oie \va<or will h~m to How
dnwn ag'a.in from th(; cish'rti.
Tu makc the meu))anica) mu.stration moru
comptL'tc, wu hâve fmfy
tu suppose thut ttu; cist~rn is of modérât c dcpth, su that when a
certain :)monnt of watur is raised into it, it bc~'ins to ovcrf!cw.
This will rcpt-t.scnt thu Fact that thc total (dcct.romctivc furcc' duc
to po!arixation ha-.sa maximum limit.
~67.] Thc caust; of polariza.tiou appcars to bc thu cxistuncc at
thc utcctrodes ui' the products of t)ic f)cetro]ytic dL'compositiou of
t!n' Ouid hutwccn t))t-m. Thc surfaces of' thu électrodes arc thus
rendcrcd (~ctrica)ty diftcrcnt, aud an ck'ctrumotive force tx.'twct'n
thuni is callud into action, thé direction ot'which is opposite to that
ofthe currcnt which causcd thc pularixation.
Thc ions, which Ly their présence at thc dcctrodt's
produce the
phcnomcna of arc not in a
poiarixa.tion, pcrfc'etly trec statc, but
are in a condition in which they adhère to thé surface uf thf
dcctrodes wit)i considérable force.
Thc ek'ctromotivc force due to potarizution dépends upon the
dcnsity with which the (.-tectrodc is covcrcd with t))c ion, Lut it
is not proportional to this density, for thé etcctt-omotivc force duc-s
not increasc so rapid)y as this dcusity.
This dupasit of the ion is eonstantly
tendin~ to hceomc f'reu,
and cither to difruse itito thu liquid, to
cseapc as a ~as, or tu bu
precipitatcd as a. suHd.
Thc rate of this dissipation of thé polarization is ('xcccdln~)y
 320 HLECTROLYTJC POLAKIZATION.
[268.
s~I for ~ight dcgrees
of polarization, and cxccedin~y rapid near
thé hmit.ng. value of
polarization.
~68.] We I.avc seen, Art. 2(;2, that the electromotive force
m any electrolytie actin~.
process is numericallycqual to thé inccl.a.n-~
.q uva en of ).e resnib of that process on one
eiectrochernicai
equivalent of the substance. If thé process invo)vcs a diminution
ci the intrinsic
encr~y of thé substances which take part in it,
as in the voltaic ccH. then the
clectromotive f.rco is in the direction
of the currcnt. If thé proccss involvcs a incr.asc
of the intrinsic
ene~y of f)~ su~nccs. as in the case of the
t)ie electromotive dectrc!ytic cell,
force is in the direction
opposite to that of the
errent, and this electromotive force is ca!)ud
pu]arization.
In thé case of' a
.tcady current in w),ic.]i cicctrolysis p.oes on
c.ntmuou~ and thé ions are scparatcd in a free
statut' t~c
electrodes, have only by a suitabic
process to n~ur. tl~c
intrinsie cnergy of thé
scp.ratcd ions, and compare it with that
of thc e!cctro)yte in order to
calculate thé electromotive force
required for This will
zation. P~
But duri~ tho first instants of thé
process of electrolysis t)~
ions dep<~ted at thé tétrodes arc not in a frce stfte, and
hc,r ~h~ intrinsic cnergy is less t),an their
ener~ in a free stato
though greater than their en~y when combincd in the
In tac thé ion in contact with D~e électrode dectrolyte'
is in a state which
~cn thé deposit is very thin
may Le compared with that of
ch~cat comb.nation with thc électrode, but as the
crca~ in density, thé deposit in-
sueceedi~ portions are no longer so in-
~y combined with the électrode, but
at last thé déposa simply adhère to it, and
if gaseous, escapes in bubMcs, ifliquid, diffuses
th._ough tlie electrolyte, and if solid, forms a
a studyjng. polarization we have preeipitate
therefore to consider
(J)lh. superrieia! density oft)~ deposit, which we may c.]!
T. rh.s quant.ty reprcsents the number of electroeh.mical
q~a.e.ts of thé ion d~ited on unit of area. Since J
c ec rochem.cal e.pnvaJent deposited corresponds to onc nnit of
electricity transmittcd by the current, we n~ay consider as r~
P~ng e~hcr a surface-dc~-ty ofn.att.r or a
surface-density of
electricity.
(2) Ti~ electromotive force of
polarization, which we may ça)!
Tins ~,ant.ty thé difference bctwcen thé clcctric
of' thc two ,!ectrodes when thé potentials
current through the
electrolyte
 2/0.] DISSH'ATJON 0F THE DEPOSIT. 321

is so fecb)e that thé propcr résistance of t)ic

eleetrolyte makes no
sensibte différence between thèse potentials.
Titc electromotive force at any inshant is nnmericany
cqn:d
to thé mechanica) equivalent of the
e!cctro]ytic proccss ~-oin~ on nt
tliat instant whicb corresponds to one electroe))emieat
équivalent of
the c!eetr<dyte. T)iis electrolytic it must bc
procès, remembcred,
cottsists in thc deposit of thé ions on thc électrodes, aud the statu
in which t))cy are dcposited dépends on thc actual statc of the
suriucc of thé cicctrode.s, which
may be modHied by previous
dcposits.
the elcctromotive force at any instnnt dépends on thé
previons )iistory of thc électrode. It i~ sj~cahing- very ron~Idy,
a functiou or <r, the dcnsity of thc
deposit, such t)tat = 0 when
(T= 0, hnt approaehes a limiting- value mueli sooncr than n- does.
T)K- statement, ho\vever, th:tt is a function of o- cannot be
considcrcd accurate. It would bc more correct to
say that ;j is
a function of thc chcmical state of' thé
supcr(!nia.l laycr of the
duposit, and that this statc dcpends on thc density of Hn; deposit
according' to Home law Involving- thc time.
2G9.] (3) Thc third thing' wc must takc into account is the
dissipation of 1)10 polarization. TIie pohtrization whcn lfft, to itscif
diminishcs at a rate dcpeuding- part)y on t!)c
intc'nsity of thé
polarixation or the density of tlie deposit, and partiy on the imture
ofthesurroundin~- medium, aud the chemical, mechanical, or thermal
action to whieh the surface of thc électrode is
cxposcd.
If wc détermine a time 7' such tha.t at t)LG rate at which
the deposit is dissipated, tlie whole deposit would be removed in
a time Y', wc may call ?' the modutns of thc time of
dissipation.
Whcn thc dcnsity of thé deposit is vcry sma)I, l' is
vcry large,
and may be reekoned by days or mnnths. When the density of
thc deposit approaches its Hmiting' value ?'dlmlnis)ics
very rapidiy,
and is prohably a minute fraction of' :). second. In
fact, the rate
of dissipation increases so r:)pid)y that when tlie
strcng-th of thé
cnn-cnt is maintained const.:nit, thé scparated gas, instead of con-
tribnting- to increasc thé dcnsity of thé deposit, escapes in LuLbIes
as fast as it is formed.
27'0.] There is thercfure a, gréât difîcrGncc betwecn thc state of
pohu-ization oftiic electrodes of an eicctrotytie cell when thé po)ari-
zation is fccble, and when it is at Its maximum v~Inc. For
Instance,
if a numbci- of e]ectro1ytic cel)s of dilute
sulphuric acid with
p~tinum electrodes are an-aDg-ed in series, and if a. small alectro-
\'0t,. I. Y
 U<J<)
H'~HCT~OLY'I'fC l'ULAIitZATK~
r~i.

~t th.
o.. ~L" th.t,htc ?"" f, will
.).), r. .r,
ox~
trcnnutivu Glrcc ('mmu t,llc lo~l:lriz,t.iml ol' tlu~
uri;int;~ c~ull will Lalancc
~7~

~i:r~
~u. u(' tlli;t
-;r
,) .L. t.j. ,f ~:I,u,,
tlie statc
wu "rat!
ul' 1-S (..rtt.h.tt.
sut alc, ancl if' wu uall
tllc trrtal
1~ l.lm nurrc·nt clurin;~
it' .I i, tlu· ,rua c~f'onu uf' tllc
ulm~troclus, a«cl rr

tllc elcctrcllytic :Illllaratus

frmn tlle 1):lniull', ccll, ancl cunlllec~t, t.llenl witll :I
.J~ ~alv:mullluler
,i.).
~P~< th. ,r.
will
"T~
1~

~°~y~h~<jfthM~a,s ~nd,
M~ ,J~
-f ~.i~
e. 'rr
ch~gLdv~). ,.k.t,t~).,f~
'y y
't. "r
m.li)u;u.d t<ML.h,j,tlie di,<t,n .n,
j,
.M.rc~
~t:LC: lmt whicll, wllcn tlie
sluw, tlm ull:lrf;c~ c·~c~cccls:z c,rrtain
lintit, lieccnncs
~J;t: ellarbe
llave
tlie hecn cuunect,cci for a tilnu ,«flicic~tlt, tu
lwuluce an ;il~l~irctltly
if' no~ sc·llar,tc tlu: clcctrocl~s clisaltlm:wed,
~~Y-:±~:H~ for a tilll, :ulcl
tllcnl, wc olltaill a sm~oll at'turwurcls colulcct
cliscllarrin iu tlle nunu· Vircct.irnl as tlie
'I'llis is file rmid«al di5ul«vr~~c,atl(1 is a

ph~ft~L,
in
t.. a "T' .~t.
T!~ d
Tllc ,t-t.'iM.
~J. 's
'-c,y~t~),ti~,) to tlle
 2~1.] CMH'AJ;!S()K \)'n) LEYDEX
JAif. 323

c)cctromoti\'c forée of' thé charge, that is, to thé differenc-c of

pot0)tia)s of D~e t\vo surfaces, and the charge eorresponding' to unit
ci' e]cctromotivc force is eaiïed tl)e capaeity of thé jar, n constant
ijuat~tity. Thc eorrcsponding' 'ju.mtity, \hich tnay Le eaUed thc
capaeity of thé sceondary pi)e, inereases when thc ejeetromotive
force i))t')'C!tscs.
Th(; c'):K'i<y of thc jar (tcpcnds on thc :u'cn of t))c opposcd
sm-f:)ccs~ oti thc distance bc<vccti thetn, and on <hc nature of <he
soLstancc ht.-twccn thcni, hut not on <hc nature of Oie metaHic
s)n-f:)<cs thcmst'h'cs. T))c capneity of thé seeundary piie dépends
on the arca of thc Hurfaccs of thc électrodes, but not on thc distance
bct\vcen t!icn~ and it dépends on thc nature of thé surface uf thc
électrodes~ as \ve!) as on Uiat of thé nuid bet\veeu them. Tt)e
maximuni différence of thé poten~i:()s of thé eteetrodcs in caeh
c)eme))t of:) secondary pi)e is very smaU conpnred with thé maxi-
jnun) différence of thc potcntial! of those of a char~-ed Leyden jar,
so titat in order to oLtani tnucii electronotive force a pHe of many
cléments must bc uscd.
Ou thc other hand, thc superficiat dcnslty of thc cLar~'e in t!ie
secondary pile is immcnHely ~reatcr t))an thc utmo.-jt superticial
density of thé charge \v!tich can hc accmnu)atcd on thc isurfaces
of a, Lcydcn ]ar, insomuctt that Mr.C. F.nrley*, in describing'
thc construction of :i condenser of ~'reat capacity, recommends a.
Kcrics ofg'old or p]atinum ]))atcs Immersed in di)ute acid as préfér-
able in point of cheauncss to induction plates of tinf'oi) separated
by insu)atin~' ma-teriaL
TI)C form. in w)uch thé cner~y of a Lcydon jar is stored up
is thc state of constraint of thc dietoctric bet~'cen thé conducting'
surfaces, a. statc \vhich 1 bave :t!rc';idy deserihed under thé name
of etcctric pohn'ixatiun~ pointing' ont those phenomena attending
Utis state \tiidi are at présent known~ and indicatm~' thé im-
pcrfcet siatc of our kno\vlcdg'e of \vhat rca))y takc's place. Sec
Arts. C2, n ].
Tho form in whieh t)ie cnerg'y of the seeondary pile is stored
u]) it; t!ie dicmical condition of thé materiat stratum at tbe surface
of thé etectrodes, con~Isting' of thu Ions of' t))e eleetrotyte and thé
substance of thc électrodes in a. relation varyiug' from c!]emical
conibinatiou to supcriiclat condensation, mechanica! adiicrenec, or
simple juxtaposition.
Thc seat of t]us cncrg'y is close to tbc surfaces of thc electrodes,
<jfC.F. V~r)cy, EluctriuTc!t;gr:tphH,
HpL'citication &c. Jan. 18GO.
)' 2
 ~4 ELECTHOLYTIC l'OLAKJZATlOY.

aud not throughout the suhstance of the

cleetrol3-te, aml the form
lie called
After clecarolytic holarization.
l"'f the in t' Leyhn
jar, the student slunlld again
comparc
C'Ollil)~tl'ethe voltaic
some form of the elcrctrical Jmttery with
mnehine, sti(-Il
iiiteliiiie, f;ueh 7Sis that (t'L'.so'ibt.'d
dcscrilmd m in
Aj't..2JI

found that one

~y
~r'
th. d..t,.n..t,Y. L. and
the eleeti-ollictive
foi-et,, J,cing ahout l ï5 fur 0,02 of a
e~ I)aliiell'S
Dj~t'
j!hH 'hemmjmntonbctm.mtJK.
Lm~.nhr~,)~ thü )
~T' still as in
duc to l3ult' It is onl)' tlie
glass of tlie jar is eold that
~1: a
temllerature J)L'lol\' 1 (10^C

is hlaced in a ve.ael of "~L~

'T: merct1l')', and il' a of electrocles are
conncetcd, oiie with the inncr and the othcr lmil'
,ith the outer }¡odion
a Leydell jar which wiU
llulcl a charge at
urclinary tel11pemtul'cs, If the elcctroclcs ure con-
uected with those uf a voltaic
liattely, no eun'cnt will I)ass as
long
~s~ is
currcnt vsill lyrill to gmaually· hcatcd a
1)~iss,ancl will
ine-rcase rapiùly iu intcnsity as
~r"– rises,
as cver. -~T~

for if the electrocles are

diseonnectcd from the
battery) aud C0l111edeù 'fil 11
~:t~r gal\'anometcr,
surfaccs of the glass. tlie
If; wllile the 1).ttter>, is in actiou
the apparatus is
cooled, the
=~the surfuce~
of hollrizution
l'email1s. Tlli-- mercury lie
rClUond, t1le surlilces
mtroduc-cd. Jfttiainn. u~,f'
'-u. "shmtTcm-y
-"tt'LapparatuststhenJicatcd the current ? i
ization allllears as soon as ~"r is
"<-nj.t~ i< W)n'~ t) t
s..)id Lo~ n)en')urL']'("Tai'(I"sH
as an allllarcutly fi
c! ) is ~utJy
which a ùielectric has a
slitillt dc~l'CC uf cunductivity the conduction is
clcctrolytic. 'l'he
'~f-<S..Jan.I2 ]S7]
~<~<~M.xc.2cr(lSC.n.
 2/2.J CONSTANT VOLTAtC ELEMENTS. 325

existence of polarization may Le rcgarded as conclusive évidence of

electt~ysis~ and if thc conductivity of a substance increascs as thc
température rises, wc hâve good grounds for suspccting that it is
cfcctrolytic.
0~ 6'~M~~K~/WA?/'C~fM~Mi'6'.
27~.] AVhcn a séries of experiments is made with a voltaie
battery in winch polarization occurs, the polarization diminishes
during thc time that the current is not ftowing, so that when
it b~ins to flow again thé curront ifj strong-cr than after it bas
ftnwcd for some tim~. If, on thc other hand, thc resistance of thé
circuit is dimiuishcd hy a!!owing' thé cun'cnt to flow throug-h a
short shunt, then, when the current is again made to f)o\v throngh
the ordinary circuit, it is at first wenkcr than its normal strcng-th
on accomit of tiic grcat polarization prodnccd by thé use of thc
short circuit.
Tu gct ri(L of thcsc irregutaritics in thé current, \vhich arc
cxcccdin~y trouhlesome in cxpcrimcuts in\'o)ving exact muasurc-
monts, it is nceessary to gct rid of thc pohn'Ization, or at least
to rcducc it as niuc!i as possible.
It docs not appcar that there is much polarization at thc surface
of thc zinc plate whcn immersed in a solution of sulphatc of zinc
or in dHutc su)phnric acid. The principal scat of polarization is
at thc surface of thc négative metal. Wlicn thc nuid in whieh
t))e négative métal is immersed is di)utc sulphuric acid, it is seen
to hecome covcrcd with bubbfcs of hydrogen gas, arising from t!ie
e!cctro!ytie décomposition of thc nuid. Of course these huLhies,
Ly pré vent Ing the nuid from touehing thc metal, diminish thé
surface of contact and inercasc tiic résistance of thé circuit. But
hesides thé visible hubhh's it is certain that there is a thin coating
of hydrogen, probably not in a frce state, adiiering to thé mctal,
and as wc have seen titat this coating is nhic to producc an ctcc-
tron-tutivc force in thé reverse direction, it must nccessarily diminish
thé etectromotive force of thé Lattcry.
~'arions plans have beoi adopted to get rid of this coating of
hydrogen. It may bc diminishcd to pomc cxtent by mcc!tanica.l
means, such as stirring Htc liqnid, or rnbLing the surface of tho
négative plate. In Sniec's battcry the négative plates arc vertical,
and covered with fincly divided platinum from wincli tlie hubbics of
hydrogci~ casDy escape, and in thcir aseent produec a eurrent of
)Iquid witieh helps to brush oit other bubbles as they are formcd.
A far more emcac'Ious méthode however, is to cmploy chemical
 J~KCTJiOLYTJC- roL.\i! DATION.
[~
Th~ ar.of t~ kinds.
~ans. Inthoh.tt~~(! and
Juns.-n <h.n~t;v,ph~i,i,
~), oxygC'n,
.nd th, hydr~.n, n~t.ad nf fo~i, a .n.g. on <hc R~.
~s with this .u..<anc. In Q..o~.
of' p)atnnun I~
in .stro~nih-i.<.id.
~nn.rs.d Jn\B..ns.s fir.t
~cry ~.sof~nin<hc.s.n.d. C-hr~ic.acid isn)sou.<cd
for the s.nc p..rp.sc, a,.d
h.s tJK..dvanta~ of! f,c. from th.
a~.d fun~s pru.tuec.d
hy ih~ rcdnc.tio.infnih-ic acid.
A d~crei.t rnodc of ~ttin~ rid of the hvdro~n is by nsn~
~?," -~L ~d c<n. ~c .u~ce with a
of' o~dc Dus, how.v<.r, r.pidty
di.sapp~s whcn it is us.d as
the c-k.-t.d., To ..n.v it Jou)<. i.a.s
p,.opo.d to n..ke
c~.r n~ p. in the r.n. of d. I.dr immersed in <he
aud fd H.uid,
slowly, so the the
Pxposcd fo it in tm'n. 1-~
c. 'f"'T~ is an ~)yt., the
c.~on of ~nch ,s a n~d
hi~hly nc~tiv. to ..me.
.ohl T'~ a
-cd
solution of sulphate .f
c.,pp. Wh.n th. current now.s
the soiut.on h.o.n the zinc to thrcu~h
tho coppc,. no
hydr~n .ppcars on
~aiu .tcd ,nd <hc eurent is not tno s<ro~,
a th.cop~appc.rs
the
thc "T conditions are not
hydrogen is
1 L.t nnnu.d~dy ac<s on tlie .oiutio,,
thrc~ down
copppr, ..d un.t~iih SO, to f. ci) of vit~).
is the ca~ the Whcn this
s.,)p!u~e ofcopper n<.xt tho eopper is replat
p.atc
hy oil of vitriul,
~s .n t.k.s ,d.,c.c. Thc~J/p~:ri:~
c.p,r d.p<.itcd in i.hi.y
~l~ and more
truc
elcctrul~~sis.
s-.t~.t~ in
s..hn.,tc< with shall
su)ph.<f.opp. ,,(, ulnst
~? "?"' close to -1'
.~d. of'
ma)' 11('di:sol\'(\d, °

n.h~d 'r" seen ~'c -prcr

':r ""? of' It is still more
necessary in is .erscd.shouid bc
0
If this '~c.s its way
~pp.ris d.ij
272.] THOMSON'S FOltM Ol~' I)ANIE!.L'S CELI.. 327

onthci'inf;. Thc xinc,<'oppcr, and ttuidthcnfoi-m a little circuit

in \vhic)t rapid (dcctrdytic action ~'ncs on, and thc zinc is catcn
away by an action \vi)ich contribntL's nothing- to thé usefui ctt'cct
ofthci)attt.Ty.
To pt'evcut thin, thé xinc is immo'scd cither in dilute
su]phuric
ncid nr in a solutinn ofsulpl):dc ûf'xinc, and to prcventthe solution
ofRHiphatc of' copier fron] mixin~- with t))is liquid, thé two liquida
are scparatcd Ly a division eonsistin~- oi'hhddcr 01' porous cart))t.'M-
wan', \vhidi aHo\vs tdL'ct!Y)]ysis tu takc p)ac~ thrnug'h it, but
ei)~(-tu:)!)y prcvcnts mixture ufthc f)uid~ ~)y visiDe currunts.
In sutnc batto'iL'H sa.\vdustis uscd toprcvcntcurrunts. Thé
expcrirncnt~ oi'Cintham, howcvcr, shcw that. thc prnccss «fdinusion
goes on ))L':u'ty as r:)pid)y \v]u.n t,wn liquids are ncparatcd ny n
division of' this tond as \vhcn thcy arc in dit-cc-t contact, providcd
t))(.'rp arc no vislhtc cun-t'nts, and it is pro~ab]c that if a et'pium
is emptoyed w!)ich (Hmnn~~s thé diu'usion~ it, will increasc in
cxactiy t]~ ~nnc ratio thc rcsistancR of t))c ciment, becausc clec-
troiytic conduction is a ;)roecss thf maD~matical ~a\v~!of which
have the sanic fnrtn as those' ofdin'usion, and whatever interforcs
with onc must interfère cquaHy with the oth~r. Thc oniy difU'r-
cnco is t.hit.t din'usion is always ~oing' on, whi!c thc cm'rent f)ow8
only \vltcn thé ha.ttcry is in action.
In a.!) forms ofl')aniu]l's bitttcry thc final rcsuttis that the
sulphatoofcoppcr nnds its way to thc zinc and spoihjthc battcry.
To retard tLis rcsult indcnnitciy, SirW. Thornson'~ bas constrnctcd
Danie)i's battcry in thf foHo~ving- form.

1.21.

ln cach œU thc c~ppcr plate is ptacpd horizonin.Dy :)< thé hottom

'V~s'):u).l!).]87].
 ~8
HLECTKOLVTfc l'm.ARfZATfuy. r.

over T)..
in thc h"n.on~))v ,ar the
t"LG is p)a~ in
solution with its 10\('1' l'ncl .t~
jllst nJJO\'ü the sur(are of tilt'
of snlphate of enl7l~er
('opper arc (ll'OPP{'ddown tlii; htlJl',
$~ a Ho]utiolla of g'mtt'r
thall that of s«lhltate of zinc (lnnsity,
:11011<so t}¡at it; cannot get to the
z.nc cxcept hy dij{'usio,). To
,.c~~ this 1))'o('e~8
a
tuhe e"cu
stufli.'d wtNtcottnn
witlt cottcn wck
~L"
placed «'ltll (1111? /.drt\m;¡" .L- wiek, is
Md t!,c with<,therm °" avMsd PC
outi,!d<jth<.t.d) ,on,f th.. r
~.y~}J1aee, w;ctm, UI' R ~S·l'.11C
its ~r," i
sulutiort of snll~hntc of zinc, i, mlclud

of col:hcr
l'ising' thl'OlIg'h the licluicl IIr cliflirsion is clrtiwn
siphon lcforc it l'caehl's the zinc, and the of!'IJ,)' the
~=~ zinc is surroundecl
liclnicl nearly- free f3~orn sullulrate nf hy
enhher, and hnvitlg a very slow
motion of thr slllphate of
cop}1Pr, ])L1ring tln·. action of the
coppcr i, clehositud on the L'appel' lrtttcrY
1>latu, and S °4 travcls
slowly.
zinc \it.h 11'111CI1 lt
of' cotnlrines,
sullllmtu zinc. Thus the liduicl at tlm bot formilJg'
tom hecome¡; less clcnse
1y the ¡]eposition uf the
CO!)}1CI', and the li(lUid at t.I¡e
top becom(.s
from changing the orcler ot' this action
densitr of the strata, and so
instahility and "isibl!' Clrr't'c!llts in
ES; hruduein~·
thc'-l'(.ssel, cal'e must he talwn to
anci cr,ysttr,ls of sullclrate of corlrer,
ir.F~ to fecd the cc~llabove vs-itli a sulution of
sllljJhate of zinc sufli-
bc libllter th an
;ttry other stmtu1l1 of the liduicl
in Il Hecel 1.
is hy 110 mcans the mos1
powerful iu common
1~ -)r ~"cc ut urovt's ce is
)')')()<)<) non oi ~r
Damc!)'sj07,<)()nf)f)<).t,)j<),<nt 1'J-o,()(.)(;),
i,
(lrove's or l3unscn's of the sunc sizu.
o.
are
cases
.i' wltere cxact !l1e:Lsurel11cnts nre "L.hnc~ in
rcyairecl, hy the filet tllat
of electromotive arranbument in
~B=~ force. If Ims ;tlso the conslan('y
advfillt:lge of
continuinb
~.r:,t;
 CHAPTER VI.

LINEAU ELHC'niIC CL'RREKT.S.

0~. ~y.~ô'M~0/ Z~/M~- Co;«,o/

273.] ÂNY ccnductor may bc treatcd ns a, )inear cmiductor if it

is arrang-ed so that thé current mnst
always pass in thc same manner
bctween two portions nf its surface which art- called its electrodcs.
For instance, a mass of mcta! of any form thé surface or which is
entirely covcrcd with insufatiu~ niatcrial cxccpt at two places, at
which the exposcd surface of the conductor is in meta)]ic contact
with électrodes formed of a pcrfccDy conducting- material, may be
trcated as a lincar conductor. For if <!tc current be madc to enter
at one of titese electrodes and
escape at thc other the lines of ~ow
will he dctcrminatp, and the relation btitwecn electromotive fnrcc,
current and rcaistancc will bc cxprcsscd by Ohm's Law, for the
current in cvcry part of the mass will he a linear function of .A'.
But if there he more possible électrodes titan two, thé conductor
may have more titan onc independcnt current through it, a.ud the.~e
may not he ccnju~ate to cacli other. Sec Art. 282.

O~M'.9 ~<K'.

274.] Let bc the dectromouve force in a linear eonductor

from the électrode ~i to thé électrode (Sce Art. (:!).) Lct
C he the strcn~-th of tlie elcetrie current
along the condtictor, that
is to say, Ict C units of electricity pass across
cvery section in
the direction ~j in unit of thne, and let hc the résistance of
the eonductor, then thé expression of Ohm's Law is
E = 67.

.tW C(~ «/w~y~/ /M ~7'<

275.] Let Le thé cicctrodcs nf thé f:r~t cnnductor a))d let
th~ eccoud conductoi- be ptaced with 0)10 ofits c)ectrndcs in cnnt~ct
 :30 L!X)~R KLHC'f'HR;
L'URJtHXTs. ~76.
se the .cnnd co.uh.cfcr bas for its
~-ith that of c)c<.<rnd.s
rh. eicctrod.s thc. <hird conduc.ior
n.ay hc dcncte<t hy
:mu./j.
thc
~< c_).c<r<.n,oti.c f..rcc a)un~ ~.c~ nr thèse cnndu.tcrs ho
~noted hy ~.t other
.LoLthe r(.s)st;mce ofthc coodm.tors bc

> &c.
TI..n c.-ndu.tcr.s nrc an.an~d in scri.s so th~ thc san.c
<nt sinc~h.
6 n~s throu~h c.ach, wc ).ave
hy Ohm's L~v,
~=C/~ ~=6- ~,=C/ (,)
"A ,s t1.c rc.s.dia~ .).c.tromotive
force, and A' <h. n.suXant
i.jta..cc oft)ic system, w.. must )iavc
hy Ohms La~,
= Cli.
C~.
~=~+~+~,
<he sum of thé scparutc ~cctroniotivc
f'urccs,
=
C'(/)' + 7. + ~y e.qn~tioi]s (2).
Comparin~ tbis ~.su!t with (3), we find

~=~+~,+7~.
Or
(V /~c rf~e-y ~Y'~ .!<'y~

7' pc/M~ ~{c Séries.

Let and 6' b. thé électrodes of thé
séries, 7~ a point hetween
thcm, =uid thé pote~ial. of thèse points
respoetively. Let
7.. he the res..<ancc .f thc part from A <o 7~, H~t of the part
from 7~ to C, ~nd that or thé ~.hole from to 6', iher, sincc
~=A',C, &=7~~ and ~=7?6',
thc potential :)t is
j' l( + 7'1
~+/r
Il
~= ('
l! (Ii)
C')
~hieh d.termii.~ thé potential at when those at und 6- are
g'ivcn.

7i'Kr<- ~'</ .V/e Co~c~

276.] Lut a numher ofconductors ~7~~ ~C~ be arrnnced
s.de by s,de ~ith n..i.. c.xtremities in
contact wit)i thé samc two
t~.n'ts J and They are then said to-be arranged in muitipfe
arc.
Let thé ro~tanccs of tliese œnductore Le
7i~ rcspcct-
 277.] SI'EC!FIC RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTIYITY. 331

ive!y, and thé currents 6'~ and let thé resistance of thé
multiple rr'nducto)' he 7)', nnd the total current C. T]ien, since the
potcntials at J and are tlie samc for a]l thé conductors, thcy have
the same difTercnce, which wc may call Wp then tiavc

Or, ~c M~/M'f~ f~e ~-M~cc y~ w/)~' coM~c~oy the ~w,

0/' /~C?YV/ CO/OM< COM~oy-
If we call the reciprocal of thé résistance of a conductor thé
conduetivity of the conductnr, thcn we may say that the c<
~f/ 0/' M/C C~<C/~ ~C ~~M the CO~~MC/M'~i'Mof
~6 CO~OM<'M/CW~0/

C/e?~ t~ ûH~ ~7~ ~e 0)Mr/K~

From the équations of thé pt-ceeding artieJe, it appears that if
is thc current in any branch of tlie multiple conductor, and
/)', the resistance of that branch.

where 6' is tlie total current, and j~ Is thé resistance of the

multiple
conductor as previously determined.

ZoM~~M~')M~F~Mce < Cb~~c/o; of ~o; &ei'~K.

277. j Let thé resistance of a cube of a given material to a current
paraDe! to onc of its edges be p, thé side of thc cube being unit of
tGngth, p is called the spécifie résistance of titat material for unit
of volume.'
Consider next a prismatic conductor of thé sa.me material whosc
)cn~-th is and whose section is unity. This is équivalent to <!
cubes arranged in scries. Thé resistance of the conductor is therc-
fore
FnmHy, consider a conductor of length and uniform section
This is equivalent to conductors similar to thé last arranged in
multiple arc. Thé resistance of tins conductor is therefore

Whcn w~' knf'\v the rcsistnncc' of uniform wire wc can détermine

 LtNEAR KLKCTifIC CUlUiENTS. [2~8.
t'.c. spccihc résistance of the
matcria! of~.hich it. is madc ifwc ça.
audits section.
~.surc,is]eng.ih
Thc scctional area of' small
~vircs is most accuratciy detcrmincd
"'S' ~~cidc~ity of thc
'?! from < S-ravity is son~.Limcs
< in s.), r.as.s t.).sistauc. <,r wh.c or unit
~.n~ mol as
1'~ of
~~t;
weight.'
K' I. this resi.tancc, the Ic.ngth, and thé mass of a u-i~ thcu
~=~
w,

0~ ~s.

rcsishui~ ..f c~nductor is thé ratio or thé (.)cctro-

~Thu
't.v.ioroo a.tn,g .n it to thc current produecd. Thu conduct-
'v'<y "i t .c eundaetor is th.
rceiprocal <~ this quantity, or in
ratio of th. currcnt to f,.
~ct.ti\. f.
1>rocl«cinf; it.
New wc hnow that in the
ci.ctro.tatic systcm of n~ur~ent
rutio
I/ "c or on P~cntia) of thc con-
.p..ca<! is tho capac-ity uf thé co.duc.tor, and
~.h a liue'.
llY
unh.n~d 1'
~i.Id, th.s I.nc '1 is thc radius nf thé
.sj.hcro. Thc ntio
.'a quant.jy
ofdcctrid<yto an ~ctromotivc force, is t!rcforc a
L..t thc rat., uf oi- dcctricity to a c.n-r.nt is t)~
quantity
dunn. th..n.r..t transit that .uantity.
ncn c thc ratio of a currcnt to an
dcetro.notivc force is that cf.
Jinc to a tnu., or in othc.r
words, it is a vclo.ity
Ih. fa,.t t)~t thc
c-.nductivity of a .onductor is exprcsscd in the
~tro.tahc sy.s<c.n of .ncasurern.nt hy a vdo.ity .nay bevcri~d
.suppo.,n,. a spi.-r. of radius char~d
<opot.nti.j' and thé
conn~d thc «.rth hy t)..
~i. “< j,, the
t .c poh.nf,.
n~, t, s),h.rc. is a]way. ]..pt c.jua) to r. T),.n thé
on t.. sph.rc is .rat auy instanj .nd tl. current is
~(~'), Lut, sincc is constant, thc currcnt is ~'r, and thc
rll,
.cctroinutiv. force throus-h thc ~nductor is
Ihc conductivity r.f the cond.ctor
is thc ratio of the cnrrent to
.icctru.noti.c forc~ or that is, the with which thc
 280.] SYSTEM OF M~EAR CONDUCTORS. 33:3
radius of the sphère must diminish in ordcr tu maintain thé
potent.ial
constant when thé charge is allowed to pass to earth
throug'h thé
eonduetor.
In the electrostatie system, thcrcfore, thé of a con-
conductivity
duetor is a velocity, and ofthe dimensions
[Z~f').
Thc' résistance of thc eonduetor is tlicrefore of' thé dimensions
[Z-17'].
T!ic spécifie resistunœ pcr mnt. of volume is ofthc dimension of
[?'], and the spécifie eonductiviiy per unit of volume is of thc
dimension of [7~1.
T)ic numcrical magnitude of these coefficients
dépends ouly on
thc unit oftime, whieh is the same in différent countries.
T!ie specinc résistance per uHit of wei~ht is of the dimensions
[Z-~J/7'].
'\Vc shall aftenvards
279.] nnd that in t))e etectromag-netic
system of' measuremcnt the résistance of a eonductor is expressed
Ly a veloeity, so thut in this System thc dimensions of the résist-
ance ofa eonduetor are [/].
Tito conductivity of thc eonduetor is of course thé
reciprocal of
this.
Tlie spécifie résistance per unit, of volume in this
System is ofthc
dimensions [Z~], and thé specifie resistance per unit of
weight
is ofthe dimensions [Z~Y'].

0~ Z~~f~- <S~cM~ o/' <~M~f;û~ ~e;;c/-a~.

280.] Tlie most gênerai case of a linear system is that of
pomts~ ~J~, eonnccted together in pairs by ~?(~–1)
linear conductors. Let thé conductivity (or reeiprocal of thc re-
sistance) of that eonduetor which eonnccts any pair of points,
say
y~, and he called À" aud let thc current from to be ·
Lct 7/, and be the electric pntentials at tlie points
and
respectively, and let tlie internai ctcctromotive force, if therc he
any, along thc eonduetor from to he Z.'
The current from to J is, Ly Ohm's Law,

Among thèse quantities wc bave Uie foUowing-sets of relations

Thé conductivity of a couductor is tlie samc in either direction
 334 LINEAR ELHCTR)C CURUENT~.
[2.80.

Let 7~ ~7- be thé potentin)s at

respective)~
and let ()j, ~) Q,, ~c thc quantitics of electrieity which cntct
the system in unit of time at. cach o(' thosc
points respcetivdy.
Thèse are neeessai-Dy subjcct to t!ic condition o('
continuity
~+~ +<2..=0, (4)
since cleetricity ean neithcr ho
imMinitcty acoumu):ttcd jt~r pro-
duced within thc system.
Thé eonditicit of continuity' at is
any point
~=~i+~+~c.+C~. (5)
Suhstitnting thc values of the currents in terms of équation
(I), this becomes

ihc symbol A~ does not oecur in this

équation. Let us thcrcfore
give it thé value
À,~ = ( A' + .A'~ + &c. + ~) (7)
that is, let K~ ))(. u and
(juantity cquat opposite to tho sum of
all the conductivitics of tlie eonductors which meut iti
Wu
may t)icti write thc condition ofcontimuty for thé point J

13y substitutif I, 2, &c. Mfur~ in this équation wesha!! obtain

équations of thé same kind from which to détermine the Il
potentials Pl, 7~, &e.
Since, howevcr, tho-e is a ncccssary condition, (4),
connectin~- the
values of' Q, there will bc M- 1
only indépendant équations. ?hese
will be sunicient to dutei-mine thé différences of thé
potcntials oftite
points. but not to détermine the absoute potential of any. Tbis,
bowevcr, is Dot required to ea!eulate the currents m the
system.
If we dénote by j9 thé déterminant
 281.] SYSTEM OF UNEAH CO~DUCTORS. 335

say over that of may he dcturmincd. We may then dé-

termine thc curant hetwecn and J~ from équation (1), and so
solve thé problum comp!c<cly.
~81.j ~Vc sha!) )iow dononstrate a reeiprocal propertv of
two conductors of thc systcm, any
ans~-erin~ to t))e reciproca~property
wc !~ve atready dcmotistra~d for statical
ciL-ctncity in Art. 88.
Thc eo~fliL-iolL of m tlie cxprcssiol) ~r 7' Id That of 0
in thu expt'c'sion for 7~ is

New diffcrs from j9~ on]y hy the substitution ofthc

symbo]s
such as for A~ Rut, by L-quation (2), D.csn two symbo]s are
L-qua!, since t)!c conduetivity ofa conductor is the saine both
ways.
~ce 7),, =
It M]~vs from t!n's t)tat th'(/ j~art of t)ie
potcntiat at arisinp-
from thc introduction of a unit currcnt at is cfjuat to th~ part. of
tlic pntentia! at arising- frum thé introduction of a unit current
at
~Vc may dcduce from this a proposition ofa ntoru
practica! form.
Lct 7~, 7~ b(; any four points of thu
system, and let the
cn'cct of !t currcnt Q, madc to enter thé
system at J and teavc it
at 7~, bc to make the potcntia) at <7 t-xcecd t))at at 7~
by 7~. Thcn,
an equal current Q bc madc to enter tl)c
if system at 6' and )c-avc
it at 7), thc potcntia! at will cxcced that at by thé samc
quantity 7~.
We may also cstahlisli a
propcrty of a simitar kind re~ting to
thc cirect of thc interna) clectro.notivc
force 7~ actins- :Uong- tho
conductor which joins tiiu points and J, in j~roducin~ an ex-
tcrnal e)cctromorive force on thc conductor from Lo that la
to say, a dincrcncc of potentials 7–7' For sincc
 S3S LINEAR ELECTRIC CUI:I:EXT.?.
fzSs.
If therefore an clectromotive ~u-cc bc introduccd, actiuy in tlie
conductor from to and if this causes thé potcntial~t C to
cxcecd that ut by 7', thcn thé same electromotive force intro-
duced into the conductor froin C to 7) will cause thé
potoitial at
to cxceed t))at. at J~ Ly tho same
quantité
Thc L.]ech-omotive force may hc that ofa voltaic baticiy intro-
duced ttctw~-n the points namcd, car(;
hcing takc-n that tho r<sist-
ance oft)!e conduetor is t!)c samo bL-furc and after thc
intmduetion
ofDtc Lattc]'
282.] If /~+~7~=~
the conduetor is said to Le c~~ to y~y~, anJ wc tiave
se~n that this relation is rccipt-oca).
An L-h-ctrcmotivc force in onc of two
conju~nte conductors pro-
dncL-s no ch-ctromotive force or current
a!ong- thé other. We slia!!
nnd thc- pr.ictical application of this in
principe thé case of thc
cicctric bridge.
Thc theory of conjure conductors iins becn investi~ted
by
Kirchhofi', w)io has statcd thc conditions of il linear
system in thé
foHowin~- manncr, in which ~K. considération of thé poteutial ia
avoidud.
(!) (Condition of' continuity.') At any point, of thc s~tcm thé
-suni ofa)i thc currcnts which now tocards t)iaf,
point is z~-o.
(2) lu any compacte circuit formed by t!ie eonduetors thc sum
of the dectromotivc forces taken round the circuit is
equal to ti)c
sum of thc products of thc current in each conductor
mnitiplicj by
H)e résistance of that conductor.
Wc obtain this resuh. hy adding
cquations ofthc form (!) for thc
complète circuit, whcn thc potcntiats neecssariiy disappcar.

7A'~ Cc~ ~w.

283.] Thc mechanica! cquivalcnt of thc quantity of Itcat
g~ie-
rftted iu a ccnductor whosc résistance is 7t'
by a currciit 6' in unit of
t.meis,byArt.2. ~/7-=7P~.
Wehâve thcrcforc to determinG the sum of such
quantities as
7~ for !t)l thc conductors ofthe
system.
For the eonductor from to Aq thé
eonductivity is and the
résistance 7~ where
j 1.
(15)
Thu current in this conductor is, to
according Ohm's Law,
= h,
~=~(~-7~. (J'l'a). (~)1G)
 GENERATION 0F HEAT. 337

.ow smee is always positive and j- is

last crm of this équation must be essentially positive, thé
essentially
first term is a minimum when Y is zero in positive. Ilence thé
when thé current in every conductor is every eonductor, that 1~
that given by Ohm's Law.
Hence thé following theorcm
284.] In any system ofcouduetors in which thcre are no internai
electromotive forces the heat generated
by currents distributed in
aecordance with Ohm's Law is less than if thé
currents I.ad been
distributed in any other manner consistent with
the aetual con-
ditions of supply and outflow of thé current.
Thé heat aettially grencrated when
Ohm's Law is fulfilled is
mechanicaUy equivalent to that is, to thé sum of thé
products of thé quantities of
electricity snpplied at the diu-erent
external electrodes, cach
multiplied by t!ie potential at which it is
supplied.

YOT-. I.
 CHAPTER VII.

CONDUCTION IN THME IMMERSIONS.

~0/'<OK 0/ ~C/C C/~TCM~.

28u.] Aï any point let an client of' area dS )~ <akc-n normal
to thc ax,s of .nd let Q units
ofdectricity pass across this .rcaa
~m the négative to thc positive sid<- in
unit of time, then, if
becomes uJtinmtcly cqun! t. ~hen ,is inJcfinite]ydiminished,
~s said to bc thc
Compcnent of tlie c!cctric cnrrent in thé direction
ot .r at the g'ivc!i point.
In thé same way wc
may dcicrmine and thc ccn~onent. of
thé currcnt in tlie directions
of~ and rcspcctiydy
286.] To determinc the component of thé current in
direction OR through thé given any other
point 0.
Let hc the direction-cnsines of
07~ then euttin~o ofrfrom
the itxes of.
portions cqunt to
?' y
7'-)Mm
< M ~a
M
r~pect:ve]y nt and <7, the triangle J~C
will be normal to 07~.
The are:t of this
triangle ~~<7 will bc
,.2
1
~=~-L,
/MM
andby d~uushmg. r this area ~y be dimin~hcd
wi~hout l.-mit.
Ihe o elcetricity w)uc], Jeaves thé
tctrahedron ~~CO
tlie quanta
thé titrée 7-~ cnt.rs it thro~h
tnang-tos O~C, OCJ, and Oj~.
Thé area cf thé
triantec 0~ VI n and the ~ponent cf
 287.] COMPONENT AND RESULTANT CURRENTS. 339

thé current normal to its plane is so t!)at the quantity which

enters tlirough this triang-]e is ~'s
MM~a
Thé quantiticswhich enter throu~h tLe
tn~g-]es OCA and 0~~
i'cspcctivc)y are
i and An M'
M/l /M
If y is thc component of thé
velocity in thé direction OR, then
thc quantity which leavcs thc tetraiicdron
through ABC is

Jicncc, if we dcnne thé resultant current as a vector whose

magnitude is r, and whosc direction-cosines ate ?/, and if
y dénotes thé current resolved in a direction making an angle 0
with that of the résultant current~ then
y = r ces0 (3)
8hcwij)g-that thé law of resolution of currents is the same as that
of vcloeities, forces, and aiï other vectors.
287.] To determine thé condition that. a givcn surface may
be a surface of flow.
Let ~(~=~ (~
be thé équation of a iamily of surfaces one of which is
any givcn by
making À constant then, if we make

x 2
 340 CONDUCTIONtN THREE DIMENSIONS.
~88.

ii = 0 there will bo 1.0 current

surface may be called Surf.ee throug-h thé surface, and thé
cfF)c~ bceausc tlie lines of motion
are in the surface.
288.] The équation nfasurface of ~v is therefore

+ -1- 0.
"+-~='-
If this equation is truc for aiï
values of A, a)! tlie surfaces of thé
iamtiy will be surfaces of flow.
isfT~ whose
~yo~cc~
is then, if these are also surf-aecs offfow, we shall have parameter

(H)

or
~= ~(~~);
that is, is somc function ofA and
A~ the four whose parameters are A,
~OÂ, A and ~+6~. Thèse four surfaces enclose a
tube, which we may call tlie tube ~SV. quadrilateral
bounded by surfaces across w.uch Sinee ~is tube is
thcre is ne flow,
it T.be of Flow. If take ~y two ~~ions acro~
the qu~nt~ty whieh enters thé th~u
tube at one section must be
to the quantity which Icaves it at equal
the otlier, and sincc this
L~? the same for every section cfthe quantity
tube, let ur~ it
~t~ the parameters whieli
determine the particnlar tube.
 ~93.] TUBES0F FLOW. 341
'°~ the séction of a tube
normal by a plane
theory of the of the inde-
pendent variables,

(13)

(14)

(15)

kno~n It is always the 01- is

known to determine the other se that L
may bc equal to unity.
For instance, let us take thc
plane of~, and draw upon it a series
~v"~ lines parallcl to sections of
.m~y by this plane. In other words, let the function
deternuned by the condition that when x = be
0 ~= z, If we then
make Z = 1, and therefore
(when = 0)

A =~/<
then in thé =
plane (x 0) the amount of electricity which passes
through any portion will be

~M~~=~A~V. (i6)
Having determined thé nature of thé sections of thé surfaces
flow by thé plane of
of~~ the form of thé surfaces ciscwhcre
detenn,ned by thé conditions is
(8) and (9). The two functions A
and A thus determined are suincient to
détermine thé current at
every point by equations (15), unity
being. substituted for Z.
0~ Z~ of 7'7o~.
293.] Let a series of values of A and of V be
cessive diflérences in chosen, thc suc-
series The two series of
surfaces defined by thèse values will divide
of quadnia ~ral tubes space into a system
through eaeh of which there will be a unit
current. By assuming the unit
the current may be sufficicntly small, thé details of
expressed by thèse tubes with any desired
amount of mmuteness. Then if
any surface be drawn cutting thé
 t.t'~
CO~DUC'I-ION T~tEË DIMENSIONS. [~.
system of tubes, the current which
this surface passes through
'd hy tl. of tubes
es winch C cut It,
sincc each tube
carnes .tnijy of <m-rc.d.
F!ow aetual intersections of'
-~c-s may hc ca~-d Lines cf
1~
lines of ~1, tlie number of'
of ~dy .,ual to thé
of flow
t it, so may c..sidcr
J not
~"1'"? the of ~hc currcnt
but its since ~ch line of ~ow
corrcsj)ond.s to a unit currcnt. through i,ivcn section

Oit 6'6'
6'r,
~4.j A stratum of a conductor
eontained betw.cn two ~on-
secutivc surfaces of (low of onc
system, t,liat of a', is calJed
r~ The tubes of (iow withiu tItis
shed arc deter-
by the '°° If' '-< denote t'.l.t
i",
r' current from "s'~
Tf across any
on sheet 'm to P is \A
elernent, on the
wtijcti c!o&sc.stins clement
from r~)it to lei'L is

(ty.
M~
118
T~ fusion A, from whid/ih. di.~ribntion of' the current in
~ct he eompletely
h'unction. called the C~

.~L'~ of or matter bouiiided on hoth

si(les by or some other
non-conducting meclium may lie trcatcd
in which the clistriimtion of
bc c.prcssed by ~can.s of, the cnrrent may
current-function. See A~

7~~M~M 0/' Cb;M7<

295.] If we d~erenti.~ the three erjuations
(15) with respect to
~:d"
wo find ~L-tionif~~
~fl'
o.
~=°' ( 7)
(')
~Ir~c~ in called
oC Tlie continuity which it
'Coiitiiitiity.'
expresses is
::rt: that is, the fact that a material
sub-
amI arrive at
anothe1', tvithout
g'oiug' .thl'ol1gh tlie space between. It cannot simply vauish in the
 ~95.] KQUATION 0F CONTINUITY. 343

one place and appear in thé other, but it must travel

along a con-
tinuous path, so that if a closed surface be
dmwn, including the
one place and exc~udin~ the other, a material substance
in passing
from thé otic place to thc other must
~o through thc closed surface
Thc most g-cucra! furm ort)te équation in
hydrodynamies is

where p signifies thé ratio of tlie quantity of tile substance to thé

volume it oceupies, tbat vo)ume
being in tbis case thé dincreutial
e]cmcnt of volume, aud (~~),
(p;.), and (p~) .signify t!ic ratio ofthe
quanttty of the substance which crosses an clément of area in unit
oftnnc to that area, Dièse areas
being' normal to the axes of j', and
respe<-tive!y. Thus understood, thé équation is applicable'to
any
materia.1 snb.sùuice, solid or iïuid, whether the motion be
continuous
or discontinuons, provided thé existence of thé
parts of that sub-
stance is continuons. If anythin~ though not a substance, is
subject to the condition of continuous existence in time and
space,
the équation will express this condition. In other parts of Physical
Science, as, for instance, in thc theory of electric and
m~netic
quantities, équations of a similar form occur. We shall call such
équations 'équations of continnity' to indicate their form,
though
wc may not attribute to these
quantities the properties of matter,
or even continuous existence in timc and
space.
Thc équation (17), whieh we have arrived at in
thé case of
elcctric currents, is idc.it.ical with
(18) if wc make p = l, that is,
if we suppose thc substance
homog-eneous aud incompressible. Thé
équation, in thé case of nnids, may also bo cstabMshcd either
Ly
of the modes of proof givcn in treatiscs on
Hydrodynamics. In
one of thèse wc trace thc course and thé déformation
of a certain
clement of' thé nuid as it moves along. In thé other, wo fix our
attention on an clément of space, and take account of aU
that
enters or leaves it. Thc former of thèse methods cannot
bc apphed
to electric cutrents, as we do not l.no\v the
velocity with which the
electricity passes through the body, or even whether it moves in
thc positive or thé neg-ative direction of thc enrrent. AU that we
know is thé alg-ebraica! value of the which
quantity crosses unit
of area in unit of time, a quantity
corresponding to (p~) in thé
équation (18). We bave no mcans ofascertaining- thé value of
cithcr of the factors p or /<, and therefore we cannot
follow a par-
ticular portion of electricity in its course
throngh the body. Thé
other method of investigation, in which we consider what passes
 344 CONDUCTION IN THREE
DIMENSION.
[296.
through of an element
of volume, is applicable to electrie
currents, and is perhaps prcfemble in
we have given, but as it point of form to that which
may bc found in any t ~i~
dynamies we need not repeat it hère. ~H~"

<

LetL~A~?,
dS be an clement of the of the surface.
surface, and let E be the
angle between
the surface, then
the surface will be
yyrcost~
th<-integration
being extended over th. mf&ce
As in Art. 2
may transform this integral into tlie

°
.=~
case of any closed surface, the limits of the
being those included by the surf.'1ce, This
is the expression for
surface. Since in ail cases of
eurrents this must be zero stcaùy
whatever the limits of the
the qunntity under the integral sign must integration,
in this way the vanish, and we obtain
equation of continuity (17),
 CHAPTER VIII.

RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY IN THREH

DIMEN.SIONS.

0~ the ~6~ aud ~7.

motive ~C<?.
297.] LET the componente ofthe current at
any point bc
Let thc components of t!ie ciceiromotive
force bc r
The electromotive force
any point is the rcsultant force ou
n unit of positive
electricity placed at that point. It may arisc
(1) from clectrostatic action, in which case if is thé potential.

or (2) from eteetromagnetic

induction, thé laws of which we shaH
afterwards examine; or (3) from thermoelectric or
electrochemical
action at thé point itself, tending to
produce a current in a °given
direction.
We shall in general
suppose that X, Y, Z reprcsent thé com-
ponents of thc actual clectromotive force at the
be the origin of thc force, but we shall point, whatcvcr
occasionally examine thé
result of supposing it
entirely due to variation ofpotcnilaL
By Ohm's Law thé currcnf, is proportional to thé electromotive
force. Hence X, r, must be linear functions of We
may therefore assume as thé equations of
Résistance,

We may call the eoeSeients thé coefficients of

resistance in thé directions of thé axes of longitudmat
coordinates.
Thé coefRcicnts and Q may be called thé
coefficients of trans-
verse resistance. They indicate the
clectromotive force in one
direction required to produee a carrent in a different
direction.
 346 i~StSTANUH AND CONnLrcTJVfTY. [2Ç8
If \vc)-Gat liberty fo assunic timt a solid
body may hc hvitcd
as a system of lin.u. condur-tors.
th<-n, fmm the n.dprocal property
(Art. ~1) of any two condudors ofa finoar
systc.n, w. mis-ht. shew
that. tho c)ccLromnt,vc for~. aton~
rc.quh-L.Jt.o prndu~. a unit eui-rent
r.iraDc.] h, mnst be e<jnal X. the ~.<-trnmo<ivc f.,rM yrc
ajo.t.
q.m~I to p,.o.!ue~. a uni< current parai).! <o T), shew
that 7\= Qp ami sm)))a)-)y \vc shon!d Htid
== .m~ = n
W!,cn thos. conditions are satisHed <.),e
syst..m ..f ~nK.ient.s'Is said
to bc Sym.nciri.-a!. AVf~n ihcy arc not sati.siicd it is
ea!!L.d a
&kew systL'm.
~c hâve g-rcat rc.ason to ).c)it.vc- i),at in
~e,.y ac~ual case Htc
systum is symmctrical, ),ut we shaH ~a.nine som.. <d' the cou
annonces of admitting thc pussibIHtv ofa skpw systcm
2f)8_] The quantité ~y be exprcss.d as Hn.ar functi.ns
which wc may call
ot Londncùvity~ Equations

(3)

wc may call <),. co<.f!idL.nts <),e co.-m.i.nt.s of

Lo~-itudinai cnn
d.tct.vity. and and y <J,o.~ of Tnu.svL.r.SL.
T).c. cn~ficicnts .fr~tanec couductivity.
are inverse to ti.cse or
Tins relation ma.y be defined as fbn<s conductivity.
Lct [/ th. <!ct<-rminant cf the
cocfh-c.ient.s of rc-.s.stnn.e
and [~.] that oi tl.e cocn.c;~n<.s
cfconduciivity <).en

L7']=A~7~Ç~7~
f.j-+~y,+. )'3' (5)
t [~.] = (U)
L~=~7~), r r )
~.c. ~=(, &c.
~th. châtions Le f~d
..y Ly'a)te,n,. ihe sy..Lo~
<?, 7., and thc .suf!,xcs 2, 3 in cych-cu! onk.r.

7)' 6'6'cw~'û// o/
299.] To find <h..<). do. Ly thc .un-ent in unit
in of timc
n..s,stan<~ and so ~neraLi,
~com~ hc.a~ wc n,u!tipiy tl~c
cr.np<,n.nt. of the current by t).c
corr.spundin~ eon.ponc~s the
f.rc.. W. thus chta.n thc
.~<r..n<.i~
thc fol)o:vin,. .~t
<f"<yofworkexpcndcdinunitoftimo
 300.] COEFFICtKNTS OF CONDUCTIVITY. 347

By a propd- choice of axes, either of thc two latter cquntions may

be dcpnved of thc terms
involving thc products of M, w or of
X, Y, Z. Thé system of axes, however, which i-cduccs ~'to the foi'm
7i\~+7i'+7t'
is not in general thc same as that which reduees it to thc form

~~+~+~~
It is only when tho cocfHcients
7'j, P:, are equal rcspcctivcly
9;) Q.j, that thé two systems of axes eoineidc.
If with Thomson \vc write

and (11)

then we have

CM~'oK 0/ 67~/7//y.

300.] SinccthepquiUbrinm ofcicctricityis s<a.)~c, the work

spcnt in maint:uning- Dic current must always be positive. Thc
conditions thnt must, bc positive are that the three coeincicnts
7i'~ 7~, 7?;j, and the Uirce expressions

'?'r<tn.<A't..l8S3-),H!5.
 348 KHSISTANCJ!: AND CONDUCTIVJTY.
[30i.
?/ 7/
301.] If wc c-xp~s the components of thc
as the denvat~ dcch-omobivc force
cfthc potential th. cq.ation ofconti..ut.

it the médium is not

homog-cneous there will be terms
from the van.t,on cf the coefRcients of ansi~
from one point to anoihcr. conduetivity P~Mn~

corresponds to in
medium. -tropic
302.] If ~.e put.

e-Muu ut me cqua.uon
ln the case in which the
coefficients 1'are zero, the coefficients lt
identical with l~ aud S. 'hen 1'exists this is not
tlie case.

In the casetlierefore of electricity flowing out from in an

infinite homogeneous, lnit not
isotropie, medium, the equipotential
surf-ices are
of' which p is constant. The axes of
are in the directions of the axes
ductivit,y, and tlese do not coincide with of con-
the principal axes .r of
resistance unless the system is symmetrical.
~y a transformation of tins cquation we
thc principal axes of mav ta)-G for ~)~ axes
~)rms 8 and
forms cond..tivity. The coefficients of the
~coMncicntsoithn
:)ud~ ~H ~jt) then L. bc rL.dnc.cd to
zero, and each coefficient
 3°~ SKHWSYSTEM. 34{)
of tlie form will hc thé reciprocal of thé
eon-espondine. coeffi-
eient of' the form r. Thé
expression for p will be

303.] Thé theory oft]~e compote system of équations of résist-

ance and of conductivity is that of linear
functions of thrcc vari-
ables, and it is cxemp!if,ed in thé o('
thcory Stratus and in othcr
parts nf plaies. Thé most appropriate method of it is
that by which Hamitton and Tait trcat a linear and tr~ti~
vector function
of a vector. We sliall not,
however, c.xprcss]y introduec Quaternion
notation.
Thu coefficients 7' 7', may be re~arded as thc rcctangular
components of a vector 7', the absohite magnitude and direction
of wtnch are fixed in tLe
body, and independcnt of the direction of
the axes of référence. Thé samc is true of' which are the
components of another vector
Thé vectors 1'and dn not in
g-cncra! coïncide in direction.
Let us now take thé axis of~ so as to
eoincide with thc vector
and transform thé equations of résistance
accordin~v Thev
wiHthen have thé fonn

It appears from t!iese équations that we

may consider thé elec-
tromotn-c force as thé resultant oftwo
forces, one ofthem dépendue
only on thé eoeulcicnts and S, and thé other
The part dépendue depcnding on ?'uion~
on 7i' and is related to tlie current in thé
same way that thé
perpendie~ar on thé tangent plane of an
ellipsoid is related to thé radius vector. Thé othcr
part, dependino.
on T, is equal to the product of ?' into thé
resolved part of the
current pcrpendicuiar to thé axis of 7', and its direction
is per-
pendicular to 7'and to thé current,
heing always in thc direction in
which thé resolved part of thc current would
lie if tumcd 90° in
thc positive direction round T.
Considcring the current and ?' as
vectors, thc part of the
electromotive force due to T is thc vector
part of thé produet
T x cnrrent.
Thé cordent T may Le called thé
Rotaiory coenicient. We
See ThnmMnM() Taifs A~<M/
~7M~ j.
 350 INSISTANCE AND CO~DUCTIYITY.
[304.
have rcason to bdieve titat it does not exist in
any known sub-
stance. It should bc found, if ~nywhcrc, in
ning-ncts, whieh have
a pohu-ization in one direction,
proLabty due to a rotationat phe-
Ttomcnon in thé substance.
304..] Let ns next consider the ~-encrai f-har~cteristic couatioa
of

whcrc the coefHeicnts of conductivity ?' may hâve any positive

values, continuous or discontinuer at any point of space, and
vanishcsa.tinfinity.
AIso, let c be threc ftmctions of .r,
satisf)'Ing the condition

(25)

(2G)

be extended over spaces boundcd as in thé enunciation of Art.

97
where thé coefficients 7~ arc the coefficient.sof resistance.
Then /wiH have a unique minimum value whcii c are such
thnt ?~ ?oare cach evcrywhere zero, and thé eharacterisUc
cquatiou
(24) will therefore, as sliewn in Art-. 98, hâve one and only one
solution.
In this case reprcsents thc mechanical equivalent of thé heat
generated by thc currcnt in the system in unit of time~and we have
to provc that thcre is ono way, and one only, of
making tins heat
a minimum, and that thé distribution of currents
(<ï~c) in that case
is that which arises from thc solution of t!ic charaeteristic
équation
of thé potentiat
Thc quantit.y may be written in terms ofequations (25) and (26),
 305.] EXTENSmx f)F THÔ~OX'S THEOREM. 351

thé third term of /<' vanisnes wit)nn t.hc limits.

Thé second term, being- t!)c rate of conversion of e]ec<ricat
energy
into heat, is also Its minimum va)ue is zéro,
essentially positive.
and this is attained only when and ? arc evcrywhcre zero.
Thé value of is in this case reduced to the first term, and is
thcn a minimum and a unique minimum.
305.] As this proposition is of gréât importance in thé
thcory of
electricity, it may be usefu! to présent the foUowin~ proof of thé
most general case in a form frce from
ana~ytica! opérations.
Let us consider the
propag-ation of electricity through a conductor
of any fbrm, liomog-cncous or
heterog-eneous.
Then we know that
(1) If we draw a line alon~ thc path and in the direction of
the electric current, the line must
pass from places oth~h potential
to places oftow potential.
(2) If thé potential at every point of thc system Le altered in
a given unifbrm ratio, the cun-cnts will be altered
in the same ratio,
according to Ohms Law.
(3) If a certain distribution of potential gives rise to a certain
distribution of currents, and a second distribution of
potential o-ives
rise to a second distribution of
currents, then a third distribution in
which thé potential is tlie sum or difference of thosc in
thé first
and second will g-Ive rise to a third
distribution of currents, such
that the total currcnt
passing through a given finite surface in the
third case is thé sum or différence of thé
currents passing throu~h
it in thc first and second cases.
For, hy Ohm's Law, thc additional
current due to an altération of potcntials is indepcndent of thé
ong-mal current due to thé orig-inal distribution
of potentials.
(4.) If the potential is f.onstant over thc who]e ofa closed
surface,
 352 HHSISTAKCE AND CONDUCTIVtTY.
[305.
and if thcre are no électrodes or intrinsie eleetromotive forces
within it, then therc will bc uo currents within the e!osed surface,
and thé potential at any point within it will bc equal to that at the
Surface.
If tberc arc eurrents within thé closed surface they must either
bc closed eurvos, or they must hegin and end either within the
closL'd surface or at thc surface itsdf.
Hut since thc current must pass from places of high to places of
!ow potential, it cannot flow in a elosecl curve.
Sincc therc arc no electrodes within the surface thc currcnt
cannot begin or end within thc closed surface, and since the
potcntial at aH points of thé surface is thc same, there ean bc
no currcnt along tincs pnssin~' from onc point of thé surface to
another.
Hence there arc no enrrents within thé surface, and therefore
thcre can be no différence of potcutiah as such a difference would
produce eurrcnts, and therefore the potentia! within the closed
surface is cvcrywhcre the samc as at the surface.
(5) If' thcre is no c'icctric current throug'h any part of a closed
surface, and no électrodes or intrinsic cleetromotivc forces within
thé surface, there will Le no f-un-cnts within thé surface, and thé
potential will be uniform.
Wc have seen that thé currents cannot form closed curves, or
begin or tcrminate within the surface, and shicc by thé hypothesis
they do not pass through t)te surface, therc can he no currents, and
therefore the potentiel is constant.
(C) If the potential is uniform over part of a. closed surface, and
if there is no current throu~h thé remainder of the surface, thé
potential within thé surface will he uniform for thé same reasons.
(7) If over part of thé surface of a body thé potential of every
point is known, and if over thc rcst of the surface of thé body the
current passing through thé surface at each point is knowli, then
only one distribution of potcntiats at points within thc body ean
exist.
For if thcre were two different values of thé potential at
any
point within thé body, let these bc in thé first case and in
the second case, and let us imagine a third case in which the
potential of every point of the body is thé excess of potential in thé
first case over that in thé second. Then on that part of thé surface
for whieh thc potential is known thé potential in thé third case will
be zero, and on that part of thé surface through which the currents
 306.J J{HS!.STANCH 0F A W]RH 0F V.\MIABL:H SECTION.
35~

arc known the eurrents In thé third case will be

zero, so that by
(C) the potential cverywliere within the surface will be
zero, or
thcre is no execss of over or the reverse. Hence titcre is
only one possible distribution of potentials. This proposition is
truc whether thc solid be hounded by one c)osod
surface or by
several.

the ~o~M~~ Civ~/a~M /i'MMcc y~. 6o;<

~c/; 7'
306.] Thc conductor itère considcrc-d bas its surface divided into
thrcc portions. Ovcr one of titese portions thé
potential is main-
taincd at a ccnst:)nt value. Ovor a second
portion tlie potential bas
a constant value dinercnt n-om the tirst.. T)n- w!io!c- ofthc
j-L-maindcr
of titu surface is impervious to ductricity. We may suppose the
conditions of the first and second portions to bc fulnlled
by applyin~-
to thc conductor two électrodes of perfeetty
conduetin~- material,
and that of' thé rcmainder of the surface
by coating- it with pcr~
it'ct]y non-condueting- material.
Under t!iesc eircumstances the cnrrcut in every part of thc
conductor is simply proportion:t.I to thé diftereucc hetween tlie
potentials of tlie electrodes. CaHing' this difference the eleetro-
motive force, the total current from the one électrode to thc other
is thc product of t)ic elcetromotivc force
by thé conductivity of thc
conductor as a whole, and thé résistance of thé conductor is
thé
reeiprocal ofthc conductivity.
It is only when a conductor is
approximatc~y in thc circumstances
above defuicd that it can be said to have a dcfhiitc
rcsistance, or
conductivity as a whole. A resistance coil, consisting of' a thin
wire terminating- in large masses of copper,
approximate]~ satisfies
thcsc conditions, for tlie potential in thc massive electrodes is
nearly
constant, and any dinercnces of potential in différent points of the
samc électrode may be neglected in comparison v'ith thé dinerencc
of the potentiais ofthe two électrodes.
A very usefut metliod of
culculating' thé resistance of such con-
ductors bas been givcn, so far as 1 know, ici- the first
time, by
tlie Hon. J. W. Strntt, in a p!t.per on the
Theory of Résonance*.
It is founded on titc followlng- considérations.
If thé spécifie resistance of any portion of the conductor be
chang-cd, that of thé rcmaindcr being- unchangcd, thé résistance of

7~7. ?'r«! 1871,).. 77. MeeArt. 102.

VOL.!i A a
 354 RESISTANCE AND COXDUCTIVITY.
[306.
thé whole conductor will bc inereased if that of the portion is
inereased, and diminished ifthat ofthe portion bu diminished.
This principk' may be rega-rded as seff-evident, but it may
easi)y
bc shewn that thé value of thc expression for the resis<ancc of a.
system of conduetors hetween two points selectcd as électrodes
increascs as the resistance of eaeh member of tlie system in-
creascs.
It fot!o\YS from this that if a. surface of any form bc describcd
in the substance of the conduetor, and if \vc fnrthcr suppose Uns
surface to bc an inninteJy thin sheet of a pcrfcctiy
conductins-
substance, thé rcsistancp of the conductor as a whole will be
diminished nnicss thé surface is one ofthc equipotential surfaces
in. thé natnral state of thc conductor, in which pasc no cifect will
be produeed by making it a perfcct conductor, as it is ah'cady in
electrical eqniUbrium.
If tberefbrc wc draw within the conductor a séries of surfaces
the first of which eoincidcs with tlie first e)cctrode, and thc last
with thc second, while tlie intcrmcdiate surfaces a.re bounded
by
the non-conducting' sur~ce and do not intcrscet cach other, and
if wc suppose (.'ach of thèse sm'~ees to be an innnitely tliin sheet
of perfeetly conducting- matter, wc sba)! ha.ve obtaincd a system
the resistance of which is ccrtairdy not grcater than that of thc
original conductor, and is cquat to it only when t])u surfaces we
h!t.ve choscn a.re tt)e natural e<p)ipntt'ntia! surfaces.
To calcutatu thc résistance ofthe artificial System is an opération
of much !css difnenlty tha.n tl)c origi)):d probtent. For the résist-
ance of thé whole is tlie sum of the resist<uices of a)I thé strata
contained between thc consécutive surfaces, and thé résistance of
ea<;h stratum ca<i be found thus
Let r/i9 1w an clément of thé surface of the stratum, tbe thick-
ness of the stratum perpendicular to the chôment, p thé specific
résistance, A' the différence of' potential of thé perfec<)y conduetin"-
surfaces, and r/6' thé cnrrent through </iS',then

,/c=~-L~s, (n
pv
und the who!e currcnt through thc stratum iH

=
<7=
C ri 8, (~
(2)
A'P
J./
thé intcg-ration being- extendcd over thé whulc stratum bounded by
thc non-eonducting' surface ofthe conductor.
 306.] RESISTANCE 0F A ~m QF VAH.ABLE SECTION. 355

.~<I thé
If the i~7 of tliis ql1antity.
? two for
T'ic tutut.on hns t)ic vatucs 7-'and ~+~n~

thc of tlie .hole ~ii!~

co.ductor, w. )~v,
o'yT.~nd
t., m<~mt,.~i~c.
~~]i respect to an<i wc find

(~)

T._n..s.sanc. <.f tl.. cond~.tor in its ratura] statc is grc.~

7.' L-s.'
are 1 is i" ~c
)
values of can
un:, T" 'Y' thc true
~t~
paratively sroill.
rJs'tt" of
'-t of tl~ valu. of th.
r" general, and may be ~Tl.cd to
in any canner ~c~ van..
Withni O.e eonductor,
1). .s thé
ordi~ary~cthcdcfdetcrnu.ing.
H'~ s ,ia.c.s citoscn arc I" this case
p!a,~s p.rpcndi.ular <o t)~. axis of thc
wire, ~'r"
of sccr.]on and tfucknt'ss -a~
is

.)2 2
 356 KHSISTAXL'H AND CONDHCTIV!TY.
[307
This method in thé case of' wires whose section varies
slowly
with thé leng-Dt gives a result
very near thé truth, but it is rca))y
only a lower limit, for thé truc resistance is aiways ~rcatcr tinm
this, except in the case whcrc thé section is perfectiy uniform.
307.] To find thc itigher hmit of the résistance, let us suppose
a surface drawn in thc conductor to Lu rcndcrcd
impci-meaDc to
electricity, Thu cHcct ofthis must bc to inci-casc tim résistance of
thc conductor unicss thc surface is onc of tlie natural surfaces
of
now. By mcans of two systems of surfaces we can form a set
of
tubes which will eompletely
reguiatc thc flow, and thé effcct, if
therc is any, of this system of
impermcab)e surfaces must bc to
increasc thé resistance above its natural value.
T!ie resistance of each of thé tubes
m~y be calciilated by the
methud ah-cady given for a fine \vh-c, and thé resistance of thé
whote conduetor is tlie rociprocal of thé sum of thé
rceipi-oeals of
tlie résistances of aïï thé tubes. Thé résistance thus found is
~reater
than the natural résistance, when Die
except tubes foDow thc
natural lines of flow.
In thé case ah-cady considered, where t]~e conductor is in
the
fbrm of' an ciongated solid of let us
révolution, measure x along thc
axis, and let thé radius of tlie section at any point bc Let one
set of imperméable surfaces Le thé thc
phmes through axis for cach
of which </<is constant, and let the other set bc surfaces of révolution
ibr w!ueh
forlVhieh
= (H)
whcre is a numcrical quantity betwecn 0 and 1.
Let us consider a portion of' one of the tubes bounded
by the
suHaces (/) and ~+~ x and
and ~+~ ~+/
Tlle section of the tube taken
perpendicutar to thc axis is
= ~2~~
If' be the angle whieh tlie tube makes with thc axis

(-Ib
taii 0
1~=~, rl,r (,~
The true length of thé clement of the tube is sec 0, and its
true section is i 6/
<</(~7, cos
COSC,0
so t)iat its resistance is

rla _(
b2(llp(1q) (12)
~~7,=~~0-). b~INdcJ' ri
Let
Lct ,¡J = p b~' amI Jj
~=/ (1
(, :3)
~=/.l li'=rl.c'
 307.]
J JimifEIt ANI) LOW~R J.IMITS. 357
thc intention
Lcing. cxtcndcd over the whn!c tength, of thé
<dnc~r, then thc résistance nf the tube
r~~ is

To hnd the
condnctivity of the who)o cond~tor, which is the
sum of the <-onductivif.:cs ofthc
scpamtc tubes, we must intem-atc
Uns cxprc.si.,n = o and
bctwccn == 277, .-u.d bctwecn = 0
and~= l. Thcrcsultis

wtueh nmy he !.ss, hnt cannot be

g~tor, than the truc con-
<Iuct)vityofth<.co!)dtjctor.
W) /}
U~ ~1 q"antity f will dso he small, and wc
m~y expand t)ie expression ~r the
conductivity, thus

Thc first tcrm of tilis

expression, is that which we .houtd
A
have fo.nd by the former mcthod as
the .supenor Hmit of the con-
dnct.vlty Hence the truc is less thnn thc first term
Lut e'reater than the who)oconductivity
series. Thé superior value of thé
resjstanee is the rcciproca! of this, or

If, Mes supposa the f!ow to be ~n-Jed

wc had assurncd that thc Oow hy the sarfaces <Aand
to through cach tube is proportional
wc shou]d j..ve obtained as
thc value of tl.e r sistance
ondcr this addttionaJ constraint

winch is cv,dcnt!y ~nter than the former vahic, as it

on account of thc additiona! ought to
constraint. In Mr. Strass
is the snppns.t.ion rn. paner this
and the s.pcrior iimii. of thc résistance
has t).c valu.
(~), which is a liLt.Ie g-rcatcr than that
thcr~.vcn
wh)chwehavt.nMainpfti)i(i<;).
 358 KESISTAKCH .AN!) (JOXDL'C'r)Y)TY.
[308.
308.'] Wc sh:d! now app!yt)tcsa)i]C nn'thod in nnd <h~' correction
whif-))nutsth(-app)i(-d<oth(-h'))~-t))<)facy)ind)-ica)c<)ndu('toro<'
radius r/whcn it-'cxtrcmity isplaccd m metaHic contact \vith a,
massive clect rode, wl)i(d)~c)naysnj)])osc (d'à dificrentincta).
Forth~]o\vfr)imitcf<hc résistance weshaU suppose Otat an
i))nnHc)yt))indiskof])e]-fec'Hye<)ndt)('<inn'niaHe!'ispht('e(ihet\<en
thG<'nd oftheeyhnderandthe massive t']<jctrode,s') as inhrin~'
theund ofthe eyHnder to onc and thé sa)~e pntcntial t.hrou~hout.
The potcntia) ~-HhiuttK'cyhnd~-r \vi))thcn bc:) f'unctinudfits
!t'nS't)ionIy,a)tdifwr' suppose Un-surface oftttcdcf.trndc wh<t'(j
thf t'y]inder mccts it to ht' iipproximatcly pimu', and a!] i~sdittu-n-
nions ~o be hn'~c comparo} \vi0) thf diafnc'r of 1]~ cyiindcr, the
distri))t)tion ofpnit'nt.ia) will ht- (hat, dut.- <.oa cnnduch'r it) i))c f~rni
()t'adiskp)ac''dina)ii)ifit)it('!ncdi)mi. Sec Arts. 152~77.
If/~is th~difrt'n'nct'nfthL" pfdf-ntiatof~~dishf'r~m~hn.iof
thc distant parts of ~u' ctct-i.r.jdt-, 6' thc'~trrcnt issuin~- frotn thf
surface of thc disk~inio t.h(- c'h'cirodc, and thc sp~-iiic n'.sistattcc
onhcch-drod< /C'=l~ (~)
IlL'ncc, if<.hc k')]~-t)t ofthc wirc frnni a ~in'n point, to thc
dcctrndcis/~andits spécifie ]-t-s!stan<'t- On'rcsistatx't'fromtha.L
poiuL <.o a!)y punit of'OtL' ciL't-trodc not nuar thujun~-tion is
)=
7.'=p fJ TT~-
.t 't~n
and this may )'c written
V) ~y '!T~\
10 t/- ('")
=~(~+ /).1 ,)'a

\v!)('r~ thc sceotid hinn \vi(hi)i Lrackcts is a

fp):(nti< whit.;)) n))tst
ht- afid~'d in thé Icnn-t)) cf tht' t-yHndcr or wit'c in
ca!ctdati!)~- its
rcsistancf, and Uns is oc'rtain]y tôt) sma)) a corn'ctiot).
Toundcrstand thc nattu'c ofihu ~rrorwc
outstatidin~' may
ohsct'VL-, that whf]vas wf havf supposa) Ou- i!o\v in the wirL' np
to thé disk tu ht' uoin~m thr'm~hf))]) Ox- suctirtn, tho flow from
t))(; disk to the ch'ctr)(h'isnot. unifurin. hut !sa< axy point in-
vcrsuiy propnrtion:)) to t))c minimun) <'hnr<t<h)-f)un-h tha< j'oint. fn
thcactua) case thc fiowthrrm~-h thcdisk will no). Ijctuufor~n,
httt it wiH nutvaryso nmch frcm point ~o point as in ttn.s
supposcd
<'asc. Thcpotcntial of thc'disk in thc actna)oas~ \vit1nr)t hc
uniforni, but will diminish from thé middh' to thu cdo-f-.
30!).] AVt-s))aJ) n(-xtdph'rmi!tca<ptan<ity~'rcah'r than ~x' trm'
rcsist~nct- ))\ r.mstrninin~- ihc f)n\v <hr~n~h Ou- disk <() hc onifonn
 309.] CORRUCTinN FOR THE HNDS OF THH WIHE. 359

at cvcry point. '\Vu inny suppose p!cctromotive forces introduced

for Uns pnrposc uctin~-
pc'rpcndicu)ar to the suriacc ofthc disk.
Thc résistance within tlie wirc will bu thé samc as
bctbt'e, but
in <hL-ek'ctrodu <))c rate of
g-~emtion of béat wi)l bc the sur~cc-
int~n)! of' the prodttcL of thc How into tbu potoiti: Thc rate of
y
fto\v at any point, is :)ud <hc poteniial is thé same as that of
7!
au (.-)cctrificd surhec \vhosc
surface .dcnsity is <7,\vherc
~t
27r(7-==– (20)
Lcing- thc spociitc résistance.
We hâve thcrd'ore to tictcrmine the potc-ntml cner~-y of the
eh'ct.rincation of t,he disk with thc unifonn suriacn-dcnsity <7-.
Tite potential at thc cd~e nfa disk of unifurm density fr is
ca.si]y
found to bc tM(r. Thc \vnrk donc iu addin~ a strip ofLrea.dth
at thc eircumfLTcuee of thu disk is 277~0~.4~ and the
w!)o)e potentint cncr~-y of the disk is the mtcgi-~ ofthis,

or l'~=~
a~' Q2, (21)
3
In the case of' ctectnca.1 conduction the rate at which work is
donc in thu ctcctrodc whose résistance is 7)'~is

6'= ~J'7~ (22)

/<
whcncc, hy (20) and (21),

3~~
and thc' correction to Le addcd to thu !cng-th of tlie cylindcr is
S
7 3.
this correction hciug' grenier than thc truc value. The truc cor-

rection to hc ndd~d to thu bng-th is tho'cfore wherc ? is a

7-8
numhcr lying betvvt;cn and or bptwcen 0.785 and 0.8.10.
'I 3TT
~fr. Strutt, hy n second approximation, has reduced the superior
Hmit. of Mto 0.82S2.
 CIIAPTER IX.

CONDUCTION THROUOH HHTEJinCiENEnuS MHDtA.

~C 6~M~'<OM~ 7~ <~ ~M «/' -S'M

<c~ccM y'~o 6~~<< y!/(.
310.] TttEKE arc two conditions wluch t))c distribution of currents
must fn)nt in gênerai, the condition that thé
poicuti~I must hc
continuons, nnd thc condition of' continuity' ofthc ctc-etric cnrrcnts.
At thc surface of sc-pa.ration bctwccn t.w., medi:), thc first
of'thcse
conditions rcquir~ that thc potcntiais at two
points on opposite
sidcs of' the .sm-fitcc, hnt
infinitcty n~r cach othcr, shnH hc cquid.
The potcntints nrc hère nnderstood to bc measured
hy an c!(.c-
tt-omctcr pnL in connexion with the g-ivo)
point hy means of fm
dech-odc of :t givcn mct:i). If the po~ntia!s arc mcasun.d
hy thc
method dc~rihcd in Arts. 222, 2.K,, w!ierc tliedcctrodc
terminâtes
ri a cavity of the eonductor HUed with
air, then ttie potenti~s at.
confluons points of dif~rent mutais mcasurcd in this way will
difU-r Ly a quantity dc-pending on thc
tempcrutm-c and on the
nature of thé t\vo meta~s.
Thé other condition at the surface is that t)ie current
through
any eicmcnt of thé surface is thc. same w].cn incasurcd in cithcr
mcdium.
T)ms, if and :n'e thc potentiats in t]ie two
média., then at
any point in thc surface of séparation
~=~. (t)
and if M;,and are the components of'currents in the
two média, and M, M the dircction-cosincs of thc normal to t!)c
surface of séparation,
+ + ~') M =
in thc tnost gênera! case thé componcuts ?<; arc linear
 310.] SURFACE-CONDITIONS. 361

where A", 7, Z are thé derivative~ of with respect tn <?

rcspccti vcly.
Let us takc thc case of thé surface which separates a médium
having thèse coefficients of conduction from an isotropie medium
having a coefficient of conduction cquat to )'.
Let Z~ Y', Z' bc thé values of~, Y, in thé isotropie medium,
thcn we h&vc at thc surface

Thé quantlty <r represents thé surfacc-dcnsity of thc charge

ou the surface of separation. In crystalHxed and organized sub-
stances it depends on thc direction of thé surfice as wel! as on
thc force perpondie~ar to it. In Isotropic substances the coeffi-
Ctents~ and are zero, and the coefficients )' arc atl equal, so that

whcrc is thé conductivity of thc substance, that nf thc externat

Yncdtum, nnd w, 7~ ttie dirf'ction-cnsincs of the normat drawn
fowards thé médium whose conductivity is )'.
When both média, are isotropic tlie conditions may h< ~rca~y
 362 UUMJUCTIUN IN HKTHJ{u(;ENE()t;.S MH)J)A. jjll.

Ji C, nnd 0, :~t- ihc nn~es wl)ie!i ~hc lines of~ow

in the first and
SL-f-ond mcdl~ r~j.~tively makc with thc norma! to t!K- surface
of .SL.parat.inn, then the tai~cnts to t)ic~ )in~ of
H~v :u.e in th~
s:L)nc phmc with the normal and oi
<mnnsi~ sides ofit. and

lins may hc caHcd the ]a\v of réfraction uf )incH of flow.

311.] As an (;xamp)u of thc conditions which must be rnIfi)M
w!)en L-Icctricity crosses tht-surfaœof
séparation oft~o média,
let us suppose
thcsurf~sphericalMdofmdius~thcspc-cif.c
res]st:uiccLu)~ withinand/vithout thé snr~cc.
LctthL.pot~tia!, Loth~vithin a.idwit.houtthc surface ~eex-
pandedin sn)id harmonies, and which d(.p(.nds on
Ic.ttht.part
un' surface fiannonic he

Thc.sc ouations arc s~idt.n~, when wu kn~v two of thc fo.n.

'fuaut.ties ~j, ~7~, to de.tuet. the uUiL.r two.
I~tu.ssupp.,sc. J, ;md L-wi),t).rmdtt.<-fo))nwi~
expressions for~and 7~,
 3~2.] Mt'HHMICALSHHLL. 363

In this way wc ca.i find thc conditions which caeh tcrm of

the
Iliu-mome expansion of the potential must
~ttisfy fm- auy number of
strata boundcd ))y conccntrie s})!ierica! surfaces.
313.) Lct us suppose thc radius of the nr.st tiphet-icat surface
tn be û~ and let there bf socotid spherieal surface of radius <
~re~cr than bey.md which thu spécifie t-esistinicc is If thcre
are no sources or sinks nf withm thcsc
electricity sphères there
will hc no innnitu vatucs of and wc sha!) hâve 7~ = 0.
Wc Dieu fmd fur J, and A,, the cœfHcicnts for thc outer
mcdium,

(C)

Thc vainc of thc potentia) in thé outer tncdiam

dcpcnds partty
nu t!)c t'xterna! sources of wtnch
ctcetricity, producc cnn-L'nt.s in-
dcpcndcntty ofthc existence oftitc Hphcrc of' Itcto-og'cneons mattcr
witinn, and partiy on titc dtsturb:mcc causcd by thu introduction of
Du- hctern~encous sphère.
Thc first part, must dépend ou so]id fiarmouics of
positive dcgrees
oniy, hûcausu Itcatimt hâve infinité vêtues withtn t)te sphurc. °Thc
sc'cood part must dépend on ha.nnonics of
nc~tivu denrées, hcc:m.sc
it must vanish at an mfmitc disttmcc from thc centre ofthc
sphère.
Hence the potcntia) duc to the externa) clectromotive forces must
be expandcd in :). séries of' so!id harmotucs of
positi.vc dc~-rcu. Let
hc thc coc-fiicicnt of' onc thcse, of the form

J.,
Thcn \vu can iind thc correspondin~ co(~ficic')it for thc mncr
sphère ),y équation (~), .nid from this deducc 7~, and Of
thèse 7~ rcprcscnts t)ie cfrcct on Dit.
potct~ia! in'thc'outcr nn-dium
dneto the introdm-tion ofthc
heterogencons sj)])crcs.
Lct us no\v suppose = so that t)tc case is that of a ho])nw
she!) ~)r winch ==/ scparatin~ an inncr from an enter portion of
the samc mcdi)im for winch /=/
If wc put.
'=
364 CONDUCTION t~ HETËIiOGËXHOUS MEDIA. [313.

Thc différence hctwcMi the undistnrbpd coefficient, and ~) i<s

value in t!)c' hoHow within thc spherieal shc! is

Smcc this quantity is always positive whatcvcr ho thc vaincs

of /-t and it follows that, whether the sphericat shell condncts
bct.tcr or worsc than thc rcst of thc médium, thé dectrical action
within thc shel! is )oss than it wonid othcrwisc be. If' thc shc!]
is a tjL'ttcr conductor than t!tc rcst of thé mcdium it tends to
cquaHxc <,he potential aH round thc ituior sphere. If it is a worsc
conductor, it tends to prevent thé dcctrical currents from reaehing-
U)e inncr sphcrc at al).
The case nf a solid sp!]erc may Le dedcecl from this hy making-
~j = f), or it may bc workcd out indcpciidenily.
313.] Thc most important tcrm in thc harmonie cxpansif)!) is
<hat in whicti i = I, for whieh

It is casy <n shew frnm the ~ner:)! ~xprcssinns that thé value
of7~ in the case of' a hol)n\v sphère havin~- a nm-lois of résistance
sun-ounded Lya shdl of résistance is thé same as that of
a uniform solid sp!ierc of thc rndius of thé outer surface and of
)'<~s!s<:n)o''A', \h<*r<'
 3i4.] MRDt~M CONTAINI~G SMALL SPHEitHS. 365

314.] If therc are Msphères of i-tidin~ al aud t-c.sistancc

placcd
in a medium whosc. résistance is at such distances from eaeh
other tliat their eff'ccts in disturbing- tiic ccm-sc oi' thc cun-cnt
may bc taken as independcnt of cach othcr, then If thèse sphères
are all coutained within a splicrc of radius the potcntiat at a
great distance from the centre of this sphère wiH be of t!)c form

(12)

Thé ratio of thé volume of the /< small

sphet-CM to that of the
spliere whieh contains them is
7/.0,
(!)
~=- (1.1:i
Thé value of thé potential at a
sTcut distance (j-om the Hptterc
may thereforc Le written

Tins, therefore, is thé spccilic résistance of' a. cornpound médium

consisting of a substance of specifie résistance in which are
disseminated small sphères of specifie résistance ratio ui' the
/~the
volume of aH the small sphères to tliat of thé whoïc In
being'
ordcr that thé action of thèse sphères may not eftccts
produce
depending- on their interférence, their radii must be small compared
with their distances, and thereforep must be a small fraction.
This result may be obtaincd in other ways, but that Lerc
given
involves only thc répétition of thé result obtaitied for a
ah-eady
single sphère.
When thé distance between thé spheres is not
g-reat compared
with1 tlieir
with
N~,itli their radii,
then- raaii, KI
aira when
and
~iiid 1 isis considérable,
2 A] -f- 'ù 1 ] tlieii
consideralile, then other
terms enter into thé rcsult, which we shall not now considcr.
In conséquence of thèse tet-ms certain Systems of
«fnrran~ement
 306 œNDt.'c'no~ rx HETRnooENHousMKD).
[315.
thé sphères cause the reMii-tanee of thc
compftund médium to hc
difrct'cnt in dincrcnt directions.

~j/o~ ~? jp~r~/6' <?/7/

315.] Let us t:)kc as an ~xnm~)e thc casL' oft\o nu'thn. scpm-ated
Ly a plane surï:)cc, and let us suppOHC <!tat Hiere is n source
of dcetrieity at a di~tanec from thé phmc surface in thc. nrst
médium, the quantity oft.)cctric.ity nowing from the source in unit
of <imc bein~ .S'.
If <!)c first mcdium !i:)d hccn
infinitc)y pxu.ndcd thc currcnt
at any point y wonid hâve bec!) in thc direction
and tho
potcn<iaiat7-nu)dhavcbcen whcre ~=~1 and =~7~
~'j 'J7!-
In the actual c-a~ tht. conditions
may he satisfied by takin"-
roint thé imagf of in the second médium, such that 7~
is normat tu the plane of
séparation and is hisected by it. Lf-t
Le thé distance ofany point from tlicn at the surface of séparation

Ld thep-.tt-ntia)
~atany point, in thof.rsi.nu.dium h.'that
duc. <na q..nnti<y
..f.<rid<y ~'p)ac~ at~to~.r~-ith an
"u~.na.-y (ju:in<i<y ~at and
"< thc sccund modium hp that duc ~()H.pn~n<iat/atanypunt
)o an in):).in!U-v nu~ntitv at

-.<, ~cnnai ,nthc<n.st medium isihcrcfbrcthcs.mcaswouid

produced in air hy a c.~r~e 7~ and a char.r~
j~c.d
on th..t.ctr<~dic.
theory, and the potenti.! in thc second
mc-dunn ,.t).c.sa,n.s thaf which ~u)d )..pr.duc..di~air
bv
at'h:n-~f/t(,S'.
 317.] STH.ATLrM WITH PAliALLHL SIDHH. 367

Thé current at any point of thé first médium is the same as wou!d

hâve becn produced by t))f source togetiter with u source ,S'

/+/{'
piaced ut if the nrst médium had been infinite, and the currcnt
at any point of thc second medinm is thé same as would have hcen
2
produccd by a source placcd at 6' if thé second médium had
been infinite.
We have thus a complète thcnry of'c]cetriea!
imnges in t))ecase
of two média separatcd hy a phme
bnundat-y. Witatever Le thé
nature of thé eicc-tromotive forces in thé first mcdinm, thé
potentia!
thcy producc in thc first médium may Le fonnd by combinin~ thcir
dircct cHect. \i0) thc cf~ect nfthcit' im:t"-c.
If we Huppnse Htc ~.c-cond médium a
perfcct eonductor, t))cit
= n, and thc in):)g-c at is equa) and opposite to thé course
at 6'. Tins is thé case ofeicctric as in Thomson's theory
im~es,
in elcetrostatics.
If we suppose thé second médium a
perfcet insu]ator, thcn
= ce, and thc imag-e at is cqua) to t!te source a.t and of thé
samesig-n. Ttiis istlie case of images in )iydrokinctics wjicn thé
iiuid is boundcd by a rl~-id p]:me surface.
316.1 The metbod of inversion, which is of so mueb use in
eteetrostatics when thé bounding- surface- is supposed to bc t))at
of a, perfcet eon()uctor, is not app]ica)dc to thc more
~encrât case
of tbc surface separatin~ t\vo eonductors of etectric résist-
unctjual
ance. TIie mcthod of Inversion in t\o dimensions i~ bowcver
applicable, as weH as the more g-cncral method of transformation in
two dimensions ~iven in Art. 190

6'Hc<o~ /o/ P/r~ï/ 7' ~/t.

317/] Let us m'xtconsidt.r t]ic c(!cctofa plate ofthickncss J/~o)
a médium \)ose résist-
ance is/ and scpin'~ti!)~'
twn mediit whose résist-
ances :u'e a.n<1 /j. In
attcn))~' the potentia) duc
tn a source S in thc first
médium.
Thc potetttia) will t'c
Seu Kirchh~F. P.~K. Ixiv. 497,nn<))xvii. :{.!) Quincke.rn. \<.v:i 38~'
:u~]S)nit)).7'r&r./t's'i.L'3t~-7r),)..7!).
368 CONDUCTION !K HKTEHOOENEUUS MKD!A. [3~.
in air at certtuu
equal to thn.t duc to a. system oi' cliargus ph~ccd
thc 6'.
points dong tlie normal <o ptatc t!)i-oug'h
Mnkc
~7=~ 7~==~, ~=7~, ~=Ji~ ~=/&c-
the~ we have two series of points at distances from cach othcr cqual
to twice thc thickuess of thc plate.
318.] Thc potential in thc first medium at any point 7~ is equa! to

that at a point 7~ in the second

C')
and that at a poiftt 7~' lu the third

<)
~+ A. +7~
whcrc I, l', &c. rcprcscnt the imng'in:ny cierges placed !tt thu
the potential is to bc
points 7, &;c.j and thc accents dcuotu that
takt'n withhi thc plate.
Thea, by the last Article, for the surface through wc !)a\'L',
 319.] STRATIFIED CONDUCTORS. 369

For the potential in thé third medium we find

~(.~)(,+~+(~
If thé first médium is thé same as thé
third, == and
= p', and the potential on the otlier side of tlie then
plate wiH be~

(i,)
~('
If tlie plate is a very much hetter conductor
than the rest of the
medium, p is very nearly equal to 1. If thé plate is a
nearly perfect
uisuhttor, is nearly equal to -I, and if tlie plate diCcrs little in
condueting power from the rest of thé medium, p is a small
quantity
positive or neg-ative.
Tite tlicory of this case was first stated
by Green in bis TIteory
of Magnetic Induction'
(~~ p. 65). His result, however is
correct only when p is nearly
equal to 1 The quantity~ which
lie uses is connected with thé
p by équations
J~=-~L=~
3-~ ~+2~ ~"2-i-
If wc put p = we shall have a solution of the
y~ problem of
the magnetic induction excited
by a magnetic po!c in an infinite
plate whose eoeincicnt of magnetization is

O~ CbM~c~
319.] Let a conductor be composed of alternate strata of thick-
ness c and c' of two substances whose coefficients of
arc different. Requircd the coeuicients of résistance conductivity
and conduc-
tivity of the compound conductor.
Let thé plane of tho strata be normal to Z. Let
every symbol
relating to the strata of the second kind be accented, and lot
every symbol relating to the compound conductor be marbed witli
a bar thus, Then
= = (c + c') M= <-K+ eV,
~=~=~, (<'+e~=c!;+cV;
(c + c~ = c~+ c~ ? = w=
_Wc must nrst détermine M, ?/, and in terms of
aud ?~ from the équations of résistance. Art.
297, or those
Sue SirW. ThmMon'H'Note on luducedMagnetiamui
DM~.~K< ~Mnt.,Nov.184S,or ApW~, a P~te' Co~ (t.t~
art. ix. §1CO
VOL.t. b
 370 CONDUCTION IN IIETEROOENHOUS MEDIA. [~20.

ofconductivity, Art. 298, If we put D for thé determinant of tlie

coeiRcients of rcslsta.nco, we fmd

Sinuiar équations with thé symbo)s acce~ted g-ive tlie v:ttncs

of M', </ and Having- found M,v and In terms of T, 3~ aud
we tnay write do\vu thé equatious of
conductivity of thé stratified
conductor. If we makc = and ~==-~ wc find
~:t ~'a

320.'] If neither of thé two substances of which the strata arc

formed bas the rotatory property of Art. 303, the value of
any
or will be equal to that of its correspoiiding Q or
,y. From
this it follows that in thé stratified conductor also

~i = ~2 = =
or there is no rotatory property developed
by stratification, unless
it exists in thé materials.
321.] If we now suppose that thcro is no rotatory property, and
also that thé axes of x, j/ and are the principal axes, thcn thé
and q coeSicients vanish, and
 3~2.] STRATIFfHD CONDUCTOHS. 371
If we begin with both substances
isotropie, but of difrerent
cond~v.t.cs, then thc result of stratification will be to make
tne résistance ~reatest in the direction ofa
normal to thc strata,
and tlie re.s,8t~nee in nU directions In the
plane of the strata will
bf cqnnL
322.] Take an isotropic substance of
conductivity r, eut it into
exceedu~Iy thin sHeea of thickncss and place them altcrnat.ly
with slices of a substance whose
conductivity is and thiekncss
A~<-<.
Let U~se slices be normal to .t-. Tjien eut
this compound f-on-
ductor ,nto thicker sliccs,
ofti.ickness norn~~ to and alternate
thoso wit!) stioes whose
conductivity i.~ aud thiekness
Lastly, eut the new conductor into still thicker sUces" of thick-
ncss c, nonnfd to z, and dtc..nate them with
slices whose con-
diic-tivity is N and t]iiekncss/
Tho result cftbe three opérations will be to eut the substance
whose conductivity is hito reetangu!ar para!I.]epipcds whoso
d.men~ous are and c, where b is ~ccedin~y ~na!l comparcd
~th and is cxeeeding]y small
compared with and to cmbed
thesc paraUc.Icp.peds in thc substance whoso
t)u~ t),cy arc separated from cach other conductivity is so
in the diction of.r
m that of~ and ~e in that of z. The
eonductivities of tlie
couductor so formed in thé directions
of x, y and are

The aecuracy of this

investigation dépends upon thé thrce
dimensions of tlie
paml!c!ep!pcd. being of different orders of mag-
mtude so that Ive may neglect thé conditions to Ibo
their cdgcs and angles. If we make fulfilled at
and each unity, then
 372 CONDUCTION IN HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA. [323.

In every case, provided = it may be shewn that

=
7' and are in ascending order of magnitude, so tbat thé
greatest conductivity is in thé direction of thé long-est dimensions
of thé parallclepipcds, and the greatest résistance in thé direction
of thcu- shortfst dimensions.
323.] In a rectangular parallelcpipcd of a conducting solid, let
there be a conducting channel made from one
angle to the opposite,
the channel being- a wire covered wit)t
insulating- matcri:~ and
let thc lateral dimensions of thc channel be so small that the
conductivity of thé solid is not afFected except on account of thc
current conveyed along thc wire.
Let the dimensions of thc
parallelepiped in the directions of the
coordinate axes be a, b, c, and let the
conductivity of thé channel,
extending from the origin to thé point (abc), be a~c~.
Thé electromotive force acting bctween the extremities of tho
channel is
~r+~y+~,
and if C' be the current along the channel

~=~c~~+~r-)-e~).
Ti)e eurrent across the f:tce ~c' of thé
paral)e!cpiped is <~cM,and
this is made up of that duc to thé of the solid and
conductivity
of that due to thé conductivity of thé or
channel,

In thèse expressions, thc additions to thé values of

&c., duc
to the effect of thé channel, are equal to the additions to thc va)ues
of ql, &c. Hcnce thé values of
and cannot be rendcrcd
unequal by thé introduction of linc~r channels into evcry cicmpnt
of volume of the solid, and thercfore the
rotatory property of
Art. 303, if' it does not exist
previousiy in a. solid, cannot be
introduccd by such means.
3~4-] COMPOSITE
CONDUCTOR. 373
 CHAPTER X.

CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRK'S.

825.] WE have seen that when electromotive force acts on a

dieJectrie medium it produees in it a statc which wc !)ave called
c!ectricpo!tu-ization, and which we have dcscribcd as
consisting
of electric displaccment within thc medium in a direction
which
in isotrupic media, coincides with th~t of tho electromotive
force,
combmed with a superficial diarg-e on
cvery clément of volume
into which we may suppose thc dic!ectric
divided, wl)ieh is neg-ative
on thé side towards which the force acts, and
positive on thé side
from which it acts.
When eleetromotive force acts on a
conducting médium it also
produces what is called an cicctnc current.
Now dielectric media, witli very few, if
any, exceptions, are
also more or less imperfect conductors, and
many media which are
not good insdators exhihit phenomena of dic~ectric induction.
Hence \ve are led to study the statc of a medium in whieh induction
and conduction are g-oing on at thc samc time.
For simplif-ity wc sha.1!
suppose the medium isotropie at every
point, but not nccessarily homogeneous at difTerent points. In this
case, thé pquation of Poisson hecomcs, by Art. 83,
d ~A~
+ (~~)~ = 0, (I)
~+ ~(~
where K is the specinc inductive
capacity.'
The 'équation ofeontinuity' of electric currents bccomcs
-L /I p= (2)
+ ~) + (r ~)
whei-c is the specifie résistance rcfcn'ed to unit of volume.
Whcn A' or y is discontnmous, t.))ese
équations must be trans-
formcd into those aj~projti-iatc to surface of discontinuKv.
 326.] THEOKY0F A CONDENSER. 375

Uns result ehews that under the action of

any external electrie
forces on a homogeneous medium, the interlorofwhicb is
originally
charged in any manner with electricity, tho internai
die away at a rate whieh doea not charg-cs will
depend on tho external forces,
so that at length titere will bc no
charge of electricity within
thé médium, af'ter which no external forces can either
produce or
maintain a charge in any internai of the
portion médium, pro-
vided thé relation betwecn electromotive
force, electric polarization
and conduction remains thé same. When
diemptive discharge
occurs thcse relations ccase to be
true, and internal charge may
bc produced.
0;~ C'OK~c;?t CoM~c;
326.] Lot C be the capacity of a condenser, its rcsistanee, and
thé electromotive force which acts on
it, that is, thé difference of
potentials of thé surîaces of the meta.Uic electrodes.
Then thé quantity of electricity on thé side from which
thé
eleetromotive force acts will be CjE, and thé current
tlirough thé
substance of the condenser in the direction of thc electromotive
force will be E ·
bo
If thé electrification is supposed to be
produced by an electro-
motive force 7? acting in a circuit of whieh thé condenser forms

part, and if represents the eurrent in that circuit, then

(7)

(8)
 376
CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRICS.
f~.
Next, let the be broken for a time
circuit
_j~
~(=7~)=~<whero~=C'7?.
(.))
Fjna!!y, !et thc purfaces of thé condenser be connected
ot a wire whoso resistance by meaus
is for a time

In this way wo
may find the
made to connect the .urfaccs ofdischarge thro~h
a condenser after
wire which
for a t~e and then insulatcd for a time bein~ ch.~ed
If the time of
su&eient, as it generaHy is, te
char~ng develope the whole
diseharge, the discharge ie
Ër~d~

~7.J in a condenser ofthis kind, first charged in

any next
discharged through a wire of small résignée, and then way,
no new electnncation will insulated,
appear. In most actual
however, we find that aftcr disehargc and insulation a condenser.
is ~radua!!y new charge
developed, of the same kind as thé original
charge,
but~nenor~~nsity. This is called thé residual To
account for it we must admit that the charge
constitution of thc dielectric
medium is different from that which we have
shall find, however, that a medium just descrihed. We
formed of a conglomeration of
small pieces of different
simple media would possess this property.

.Mco~ oy~ ~~c~~g j~e~/c.

328.] We shall suppose, for the sake of
dielectric consists simph-city, that thé
plane strata of different materials
and of area unity, and that thc
electric forces aet in thc direction
of the normal to the strata.
Let &c. he thé thicknesses of the different
strata.
XI, &e. the rcstdtant electrical force within
ea<-hstratum
&c. thc current due to conduction
&c. thro~h cach stratum
./i~/23 thé elcctric displacement.
to'i~' the total due partly to ~tion
to variation of and partly
déplacement.
 328.] STRATIFIED DIELECTMC. 377

&c. thé spécifie résistance referred to unit of

volume.
~n -~j &c. thé specific inductive
capacity.
&c. thé reciprocal of the specifie inductive
thc electromotive force due to capacity
voltaic battery, placed in
the part of the circuit
leading from the last stratum towards the
first, which we shall suppose good conductors.
Q thé total quantity of
electricity which bas passed through this
part of thc circuit up to thé time
the résistance of thé
battery with its connecting wires.
the surface-density of
electricity on the surface which separates
thé first and second strata.
Then m the first stratum we
bave, by Ohm'8 Law,
= ~j.
(1)
By thé theory of electrical displacement,
~1=4TT~.
By the definition of thé total current,

rl~'i
~=~ (3)
with similar équations for the other
strata, in each of which the
quantities Lave thé sufHx belonging to that stratum.
To determine the
surface-density on any stratum, wc hâve an
equattonofthefbrm
~12–~2–/t, (4)
and to détermine its variation we have
dO"l2
~12
=
'=~ Pl -1'2 (5)
(5)

By dlûerentiating (4) with respect to < and

to (5), we obtain equating thé result

~/2
~+ =~+-~ =~say,
or, by taking account of (3),
?~ = ?~ = &c. = M.
That is, the total current is the same in all the
strata, and is
equal to the current through the wire and
We have aiso, in virtue of battery,
équations (1) and (2),
1& v.
rl
~?~ 17ikI rlG (8)
from which we may find XI by the inverse
operation on M,
y 1
~+~) (n)
 378 CONDUCTION IN DJELECTRICS.
[329.

an équation betwcen thé external electromotive force, and M, thé

externe current.
Ifthf ratio of to is thé s.-unc in all thé strata, the équation
rcdnees itself to

which is the case we hâve

ah-eady examined, and in which, as we
found, no phenomenon of residual charge can take place.
If there arc M tiubstanccs
Itaving- difrerent ratios of to thé
gcner~ cquatM!! (l]),v'hen clcart.d of inverse operations, will be
a lin~r di~erentiat
équation, of the Mth ordcr with respect to
and of thc (~- I)t.h order with
respect to K, <;being-the indepeudeut
variable.
rrom thé form of thé équation it is évident that the order of
tlie différent, strata is indiffèrent, so that if there arc several
strata
of thc same substance wc
may suppose them nnited into one
~ithout altering t)ic phenomena.
329.] Let u6 now suppose that at nr6t~ &c. arc aïï zero,
and that an eicctromotivc force ~is
suddenly made to act, and lot
us find its instant~neoua efTect.
Ititegt-atb~ (8) with respect to < we find

Now, since XI i.~ahvays in this case f!nite, must bc in-

sensible when is iusensible, and therefore, since is originany
zero, tkc insiantanGous effect will bc

(m)
 3~9.] ELECTRIC ABSORPTION.' 379

This is thé same result that we should have

obtained if we had
neglocted the conductivity of tho etr~ta.
Let us next suppose tliat the electrornotive force E ie
continued
uniform for an indefinitely long time, or till a
uniform cm-rent of
conduction equal to,p is established through the
eyatem.
We have thcn = and therefore
~=(~~+~~+&c.)~. (17)
If R Le the total resistance ofthe system,

If wc now suddenly connect thé extrcmc strata

by means of a
conductor of small résistance, will be suddenly changed from its
original value Eo to zero, and a quantity Q of electricity will
pass
through t!ie conductor.
To détermine we observe that if Z/ be thé new value of
then by (13), Xl,
v y 7
Ai =~+<t7r~ (20)
Hence, by (10), putting ~= 0,
0 ==
.+ &c. + 4 TT (~ + &c.) (21)
or 1
o = F, +
(22)
Henco =-C~, where C is the capacity, as given by cquation
(16). The instantaneotis discharge is therefore equal to thé in-
stantaneous charge.
Let us next suppose the connexion broken
immediately after this
discharge. We shaU then have 1t = 0, so that by équation (8),
-<
= (23)
where is tlie initial value after the
discharge.
Hence, at any time
 380 CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRICS.
[330-
and thé instantancous
discharge after any time i! is ~C. Tins is
called thc residual discharge.
If thc ratio of to is thc samo for all thé
strata, the value ofj~
will be reduced to zero. If, however, tins ratio is not the
same, Jet
thé terms be arrang-cd
accord ing to thc values of this ratio in
desccnding order of magnitude.
The sum of all tlie coefficients is
evidently zéro, so that wheu
< = 0, = 0. TIie coofficients are also in
descending ordcr of
magnitude, and so arc the exponcntia! terms when is
positive.
Hcnœ, when is positive, will be positive, so that the residual
discharge is always ofthe same sign as thé primary discharge.
W]icn is indenuitcly great all thc terms
of thé strata are perfcct disappear unless any
insulators, in winch case ri is infinite for
that stratum/and 7i' is infinite for thé whole
system, and tlie final
value of is not zero but

rienee, wtien some, but not al!, of thc strata arc

perfcct insulators,
residual discharge may be permancntly
preserved in thé system.
330.] Wc shaH ncxt determine the total discharge through a wirc
of résistance 7i'. kcpt
permanentiy in connexion with the extrême
strata of tlie system, supposing- t!te
system first charged by means
of a. Inng'-cfmtinucd application of thc electromotive
force
At any instant wc have
 33i.]1 RËSIDUAL DISCHARGE. 381
It appears from this
that Q is always negative, tbat is to
the :~r say in
direction to that of the current
the system, -i~ charging
This investigation shews that a dielectrie
composed of str. of-
different kinds may exhibit the
phenomena known as electric
absorption and rc.dua! discharge, atthougb nonc oF the
of whieh it is made cxhibit th~c substances
pheuomc.a when alone. An
~ve~ga~n of thé cases in ~iek the ~teri~ are ar.
otbcrw~ than strata wcu)d lcad to similar
tlie calculations résulta though
would he more
co.plicatcd..0 that w. may
condude that thc phcnomc-na of deetric
absorption may be ex-
pcc cd in thé case of substances
coml)osed of' p.rts of different
kinds, cven thou~h th.sc individual
parts should be micrcsco~
small.
It by no means folios that cvery substance w!uch
exhibits this
phenornenon is se coniposed, for it may indicatc a new kind of
electric polarization of which a
homogeneous substa.cc
capable, and this in some cases may m.y
elieniical polarization much more than pcrhaps rcscmlJle clectro-
dicJcctric poJarizaticn
rhe cbject of thé is merely to point out thé
mvcsti~on true
mathematical character of thc so-called electric
~v how fundamentally absorption, and to
it difTer. from the
which seem at first sight phcnomena of beat
analogous.
331.] If .ve takc a thick plate of any substance and
on onc side, so as to béat it
produce a flow of heat through it, and if
we thcn suddenly cool thé hcatcd
side to the
as the other, and Jcave the sa~t.mpcratu
plate to itself, thc beated side of ti~
plate will again become hotter than the
conduction from
within.
an electrical phenomenon
exactly analogous to this ean
bc produced, and
actually occurs in telegraph cab~ but its mat c.
matical laws, though
exactly agreeing with those of béat, differ
entirely from those of thc stratified condenser.
In thé case of' heat there is true
absorption of tbc heat into
tbe substance with thé result of
makin~ it hot. To produce a
truly
analogous pbcnomenon in electricity is
impossible but we may
imitate it in the following way Iccturc-r~
experiment.
Let &c. be the inner
conducting surfaces of a series of
condors, ofwhrch Bo, & the outer surfaces.
Let &c. be connected in series
by eonn~ions of resist-
 382
CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRICS.
(j~.
let a current bo
passed along this series from Icft to
right.
Let
us first suppose the
plates 130, .~1, 13, each insulated and
~:S~ of electricity on each of
tlie plates B niiist remain
zero, und since the
plates A each c.~e o. electricity on the
aud opposite to of the opposed

surface tlrey will lot

will be observed. the -r~
J.~ ~ri! "'T, let
connccteù with tho earth.
Then, since the potential of
,il is
positive, while tllat of the plates 13 is zero, dl will be
electrified and BI hositively
negatively,
If7\, &c. are the potentials of the
~T niâtes
tliat
equal to Qo passes through the wire on the
left, QI tlirough the
which exists on the
plate dl is Qo-Ql, and we have

Similarly
andsooa
But by Ohm's Law ~'c have

If we suppose the values of C

the same for each
plate, and those
the fOl'In
 332.J THEORY OF ELECTRIC CABLES. 383

If there arc quantities of electricity to be detcrmined, and if

either thé total electromotive
force, or some other équivalent cou-
ditions be given, tbedifTcrentiaI
équation for dcternnninganyone
of titem will be linear and of thé ~th
order.
By an apparatus arran~d in this way, Mr.
Varley 6ucce.ded in
imitating thc electrical action ofa cable 12,000 miles
WI.en long.
electroniotivc force is mado to act
thé left han<t, thé along thé wire on
electricity which nows intc thé system is at first
principally occupied in charging thc different condcnscrs
witli and only a very small fraction of the beginning
eurrent appears
at the r!g!it hand till a considérable
time bas elapsed. If ~Ivano-
meters bo placed in circuit at &c. t)icy will be anccted
7?,,
by the current one after another, the interval between
the times of
cqual indications being greater as we procced to thé
right.
332.] In the case of a telegraph cable thc wirë is
condacting
separated from conductors outside by a
cyJindricat sheath ofgntta-
percha, or other insulating material. Each
portion of thc câble
thus becomes a condenser, tho outer surface of
which is always at
potentat zero. Hence, in a given portion ofttie
of frce electricity at, thé surface of thé eable, thé quantity
to the produet of thé conducting wire is cqnal
potential into the capacity of thé portion of
tlie ci~Ie considered as a condenser.
If arc the outer and inner radii of thc
and if Kis its specifie dieleetrie insulating sheath,
capacity, tlie capacity of unit of
Icngth of the cable is, by Art. 12G,
 384 CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRICS.
[333.
Hence ..=~.
r!x (2)
A~in, 'the clectromotive force at any section is ~nd bv
lm s
Uhm s Law,
= .~3
r!x rlG (3)
where is t.hc resistance of unit of length of thé conductor, and
is tlie strcngth of thé current.
r%l.
t Eliminating between (2) and
(3), we find
~= ('1)
(~
This is the partial diCerentia!
équation which must he solved
in order to obtam thé potential at
any instant at any point of thé
cable. It is identical with that whieh Fcurler
gives to determine
thé température at any point of a stratum
through w!uc!i heat
is nowmg in a direction normal to
thé stratum. In thé case of
hcat c represents thé of
eapaeity unit of volume, or what Fourier
caifs CD, and k rcprescnts thé
reciprocal of thé conductivity.
If thé sheath is not a
perfect insulator, and if is thé resist-
ance of unit of length of thé sheath to
conduction through it in a
radial direction, then if pl is the
specinc résistance ofthe insulating °
matcria],
material,

~=2~tog, (5)
1":¿
The equation (2) will no
longer be truc, for thé electricity is
expended not only in charging thé wirc thé extent represented
by c., but in escaping at a rate represented Hcnce thé rate
of cxpenditure hy
of' electricity will bc
~<2 1
t''
'=~+~~
whence, by comparison with (3), we get
k
= v'
~le«
"~=~ 71~l -Z- (7)
and this is the équation of conduction of
hcat in a rod or
as given by Fourier ring
333.J If we had supposed that a body when raised to a
high
potential becomes electrified throughout its substance as if elec-
tricity were compressed into it, we should have arrived at
t'ons ot this very form. equa-
It is remarbahie that Ohm
him.eif,
?'/t<u)-)'e
dela ~/j«/(ttr, art. 10C.
 ~4.] H YD]!OS')'tC.L LLrSTHATION. 385

mis!cd by the i.nalogy betwccn

electricity nnd hcat, cntprtain~l
an opinion of this kind, ~nd was thus,
Ly menns of an cn-oncous
opinion, !cd to c.mptny <hc équations of Fotner to express the
ti-nc ]aws of conduction of
cIceh-icHy throug)i a long- wirc. !o:i.
hdhrcthprcn] reagon oft))c nppropriatpncssofthcsc
équations haS
)'œn go.spcct~d.

yi~~ù'M~ 7/K ~?e 7~<p.? J9/c~c.

334.] Fivc f.uhcs of cqnat scetional area 7?, C, D and 7~ arc
nn-an~d in ch-euit as in thc figure.
Y/,7?, 6' and j9 nrc vcrtica! and equal,
and 7~ is horizotita,].
Thc ]owft- haivcs of y~ 7~, C, J9
nrp fiDcd with mci-cury~ titcir uppcr
I)a]vcs :uid thc Iiorixojitn! tnh~ J'nre
fUicd ~'i(,h wntcr.
A tube with n s~pcof-k () con-
ncf;(s the ]ower pni't nC and 7/
witli titt)t nfC and 7~ n~d n piston
7~ is mndc to s)i(!n in tt)R horixnnta)
tuhc.
Lot os hf~in hy suppnsin~- <hat
thu )cvct of i])C!mei-cnry in the fhui'
tnhcs is the ~mc~ :Lnd that it is
indicaicd hy 7?,, j9,, that
the
Lf)fp)s[on is nt 7- and thatt))e
piston ]sac7,ann thnt the
is
sto]icock 0<~isshnt.shnt. Fig.26.
New k.t thc. piston be movcd from to P~ a distance Then,
sincc t.ho sections of a!! the t.tbcs arc cqua!, the Jcvcl ofthc
m mercury
nnd 6'wiit rise a (Hstanco or to and C,, and thé
in j~ nnd j9 will sin!< an cqual distance mercu.-y
or to j~ and
Thc (lifrcrc.ncc or pressure on the t\o sid(.-s of the
piston wi!)
bc rcprescntcd hy 'J~.
T))is nrrangemcnt mny serve to
represent thé state of a dieicctric
actcd on hy an ciectromotive force r/.
T).e cxcess of water in the tube j9
may bc tal<cn to reposent
a pnsitivf. charg-c ofdcctricity on one side of the didcctric, and thc
('xocss of mcrcury in thc tube
may represent, thé n~ative charrrc
on the othor side. The exoess of prcssnrc in thé tube
on <bf
sicle ofthc piston ncxt, 7) will then
reposent thé cxcess ofpntentiat
on thc positive side of thc dicicetric.
VOL.I I C(!e
38(; CON!)UCT!ON DiELHCTtUC~. [334.
If tht) piston is frce to movc it will movc back to and bc
in eqniiibrinm thcrc. Tins reprcscnts thc complète dischargc of
thcdiflentnc.
During thc dischnrg'c thcrc is a rcvcrscd motion of the hquids
throu~hout thé wboh* tube, nnd this n'prcscnts that chatte of
electric disptaconcnt \v])ic)t wc hav~ ."nppo.scd te take place in a
dic!cctric.
T have supposcd cvo'y part. of thc systcm of tnhcs fiHcd with
incnmprcssib)e hquids, in order to l'fprescnt thé property of aU
picetric displaccment that tlxu'c is 1)0 rcat accutnnht.tion oi' dcc-
tricity at any phn'c.
Let us now considcr thc c(tcct of opcning the stopnock \vhi)~'
thn piston 7~ is at 7~.
Thé Icv(. of and will rfmam unch:u)~'ed, but tl)at of .N and
C will hccnmc thf samc, and will coijtcidc with J~ aud 6~
Thc opcnin~' of thc' stcpcock </ corrcspnnds to the cxistc!tcc of
a part of thé dielcetric which lias a sli~'ht conductin~' powcr, but
which does not cxtend through the \vho~c dich'ctric so as to form
an open chitnncl.
Thc c!)ars'cs on thé oppnsitc sidcs of thc dmk'L'tnc rcmaift in-
sulatcd, but their di(!'crence ofpotcniiat diminishcë.
In fact, <hc dif!('t'cnce of'pt'cssurc on thc t\vo sidcs of' thc piston
sinks from to 2tz dtu'i))~ t)tc passage ofthc nuit! thron~h Q.
If wc now shnt the stopcock and a!!ow tlie piston 7'* to movc'
ft'ccly, it will comc to equIUbrium at a point 7~, and the dischar~o
will bc appar~ntly only hait of thc chat'g-c.
Th(.' !cvc) of thc mercury in J and 7~ wi)t hc abovc its
ot'i~ina! !eve], and the Icvc! in thé tubes C and j9 will he
bc!ow its original !cveL T!us is indicatcd by the !t've)s 7~

If the piston is now nxcd and the stopcoek opcncd, mcrcury will
no\v from 7~ to C till t)te )cvct in tite t\vo tubes is again at 7~~and
6~. Titcrc will thc'n bc a di<fcrcncc of pressure == on Hic t\vo
sidcs of thc piston 7~. If the stopcock is then close<l and tue piston
7~ k'ft frce to movc', it will again comc to pquilibrium at a. point 7~,
half way betwccn 7~ a,t]d 7~ This corresponds to the residual
charge which is observed v-hcn a. chargcd dieiectric is first dis-
charg'ed and thcn left to itself. It gradnaHy recovcrs part of its
charge, and if this is again dischar~fd a third charge is formed, the
sneccssivc charges diminishing in (~mntity. In the case of' thc
illustrative cxperimcnt cach charge is ha!f of the preceding', and thé
 334.] )IYDm)STATICAL !LLL~TI:ATION. 387

dischar~ which are &c. of tlie original

charge, form a séries
whose sum is cqual in thc
orienta! charge-.
If, instead of opening- nnd c]o.sin~thc~topcoek, wc had altowed it
to rcma.n near]y, but not
quitc, closcd durin~ the whole cxpc.nment,
wc st.ou)d have ].ad a case
resGmbHn~ that of the c-lcd.rificntion ofa
d~)cctr.c w]uch is a pcrfcct Insul~or and
yet cxhibits the phc-
nomcnon caDcd doctric absorpt.ion/
To rc-pr~cnt the case in which th~-G is
truc conduction throur.~
thc die)ectnc wc must cithcr make the
piston Icaky, or wc must
csiabhsh a communication between tlie
top of thc tube and the
top nf thc tube J9.
In this v-ay wc may construet a mcehanieal
illustration of the
properties of a didectrie of any kind, in which t),c two eloctricities
are rc.prcscntcd by two rcal f!uids, and tlie
cicetric pot.ntial is
rcprc-sentc-d hy ftuid pressure. Charge and dischar~ are repré-
senta hy the motion oft),e piston P, and electromotive forée
the !'L'.su)tant force on the hy
piston.

Ce 2
 CIIAPTER XI.

TME MEASUItEMj~T 0F HLECTHtC RR~IST.AXC).

33o.] IN thc présent state ofeicet.ricat science, th.

d.-tcrmination
of the electric rcs..s<anoo of a conductor
may hc considercd as t)ic
cardinal opcrahou
elc-ctricity, in tho same scnso that the dctcr-
rnination of~g-ht is thé c~-dina! op.r.tion in
The r~on chemisa
ofthis is t)..t
of other clectnca) thcd~rminationin.bsoh.temcas.re
nm~nitndcs, .su.h as qnantitics of cicetrieitv
electromotive forces, c.~ts. ~e., ..equircs in cach case a com-
phcafed s.n.s of cpc.rafi.ns,
involvin~ ~neraHy observations of
tnnc, n~a.su.-omcnt.s of distances, and déterminations
.f moments
of inertia, and th.sc
nperat.ion.~ or at ica.~ some of t.hc~ must
hc ,cpc.atcd for
cv.ry ncw dct.rn~ination, b.cau.~ it is impossibic
c r~crvc n unit of dcch.icity, or of clectromotive f.rcc, or of
current, in a.. unchan~a)~ stat.o as to Le av..n).b)c. for direct
compansor).
But when thé c)cctric rcsisiance ofa
properfyshapod conductor
prope.-Iy chosen matcria! ha.s heen once
L" it detcrnn-ned, it is found
same for ~~< tc.~pcrat.re, so that
co .ductor ,nay Le used as a st~dard of rcsistance, with whieh
i,llat of othcr conductors ean hc
compared. and thc comparison of
two rc,nccs is an operation whieh admits
ofextrcn~ acc.rac.y
!.cn the unit of electrical résistance bas
becn (ixed on, ~ater'ia!
~P~s .<- this u. in t..c fo..n of 'Rc.-s<ancc
Coils,' arc ~a
the use of ~.tricians, so that in cv.ry part of tl;. L~
de .a! rcs,.stanccs maybe cxprcsscd in t~s ofthe sa~c unit.
~h .se unit ros-s~co coils arc aL présent thé
~tcr.a) only pxamptcs of
electric standards which ean Le
for the purposc pr~rv.d. ~pied, .n'd~~
of.casurcm.nt. Mcasurc.s of.Jectrica!
which arc also of ~cat eapadty,
nnportancc, arc still dd.ctiv,, on ,Lun
of thé disturbing mfiuencc of
electric absorption
336.J The unit of resistance may bc an
as .n thé case of Jacohi~ entirely arbltn.rv ono
Etalon, which ..as a certain
~c of 22.4.32 ~mcs o"r
wei,.ht, 7..n07.t~ I~th, and
 339.] STANDARDS 0F REStSTANCE. 389

miDitnctrcs diametcr. Copies of this hâve becn madc Ly Leyser of

Lcipsin-, and are to bc found in difrcrcnt p)accs.
Aceordi)~- to anotiier method the unit m:)y bc dcfincd ns thu
rcsisianœ ufa portion oi'n df-finitc HuLstanœ of d~inite dimensions.
Thus, Siemens-' unit is dcnned as tlie resistance of a column of
")crcu)-y of one ntc-tre long-, and one square iniflimctre section, at
t!ic tcn)po'atu!'c 0°C.
337.] yina]!y, thc unit may bc Jefim-d \vit)t rctercuœ to thf;
cicetrostatic or t)ic elec-tromagnetic system of units. In practice
t!ie dcett-oma~nctic systcm is uscd in al[ ic]L.~rap)nc opundion~
and thcrcforc thé on!y systematic units
a.ctua!)y in use are those
ofthis system.
In the dectromag'netic systcm, as we s)iaU shew o.t the proper
place, a resistance is a quantity !)omo~-eneous witli a velocity, and
may thercfore be cxpresscd as a \'el<~ity. Sec Art. G28.
338.~ T))e first actual mcasurcmcnts on this systcm \ere madc
by AVeher, who cmptoycd as iiis unit one miUunctre per second.
Sir W. Thomson aftcrwai-dt., nscd one foot per second as a
unit,
t'ut a ]ar~c nutnbct- of c-L-ett-ieians Iiave now
a~-reed to use thé
unit of thc British Association, \vhich proft.'ss(.-s to rcprescnt a
rcsistancc which~ exprcssed as a vclocity, is tcn mHHons of mctres
pci- second. T)ic magnitude of this unit is niorc convenicnt than
that of Wcber's unit, whieh is too small. It is sometimes rcfcn-cd
to as tnc B.A. unit, but in ordcr to conncct it witli the namc of
thc disfovcret- of t))c !aws of' resistance, it is called thc Ohm.
339.] To reeollect its vatuo in absolute measure it is usefui
to know that tcu millions of metres is
professcdly thc distance
from t)te pote to t!tc equator, measurcd along the mcridian of Paris.
A body, thoi-cforc, which in one second travels
along a mcridian
from thé po!u to the equator would hâve a
velocity which, on tlie
clectroma~nctie system, is proicsscdiy reprcscntcd by an Ohm.
1 say pt-ofcssediy, bceause, if more accurate rescarchcs should
provu t))at thé Ohm, as constructed from tho British Associatiott'a
matfrIaL standards, is not really represented
by this vclocity, clec-
tricians would not aHur their standards, but would
app]y a cor-
rection. In thc same way tlie mètre is professcdly onc ten-mDIionth
of a certain quadnmtid arc, but thou~-h this is found not to bc
cxactiy true, thc len~th of the mctrc bas not been altered, but thc
dimensions ofthe carth are cxpressed by a less
simple numher.
Aecording- to t!)e system of the British Association, thé absotute
value of the unit is c/ ~o~ so as to represent as ncarly
 ~0
MKASURHMf~T ()F MM.Si.S'1'ANCE.
f-g.o.

~n
~ic .hs.h.~
system,
34.0.J hcn a ,nat.ria) unit .pn.s.nti~ this ahstra.t quantity
has Leen madc. d!u.r standards .c
.nn.st.-u.t.d )“. ,p,j,
prccess c~Dc of cxh.nc nu.Jh ~n,
.cc.uracy~of
Lhan, ior instance, the copyu.g. nf-r..<u)cs fro.n sLan.I~ i~t
cojnc. ,na.!c <,i' th. most p.-rman.nt
D~e ovcr all n~teri~s, an. dis-
parts of tho w.d, so that it is not !ik<-)v )).a<
tnbu~d
auy wiH he fo.nd in
.Ltainin~ ~i.s .fth~nirt.
"r~matd~c.I<y
standards should Le )ost.
~t .ueh units ..s t)..t of Siemens can
.vithout vcry .at
bc con.-d.rah.o .~u.~
~r that~t).c
'c'at.cn o r~.nstructcd~i~
tt.c Ohm to Siemens unit is
J.nown, the Oh.n can Le
'-oprcJuccd cvcn ~it.i~ut hav: a .standard to
cnpy, th.~h <)..
)a'ur much grcatcr and the
.ccn.-acy n,uc)r !c.s. than Ly t),e
mcthc'(t of copy)]]~

L')na!)y, the Ohm may he n.pro<hi~.d

!'y thf- cicctroma~'nGtic mct]ind by w)ud)
it was ori~ina!fy (k'tcrmincd. Tins
im-Utof!,
w].fch is c-onsidcmbly more Jahonou.s <!);tn
titc df-terminatinn ofa f~)oLfrom t.h<.
s~nds
pL'nduhuu, is pmbahty inf,.ri()r in
~.c.uracy
<o that last mcntioned. On tl.c othL.r hand,
the dctcnninat.on of the dc.ch-oma.rnL.tic
unit in im-ms of thc Ohm u-ith an
am<umt
ff acon-acy to t)n.
con-cspondi)~- pro~n.ss
of cicc-trica) scioncL-, is a most
impo~ta.it
)'I)ys)ca!rusea!-cha.ndwc)tworthyof)~in~
rc-pcated.
Ti~- actua! i-L-sistanœ coits
constt-uetcd
'-c.pt-c-.scntt))c. Ohm were n.adc- of an
ai)oy of hvo parts of si!vcr and onc- of
ti"um in thc form of ~ircs from .5 ],!a-
mi)h'-
mctt-cs to .8 minimctrc-s
diamL-tL.]-,and fr<.m
one to two mutros in
k.n~th. Thèse wirc.s
were sotdcrcd to stout
c..ppt.r c)~.etrode.s.
Thc wir<- itsdf'wascovf.rcd witit two Jaycrs
o< silk, iinhcddud in solid myrs
pnmffin, and c-neJn.scd in a thin ),r..ss
<s., soth~~oaiiLec.a.sitybro~htto~
its t<.mper.-mu-<.at~ii'r).
ac.curatcty one Ofun. Dus t<.inpc,m.. is n~-hcd
~.s,.st~nce
0!)(.h<-)nsn!aLi)~h,)tp})orto('thHcoi). (SceFi~r.)
 341.] HKSLST.C)-; (JOILS. :m

0~ the /4' /~A'6'f C~'A-

34.L] A Résistance Coil la a conductor cap:t.bte of bcin~ casDy
p!aced in thé voltaic circuit, so as to introduce into the circuit
a known résistance.
Thc' électrodes or ends of the coil must be such that no
appré-
ciable crror may arise from thé mode of the connexions.
making-
For résistances of considerabfc mngnitude it is snHieicnt, t)~t the
electrodes shonid be mnde of stout copper wire or rod well amat-
~amaied with mercury at thc ends, and that the ends should be
madc to press on nat amatg'a.matcd copper surfaces
p)accd in mercury
cups.
For vcry grcat rcsistanct-s it i~i snuicicut th:).t thé électrodes
should Le thick picecs of brass, and that thc connexions should
be made by iuscrting- a wedge of brass or
copper into the ioterval
betweeti them. This method is iomid very eonvenient.
The résistance coil itself consists of a wirc well covered with
si! thé ends of which are soldered to tlie élec-
permanently
trodes.
Thé coil must be so arrang-~1 that its
température may be ea,si!y
nbserved. For this purposc the wire is coiled on a tube and
cuvercd with another tube, so that it
inay be placed in a vessel
of water, and that thé water may have acccss to thc Insids and the
outside ofthc coi).
To avoid thé clectromag-tictic eilects of thc current in the coil
tlie wire is first doullcd back oti itself and then coiled on thé
tube,
so that at every part of thé coil therc are
equal and opposite
currents in thc adjacent parts ofthe wire.
When it is dcsired to kcep two coils at thc same
température thé
wires are sometimes pluccd side by side and coiled
np togcthcr.
This method is cspecia))y usefui when it is more to
important
sccure cquality uf résistance than to know tlie absolutc value of
the résistance, as in thé case of t)ic equal arms of Wheutstonc's
Bridge, (Art. 347).
When measurcments of rcsistance were first
attcmpted, n resist-
ance coi), consisting of an uncovered u'ire coiled in u.
spiritt groove
round a cylinder of Iusu)ating material, was much uscd. It was
called a Rhéostat. Thc accuracy wittt whieh it was found possible
to compare resist~tices ~'as soon found to bc ineonsistent with the
use of' any instrument in which t)]C contacts are not more
pcrfcct
than can bc obtaincd in the rhéostat. Ttic rhéostat, however, is
 ~AS~tEMHNT UF RESISTANCE,
F~~

accurate "t..
not rccluired.

~h.M.)i.Mg.))ym.fth.s<c.t.bwh~Mh<
tnMo Ms'rœt~t.md
whiohti.rv k~t tv,
~h-.rr~ibth~. h.. <
eon.).t!
t. ch~ ti.
P~J"
,e. ..h": an
~<<,
~nd.,h.)Mv.bM.n).).,y~jt,

nlcuicrn
.rir' uccuracy.

Olllns, the wire lnust he eitlier o('

o. \"l'l' lunb or very tllin, ancl the
coil is
e.f~ i. J"'
standards of gl'cat
:r.r''T''rcsistauce. A \'el'Y ing'lmious and
casy ll1ethod
L:
.t~ or fine
of 0~
and the whole is tlien cO\'cl'cd witli
:=: insulating' vartlish. If it
rc.si8fanee of suc]1 a
this will he the hest method of lmncil-line renlLius
constant,
~t~
obtaining a resistlluee of
°''
~v.r.) miMi. .f OinM

which
may
.J:~ becasily iutruclucccl into a circuit.
.e, <,fc..1s of tj,. ,t..n~ ,u. ) 2 2,
to
in a box in serics.. -Y

Fig.28.
brass plates, so
outside of the boi tliat urranged on the
hy illserting a. hrass plug or
wedge between
~ay., Ju)y, 1870.
 344.] KH.SISTANCH BUXES. ~3

two of thcm. as a shunt, thc résistance of t]ic

œrœspondi.i. <.nit
jn~y bc pat out of tlic circuit. This arrangent was iutm'dnccd
by Sjemcus.
Eilch interval between thé électrode is m~-kcd wit!i
thc rcsist-
ancc of thc corrcsj)ondin~ cf.i!, so that if ~e ~vish to
makc thc
rcsistanco box equat to 107 A~ 107 I.i thé
exprès hinary se~L- as
<+32+8+2+1 or tl()iu)l. Wc thcn t~kc thu p)ug.s out
of thc !io!es to H~ 32, 8, ar)d I, :md k-avo t!iu
con-~pomlin~
plu~s ni 16 and -1.
Tins method, founded 0.1 t!tu
binary sealc, is tliat in whieh tho
smaHust nambd- of scp:n-aLc coils is
nœded, a.td it is a)so t))at
wlnc)i can bc most tcsted. Foi. if we hav~ anoDicr cuil
i-eadity
ctiua! to 1 we can tc.-it thc cquality of 1 :Lnd 1~, H.~u that of 1 + 1~
and 2, thcn that of 1 + F+2 and .1, and ~o on.
Tiiu o)i!y disadvantagc of thé :u-ra)t~cmuut is that it
requircs
afami!i~-ity with thc binary scalc of notation, which is not
g~ncraHy posscsscd by those accustomed to express every number
in thc décimât sca!c.
344.] A box (~f résistance coi)s inay bc an-ang-cd la a di forçat
way for thc pm'posc of mca-
surmg couductivitics instead of
résistances.
ThecoitsarcplaccdsoDiat
onc end of eue!) i.s coinuc~'d
\vith a ton~- t!nek picue of
mctat which forms one c!cc-
Li-odeof' tlie box, and thc other
cud is conueetcd witli stout
pieœ of brass pl:Ltc as in thc fbt-mcr
case.
TIie ot)ici- ctcctroJc of Lhc box is
)o.)~ bt~ss phMe, such t)i:Lt
by inscrting brass ph)~s bctwœn it iind thc électrodes of ti.c- coils
it may be connceted to the fir~ c!ccti-odc
t!n-ougti ;u)y g'ivcn set of
coils. T))c conduetivity of' the box is thoi t)ic sum 0!'
ti.n cou-
duc)Iviti<s of' t)ic coi)s.
lu thé figure, in which thf rcijistanccs of thc coi)s itt-c
1, 2, -i, &c.,
und t)je plugs :n-e insertcd at 2 and 8, t)ie
conductivity of the
box is ~+~ = und thc i-csistancc of t))c box is thcreforc ?
or i.6.
This tnctitod of combining resist:mce coits for the measurcmcut
of fractional rcsistanccs was introduccd
by Sir W. Ttiornson undor
thc namc of tlie mcthod of multiple arcs. Sec Art,. 27C.
 894
MEASUREMKNT 0F JtHSiSTANCH.
[J45-
Me 6~
~'7~
345.] thé elcetr.mntivc force of
r~sta. 1~'is
o thc t.tt..yand battcry, and thc
its co.uu-.ions,
<"n~r used ,u ind~in~hcjv
n.-a.sunn~ t).c c.n.n~ and if the sh~t). o~ thc
cnrrent is w c. th. Latt.ry
.<,n.o.e ?. y
rl, J' arc introdncecl into the circuit,
~r~ hy Ohm's Law,
then,

~=~=~+~=~+.,).
o~- ,nd
of' the Lattery,
~n.~
{(>rJ1l111a
0~
~y (I- fllly

~7.')~'
Th.s rcquu-es m.n.sur.m.nt of t)~ ratios uf
~.thod y, ,J
1~
Sl1rcnwnt:
~1.
H- thc resist.ne.s an.) arc equ~, thcn nnd 7, arc ce,
~< <h..<i<y of errent.
can Ly. ~Iv.non~
not C!ip!tb!n
«t-dctui-nuni.~ thL-ir ratios
But this is to b. <,kcn as an
rati~. .n.thud
D.an as a prachca! cxa.npL. ,(- a faulty ,net)u.d
..f d.t.r.ini. résistant T I
~rcc~~uot hc ..ainta.n.d
.vc r~r.a.)y.t.
rc~stancc of th. hat~y is a).sc
n~rna!
!t e.c.uedin~y va
any metl~ods iu which H. arc a~umcd to be~
iimc consent are not to bc f.
dL-pended on.
346.] Thé compan.on of ~stances .an i~ n,adc witi, cxtr~e
c

).y .it). of two mc-thods. in whieh

the result is in-
.y
rendent, of vanati~ts uf 7.'and
 346.] COMl'ARISON
OP RESISTANCES. 395
Thu first of thèse mftiiods
dépends on LheuMeof'thcdm'erential
ga)vannm~er, an instrument in whi<-h therc :u-Gtwo coils, t)~
cnn-cntsi.i whIcharL. inondent «fcachoth~sn that when
t!)c currents are made to How in
opposite dircctiojis thf-y act in
opr~sitt- directions on t)io ucc-d)c, a~td whcn i!n. ratio of' the-sc
curt-~n<s is that of w to
thcy hâve no insultant d!cct on tlie
g'alyanonctcr necdk'.
Let 7,, bc thc c~t-ronts throug)i the two coils ot'tho
galvan-
o'nctL'r, n)(;n ihc dcftcxion of t))e m'cd!(; may Lu writtcn

Now )t.t, thc hattcry cnrrcnt 7 hc divided hc-twccn t))C

coils of
ti~ and !d. rcsist.mccs :nid
~dvanometc'r, 7~ ),c introduccd in<o
O'c first :n)d s~ond coils
r~]~-ctivc]y. I.cL th~ rcmaindcr of thé
rcsi.stan~' of thcir coils nnd their comK.xffms Lf M
:md /3 rc~f.-t-
ive!y, !.))d Icf. t)ic rcsistiux.c. nf thc Lattery a)i(t its connpxiun.s
Lct.w~-n C and bc :uid its c-t.-etromotivu fnrcc 7~.
Thon find, hy Ohin'.s Law, ior thc din'L-rcnœ of ])otcnti;t,)s
hct.u C :md J~,

andifihfi-cis no obsL-rvahJc dd)~'xiou, thcn \<no\v t))aL Ux.

quant ity cocto~d in hriLc~uts cannot dif)c-r from xcro more
))y than
!Lœrt:Li)tstH!d!qu!H)tity,dupcndi))~nnt)K' po\vcrof'thch:)h<c.)-~
thé sutt:LL!(..tu-MS of t)K- an-an~.mcnt, <.))uddlcacy of t))c ~:ilv:n~
onu-tf)', imd 't)tc aceuracy of thc oLscrvci'.
Suppose t.)iat 7)' bas ijccii adj.~tcd so that thei-u Is no :)ppa.run<.
d~Hexion.
)ct, :<nothL-r conductor~hc suhstitntcd
~N<w ~r/~and )(.t,
Le adjusicd till thcrc is no
apparent, dcftcxion. Then cvidcntiy
t" a <)r.st,app[-oxnnaiu))i ~f==
T~as<.c[-t:u)t t)K'd~T(-L- (.raccuracyr.fUtis
pst.it))aLt-,)ct t)~
attt-rcd (juantitit's in thc !,fco!id <)Lscr\-ati')n hc
acuL'ntcd, Ut~n
 ~6 MEASL~AIENT 0F HJMfSTANCH. f-6.

~ic(l~ oc (~l
l~) Q) 1JM(~+/?)-).g~

~+/3)-~(.
G)=~.
IIc.ncc
Iiuuce xM(.J)=-
(.-[ -1) = ô,
A ô.
-E .~[,
.b~~d"~
r-bscued to bu e~l, ~? ~v
th.~ unic-ss ~so cou]d assert that =
the r~ht-hand sidc of thc cqu.ti.n
n,i~,t not bc zc.rc. In fac?
ti~ .nc-thod would bc a mei-c
niodif:~tion oi-th~t air.ady dcscriLc-d
Ih. mcr.t of thc mc.th.d
c.onsists in the f.,ct. that the
~c.cc thin.
of any d.f.c.i.n, or in ot,
«L~vcd is a Nul)
.thcd the
mcthod, one iu whieh the non-~tcncc of a force
~r~" observation which if it 'i
'c,.nt fn.n hy m. than certain .n.aH an~ount, ~u!d
hâve produc-c-d :m ohscrvahlu cn'ect.
Nu!l methods arc
of~rcat value .vhcrc ti.t.y eau hc cinp)ovcd hut
i'~y can only bc ..ph~.d where we c.an cause two
~ua! and
t~hl' of'
togethcr. ~L
In thc case b.fcr. us hoth and y .rc quantité too sma]! to he
o~ aud
thcrcf.r..ny ch.n,.c I. the value cf~U not a~c
tho aceuraey of thc restdt.
~c actual d~cc oi- accurac.y of thi.s n.cthod
'cd rni,-ht Le
hy taking a numbcr of observations in c.a.)i of
w!nc.h
~-Z~ adjusted, and result
with thc mean of thé whoïc i,cnes. o'-rv.tion

out of atljustmeut by. know..

fol'fo~?'~
instance, ~uantit., as,
by u~-tiu,. at or at au additic.d ~i;ta.e
cclual 'r or of'
~cn-in.
can c.sti.<:
T J
to ~o'- "t- o. pcr cent
find the actual d~.cc
cfp~i.ion nu.st esti~atc t).c .nan~
d~ whieh could not
escape ob~rvation, and c~par. it with
th~d.x.on duc. to ai, .n-or ofonc
per cent.
thecoinpari.on i. to bc matle bet~n and and if the
thcn ~e .~nd
l'C(.'0111 OS

~L~ trc.~
l'tvtttsacliunr,
7' x, p. fi5. G.Iv.n.ry. 6.
 34~-j "IFFR!!HNT)AL GALVA~O~KTEi!. 397

JL-rc 8-5' m:)y Le t:u.c.!i to hc thc. smallcst oLsoi-vabtc (M~xion

oft))e ~)I\))if))nctcr.
If'thc ~d~nometer wire bc made ~ong-cr nnd ihnmcr,
rdainin~
thc sam..tota) ma~s,thcnM
\viHvary:.sthch.t)i ofthc wire
nnd a as t!~ square of ti~; ]cn~). IIorc.f. tI.L.rc will Le a minimum

Y.h.cof~ ~c

If \vc suppose ?', thc

slllll)Os(~î-, tlie h~tto-y rcsistimcc, small pompar~-d
smail (,oiiil)art~(1%vitli
witjt il.,
this~-Ives r,-J.
a– 1
or, //(.s-< ~e ~~w;/ow~A/ ~r' ~~r-
~s'< w<:Y/.S7~W/.

ff wc a))o\v thc current to How tin-nus-h one

on)v of t.Lc ~ni)s
ot' <I)c ~vanometc! and if thc d~f)cxif)u thci-cby jn-oduecd is A
(supposin~ Die (h~exion strictiy prnpnrhion:d to t])<J dt'f)u(;t)))~-
fot'c~), then

Hc'nce

In thc difTcrentiat R'nh'anomctm- two currcnts are made (.0

producc equa) and oppnsitc (.-frcets on thé suspcndcd nccdte. T)~
foreu with which pithcr current nets on t.hc needjc
dcpcnds not
ottly on thé strc't)~t:!i of the current, Lut on the position of thc
windin~s of the ~-irc with respect to the nced)c. Hence, unicss
Ute coil is vcry earefu))y ~-ound, thé ratio of w to M
may chnn~-c
when the position of tlie ncediu is and thcrefbrn
ch~gcd, it~s
n~-ccssary to (1ctc'rniinc this ratio, hy prnp~r mcthods dnrins- p:)fh
 0()Q
~snŒMENT 0F I;ESÏSTANCJ. f~

any 1- ~<- ––ic

i, SllsIwl.t!.d.
Tf.e~crnuH
~Lo~in~i<.hWh.tsh~s~]~i,
equu.c.s
.uy ~Jv.no.n~ .ud t~ .L:v~ zero
u' of is not
cun nt., L.. < (. tt.c non-,x,s<cncc oi'a curr.nt
in ti.. wirc. non,.
.hav. noL~~y. nuUd~~I~ Lut a nu]! ~.nta~)..
Phcno~.non and no crrors cnn ari.sc f.n.
~scrvcd, w..t
~t. in the
c is on)y rcquirc.1 to h.i,,
v.n.tcr and <l.r.ctio. cf dc«..t
c~.stcncc
.un-enf, ~.itho.t any way
valu. o.p.ri~ its value with th.t of ~oth..
C!lI'J'l'lIt,
<n8..ts
347.1 Whcatsi~.sM~ consists ~ntiaHy ofsix conductors
~.nectmg. fu,,r poj~s. An ctœtromotiv~
~-œ 7; is ma<]c acf, het~-cen two of ihc
l'r.It~s hy m~n.s of vo!taic !~t<e!y in-
troduecd bd.w~n .md 6'. Thc. Gun-unt
Lct.enthGothcrt~) points <9nnd is
mcasurud by a ~:dv~nomL'tcr.
Uodcr (..c.rt:nn c.Ircumstatx-~ Ux's
current
!'ccoiu~s zero. T)K. conductr.r.s 7~
and a./
are thon ~.id to be to ~dt ct)R.r
av
a/ -.ïu, "11
VLlll~l)
"M..m,). ,,hti<.n)..h~n t), 't,n~ ,,f t),.
~.1~
resis1anl'C's.
J the current in M thé potcnh-.I .t ~st
at A. <~ual
c~ d.t.rmnu. J~'
thèse at a~ hy <h<-
p!'ovtdcd therc rs nn eur)-<-nt in 0.7

whcnccthc condition is = ('y,

in OC re-
shectively.
To détermine the
degreo of .ccurncy attainablu Ly this method
must asccrt.in the ~~h of the .urrcnt in .h ;n this
eoDd.t.on L. not fu!H!!ed exactl~.
four Let
~~f' ~V
~'n<i the rc.si.stnn~ of thcse
 348.] WHEATSTONE'S
nniDf;). ~99
condnctoi-s ~nd c. Let the currents
~ong 0~, 07? and OC bc
and thé résistances a, /3 a.id J~t
y. an cicctromotive fore.
7~act a!ong 7?C'. Rcquired thc
currcnt alons-
Let thc potentiais at the
points and 0 be denoted
hy thc symbol. J, C nnd 0. T!.e equatirms or conduction

By considère thc system as made t.p of three circuits

0~ and ~/7~ in ~u\.h thc currents are ~<7
.7~. n-spcctivdy and
appiyn~. Kh.c.hhoft-s ndc to eac-h cych., wc di.ninatc tt~. va)u.s
et t).e potcntiats C, and thc currc.nts .nd obtain thc
t<))f()\m~ équations for a. and f,

~= (1+/3+y
1)= <~+/3+y
y --y
-Y -{3
–y ~+y+ft -a
1 --a a ~+a+/3

348.] Thé value of~ may bc cxprcssed in thc sy.nmctrical form,

~=~'+~~+y)+~(y+~+~(a+/3)+(~+~+.)~y+~+~)
o)-, since wc suppose the b~ttery in thc conductor und thc
galvanomcter in a, wc may put thc battery rcsistnnec for an<t
t))c galvanometer resistance for a. We thf'n find
Z) =
~6'(~+c+/3+y)+~(~+y)(c+~)
+~(~+c)(/3+y)+~(/3~y)+~y(~c).
If tlie electromotive force wcre made to act a)ong- thc
résistance of 0~ bein~ still a, and if the
g-alvanomcter wcre ptaecd
 400 MH.\i=!U]!)~:E'KT OP HESLST~NCK.
[349.
in 7~6', thu resistanec of /~C being sti)l < then thé value of 7~
won)d romain the samc, and the cnrrent in 7~C due to thé electro-
motive force 7~' actin~- a!f'n~ <9// wouldbcequattothe eurrent
in ~J duc to thé eicctromotive force ./? acting- in 7~6'.
Dut if we simp]y disconncct t)~' battcry and the g-alvanomctcr,
and witliont altcrit)~- their respective t'csistnnccs conncet t~e battcry
to :ind and H)c ~a!vnnomctGr to 7~ :nid C, then in the -v:due of
7) wc must pxchnng'c thc vnhtt's of 7~ nnd Jf 77 Le thé value
of7) nftcr this exchang'c, \c find
7/-7~= (~-7~{(~+.)(~+~)-~+~)~},
=(.6'){(~3j(<}.
Lut us suppose thilt thc rpsistanoc nf <hc ~atvannmcter is crcater
than that of th~ hattcry.
L~t us nlso suppose th:)t in its ori~'inat positiol thc galvanometer
co~nccts thc jundion of thé two oonduetors of !p:)st rcsistunee /3, y
with t)tc junction of thc two conductors of ~-rpatcst rcsist:).ncc ~c,
or, in othcr wnrds, \vc si):). suppose that if thc quantitic's &, c, y, /j
arc armu~ed in nidor of nin~nitudc, nnd <" stand tog'ctttcr, and
yand/3 stand tn~cihcr. ÏIenco <hc quantifies ~3 and c–y nrc
of the gamc' si~n, sn that their pr<idnct is ]~ositivc, and thcrpforc
7/–7~ is oft))(; siunc' si~'n ns 7~–C*.
Jfthcrcforc thc g'a)vnnomctcr is madc to conncct <h~ junciinn of
the two ~rpatcst n'sistanccs u-Ith that of the two Icast, and if
thc gah'anomct~r rcsistanœ is grcatci- H)an that of thé batt~ry,
then thc vahtc nf 7~ will b(; less, aud the vah)c of thé dcf)cxion
ofthe gatv~nnmetcr grpatcr, than if thc connexions arc cxcl)an~-cd.
Thé rtUR therefore for ohtaining- the ~rcatest ~ah'anomctt.'r de-
ficxion in a ~I\'cn sysif'm is as follows
Of the t\vo résistance. that nf the battery and that of thc
galvnnometcr, connoct thc ~-rcater résistance so as to join thé two
gTpatcst to thc two ]casb of' thé four other résistances.
349.] Wc shal) suppose that w~ have to détermine thé ratio of
thc résistances of thé conductors y/7~and ~C, nnd that this is to hc
donc hy nndin~ a point 0 on the conductor T~OC, sueh that when
the points d and arc conncotcd hy a wire, in the course of which
a ~alvanometer is inscrted, no sensible denexion of the 'Tatvano-
mcter ncedie occurs whcn the battery is madc to act betwcen 7~
andC.
T))c condnctor 730C may hc supposcd to be a. wirc of uniform
résistance dividcd into equa~ parts, sn that the ratio of thé résist-
ances of7~ and OC may bc rcad onfat once.
 349.] WHHATSTONH'S fit{)])Gi. 401

Instead of thc whole conductor

being. a uniform wire, we may
makc the part near 0 ofsuch a
wirc, and thc parts on each side
may bc eo.)s of any form, thé rcsi.stanc'e of w)iie)i is
hno\vn. accuratcty-
Wc shati now use a diticrent hoiatio.. insk.ad
oft)ie symmetne-at
j)oLat)on with \Yhich wc comnicnccd.
Let t))c whole re.-istuncc of.C bu 7)'.
Let 6' = M/t* and == (! –w) /j'.
Let t))c \vho)n rcsistancc oi'7~6' bu A
Let /3 = MtS' and y = (] –M) 6\
T)~ value of Mis rcad
oifdir~.Hy, and ti.at of is dcduced from
it when there is no scnsiHc déviation oft)iu
~Ivanon~-tcr.
Let thc i-csi~tauee of ihc and its
t~attc.ry connoxions bc and
ti)at ofthe galvanomc~'i- and its connexions
~Vc find as bcforc

iu orner to obtani the most accurate results wc must

mahc tlie
déviation of the nccdte as grcat as possible
comparcd with the value
of (M- This may Le donc by propc.r)y
c-hoosi. tlie dimensions
of thé galvanomcter and tlie standard résistance wire.
It will be shewn, wlicn \vc eome to
GaNanometry, Art. 71 G,
that whcn t)te form of a galvanometer wire is changed whit~
its mass rcmains constant, thc déviation of tlie nccdlc
for unit
current is proportional to thé length, but tlie résistance increases
as the square of tlie length, Hcnce tlie maximum denexion is
shewn to occur when t)tu rcsistancc of thc
galvanometer wirti is
equal to the constant rcsistancc of thc rcst of thé circuit.
In thc présent case, if 8 is thé déviation,

wherc C is some constant, and G is the

galvanometer résistance
winch varies as the square of the ci'
length thé wire. Hence wc
find that in thé value of when 8 is a maximum, tlie part
mvolvmg G must bc made equal to thé rest of thé expression.
If \vc also put M = M, as is thé case if we have
made a correct
observation, we find thé best value of G to be
 402 MEASUREME~T OF RESISTANCE.
[350.
This result is easily obtaincd
by eons.dcrin~ the rcsis~nce from
toC't])roug.h the system, remembcring that ~C, Long coni~~tG
to d0, bus no efïect on this rMtstnnec.
In the same way we R!~u)d ~nd that
if thé toM nroa of the
aet~ sm-faccs of the battery is given, thé most
aJvantaseous
arran~-emGnt of the hattery is whpn

F.naDy, we shall détermine tl,c va)ne of S such that a

given
chan~ in t!~ value of may producc tLc ~reatcst
~Ivanometcr
dc~ext.n). By d.Hcrentiatin~ the
expression for we find

If hâve a gr~at many <h.tcrm!nations of

rcsistnnce to m~e
in wh.cL the aetun! resistance bas
ncar]y the samc va! then it
may 1,c ~vorth wh.!e to prépare a gatvanomct~ and a bnttcry for
this pm-posc. In this case .VGfind that the Lest
arrans-oment is

OM/~<? <~ //7<?~9~~c'.vj?/

350.] We I,avc nh-c~ly ~p!ned thé s-enera!
stone s Bndgc, we shal! now cnnsidcr some of thcoryofWi.eat-
its applications.

The comparison w],ich can hc cf~-dcd

with thé ~-rcatest cxaot-
ness )s that of two cquaï rosiBtnn~ps.
 '~O-] U.SH 0F WIIHATSTONH'S HRIDOE.
403
Let ns suppose that is a standard résistance
wo wish to adjnst y to bc coil, and that
cqua) in rcsista.nee to /3
T.'o other coi! and arc ju.cpa.-cd which arc
to cqu.~ or nearly
cqua) cach other, and thc four coils arc p~ecd with H.cir
ek.ctrodcs
n. n~cnry cups so ttn.t t)K. c.m-rcnt of t)~ b.ttcry is dividcd
hct.wec~ two brancher one eo~isti,~ of ,3 and y and the other
of and 1)~ coils and arc ccnncc~'d
hy a wire 7~7~ as
nndorm in its résistance as and
possible, fm-nishcd wit)t a seaJo
nt cqua! j)arts.
T))e sah-annmGtcr wire connccts thc
jnnction of /3 and y with
po.nt of t)~ wirc and thé point of contact at
tu v.ry till on dosin~. f.r.st. tho <2 i~ade
hattc.ry circuit and thcn the
cirent no dcOcxion of t),e galvanomcter
~dvaMm.tcr nced!c is
f'bso'ved.
T).c coi!s and y arc thon made to
chan~ piaces, and a new
pos.hon found for Jf this ~v position is thc .samc as the
o)d onc, thcn we know that the
cxciu~gc of- and y has produccd
no change in thc proportions of th..
résignées, and therefore
r.~ht)y adjustcd. If !,as to bc moved, the direction and
amount of t!te change will indica~. thc nature and
amount of the
aiterat.on of t),e ien~th of ~e wirc
of which ~-i)! make its
r<-s)s<ancc(.quai to <i)at of/3.
If the resistancG.s of t).c coils
and cach inc!udin~. part of tlie
wire 7~ up to its zcro rcadin~ a.-c
cqua) to that of and 6.
d.v.s.on.s of thc wire rcspec.tivdy, then, if .p is thc scalc
of <2 in the first ca~c, and rcadm~-
t!)at in the .second,

~+~ ~+.~ y
~r
whcncc ~±~(,yr~
=
~(r+.r)(~-y)'
Sincc ~-y is ncariy cquat to c+~ and ))ot). are ~-pat with
respect to .?- or we writc this
may
i
~+'
and
~(~ G c
When ). is adjusted as we!! as we can, wc Rubstituie for
and c
othcr coils of(say) ten times greater résistance.
The t-fmaining dincrence bctween and y will now producc
a ton timcs g-rcater diftcrenee in thc
position of Q than with thc
u d2
 404 MEASUREMENT 0F J{HS]STANC!
for~
original coils and c, and in tilis way ean continuaiïy iacreasc
the accuracy of thé
compa-nsoQ.
Thé ~justnK.ut by means of t)ie wirc with siidi~ contact
is more quickiy made than by menns ofa pièce
resistance box, and it is
cap)).b)e of continuons variation.
Thc battery must never bu introduc<-d
instead of t),o ~Ivanc-
mcter into the wire with a
slidin~ contact, for the passage of a
powerfnl cnn-cnt at the point of contact would
ot thc wire. Hcnce this injure thé surface
arran~ment is adai~tcd'for the case in
w!neh thc re.istanec of t!~ ~alvano.nctcr is
greater than that cf t!.c
battery.
~e J~a~K~-cwc~~ o/'&
/K~.
351.] When a short and thick conductur is introduced into a
c,rc.ut its res.stancc is su sm~)t
eomp.d with the résignée
occas~oned by unavoidahie fau)ts in the
connexions, suc-h as want
of con~ct or impcrfcct
sotdc.-in~ t~at, correct value cf t)ie
rcsistanec ca.t hc deduccd from expen-
s r "s m!de in thc wav dcscribed above
°' ~ch experiments is
g-encrnny to dt-tormine the re-
y\ .4 spécifie
C sistance of thé eubs~nce, and it is re-

c C!ses when the substance

cannot bc obtiuned in the form of a
!o)~. thin wirc, or wht-n t))e résistance
Me. 33. to transv~e tM wet) as to longitudinal
condnctioh bas to Le measured.

Sir Thomson~ has described a method

applicable to such
cases, which takc as an
COI1(lllc~,C~1'S.
system of

l'roc. 7f. S., June 0, 1861.

 351.] THOMSON'S METMOD FOR S.~ALL
HHSISTAXCES. 405

The most important part nf the method

consists in measuri~
résistance, not of the whole !cngth or the
the part bctwccn t~vo marks on thé eonductor, but
conduetor at some little dis-
tance from its ends.
'D.o résistance which we wisl. to
measure is that expericnccd
hy a ~n-cnt whose intonsity is ,,nif-o,.m in
.ny sectio,. of' t!.c
conductor, and wl.ich ~~s in a dircetion par..net to its ~1.
Now close to the
extrémité when the current i. int.rod.cGd
by menns of electrodes, cithcr so]Jerc<L
am:d~matcd, or simp!y
prcsscd tn tho ends of thc cnnductor, thcr. is
a ~antof
umror~ty ui the distribution of tho cun.cnt ~nera))y in the c~ductor.
At a short d.stance frcm thc
extremities thé currcnt l~mos
scnsd.Iy nniform. Th. student may cx~ino fur himself thé
mvcs~at.on and thc dia~an~ ofArt.
!f);), whcre a cun-ent is
,nto a strip of métal with
n~roduced parole! sidc.s thron-.h one
of t!~ Mdps, bnt soon bccomcs itself
p:u-a)M to the sides.
The résistance of the conductors
bctwecu certain marks S,
and ?'?" is to be eompa-red.
The oonductors arc
placed in series, nnd with connexions ns
perieetty conductins. as possible, in a, battcry circuit of small rcsist-
~J'" is touch the ~tors at S and
and 6 7 is another wire tonching- thcm at and ?".
The galvanomctd- wirc connects thé
points and of these wires.
Thc wires ~F?' and arc of rcsistnncc so ~r.at that the
reststanpc duc to impcrfpet connexion
at S, ?~ S' or T' may he
ne~Iceted in comparison with the résistance ofthc
wire, and
are takcn so 1hat the résistance in thc
bmnehcs of eith~ wirc
Jeadmg to the two condt.ctors are ncarly in thc ratio oftho rcsi.t-
ances ofthc two conductors.
Calling /~and /thn résistances oft!)e conductors and y'T.
A and C thosc of Hie branches ~nnd /'?'.
7~ and 7)' those ofthe branches 6'
aud
» Q that of the connucting- pièce
t))at of the battery and its connexions.
</ that of thé g-ah'anomcter its
connexions.
The symmetry of thc system may he nnderstood from thé
SKctcton dia~ram. Fin'. 33.
The condition that thé battery and the gah'anomctor
bc conju~atc eonductors is, in <his mav
case,
 406 MKASUKHMHKT 0F 1!MS!STAN(JE.
[352

Now thc rcsistancc of thé conne~or is as small as we can

makc it. If it were xcro this cfjuat.ion wnuhl bu reduccd to
7''
7/
"J'
and thé ratio of t)iti i-c'sistanccs of thc cotiductors to be
cot~pat-ed
wonJd be that of Cto as in '\V)i(..atstonc's Bridge in t.bo
ordin.n-y
form.
hi the prcscnt case- thc vahtc of Q is smaH
compared with
or wit!i 7)', so that if wc assume the points so th.tt thé ratio
of'7t' to C is nearly cqniti to that of7' to J, thu last term of the
c(j nation will vanisil, and wc shaH hâve
7'' 77 C=
T)tc succcss of this tncthod dcpc-nds in somu
dcg'rc(.' on t)n- per-
icction of' thc contact bctwccn the wires and thc tcstcd conductors
at 7" and 7'. In the foDov.'in~- mcthod,
cmpioycdhyMcssrs.
Matthicssen and Hoe!dn this condition is dixpcnsed \vit)].

352.] Thc eonduetors to bu tcsted arc arranged in thc manncr

atrcady describcd, wit~ thé connexions as wc!! made as pos~i~c,
and it is r<qui:-cd <o compare thc résistance betwccn thé marks
'S'6" on t)tc ih-st conductor with tlie résistance bctwecn the
marks
~7'nn thé second.
T\vo conductin~- points or sharp ed~~ iu-c Hxcd in a pièce of
insutating- materiat so that thé distance betwcen them ean bc
accurately mcasured. This apparatus is laid on tlie conduetor to
be tested, and thc points of contact with the conductor are
t))cn
at known distance 6' Each of t))ese contact picecs is connectud

/<~M-«~ M~tthiesMnand Uuckitt un Aitoy~.

 ~2.]1 MATTHIUSSËN AND JIOUKfN'SMUTHOD. 407

with a mej-cmy cnp, into wluch one électrode of the g-a-Ivanometci-

may be ptung'ed.
Thc l'est of tlie appamtus is arnmged, :)s in ~YItcatstonc's Bridg-Cj
with résistance coils or boxes fmd C, :uid a wirc 7~ witli a
s!tdin~ contact pièce to whicti thé other cicetrode of tlie galva-
nomctcr is connected,
Now let tlie g-atv~nomctcr Le connected to and Q, and let
and be so arrang'ed, and tlie uf Ho
position (~ dctcrmmed~ that
thcre iH no current in the g'alvanometer wirc.

Now let tlie électrode of thc galvanomcter be connected to

and let résistance bo tnmsf'crred from C to (by carrymg rpsistaticc
coils from onc side to the othcr) till cim'tric equilibrium of tlie
galvanometer wire cmi Le obtainpd hy phicing at some point
of thé wire, say Let thé values of C and Le now C~ aud
and let = 7~.
C,+ 7~ = J, + C~+~

In thé sa.me way, placing thé a.pparatus on thé second eonductor

at T~" and agam
o transfernug-0" résistance, wc get, when the electrode

ami wheu it is in l;

~Vitence
 408 MEASUDEMENT UP KESJ.STANCR.
fo~.
When gréât aecuracy is not rcquired
\vc mny dispense with thé
résistance coils Aand C, a.nd we thon ~nd

~nc reaamgs ot thé pos.t.on of (2 on a wire of a mètre

in )c.~th
cannot he dc.pended on to less than a tc-nth of a
mi!)Imetrc, nnd~hc
of thc wirc may vary
résistance con.Idc~-abiy in différent parts
owing to in(.qua]ity of tc.mpcraturc, friction, &e. IIence, when
grcat acc-uracy is required, coils of' considcmbtc rcsisiance are intro-
dnccd at and 6', and thc ratios of the rcsist~nces of thèse
coils
ean bc dctcrmincd more
nccm-atdy than t)u- ratio of the rcsi.tanec.s
of the parts into w)iic)) thé wire is divid~'d at
Q.
It will hc obscTv~d that in nn's method t))e
acenracy of thc
dc-terminatinn df])c-nds in no dcg-ree on the
perfection of the con-
tactH at or 7'
TIlis method mny bc e;.))ed the dif)crcntia!
method of usiner
~hc-atstone's Bridge, sincc it dc.pcnds on tl.c eomparison of
scrvatjons sc'panttc'iy mado.
An essc-ntia! (-nnditio!) of
acc-uracy in this method is thnt (])c
rcs.stanœ of' <hc cnnnc.xions ~).ou!d continuL- the sa~me
durin~ thc
course of t! four observations requircd to
compiete the dctcrm-
ination. H<ncc the series of observations
ought afwa.ys to bc
repeatc-d in ordcr <o dch.ct any change in the rc~istances.

~t; C'w~ V ~-c~ 7t'6'.y~M.

353.] When thé rcsls<anccs to hc mpasu~d are
voy gréât Die
conp~rison oft.).c pot~~ds at di Ocrent points of thé
Le madc hy m.an.s of dc.h-c.atc .sv.stc.rn'm.y
dc.ctromct.er, s~.), as the Quadrant
i'jteeti-omctc'r dcscrihcd in Art. 2!!).
If the eonductor.s w)msc rc-sistanœ is to
bc mcnsurcd are t,)a.~d
in ser,es, and the sam.. carrent,
passcd t)n-oug)~ them by means of a,
hattery of grcat dc.dromotive force, thé di~.reucc of<hc. potcntials
at thc extr~-miti~ of c.adt cooduc-tor will hc
proportional to tlio
.-c-s.stance that eond~.tor. ïrf-nc. by eonnecting thé cdc.ctrodc.s
ot the eh-c-trometcr with t)ic.
cxtn.mitic-.s, first of one conductor
and then of the othcr, thc mtio of their
distances may bc de
t<:rmined.
T'.is is thc n.ost dir..f.t n.eti.od of
dc-tc.r.nining rcsistanecs It
mvo)vcs thc use ofan c)cctrome<cr whosc
r<.a<]in~may bcdc~ndcd
on, and wc must also fh-ive son.c guarantcc ti.at thc.
c.urrcnt rcmains
consta))t (hu'mg th<. '.xpc'ritnon).
 355.] CJiHAT !ŒSIST.\XCHS. 409
Four cnnduetors of grcat resistunc-e
m:, y atso he nrran~pd in
Whcatstonc's Bridg-c, and the hrid~c itself may consist of thé
électrodes of an ek.d.i-ometcr instead of timse of :L
~alv:),nnmct.cr.
Thé advant~c of this mcthod is that no po-mancnt currcnt is
~qun'pd to producc thc dcvmtiou of thc e)ectromctcr, whcrpas thé
g-a)vauomctcr cannot be ddkctcd ~nicss cnrrcnt passes through
thc w!t'c.
354.] W!i(..n the résistance nf a conductor is so ~at tl)~t the
cnn-cnt which can hc sent t.)ti-o))~-hit
hy any avai)ahk' circtmmotivc
fo-cc is too smull to bc dircetly mcasnrcd
hy a gfdvanometcr, a
<-o))dc!iscr mny he used in order to nceumu):)t.c the
cicctricitv for
a œrtain time, nnd thcn, hy
discha,)-g-in~ the condenser t)!rous-h a.
~a1v:u)ometct-, the quantity accnmuiatcd may bc cstimatcd. This
is Afc-ssrs. Hri~ht and Oark's method of tosting the joints of
suhmarine c:)b)cs.
355.'] ];nt thc sin)p)esh method of moasuring- the resistnncc of
snc-h a cnnduclor is to e)~a]-~e a condenser
of~-cat capncity and to
c-onn~'t its two surfaces witit thc ck'ctrodcs of an e!cctromctcr
and aiso ~vith thc t-xtronitic-s of thé c-onducto)-. If is thc dif-
fcrc-ncc oi' pot~ntials as shewn by thc
ek-ctromctcr, the capacity
«fthe condenser, and Q t)ic charge on L.It.hcr
surface, <hc n-sist-
anL-c cf thé conductor an<t .?' thc enn-cnt In
it, t!icn, hy the tlu-ory

winch ~ivc'.s/t'in !tb.s<)h)tenK'as~rc. Int))iscxp)-csnmnai.nf)wMgc

~f't))t'v:t))~.)('(hc)tnit<.f()H!<trutn~)<-t-s~~ isn<.tn.)ni~.<).
 41U MHASUKHMEXT
0F JŒS~TA~Ci:.
[356
It' thc capacity of th.
condor, is ~-ivc.n in eJcetro.tatic
m.asui.e a.s a certain .u.mbcr of
mètres, t),en 7.' is aise ~vcn i~
c~ct.rostatic )ncas)u-u as thc
recipruL'a) ui'a \'c]ocity.
is ~vc.n in
dcciro.n~.n.fic mesure its dinie~.ion.
~~If
ami 7)' is a vclucity.
y
Sincc tf.c coi.du.scr itsc!f is noL
p~bct insulat. it is
to makc exp~.imeuts. In the fu-st wc dctcr.uine thé nectar.
two
ci t!~c cundenscr relance
,tsc)f-, and in thé sec.nd, that oi-thc
whL.n thc cunductor is n~de to conncct ils cunden~.
surfaces. Lut this bc
Then thc relance, of thc ccaductor is giy.n
Ly the equatiuu
t 1 1
7~,
T!ns mcthod has b~n
~.mpinycd Ly MM. Siemens.
7~~
/~t-' Cv<W~f/<.Y.
336.] Ait arrangement si.nihu- to ÂVhc.atst.cne's
Ih-id~ bas hec.i
..nidoycd ~,h advanta~e by Sir W. Thon~n in detc~ini~
A C'tttt«HOMC~

rcs~anec of the ~ah-ano.netei. wlicn in aetual

use. J<.
~cd to Sir W. Tho,n~ s.
by M.nce's Mct.),od. Sec Art 35~
Let the L~ttL-ry he
placcd, as b~br.. bctwccn und 6' in the
~'7?~ let ~tcr be ph..ed in
mstuad of in If' is t~, the conductor is
c.u~tu to 7~, and, as thcrc i. no
currc.tprcdnced in by th~
batiery n. 7~ tlie strcn,.U..f U. current in .ny ~hcr condor
7'~c. 7~. Jau. I[), IS71.
 357-] MANUE'S MËTHUD. 411

is independcnt ot' the résistance in 0~.

Hencc, if thu ~'vano-
mctcr is p)aced in C'J its dcOcxfon w:H rcm~in the
samc whct)~r
t)~ résistance of OJ is small or AVe t).erc.f'ore observe
~ut.
wl)c.ther thc (k-Hcxiun of thé g-a!v:uiomet~r rcmains the satno
when
0 imd J arc joincd
Ly conduL-tor of .small rcsistance, as whoi
th.s connexion Is Lro!œn, and
if, by i,roj)cr)y adjustin~ t!ic re-
~sta.iccs of thé condnutors, we obtain t)iis
re.su)t, wc know th~t
thc résistance ofthc ~atvanomctcr is

whcrc y, and /3 are résistance coils ofknown résistance.

Jt will be <~bserved that
tbough t)iis is not a nu!) meHiod, in Un.
scn.su <,f t!.ci-u b(.-in~ no currcnt In thc
~Ivanomctcr, it is so in
thc sensu ci' the fact ob.sei-VL-d
bc-i). thé ncg-ativc une, t!)at the
d~tc-xton of thé ga)vanoniL-ter is nut,
ehiUl~d wilen a certain con-
tact )s made. An observation of this kind is ot'
g-reater value
thun an observation of tlie
equa)ity of two difFerent defiexions of
thu siune ~-atvano.neter, for in Htc latter case
there is time for
a)t<Tat.on in tite stren~th of the or
battery tbc sensitiveness of
thc ~uvanometer, wl~ercas wlien thc dcftexion remains
constant,
in sp)te of certain changes which \vc can
repeat at pleasm-e, we arc
sure t))at t))e current is quite indcpendent of thèse
chang-es.
Thc détermination of the résistance of thc coil of a
g-~vanometcr
can casily bc cffected in thc
ordinary way of using- Whcatstone's
]h-n)gc by phicing- anottict- galvanometcr in 0~. By thc mcibod
!)o\v deseribed thé g-atvanometcr itscif is
employed to measure its
own résistance.
«
~/«: ./V< 7)~
&<M/y «/
357.) Thc muasurement of thc rusistance of n battcry whcn in
aut.ton is of a much ingher ordcr of
difHeutty, since t!ic rcsi.stancc
of t)m bat.tcry is found tu e)~.]~.
c-otistd~raL!y for some timc after
t)u. strcngth of thc cui-œnt ttiron~h it is
chung-cd. In nmny of thc
metiu~s commonty uscd tu mcasui-c thc rcsistancc ofa
battcry sueh
ahcrutmns of thc sti-L-n~-tIiof thc cun-ent it
throng-h occur in tho
course of t)~ opérations, and tho-cf~~ thc 1-esuit.s ar~
rcndcrcd
dou)jtHt!.
In ~îaucc's mcthod, which is fi-uc from tins
objection, thc battcry
is piaec-d in ~C and t).c ~alvanomctcr in C'J. Thc connexion
bctwecn 0 a.nd is t))cn altcrnate!y made and brokcn.
'J"t'7~S.,J.))t.H),Hi71 1
 412 MEASURHMENT 0F RESISTANCE. [357.

If the dffk'xinn ofthc ~-atvanomctcr i'em:uns unnitcrcd, u'c ]<no\v

that 0/~ iscnnju~-afc ff) 6L/, whotce t'y = ~a, and the résistance
nfthe ha<t('y, is nb~nned in tcrms nflotown rt'sisi~nccs c, y, n.
Whcn H]C condition ry=f7a is fu](U!G(],thcn thc cm'rent throu~h
the <ra!vanomet<;r is

ann uns is mdependcnt, of the rcststnncu /3 bctwcen 0 :)nd Tn

~csL Ihc scnsi!)i)ity of th(; mcthod Ict us suppose t)tn<, the condition
C)/==aa is ncnr)y, hn<, not ncc'umt~y, fuUiHe'd~ :md titfit is the

Fig.37.

cun'cnt throug'h the gatvanomctcr when 0 nnd /? are cnrmcc<Ml

by a cnndactor of no scttsihic rcsistancc, and thé cnn'cnt when
0 and 7? :u'e comp)ctc)y discnnnccted.
'i'o Und t.!ipscv:ducs u'e must m:d<e cquni to 0 and to x) in thc
~pnend fbt'mnht for :md compare the rcsults.
In this way wc (ind

wherc ~,) and :)ru supposer to hu so ncarly pqu:d that \vc mny,
when thcii' difteretice is nnt in quc's~on, put either of them squat
to thf vnluc of the currcut w~en the adjustment is pcrf'f'ct.
Thé resii-timec~ c, of' the conductor ~7~ shoutd hc cqnal to <
thnt nf the battery, a ~nd y, should he cqu:tl !m<I as small as
possible, and shuutd he equal to a+y.
Since :i gah'anometc'r is rrxist sensitive ~heu its dcit('xif))i Is
KmaH, we shoold hrit)~ the ncGdte !tpa~y to zero hy means off!xcd
m:)~'ncts b~fore makin~ coninct het\vcctt 0 and
In this method ni' mcasunng' the rcsisfance of the t'atfcry, thc
current in the hattory i! not in any way interfhi-e<t with durin~ the
npL'Dttiot), su ihat wc may asccrtatn its résistance for any ~'ivcn
 ~58.] COMPARtSON 0F ËLECTKOMOTIVE FORCHS. 413

strength ofcm-rent, so as to dctt-rminc Iiow tlie stren~-th otcurrent

G({ccts the rcsistancu.
If is t)m currcnt in the gn~vanometer, the actual current
through the batto-y is witli thc !œy down and witli thu
kcy up, w))crc

Tho method of Art. 3.~j for jinding- t,hc rcsist~nce of the

g-:)h'a-
notnetci- difiers from this nuly in m~ing- and
bi-caking- con~et
Lch\-een <3 and instead of )jet\vcen 6' and und Ly cxchan~ing-
a :uid /:) wc obtain for this case

On. the 6b/M o/'7~7<'c~'oMo~;r<;7'b;'6'M.

358. j The ibilowinë- mctitod oi'comparing- thé olfctromotivc forces
of voltaic and thermoelectric
arrajig-cments, when no cun-ent passes
throu~-h thcm, requires only :), set of resistance coils and a. constant
Luttery.
Let the electromotive force 7~'of thc
Latteï'y Le greater thun tliat
of cither of the electromotors to hc
eomparod, then, if suiRcient

résistance, 7?~ be iutcrposed between thé points of tlie

primary circuit F~i J!,F, thé electromotive force from to
 414 MR.\Srj:HMENT 0F RESISTANCE. L358.

may bc mode cqual to that of the e1cctromotf)i' 7; If <he (.'lec-

trodcs of this (dectromf'~or arc now connc'cted with thc points
y/j, no cnrrcnt will How through tbe c1cc<romo<or. Hy p);)citi<T
a ~Ivanomctcr G~ in thc circuit of the cluctromotor nnd
ndjustin~' thc résistance hct\vccn .j :ind tit) the ~)1vnnonn'tur
~'j indicatcs no currcnt, wc obtitin t!)c cquittion
7~=7.\6',
where /t\ is the résistance hctwcc'n nnd and C is the sircn~th
ofthc cun'L'ntu) thé primary circuit.
In thc pâme w:)y, by ta~ing' a second cIcctromotorT~ and p]acing'
its cicctrodcs at ~.j and 7~, so that no currcnt is indicatcd hy H)e
~'atvanomctt'r G'
= /C,
where 7)' is thc résistance betwcc'n and Ift))c observations
of thé gtdvanometers 6', and C~ arc simultaneous, the value of
~he current in the pt'irnnry circuit, is the snmc in hoth équations,
and \c find
7.
In this way thé Glectromotive force of two electromotors may Le
compin'cd. The ahsohue ctectromotive forée of an electromotor
may he measnrcd either e)cctrosta<iea])y by mcans of the elcctro-
tnctcr~ or c']cctroma~'nciica)]y by mcans of an ahsohttc g'alv:u)o-
mctcr.
This method, in wbicb~ at thc time of the comp~rison, tbcrc
is no currcnt throu~-b cither of thc eh'ctromotors~ isn modification
of' Po~gcndo)'n"s mcthod, and is duc to Mr. Latimer Oark, who
has dcduccd <hc foDowui~' values ofcicctromolivtj forces

Cûth't'ntmtcd
sotntiM~.f
/~<))/<f. A))nt));!unatc<)Xn)<' HSO,+ 4n<j. CuSO, (/uj)pL')' ==].07!t
J). nsn.+]2a<). CuSO. ('opper =0.!)'8 8
JH. ])S().+12af). CuNO, ('opj~r =-LOO
/~t?;t<ryi I. It It HN< ('!tr))ui~ =].9t!t
n. It sp.).3!S ('arhot =1.888
~0t'<; 1 HSO.+4n~. n~O. Pi~tinn)n=-].G

./<Fft/y t'.s'Ot) ffff<)'<!n)0<t'tï/0!'('f f/HH! /« IOU,OC(),()0()

t~tt'fff f<(' ff~Nftf/ff-ffmMX'-
~fCOX/f);).
 CHARTER, XII.

ON THE ELHCTfUC JiEStSTANCH 0F SUnSTANCES.

3..9.J T,rE,Πarc thrce classes in which we may p!ace differcnt

subsh,nces in relation to thé
passade of dectricity tliem.
ihc hrst class contains al) thé meta!s and throu~h
their aDovs, some
suiphurets, and other eompounds containin~ m.-tals, to which we
must add earbon in thc form of
~s-coke, and selenium in the
crystal))nc form.
In al! thèse substances conduction takes place witnont
any
decomposition, or altération ofthe chcmica! nature of thé
substance
cithci- in its interior or ~'here thé current enters
nnd leaves the
Lody. rn al! of tliem thc resistance increascs as thé
rises. tompernture
Thé second class consists of substances which
are caHed electro-
lytes, Lccause thé currcnt is as~ociated with a
décomposition of
the into two components which
nppear nt thc electrodes.
As n ru)e a substance is an
electrolyte only when in the Jiquid
form, though certain colloid substances, such as
~luss at 100°C,
which arc apparent)y solid, are It
clectrolytes. won)d apppar from
thé cxperimcnts of Sir 13. C. Bi-odie that
certain gases are capable
of electrolysis I)y a powerfui electromo~ive
force.
In aU substances which conduct
by elcetrolysi.s the résistance
diminishes as t))e température rises.
Thé third class consists of substances thc
resistance of which is
so great that it is
only by the most rcnned methods that thc
passade of' etectrieity tlu-ough them can be detected. Thèse arc
called Didectrics. To this class belong a considerahle number
of solid bodies, many of which are
electrolytes when melted, some
liquids, such as turpentinc, naphtla, melted paraffin, &c., aud aU
gases and vapeurs. Carbon in thé form of diamond, and sélénium
!'t the amo~hous
form, be)ong to tliis dass.
The resistance of this class of bodies is enormous
that of tl)c metats. compared with
It diminishes ns thé température rises. Itt-

1
 416 RMmSTANCH. [36o.

is (hfHcutt, on aceount of thé gréât resistaticc of thèse substances,

to détermine whether thé feebie current w])Ich wc can force thi't)U~')i
them is or is not associated wit)t etcctrolysi!

0~ /~f .A'/M'ô' 7t'(.~A7(/~r<' J/t'/«~

360.J Thcro is no pa.rt of nlfctrica) r(;sc:u'c)t in which morn
munerous or tnoi'c accuratu cx.pumnL'nts I)avc hcon macle th:Ut in
tlK! detcrminutiun of thu rcsisttmce of mctals. It, is «f Un; utmost
importHnc'c in the ci~tric tcle~'t'aph that t))c <nct:d of \vhic-h t.)i(-
wires arc made sliould I)avc thc sm:tUt-.st :itt:)inahiu rL'.sistanL'c.
Mcasuremcnts of rcsis~mcu must thcruforL' bu madu bL'fm-cSL'Icctin~-
the m:tt<;nn!s. Whcn any ~mK oceurs in thc line, its position is
at once ascert:uncd by measnrcmcnts of rcsist:mc('j :u)d tncsc inca-
tiurctncnts, in w!)ich so many pcrsons arc no\v cmptoyfd, n'quiru
thé use of résistance <-oi)s, made of tnetn) t)tc ~cctt'iea) prop~rtics
of which hâve bccn ca~'fnHy tcsted.
Thc clecirieat propcrtics of metals and t!icir a))oys hâve bcen
studicd with grcat care by MM. Matthiusse!), Vo~t, and IIockin,
nud hy MM. Siemens, \vho Itavc dunn so mucli to introduce exact
dcch'ical measut'cmcnts into pmctical work.
It appcars from thc rcscat'clies of Dr. Matthicsscn, that the e~'et
of température on the résistance is ncarty thc same for a. considérable
number of tlie /wc mêlais, the resistanee at 100°C beini"- to that
at 0°C in thc ratio of l.'ll'! to or of 1 to 70.7. For pure iruu
the ratio is 1.G45, and for pure thallium 1.458.
Thé résistance of metals bas bccn observcd by Dr. C.W. Siemens*
t)n'oug-h a much wider ran~e of température extending i'rom the
freezing- point to 350°C~ and in certain cases to 1000°C. He fincls
that the resistance iiiui'cases as tlie température rises, but that thé
ra.t<'of nierease diminislies as thé température nses. T!te formula,
\vhich t)e imds to agrée very elosely both with tlie résistances
observed at !ow températures by Dr. Matthiesseu and with his
own observations throu~li a rang-e of 1<)00°C~is
;-=a~+~2'+~
\vhere ?' is tlie ahsolute temperature reckoned from –273°C, aud
a, ~9,y are constants. Thus~ for
PIa.tiuum. = 0.0393697'~ 0.002 IC4077'–0.2413,
Copper.?-= ().02C.577y~+ 0.0031 1437'- 0.22751,
Iron. )' = 0.0725457'~+Q.0038133~].23H71.
*~n~S'A))ri)27,I87).
 36i.J 0F MËTALS. 417
From data of this kind thc
température of a furnace
determ.ned may Le
by means of an obse~ation of thé résistance of a
piat)num wire placed in thc furnace.
Dr. Matthicssen found that when two metals arc combined to
form an al!oy, thé résistance of thé
aHoy is in most cases greater
than that ea!cu)nted from thc rcsistance
of thé component metals
and their prornrtions. In tho case of a))oys of gold and
silver, t!)c
rcs,stance of thc alloy is greater than that of
citl.c.r pure g-old or
purc silver, and, within certain hmiting
proportions of the con-
stihicnts, it varies vcry little wiUi a s!ight altération of thc
pro-
portions. Fer this rcason Dr. Matthiesseu recommended
an a)!oy
of two par~ hy
weight oF g-o!d and one of' silver as a material
t"r rcprodacin~ thc unit of résistance.
Thc cffcct of change of
temperatnrc on c~ectne resistance is
g-cneraHy Jc-ss in alloys than in pure mctals.
Hence ordinary résistance coils are made of
German silver, on
account of its grcat résistance and its small
variatioa with tem-
pc'ratun'.
An alloy of silver and phtinum is atso used for
standard coils.
361.] Thc clectrie résistance of some mctals chai)ges when the
metat is annea!ed and until a wire has heen tested
by beins-
t-cpeatcdly raiscd to a high température without permanently
a!t~ng. its résistance, it cannot bc relied on as a
measure of
résistance. Scmc wires altcr in résistance in course of time
without
having becn cxposcd to chang-cs of' température. Hence it is
important to asecrtain thé specific resistance of
mercury, a métal
wh)ch being Huid bas
ahvays thé same molecular structure and
which can be easity puriried
by distillation and treatment with
nitric aod. Gréât carc has been bcstowed in
determining thé
res~tanec of this metal by AV. and C. F.
Siemens, who introduced
as a standard. Their resoarches hâve becn
supplemcnted bv
those of MatDnesscn and Hockin.
Thé specifie resistance
of mereury was deduced from titc observed
resistance of a tube of lcngth a weight w of
containing. mercury,
in thé foHowj))~- manner.
No glass tube is of
exactly equa! bore throu~hout, but if a small
T.anttty of mercu~ is introduced into t!)c tube and
occupies a
Icngth of the tube, thé midd)e point of which is distant
x from
one end of the tube, then thé area of thé section near this point
will bc .? wherc C is some c<~nëtant.
=A
vn-r..i l E e
418 tŒSJSTAKUH. [362.
The weight of mercm'y which f!Hs thc whoïc tube is

whcrc M is thc number ofpmuts~ ai cqun) <list:)nc'es atnn~ tho

tube, whcrc A has bccn mensiu'L't),and~isthcmassofuiuto{'
volume.
Thé rcsistancc of thc whole tube is

givcs thc spécifie resistance ofunit of vohtmc.

To find the résistance ofunit ofieng'ih and unit of mass we must
nudtiplythishythcdcnsity.
It. appears from the pxpcrinients nfMattIticsscn and Hnckin that
t.he résistance of a unifoi'tn column of mercury oi' onc nictro in
tcng'th, and weighing one gramme at 0°C, is 13.071 Ohms, whf'nce
it follows that if the spécifie gravity of mercury is 13.595, thc
rcsisiance of a column of one mctre in Icng'Ht and one square
mi])imetrc in section is O.nfinC Ohms.
3G3.'] In thc fot)ow!ng' ùtbic 7~ is t!)c résistance in Ohms of a
column one metre long and one gramme wei~-ht at O~C, and ?' is
thc rcsistance in centimètres pcr second of a cube of onc centi-
mètre, aceording to thc cxperiments ofMatthicssen*.
Po'ccnt.t.gt;
incretocntnf
SpQL'ific resist~,iiice
résistance ftir
ft~r
t~'avity 1. lC~t2C"C.
Si)ver. !0.50 hn.rddrnwn 0.1G89 tGM 0.377
Copper 8.95 hin-ddrnwn O.I~GO 16-12 0.388
Go!d 19.27 imrddt-nwn 0.4150 2151 0.365
Lend 11.391 prcssed 2.257 19847 0.387
Mcrcury. 13.595 )iquid 13.071 96MG 0.072
Gcld 2, Sitvor 1. 15.218 hnrd or nnncalcd !.(jG8 10988 O.OC5
8c]enh)mntIOO°C Crystnitincfonn 6x10" 1.00

*j!7.3/<Mny,t86.').
 3~4-] C)~ EhECTKOLYTES. 419

<~ Me ~7cc<c ~~M-f M/' A7~

363.] The measuremeut of thé elcctric résistance of electrolytes

is rendered diflicult on account of thé
polarization of thé clectrodes,
which causes thc observed différence of
potentials of thé metallic
électrodes to bc greater than the eteetromotive force which
actilally
produces thé current.
Tins difnculty can be overcome in varions
ways. In certain
cases we can get rid of po)ariza1ion
by using electrodes of propcr
material, as, for instance, zinc électrodes In a solution of
sufphate
of zinc. By maMng- tlie surfuce of thc électrodes
very large com-
pared with the section of the part ofthc clcctrolytc whose resist-
ance is to bc measured, and by
using- only currents of short duration
in opposite directions altct~~dy, we can make thc mcasurements
before any considérable mtensity of pohn-izatt0)i lias becn excited
by the passage of the current.
Finatly, by making two diftercnt c'xperiments, in one of whie)i
the path of t!te eurrcnt through thé
clectro]ytc is mueh longer than
in thc otiicr, and so adjusting thc eicctromotive fbrec that the
actu:d carrent, and tho time \vhic!i it are
during f)o\vs, ncarJy thé
same in cach case, we can éliminai t)tc cffect of polarization
alto~cthcr.
364.] In thc cxpenmen-ts of Dr. Paa'zow t]ie électrodes \vere
in thé fbrm of large disks placed in nat vcsscts filled with
scparate
thé electrolyte, and tim connexion was madc
by means of a lonn-
siphon filled with thc c!cctro)ytc and dipping into both vessels.
Two such siphons of' dif{crct)t Icngths wcrc used.
The observcd rusistanccs of the in these siphons
c)cctro!ytc
being- 7~ and tlie siphons wcre next filled with
mercury, and
their résistances wLcn i!]!cd with mercury wcrc fonnd to bc 7t"
and 7~.
Thc ratio of the rcsistatiee of the e~ctrotytc to that of' a mass
of mercury at OC of the same form was then found from
tlie
formula
fonnu)a
J,~1_li.~112
·
l'
~7i'
X,' -1>
Todeducc from tue vaines of p thc resistance of' a centimètre in
Icngth having a section of a square centimètre, we must nudtiply
titem by the value of )' for mcrcm'y at 0°C. Sec Art. 3GI.

~H-t ~))<t<;(tct'«~ Ju)y,IS~S.

HC2 2
 420 RESISTANCE.
[365.
T)ie rcsLdts given
hy Paa)zow are as fo))o\v

~r<M)'e. o/\?M~/<M)'?'(; ~(c!~ <ï)~/ n~<~?'.

Teino Rcsistance cuo~'nrcd

with mernnjy.
H.,SO, i5-~c 9G950
H,SO, + I4H~O i9°C 14157
H~0,+ ISH'Q 22~0 13310
H,SO,+4!)9iro 22°C 184773

'S'M/p/«t~ O/~Zï~C K~ ~ft<

ZnSO,+ 23IPO 23"C 19.~00

~iSO,+ 24H~O 23°C 191000
Zn SO, + 105 JPO 23°C 35.1000

~'M~/ttf<e n/' Co~po' fn;~ trn~r.

CuSO,+ 45H'0 22"C 202-UO

Ou SO, + 105 H'O 22°C 3393 Jt

~<t<t<e o/Ve[ytieNi?(Mt (M!~ ~~<<o'.

M~SO,+ 341~0 22°C 199180
MgSO,+107H~O 22~0 324CCO

77y<oc/~ortc ~c:<~ <t)t~ ~H~r.

HO + 15H~O 23°C 13G2G
H CI +500ÏPO 23~0 8CC79

365.] MM. F. Kohh-auseh {md W. A. Nippojdt* hâve de-

termined thé resistance of mixtures of snlphunn qcid and water.
They used altcrnutin~ mag-)icto-clectr!c currcuts, thc' cicctromotive e
force of whieh varicd from to of that o(' a Gi-ovc'8 ce)], and
hy means of :). thcrinoL'Icctric coppc'r-iron pair they rcduccd thé
eicctromotive force to i~~y of that ofn Grovc's ce)).
They found
that Ohm's ]aw \vas applicaDc to this f)cetro!yte
Un-uu~hout the
mn~e of Dièse t'!cetromotive forces.
T))c rcsistaneu is a. minimum in a mixture coïliaining ahont one-
third ofsulphurie acid.
The résistance
of e)cctrolytes diminishes as thé température
incrcascs. The percenta~e iucronent of eonductivity for a rise uf
1°C is given in t)ic fo))owing' ta).dc.

!g., ~t.cxxxviii, p. 286, Oct..tS~

 366.] f))'' )-~E<r)iOLYTKS. 421

7~M ~-J/ ~c<~ ~o-

~~(~M, r~ 22~'
~'J~-c!~ a< 0"C. ]~tM. Kohh-auseh attd
NippoMt.

Speci<Mf(''avity Percontn.~ Resist~nct; PcMent~o

'~18'-5
lIt 18 5 '~22C .ncre.n.ntof
"Mi.j.U., conductivity
(Htf=l')
furl°C.
0~985 0.0 7-16300 o.47
~~0 0.2 4(j5100 0.47
~~O'I 8.3 3.1530 0.653
'89 1.1.2 1894G 0.64U
LM3I 20.2 1.1990 0.799
~~5 28.0 13133 1.317
~-2C31 35.2 13132 ].259
~-3103 41.5 M28G i.-jio
L3547 4C.O J57U2 ]C7.i
L399.1 50.-I I772C 1.582
L'1482 55.2 2079G i..n7
L502C co.3 2557~4 i.7D.j

<~ the ~'C/<Y~ 7)'~M~Me<'o/' _&

366.] A g-reat nnmber of déterminations of the résistance of
gutta-perclia, and other materials used as msutatit~. media, in thé
m~ufacture of télégraphie câbles, have been made in
order to
asccrtam tlie value o(' thcse materials as insutators.
The tests arc generally
applied to thc material after it lias been
uscd to cover thé
eondueting- wire, the wire being used as one
electrode, and thé water oi- a ta.ik, in which tlie cab)e is
as thé other. plun~ed,
Thus the current is made to pass
dr.cal coating ofthe insulator tlu-ough a cylin-
ofgrcat arca and small thickn~.
It is found that when thé eleetromotivc
force bénins to aet thé
ca.TL.nt, as indieated by thc galvanometer, i. by no means constant.
ihe first effect is o(' course a transicnt
current of' considérable
intensity, tho total quantity of electricity being. that
rcquirc.d to
e lar~e thé surfaces of tlie insulator with thc supcrficia! distribution
of' etcctncLty
corresponding to tlie dcctromotivc force. Tliis lirst
current thcreforc is a mcasurc not of' t!)e
conductivity, but of thu
capactty ofthe insulating layer.
But evc.1 after titis current bas bœn allowed
to subside the
residual current is not
constant, and docs not indicate thc true
conductivtty of titc substance. It is fonnd that the current con-
tiunes to decrcase for at )east t~dfan
hour, so that a deternnnation
422 XHSESTAKC)' [366.

of thé résistance deduc'ed from thé curn'nt will g'ive a g'rcatcr value
if a certain time is allowecl to dapsc th:)n if takoi immediately after
applying' thc battcry.
TIius, \vith Ilooper's insulating material the apparent rcsistance
at the end of teu minutes wus four times, and at thé end of
ninetccn hours twcnty-thrce timcs that obscrvcd at the end of
one minute. AVhen thc dn'cction nF thé dcctt'omotivc i'orcc is
rcvorstjd, thc résistance falls as !o\v or luwcr than at first and thoi).
graduaHy rises.
Dicsc phenomena spcm to be duc to a condition of the ~utta-
pereha, which, for want of a bcttt'r narno, wc may caU polarization,
and whic!) \vG may compare on the one !)and \vit!i that of a series
ofLcydcn jars cliarg-cd by cascade, and, on thc other, with Rittcr's
secondary ]n1('j Art. 271.
If a numbcr of Lcydcn jars of t~'rcat cnpacity arc conncctcd in
series by incans of conductors of ~rcat rcsistance (suc)t ns \vct
cotton t hreads in t)ic expcrimcnts of M. Gaulai))), t))cn an c)cctro-
motive force acting on the series will producc a current,as indicated
by a g'alvanomcter, which will ~raduany diminish till t!)n jars are
fuHy char~'cd.
Thé apparent résistance of such a series will increase~ and if the
dielectric of thé jars is a perfcct insulator it will incrcasc without
Inmt. If' thc clectromotivc force bu rctnovcd and connexion madu
bctwcen thc ends of thc series, a reverse currcnt will be obsorv~d,
thé total quantity of winch, in thc case of'pcrtcct insulation, will be
thé same as that of the direct cnrrent. Similar effects are observed
in thc case of' thé sceondary pile, with the diOercnce t))at tlie final
insulation is not so g'ood, and that thé capaciiy pcr unit of surface
is immenscly greater.
In thc case of thé eable covcred witt) gutta-pcrcha, &c., it is fonnd
that after apph'ing- thc hattery ior h:df an honr, and thcn con-
nccting thc wire with the extcrnal électrode~ a reverse current takes
phice, which g-oes on for some timc, and ~-raduaUy rcduccs the
System to its urig-inat statc.
Thèse phenomcna are of the samc kind with those indicated
by the ~rcsidual dischargc' of thé Lcyden jar, except that thé
amount of the pokrixation is much greater in gutta-pcreha, &c.
than in glass.
This statc of polarization sccms to bc a directcd property of the
material, which requirus for its production not only electromntive
force, but thé passng-e, by displacemcnt or otherwise, of a con-
 368.] "R DiELEc'nncs. 423
sidcrable quantity of cleetrieity, and this
passage rcquires a c-on-
sidcrabie time. When the po!arized statc bas been set
up, ibère
is an internai et~etromotiva force
acting in the substi.nee in thé
reverse direction, which will continue till it bas eiUn-r
produccd
a i-cvcrscd curant c-qua! in total
qunntity to the nrst, or till thé
st~c of poiarization bas
quicHy subsidcd by mcans of truc con-
duction thron~h the substnncc.
Thé whole tI)L.ory of what lias becn caH.d
residua! disc.hin-~
absorption oi' df.ctridty, electrification, or polarisation, d~crvos
a carcfnt .nvc~ti~tion, and will probabty ]cad to
importât dis-
covcriM rctatin~ to <bc internat structure of'bodi(..s.
3R7.] Thc résistance of thc greater numhcr of didc.etrics di-
rninishcs as thé température nses.
Thus thé résistance of ~ntta-percha is ahout
twcnty timcs a-s gréât
at ~C as at 2 i"C. Messrs. Bri~)~ aud Oar). have found
t.hat thé
fuHow.n~ (brmu)a givcs results ag-reeins- wini their
experimonis.
If )s thé résistance of g-utt~-percha at
température 7'centigrade,
then thé rcsistnnce at temper:tture ?'+/' wi]] he
7(' = x 0.8878',
the numhcr varies betwen 0.8~78 and 0.9.
]\rr. IIoddn has vcrined t))c curious tact that it is not
untU some
hours after the gutta-percha has tat<cn its tempcrat.nre that the
résistance rcacbcs its
correspotidin~ va)ne.
T!]c enect of température on thé résistance of India-rubber
is not
go ~rcat as on that of~utia-pereha.
Tbc resistance of gntta-.pci-f.-ha. increascs
eonsiderabty on the
application of pressure.
Thé résistance, in Ohms, ofa cubic mètre ofv:n-ious
spécimens of
guttn-pereha used in différent câbles is as toHows*.
NM))Cof Câble.
RcdSca.2(!7x 10~ to .362x10~
MaIta-A!Gxandi'):L. !.23x10'
Pt'rsianGuif. 1~0x10~
Second At!antic 3.~2x~0~
Hoopei-'sPei's)nnGn!fCorc.7.l.7 xJO~
Gutta-pcrcha.at2t°C 3.53x10~

368.) D.cfoUowing. t.ahjc.~culatcdfromihecxpcnn~n~of

*cj))(in'Hrf<))/(;<.
 ~4 ){ES[STANCK. [~69.
M. Hufr, desct-iLcd in Art. 271, shows thc rpsistimee of n. cubic
mctrc of g-Ifiss in Ohms at (~frerent
températures.
Tem])cr!tture. JfesiHbmce.
200°C 327000
25f)° 13000
30ff U80
35'~ ° 103~
~00° 73i)

389.] Mr.C. F. Var)ey* has rcccntly invcHtig'at<'d thc conditions

of thé cm-rent throng-h rarencd g-ases, and finds that thé electro-
motive force 7~ !s eqnal <n a constant 7~ to~cthcr with a
part
dcpcnding on thé cun-ent aecnrding to Ohm's Law, thus
~=-F,+7.'6'.
For Instance, thé electromotive force rpqnircd to cause thé
current to begin in n certain tube w!~ that of 323 Danic!)'s
cells,
but an electromotive fbrœ of 304 cc))H was just sufncient to
maintain the current. Thé intcnsity of' thé currcnt, as mcasurcd
hy thc ~ah'anomctcr, was pt'oportional to thc number orceUs ahovc
301. T]ms for 305 peUs thc dc(!cxio)t was 2, for 30G it \vns .),
for 3<)7 it was (;,and so on np to 380, or 304+7C for which thc
dcffcxion was 150, or 7C x L~.
From th~c t'xpc)')tT)cn<s it appciu-s that thcrc is a. kind of
potarization of the électrodes, the clectromotive force uf which
is pqnal to that of 301 DanicU's cells, and that
up to this electro-
motive force the hattery is occupied in cstahlishin~- this stato of
polarizatio)). W)icn thé maximutn po]arization is estab!ishcd, the
Gxcp~s of clectromotive force abovc that of 3~.1 ccUs is devoted to
mainta.ining' thc current according- to Ohm's Law.
The iawof'thn current in a rareflej g'as is thcrcfore very similar
to thé hnv of' t)t<- current thro~h an c!cc<ro!ytc in wfucli wc have
to take account of thé polarization of thé ctcctrode.s.
In connexion with this subjcctwe
shouIdstudyThomson'sresidts,
descrihcd in Art. 57, in which thc dpetromotive force rcquircd
t.o produce a spark iu uir was found to be proportional not to the
distance, but to thé distance to~cther with a constant quantity.
Thé (dectrnmotive force corresponding- to this constant
quantity
mny be rc~ardcd as the intensity of pohrization of'tho electrodcs.
370.] MM. Wiedemann fmd RuI~mann !)ave rccently t investi-
'<o<s'Jan.rj,If)7I.
t/<)';r/~ff/f)-/<f)ti/f/oc/;t.t,'f.<f/Qt;t.20.~71.
 370.] 0F mHLECTUiCS. 425

gated thé passage of clectricity tht-ough gases. The ciectric current

was produced by Hoitz's madnne, and thé
diseharge took place
between spherical électrodes uithin a metallic vessel
eonta-Ining
rarefied gas. Thé dlseha.rge was in général
discontinuous, and thé
intcrval of time between successive
discharges was measured by
meansof'a mirror revolving along with the axis of Hoitz's machine.
Thé imagos of thc series of
discharges were observed by means of
a he)iometer with a dividcd
object-g!ass, which was adjusted till
one image of each discharge coincided with thc other
image of
thé ncxt discharge. Dy this method very consistent resuJts~were
obtaincd. It was found that thé
quantity of etcctricity in each
discharge is indupcndent of' thé stK'ngth of thc current and of
thé material of t)te dectrodes, and that it
depends on thé nature
and dccsity of the gas, and ou thc distance and
form of thé
électrodes.
Thèse researclics confirm thc statemcnt of
Faraday* t)iat thé
c!ectric tension (sec Art. 48) rcquircd to canse a
disruptive discharge
to bcgin at thé elcetrified surface of' a conductor is a little
less
whcn thé electrification is négative than whcn it is
positive, but
that when a discharge does take place, much more
elcctricity passes
at each discharge whcn it begins at a positive surface.
They a!so
tend to support thé hypothesis statcd m Art.
57, that thc stratum
ofgas condcn'.ed on t)je surface ofthe électrode plays an important
part in thc phcnomenon, and thcy indicate that Uns condensation
is grcatcst at the positive électrode.

~M., JMt.

VOL.t. pt't'
 T)'
"F~rJLjJ:1A /-N ~6
-r

VOL.! 1
 FJC. I.

Art. U8.

/<~ <y/
~i')~v~

~=~ /?
/v~. j/'=~
 ~<M!<~i!SM7~~y 5.

/y=.~ ~y~
< ~~fW~ .SV<V~i!~?
M~L~/T~ ~9~M'~
/< /</</ ~M<~7,/C'< < ~<- ~jr-M
7~ ~~M~ /Y. /M<" e/rx y =. y-

/='7.
 ~c Jjf

Art 120

Z<
~M~y
 FIG jv.
Art. 121.

Z/~<:t
<V /yy~//<?/<7y!y~t'.

~-7F ~?. c=~

~v~ <z~~ ~K/
.<~s~ ~w/
<) ~c/~< c/ ,~w~.
 i-'fO. V]

Art.iM.

~<yx/ ~t/r~
<' ,y=
 ~'fc. Vf)

Art t<M.

~S/y/x/ 7/y~<
<~BW~

F. m
 !'J(?.VH].
Art.. 14.3.

<~y-M~/ /~7i~/M<? c/' ~e

/3/- ~<j?. /?~yM~~ /~g.M

/<~M-<~ .).

Fis IX.

ArL.J.M.

<<VY~X/.<~i~i' /7~, <~7'<C~.

/~y i~ ~7~ /7'

~M~7-)-.

Fm X.

Arf 192.
 J''ic Xf.

.rr. tM.

Zz/M'~ <7/ ~7/

<~ ~<P. .<7.T~ .'7K.7;7

/< /X/ /7~- /7<'< /Y~

/?~' ~? .7~
~7-.Y/.

~y~~ <V /<~7' /7~ ~/M'7Z~.