Custom Search

(/index.php/Main_Page)

(http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/EUROCONTROL)

(http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/ICAO)

(http://flightsafety.org/)

Engine Failure During Takeoff - Multi-

Engine Transport Category Jet Aircraft
Article Information

Category: Loss of Control

(/index.php/Category:Loss_of_C
ontrol)

Content source: SKYbrary

(/index.php/About_SKYbrary)

Content control: Air Pilots

(/index.php/The_Honourable_Co
mpany_of_Air_Pilots)

Contents
1 Description
2 Regulatory Requirements
3 Aircraft Type Certification

3.1 Minimum Runway Requirements

3.1.1 Takeoff Distance (TOD)

3.1.2 Takeoff Run (TOR)
 3.1.3 Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)
3.1.4 Loss of Runway Length During Lineup

3.2 Engine Out Obstacle Clearance Profile

4 Effects of Engine Failure

4.1 On the Runway

4.2 Airborne

5 Flight Crew Actions

6 Defences
7 Related Articles
8 Further Reading

Description
In the early days of jet engine powered transport aircraft
(/index.php/Transport_Category_Aircraft), engine failures, in all phases of flight,
were a fairly frequent occurrence. Statistics from the 1960's indicate that failures
resulting in inflight shutdowns occurred at an approximate rate of 40 per 100,000
flight hours (or 1 per 2,500 flight hours). This rate is the equivalent of every engine
failing once every year. By contrast, the failure rate of the engines installed on
current generation aircraft have a failure rate of less than 1 per 100,000 flight hours.

Infrequent as this might seem, engines do fail and a failure during takeoff has very
serious safety of flight implications. The aerodynamic effects of the failure and the
immediate actions by the flight crew, which are necessary to ensure an acceptable
outcome, are similar to those in a light, twin engine aircraft
(/index.php/Engine_Failure_After_TakeOff_-_Light_Twin_Engine_Aircraft). However,
unlike their smaller cousins, the certification criteria for multi-engine transport
category jet aircraft require that the aircraft be capable of achieving a specified
minimum climb rate, that will ensure obstacle clearance, should an engine failure
occur on takeoff.

Regulatory Requirements
The National Aviation Authority (NAA) (/index.php/NAA) for each sovereign state is
responsible for issuing an aircraft type certificate, in accordance with the guidance
provided in the ICAO (/index.php/ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices
(SARPS) (/index.php/Standards_and_Recommended_Practices_(SARPS)), for aircraft
that are registered within its jurisdiction. While the SARPS provide the agreed
minimum requirements for type certification, each NAA has the right to insist that
additional criteria be satisfied before an aircraft type certificate will be issued.

Within the European Union, type certificates are issued by the European Aviation
Safety Agency (EASA) (/index.php/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency_(EASA)) whose
website may be found here (http://easa.europa.eu/)

Aircraft Type Certification

There are many safety and performance requirements that must be met before an
aircraft will be issued a type certificate. For multi-engine, transport category jet
aircraft, minimum runway requirements that allow the safe rejection or
continuation of a takeoff in the event of a failure and the ability to comply with
minimum specified engine out climb gradients and obstacle clearance criteria are
both critically important.

Minimum Runway Requirements

Regulatory criteria for minimum runway requirements encompass multiple
calculations inclusive of Takeoff Distance (TOD), Takeoff Run (TOR) and Accelerate
Stop Distance (ASD). The most limiting of these criteria, based on aircraft weight
and prevailing atmospheric conditions, defines the minimum runway required for
takeoff. Note that, depending upon the regulations under which the aircraft
certification is granted, these distances may have to take into consideration the
runway distance lost during line-up.
 (/index.php/File:ASDA.png)
Declared Distances

Takeoff Distance (TOD)

The Takeoff Distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following values:

Distance covered from the brake release to a point at which the aircraft is 35
feet above the takeoff surface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at
VEF (/index.php/VEF) (Engine Failure Speed) and recognized at V1
(/index.php/V1)
115% of the distance covered from brake release to a point at which the
aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating

The Takeoff Distance on a wet runway is the greater of:

Takeoff Distance on a dry runway (see above)

Distance covered from brake release to a point at which the aircraft is 15 feet
above the takeoff surface, ensuring that the V2 speed can be achieved before
the airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the
critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1

Takeoff Distance must not exceed the Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)
(/index.php/Take_Off_Distance_Available_(TODA)), with a clearway distance not to
exceed half of the TODA

Takeoff Run (TOR)

Takeoff Run (TOR) calculations incorporate the operational advantage of a
designated clearway (/index.php/Clearway) when one is present on the departure
runway. If no clearway exists, TOR = TOD.
When a clearway exists, the Takeoff Run on a dry runway is the greater of the
following values:

Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between the point
at which VLOF (/index.php/VLOF) (Lift-off Speed) is reached and the point at
which the aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the
critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1
115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant
between the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft
is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating

When a clearway exists, the Takeoff Run on a wet runway is the greater of:

Takeoff Distance (TOD) wet runway

115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant
between the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft
is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating.

Takeoff Run must not exceed Takeoff Run Available (TORA)

(/index.php/Takeoff_Run_Available_(TORA))

Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)

Accelerate Stop Distance calculations assume the following:

Delay between VEF and V1 = 1 second

ASD is determined with the wheel brakes at the fully worn limit of their
allowable wear range
reverse thrust is not considered for a dry runway distance determination, it
can be used for wet runway calculations

The Accelerate Stop Distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following
values:

Sum of the distances necessary to:

1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF

2. Accelerate from VEF to V1 (assumes that engine fails at VEF and first action to
reject is taken at V1)
3. Come to a full stop
4. Plus an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed

Sum of the distances necessary to:

1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1 (assumes that first
stopping actions are taken at V1)
2. With all engines still operating come to a full stop
3. Plus an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed

The Accelerate Stop Distance on a wet runway is the greatest of:

ASD on a dry runway (see above)

Sum of the distances on a wet runway necessary to:

1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF

2. Accelerate from VEF to V1 (assumes that engine fails at VEF and first action to
reject is taken at V1)
3. Come to a full stop
4. Plus an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed

Sum of the distances on a wet runway necessary to:

1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1 (assumes that first
stopping actions are taken at V1)
2. With all engines still operating come to a full stop
3. Plus an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed

Note: Depending upon the criteria under which the aircraft was certified, the
additional 2 seconds distance equivalent might not be required

Accelerate Stop Distance must not exceed the Accelerate Stop Distance Available
(ASDA) (/index.php/Accelerate_Stop_Distance_Available_(ASDA))

Loss of Runway Length During Lineup

Declared distances such as TORA and ASDA are based on measurements from the
runway threshold. However, unless the aircraft enters the runway from a point prior
to the threshold, it is not possible to use the full length of the runway. Aircraft
typically enter the takeoff runway from an intersecting taxiway. The aeroplane must
then be turned to align it on the runway in the direction of takeoff. In some cases,
it may be necessary to backtrack on the runway and turn through 180° before the
takeoff run can be initiated. FAA regulations do not explicitly require airplane
operators to take into account the runway distance used to align the aeroplane on
the runway for takeoff. However, EASA regulations require that the applicable
distance be taken into consideration. When required, the TODA and TORA must be
reduced by the distance from the runway threshold to the main landing gear and
ASDA reduced by the distance from the threshold to the nose gear. Manufacturers
will provide minimum lineup distances required for both 90° and 180° turns.

Some Operators provide data which takes loss of runway length during lineup into
account. All crews must be familiar with the assumptions made in the production
of their own company’s data.

Engine Out Obstacle Clearance Profile

The Net Takeoff Flight Path (/index.php/Net_Take-off_Flight_Path) for the engine
failure case is divided into four segments. Three of these are climbing segments
with specified minimum gradients which are dependent upon the number of
engines installed on the aircraft and one is a level acceleration segment. A brief
description of the four segments is as follows:

1. First Segment - depending upon the regulations under which the aircraft is
certified, the first segment begins either at lift-off or at the end of the takeoff
distance at a screen height of 35' and a speed of V2 (/index.php/V2). On a wet
runway, the screen height is reduced to 15'. Operating engines are at takeoff
thrust, the flaps/slats are in takeoff configuration and landing gear retraction is
initiated once safely airborne with positive climb. The first segment ends when
the landing gear is fully retracted.
2. Second Segment - begins when the landing gear is fully retracted. Engines are at
takeoff thrust and the flaps/slats are in the takeoff configuration. This segment
ends at the higher of 400' or specified acceleration altitude. In most cases, the
second segment is the performance limiting segment of the climb.
3. Third or Acceleration Segment- begins at the higher of 400' or specified
acceleration altitude. Engines are at takeoff thrust and the aircraft is accelerated
in level flight. Slats/flaps are retracted on speed. The segment ends when
aircraft is in clean configuration and a speed of VFS (/index.php/Vfs) has been
 achieved. Note that the third segment must be completed prior to exceeding the
maximum time allowed for engines at takeoff thrust.
4. Fourth or Final Segment - begins when the aircraft is in clean configuration and
at a speed of VFS. Climb is re-established and thrust is reduced to maximum
continuous (MCT). The segment ends at a minimum of 1500' above airport
elevation or when the criteria for enroute obstacle clearance have been met.

Each segment of the one engine inoperative takeoff flight path has a mandated
climb gradient requirement. For example, a gross second segment climb gradient
capability of 2.4%, 2.7% or 3.0% is required for two, three and four engine aircraft
respectively. Similarly, the required gross gradients for the fourth segment are 1.2%,
1.5% and 1.7% respectively.

To ensure obstacle clearance while allowing for aircraft performance degradation

and less than optimum pilot technique, the gross gradients are reduced by 0.8%,
0.9% and 1.0% respectively to calculate a net gradient. The obstacle identification
surface (OIS), or obstruction envelope, starts at runway elevation at a point directly
beneath the end of the takeoff distance (TOD) and parallels the net gradient profile
of the climb segments. If an obstacle in the departure path penetrates the OIS, the
slope of the OIS must be increased and both the net and the gross gradient slopes
of the corresponding segment must also be increased to ensure that the minimum
obstacle clearance criteria is met.

The aircraft net gradient capability, correctable for temperature, altitude and
pressure, is published in the AFM performance data and, in actual operations, must
ensure that the limiting obstacle in the departure path can be cleared by a
minimum of 35'. If there is an obstacle within the departure path that cannot be
avoided and would not be cleared by 35', the planned takeoff weight must be
reduced until minimum obstacle clearance can be achieved. Note that, by
regulation, turns immediately after takeoff cannot be initiated below the greater of
50'AGL or one half of the aircraft wingspan and, that during the initial climb, turns
are limited to 15° of bank. Turning will result in a reduction in aircraft climb
capability.
 (/index.php/File:Take_Off_Flight_Path.png)
Take off Flight Path

To maximise the payload capability from any given runway, most operators develop
and utilize emergency turn procedures (/index.php/Emergency_Turn). These
procedures follow a specified ground track which minimises the affects of local
obstacles and a specified vertical profile which complies with the more restrictive
of certification or actual obstacle climb requirements.

Effects of Engine Failure

On the Runway
If a multi-engine aircraft suffers an engine failure during the takeoff roll, the aircraft
will yaw towards the failed engine. If the airspeed at the time of the failure is at or
above Vminimum control ground (/index.php/Vmcg) (Vmcg), directional control on the
runway can be maintained utilizing only aerodynamic controls. At a speed below
Vmcg, directional control will not be possible unless thrust on the operating
engine(s) is (are) also reduced. In any event, if the airspeed at the time that the
failure is recognised is less than V1, the takeoff must be rejected
(/index.php/Rejected_Take_Off).

Airborne
If a multi-engine aircraft suffers an engine failure when airborne, there are two
immediate aerodynamic effects. The initial effect is the yawing that occurs due to
the asymmetry of the thrust line. The size of this initial yawing moment depends
upon the engine thrust and the distance between the thrust line and the aircraft
centre of gravity. The yawing moment is also affected initially by the rate of thrust
decay of the ‘dead’ engine and ultimately by its drag.

The second effect is roll. This occurs when the aircraft continues to yaw towards
the failed engine resulting in a decrease in lift from the ‘retreating’ wing and a yaw-
induced roll towards the failed engine.

As well as the aerodynamic consequences of the failure, the performance penalty is

very significant. While the failure of an engine in a twin engine aircraft represents a
50% loss of available power, it will result in a more than 50% loss of performance.

Flight Crew Actions

During pre-flight preparation:

Using the Electronic Flight Bag (/index.php/Electronic_Flight_Bag) or the

appropriate performance charts, determine the maximum takeoff weight
(MTOW) for the runway in use, anticipated atmospheric conditions and
intended aircraft configuration
Confirm that actual aircraft weight does not exceed the calculated maximum
allowable weight
Complete performance calculations to determine speeds and thrust settings
(inclusive of reduced thrust criteria where appropriate or applicable)
Review and brief the Emergency Turn (/index.php/Emergency_Turn) procedure
inclusive of routing, turns and turn altitudes, acceleration altitude and safe
altitudes

During the takeoff roll:

Use appropriate lineup technique to ensure charted runway length is available

Apply thrust using manufacturer's recommended procedures
Confirm actual thrust meets or exceeds calculated thrust
 In the event of an engine failure prior to V1 (/index.php/V1), reject
(/index.php/Rejected_Take_Off) the takeoff

ADVISE Air Traffic Control (ATC) that the takeoff has been rejected using
appropriate emergency communication protocols
(/index.php/Emergency_Communications)

In the event of an engine failure after V 1:

Establish and maintain directional control with appropriate rudder input

Rotate at Vr (/index.php/Vr) and establish a climb speed of V2 (/index.php/V2)

If the failure occurs after the aircraft is airborne, a climb speed of

between V2 and V2 + 10 is acceptable

Utilise appropriate aileron input to maintain wings level. At, or near, VMinimum
Control Air (/index.php/Vmca) (Vmca), as much as a 5° bank away from the dead
engine may be required
When safely airborne and established in a positive climb, retract the landing
gear

Establish or maintain the Emergency Turn routing

Initiate ECAM (/index.php/ECAM) / EICAS (/index.php/EICAS) / Emergency
Checklist procedures as per manufacturer and Company policy

Establish or maintain the Emergency Turn routing

Maintain V2 and takeoff thrust until reaching acceleration altitude.
Acceleration altitude will be the highest of 400' AGL, Emergency Turn
procedure published acceleration altitude or Company standard acceleration
altitude

Establish or maintain the Emergency Turn routing

At acceleration altitude, maintain takeoff thrust, level the aircraft (see note
below) and accelerate to VFS (/index.php/Vfs) retracting flaps on schedule.

Establish or maintain the Emergency Turn routing

Once in clean configuration, maintain VFS, resume climb and reduce thrust to
maximum continuous

Establish or maintain the Emergency Turn routing

 ADVISE ATC using appropriate emergency communication protocols
(/index.php/Emergency_Communications)

note that if the Emergency Turn profile has or will result in a departure
from the cleared routing, ATC should be notified as soon as it is practical
to do so

Reaching a safe altitude, comply with any enroute climb requirements,

complete any appropriate emergency or QRH (/index.php/QRH) checklists,
determine plan of action (diversion or recovery) and advise ATC

Note: The acceleration profiles utilised by VNAV and FLCH modes do not
necessarily command the aircraft to fly level at Acceleration altitude in the event of
an engine failure. With all engines operating, VNAV & FLCH will use the algorithm
60% climb, 40% acceleration. In the event of an engine failure, the algorithm is
reversed with 40% climb, 60% acceleration. As a consequence, at light weights the
APFDS may command a climb during the acceleration phase.

Defences
Crew members must make themselves familiar with the explanatory notes to their
performance data. Only by gaining an understanding of the assumptions made in
the calculations can best use be made of the data.

If aircraft engines were 100% reliable, engine failure during takeoff would never
occur. Over the years, manufacturers have made great improvements in the
reliability of their products and the failure rate of turbine engines has decreased
with each generation. It is unlikely, however, that the potential for engine failure will
ever be completely eliminated.

Maintenance personnel can reduce the risk of failure by ensuring that the engines
are maintained to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Ground crew and flight
crew must ensure during their preflight and postflight inspections that all fluids are
adequate, that there are no obvious leaks or damage and that the fuel supply is
free from water or other contamination.

Flight crew / dispatch performance calculations must ensure that the aircraft can
meet regulatory requirements in the event of an engine failure during the takeoff.
Flight crew should have a thorough understanding of the aerodynamics of a failure
and clearly understand the actions that must be taken should a failure occur.

Finally, crews must be completely familiar with their Company procedures which
will always take priority.

Related Articles
Loss of Control (/index.php/Loss_of_Control)
Engine Failure After TakeOff - Light Twin Engine Aircraft
(/index.php/Engine_Failure_After_TakeOff_-_Light_Twin_Engine_Aircraft)
Emergency Turn (/index.php/Emergency_Turn)
Uncontained Engine Failure (/index.php/Uncontained_Engine_Failure)
Rejected Take Off (/index.php/Rejected_Take_Off)
Net Take-off Flight Path (/index.php/Net_Take-off_Flight_Path)
Engine Failure: Guidance for Controllers
(/index.php/Engine_Failure:_Guidance_for_Controllers)

Further Reading
EUROCONTROL

Guidelines for Controller Training in the Handling of Unusual/Emergency

Situations (http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/15.pdf)

UK CAA - Safety Regulation Group

CAP 745 - Aircraft Emergencies - Considerations for air traffic controllers

(http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/200.pdf)

Airbus Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Handling Engine Malfunctions

(http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/193.pdf)
Revisiting the “Stop or Go” Decision
(http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/197.pdf)
 Understanding Takeoff Speeds
(http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/493.pdf)
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance
(http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/2263.pdf)

US Federal Aviation Administration

Pilot Guide to Takeoff Safety

(http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/1150.pdf)

Retrieved from "https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php?

title=Engine_Failure_During_Takeoff_-_Multi-
Engine_Transport_Category_Jet_Aircraft&oldid=106712
(https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php?title=Engine_Failure_During_Takeoff_-_Multi-
Engine_Transport_Category_Jet_Aircraft&oldid=106712)"

Category (/index.php/Special:Categories): Loss of Control (/index.php/Category:Loss_of_Control)