BY SADDAM LEONARDO KAP

https://www.facebook.com/saddamleonardo.kap.3
The thermodynamics of the early universe is the study of the
form of energy dominates it.
There were only two kind of particles
 Relativistic particles and Non-Relativistic particles
 Relativistic particles referred as radiation whose rest mass
is zero or negligible compared to their energy and travels
with speed of light or close to it.
 Non-Relativistic particle referred as matter whose kinetic
energy is much lower than their rest mass and therefore
move much slower than the speed of light.
Theory of everything
decoupling—the temperature of the universe was about 3000 K.
This corresponds to an energy of about 0.26 eV which is much less
than the 13.6 eV ionization energy of hydrogen .Unlike the
uncombined protons and electrons, these atoms could not absorb
the thermal radiation, and so the universe became transparent
instead of being an opaque. The time period when neutral atoms
first formed called the recombination epoch, and the event shortly
afterwards when photons started to travel freely through space
rather than constantly being scattered by electrons and protons in
plasma is called photon decoupling. The photons that existed at
the time of photon decoupling is still propagating now but they are
growing fainter and less energetic, due to the expansion of space
causes their wavelength to increase over time.
E= h*c/λ. The temperature of this radiation inversely
proportional to a parameter that describes the relative expansion of
the universe over time, known as the scale length. The
temperature T of the CMB as a function of redshift, z, proportional
to the temperature of the CMB as observed in the present day
2.725 K or 0.2348 meV.
T = 2.725(1 + z)
The anisotropy, or directional dependency, of CMB is divided into two types: Primary and Secondary
anisotropy.
Primary - due to effects that occur at the last scattering surface and before.
Secondary - due to effects such as interactions of the background radiation with hot gas or gravitational
potentials, which occur between the last scattering surface and the observer.
The structure of CMB anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and
diffusion damping (also called collision less damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise
because of a conflict in the photon–baryon plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons
tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons, moving at speeds much
slower than light, makes them tend to collapse to form over densities. These two effects compete to
create acoustic oscillations, which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The
peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at
its peak amplitude. The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first
peak determines the curvature of the universe.
The next peak—ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks—determines the reduced baryon density.
The third peak can be used to get information about the dark-matter density.
Alexander A. Friedmann (1888-1925)
The Man Who Made the Universe Expand

Soviet mathematician and meteorologist

Most famous for contributions to cosmology

First person to mathematically predict an

expanding universe (1922)

Derived from Einstein's general relativity

Einstein initially dismissed Fried a s equations

as nothing more that a mathematical curiosity

Developed his equation based on an isotropic and

homogenous universe
 Expanding Universe
First general relativistic models by Einstein
predicted a contracting universe (1917)

Introduction of Cosmological
Constant by Einstein

1922 the Friedmann equation predicted

an expanding universe

1928 Georges Lemaitre

independently concluded the same

Lemaitre was the first to propose a pri eval

ato theory, later known as the Big Bang
 Edwin Hubble
• Confirmed the existence of other galaxies
besides the Milky way (1924)

• Vesto Slipher first discovered the Doppler

shift in the spectra of galaxies, Hubble used
this to prove the universe is expanding
(1929)

• Velocities of receding galaxies from Earth

are proportional to their distance from
Earth

• Caused Einstein to abandon his

cosmological constant.
 Hubble’s Constant
• Gives the speed of a galaxy in
km/s that is 1 Mpc away 𝑐= . ∗ ^ 𝑎 𝑎

• The inverse H0-1 is known as

Hubble time referred to as the
expansion time scale
• Hubble first calculated H0 to be 500
km s-1 Mpc-1

• H0 = 2.26 x 10-18 s-1

• H -1 ≈14 Gyr
0
 Rate of Expansion
• Two teams in the 1990’s set out to
show the rate deceleration of the
universe

• They both independently concluded

the expansion is accelerating

• Appears to be a repulsive force

countering gravity now dubbed dark
energy

• Now cosmologists are reevaluating

the importance of the cosmological
constant
 Robertson-Walker Metric

• Derived from Ei stei s general

relativity Friedmann equation

• A space-time metric that satisfies

the principle of a homogeneous,
isotropic universe
a is scale factor
• The geometric structure should
remain constant with time in
comoving coordinates (r, θ, φ) and
physical distances scale with a(t)

• Represents the κ value in the

Friedmann equation with values of
either (1, -1, 0)
 On a surface of sphere the curvature is given by K=1/R^2.
 To derive Robertson walker metric one need to use sphere
and find out the distance between curved surface
which is given by
ⅆ = 𝑅ⅆ𝜃 2 + ⅆ∅ 2 , r=R Sin𝜃 and K=1/R^2,
One can write in 3D

Here, K is curvature and r radial co-ordinate. If one wants to change

these radial co-ordinate to co-moving coordinate using scale factor
a(t), one can write radial coordinate as
= 𝑎 ∗ and = /𝑎 ), after
manipulating x with r as a
co moving coordinate one arrive in equation.

This is called Robertson Walker metric.

 𝐺 This is called Einstein’s Equation. Where 𝐺 is called Einstein’s Tensor. Where 𝑅
𝐺 = 𝑇
𝐶4 is Ricci Tensor, 𝑔 is metric tensor and R is scalar.

𝐺 =𝑅 − 𝑔 𝑅 By comparison with RK metric one will get ,

2
ⅆ =𝑔 ⅆ ⅆ

This is called stress tensor

which shows that the acceleration

of the expansion decreases with
increasing
pressure and energy density,
whether mass or radiation energy.
 𝜌0
For present time define 𝛺0 =
𝜌𝑐 So at the time of Einstein in 1917 when the
universe was simply static the Fridemann
equations become

0 must be a positive number, K must be +1.

pressure of matter P0 is
negative!

P=
𝛬 𝑖 𝑖 𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝑖 𝑒
 Curvature
• Open, closed, flat

• Data suggests we live in a flat

universe

• Derived from Robertson-Walker

metric

• Κ is the curvature constant

• R0 is the radius of curvature

• Determines how the universe will

end
Conclusion
What did he Investigate?
As usually what we observe is that earth, Solar System or milky way like objects, as
they get farther away, they look fainter and smaller. But their surface brightness, that
is the brightness per unit area, remains constant.

Big Bang theory says that in an expanding Universe objects actually should
appear fainter but bigger. Thus the surface brightness decreases with the distance.
The light is stretched as the Universe expanded, further dimming the light.
So in an expanding Universe the most distant galaxies should have hundreds of times
dimmer surface brightness than similar nearby galaxies, making them actually
undetectable with present-day telescopes.
But in observation The scientists carefully compared the size and brightness of about a
thousand nearby and extremely distant galaxies. They chose the most luminous spiral
galaxies for comparisons, matching the average luminosity of the near and far samples.

They found that the surface brightnesses of the near and far galaxies are identical,
Which a contradiction to Big Bang Model.
“Of course, one can hypothesize that galaxies were much smaller, and thus had hundreds of times
greater intrinsic surface brightness in the past, and that, just by coincidence, the Big Bang dimming
exactly cancels that greater brightness at all distances to produce the illusion of a constant
brightness, but that would be a very big coincidence,” Mr. Lerner said.
If one need to determine the actual luminosity of the galaxies, so as to match near and far galaxies,
the astrophysicists had to link the distance to the galaxies with their redshift. They hypothesized
that the distance is proportional to the redshift at all distances.
To verify this relation between redshift and distance with the data on supernova brightness that has
been used to measure the hypothesized accelerated expansion of the Universe.

And the conclusion is the predictions of this simple formula are as good as the predictions of the
expanding Universe theory, which include hypothetical dark matter and dark energy,” said study co-
author Dr Renato Falomo of the Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Italy.
They said one can take it again to merely coincidental, but it would be a second big coincidence.”

Therefore if the Universe is not expanding, the redshift of light with increasing distance must be
caused by some other phenomena – something that happens to the light itself as it travels through
space.

We don’t know How to explain the red shift of photon irrespective to Expanding universe,
and since we don’t know anything about Dark agents. So, any thing is possible. Imagine
you travel in time go to 80 yrs. in future, and will discover that Universe is not expanding.
So Why don’t we think about it Now.