Forest Ecology and Management 252 (2007) 118–123

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Effects of slash reinforcement of strip roads on rutting

and soil compaction on a moist fine-grained soil
Lars Eliasson a,*, Iwan Wästerlund b
a
Bergforsvägen 49, 890 37 Gideå, Sweden
b
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, dept of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
Received 29 January 2006; received in revised form 21 April 2007; accepted 15 June 2007

Abstract
Machines used for final felling operations are heavy and the risk for rutting and soil compaction can be considerable under unfavourable soil
conditions. It is known that slash reinforcements of strip roads reduces rutting and soil compaction, but few studies are after traffic with large
forwarders on moist fine-grained soils. An increased interest to utilise logging debris for energy production has made it important to know if and
where slash is needed for strip road reinforcement. The aim of the study was to evaluate if slash reinforcement of strip roads influences rutting and
soil compaction on a moist fine-grained soil, and to quantify these effects. The study was designed as a factorial experiment with factors slash depth
in the strip road and number of machine passages. The effects of 0, 10 and 20 cm slash, and one, two and five passages were studied. The first
passage was made with a 20.5 Mg harvester and subsequent passages by a 37 Mg laden large forwarder. Rut depths increased with number of
machine passages but were not influenced by slash depth. Slash reinforcement of strip roads significantly reduced changes in soil dry density and
soil porosity in the upper 20 cm of the soil. An increased number of machine passages increased soil dry density in the upper 20 cm and reduced air
filled pore volume in the upper 30 cm of the soil. In the uppermost 20 cm of the soil, observed soil dry density increase after one machine passage
on strip roads without slash was higher than after five machine passages where strip roads were covered with 20 cm of slash.
# 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Forestry; Forwarder; Logging residues

1. Introduction
In Swedish forestry, harvesting operations are usually fully
mechanised, i.e. carried out by a harvester and a forwarder. In
final felling operations (i.e. clear-cutting) there is a risk for
rutting and soil compaction, which can be considerable under
unfavourable soil conditions, as the machines used are heavy. A
large harvester can exceed 20 Mg and a laden large forwarder
approaches 40 Mg. Soil disturbance have mainly been studied
in thinning operations where small to medium sized machines
have been used (Wronski and Murphy, 1994; Jansson and
Wästerlund, 1999). Only a few studies have been made where
medium to large forwarders (20–38 Mg) have been used for
wood transport. These studies reports increases in rut depths
with increasing number of machine passages (Wronski et al.,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 663 40445.
E-mail addresses: Lars.Eliasson@Norra.se,
lars.eliasson@norraskogsagarna.se (L. Eliasson),
Iwan.Wasterlund@resgeom.slu.se (I. Wästerlund).
0378-1127/$ – see front matter # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.06.037
1990; Jansson and Johansson, 1998; Eliasson, 2005) and of soil
compaction reaching deeper than 40 cm (Jacobsen and
Greacen, 1985; Jansson and Johansson, 1998; Eliasson, 2005).
In a review of the effects of soil compaction on forest crops,
Wronski and Murphy (1994) notes that a major disadvantage
with machine traffic in thinning is that roots of living trees are
damaged which causes growth losses in the forest crop. Tree
roots are an important strength component in forest soils
increasing soil strength considerably (Björkhem et al., 1975;
Wästerlund, 1989), thus improving traffickability in the forest
stand. In final felling this effect can be used without risk for
growth losses due to root damage as the tree crop is harvested.
However, if the new forest crop is established in compacted soil
there is a risk for reduced growth (Sands and Bowen, 1978;
Wästerlund, 1985; Wronski and Murphy, 1994) and reduced
value of the wood when harvested (Murphy et al., 2004).
To avoid rutting and soil compaction logging debris (slash),
i.e. branches and tree tops, are used to reinforce strip roads in
the stand during harvesting operations (Wronski and Murphy,
1994). Studies has shown that slash reinforcements of strip
roads reduces both rutting (Hallonborg, 1982; Wronski et al.,
 L. Eliasson, I. Wästerlund / Forest Ecology and Management 252 (2007) 118–123 119

1990) and soil compaction (McDonald and Seixas, 1997), and strip road and number of machine passages, replicated in four
results in a substantial increase in apparent soil bearing capacity blocks. The effects of 0, 10 and 20 cm slash in the strip roads
(Wronski et al., 1990). However, there are rather few studies of (approximately 50% and 100% of the slash available within the
the effects of slash reinforcements on soil density changes after normal working width of the harvester), and one, two and five
traffic with large forwarders on moist fine-grained soils. machine passages were studied.
During the last decade there has been an increased interest in The first passage was made with the harvester, a 20.5 Mg
the Nordic countries to utilise logging debris for energy Timberjack 1270B, during harvesting of the stand. As work
production. To get an efficient handling of the material and to progressed the harvester reinforced the strip road in front of the
avoid contamination of the fuel with soil particles the logging machine with logging debris, branches and tops, according to
debris is concentrated in piles on the side of the strip roads. the experimental design. The tyres on the front bogies were
Thus, no reinforcement strip roads are done except where it is Nokian ELS 600/55-26.5 and on the rear axle Nokian TRS L-2
absolutely necessary from a traffickability point of view. The 600/65-34. Tyre loads on the front bogies were 3.1 Mg per tyre
extraction of the residues and in some cases bundling or and on the rear axle 3.9 Mg per tyre. All wheels were filled with
chipping of the residues increase the machine traffic in the strip approximately 70% water, and the bogies were fitted with
roads and, thus, the risk for rutting and soil compaction. A tracks and the rear wheels with chains. The second to fifth
further complication is that the most interesting stands for passage were made by a laden large forwarder, Timberjack
extraction of logging residues are spruce stands as they have a 1710, totalling 37 Mg including the load. The same load of
high stocking and, thus, a high concentration of logging pulpwood was used throughout the whole experiment. Tyre
residues per ha. Spruce is probably the tree species in Sweden loads on the forwarder front part were on average 3.5 Mg per
that is suffering most when growing in compacted soils tyre and on the rear part 5.75 Mg per tyre. On the forwarder,
(Wästerlund, 1985). The most fertile spruce sites are situated on both front and rear bogies had Nokian ELS 750/55-26.5 tyres
moist and fine-grained soils which have low bearing capacity, and were fitted with tracks, Olofsfors ECO-TRACK, due to
and there is thus a high risk for ground damage and negative track use all tyres had a inflation pressure of 600 kPa.
effects on future tree growth. This has increased the need for a Blocks were established to minimise variations in soil
deeper understanding of where and in what quantities slash is structure and soil moisture within blocks (Fig. 1, Table 1). In
needed for strip road reinforcement. each block three 20 m long plots were established and
The aim of the study was to (1) evaluate if slash measurement of soil density, soil water content, and cone
reinforcement of strip roads influence rutting and soil resistance were made before trafficking and after one, two and
compaction caused by traffic with heavy forest machines on five machine passages. Rut depths were measured after one,
a moist fine-grained soil and (2) quantify these effects of slash two and five machine passages. Measurements were made in
reinforcement of strip roads. six permanent sample points per plot, i.e. in each track at 7, 10
and 13 m distance from the start of the plot, except for soil
2. Materials and methods density and soil water content, which were measured in four
sample points per plot, i.e. in each track at 7 and 10 m distance
The study was done in one Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) from the plot start. Slash depths were measured between the
Karst.) stand close to Nyåker in northern Sweden (638460 4900 N,
198160 2300 E). The stand was growing on a silty clay sediment Table 1
Initial soil dry density (g cm3), soil water content (g cm3), and air filled pore
(Fig. 1) situated at the base of a slope. The study was designed
volume (cm3 cm3) in the four blocks
as a factorial experiment with two factors, slash depth in the
Depth (cm) Block
1 2 3 4
3
Dry density (g cm )
10 0.772 a 0.436 b 0.762 a 0.657 a
20 0.942 ab 0.853 a 1.080 b 0.926 ab
30 1.150 a 1.123 a 1.209 a 1.133 a
40 1.325 a 1.208 b 1.360 a 1.333 a
Water content (g cm3)
10 0.374 a 0.404 b 0.399 bc 0.383 ac
20 0.424 a 0.457 b 0.444 ab 0.429 a
30 0.447 a 0.471 b 0.454 a 0.447 a
40 0.446 a 0.464 b 0.453 ab 0.448 a
Air filled pore volume (cm3 cm3)
10 0.351 ac 0.424 b 0.304 c 0.367 ab
20 0.217 a 0.207 a 0.134 a 0.219 a
30 0.116 a 0.087 a 0.074 a 0.122 a
40 0.050 ab 0.061 a 0.016 b 0.045 ab
Values on the same row followed by different letters were significantly
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of the soils in blocks 1–4. separated ( p < 0.05).
120 L. Eliasson, I. Wästerlund / Forest Ecology and Management 252 (2007) 118–123
Table 2
Slash thickness and slash density separated on slash thickness class
Slash thickness class
0 10
Slash thickness (cm) 0 9.9
Slash density (kg m2)
1<10 mm 0 5.3
10 mm  1 < 25 mm 0 1.7
125 mm 0 0.6
All fractions 0 7.6
ruts at 8.5 and 11.5 m distance from the plot start, both prior to
as well as after traffic, and all slash in a 0.3 m  0.3 m square
were collected in these spots after traffic. These slash samples
were separated in three fractions based on the diameter (1) of
the material (1<10 mm, 10 mm  1 < 25 mm, 125 mm)
and the green mass of each fraction were measured (Table 2).
Soil samples were collected, using 50 mm high steel cylinders
with 72 mm diameter, from 20 and 40 cm depth adjacent to the
middle sample point in the left track of each plot prior to traffic.
After determination of water content (105 8C) these samples
were used for sieving analyses and determination of plastic and
liquid limit as well as particle density. Average soil particle
density was 2.58 g cm3.
Rut depths were measured as the distance between the
underside of a wooden rod laid across the rut and undisturbed
ground surface, the measurement was made centrally in the rut.
Slash depth was measured as the distance between the ground
surface and the top of the slash bed when the slash bed was
compressed with hand force.
Soil wet density and soil water content were measured with a
Campbell Pacific nuclear dual probe strata gauge MC-S-24 at
10, 20, 30 and 40 cm depth in the track after zero, one, two and
five passages on four permanent sample points per plot. The
strata gauge was placed perpendicular to the direction of the rut
and placed to be as centred as possible in the expected rut. The
two holes for the gauges probes were filled with wooden rods
between measurements, enabling measurements in the exact
same location during the whole experiment. As soil water
readings from the strata gauge are known to have a risk for
systematic deviations from the true values (Jansson, 1998), soil
water content readings were controlled using a comparison
between relative water content from the soil samples and the
relative water content from the same depth with the strata
gauge. Regression was used to get a function for correction of
the water content measured by the strata gauge. After correction
of all water contents measured, soil dry density was calculated
as the difference between wet density and water content. Air
filled pore volume (Va) was calculated as
Dd
Va ¼ 1  Vw 
r
where Vw is the water content, Dd the soil dry density, and r is
the soil particle density.
Pre-traffic dry density, water content and air filled pore
volume differed between blocks (Table 1) but not between
Table 3
Rut depths separated on slash depth class and number of vehicle passages
No. of passages Slash thickness class (cm)
20 0 10 20
20.4 1 5.2 4.1 4.4
2 5.5 4.8 4.6
5 9.3 5.7 6.7
12.8
4.5
0.4
17.7 treatments. Pre-traffic soil cone resistance between 10 and
20 cm depth in blocks 1–4 were 0.99, 0.52, 0.69, and 0.88 MPa,
respectively. The humus layer was thicker in block 2 (14 cm)
than in blocks 1, 3 and 4 (7, 9 and 6 cm, respectively). The field
layer was dominated by bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) in
blocks 1, 3 and 4, and by sphagnum mosses and bilberry in
block 2.
Plot mean values were used for all measurements in the
analyses, thus n = 48 for each soil depth or when changes were
analysed n = 36. For comparisons of the effects of slash depth,
differences from soil measurements prior to traffic were
analysed using analysis of variance in SPSS (release 11.0.0).
Treatment effects were considered significant if p < 0.05.
3. Results
Rut depths increased with increased number of machine
passages ( p = 0.027) (Table 3) but were not influenced by slash
depth ( p = 0.171) or the interaction between number of
machine passages and slash depth ( p = 0.764). The ANOVA
model had a low adjusted R2, 0.131. Analyses were not
improved when slash density was used as a covariate instead of
the factor slash depth.
Slash reinforcement of the strip roads significantly reduced
the changes in soil dry density and soil porosity in the upper
20 cm of the soil (Tables 4 and 5), although no mixing of slash
and soil was observed. No effects of slash reinforcement could
be found on soil water content (Tables 4 and 5). An increased
number of machine passages increased soil dry density in the
upper 20 cm and reduced the air filled pore volume in the upper
30 cm of the soil profile (Tables 4 and 6). Machine traffic
wetted the soil in the top 10 cm and there was a tendency that
soil water content increased with the number of passages,
below 10-cm depth soil became dryer as the number of machine
passages increased (Tables 4 and 6). In the uppermost 20 cm of
the soil, observed soil dry density increase after one machine
passage on strip roads without slash was higher than after five
machine passages where strip roads were covered with 20 cm of
slash (Fig. 2).
Changes in soil density were significantly ( p < 0.001)
negatively correlated with changes in air filled pore volume at
all depths (r = 0.984 to 0.919). At 10 cm depth soil density
change were positively correlated with the changes in soil water
content ( p < 0.001, r = 0.556), but below 10 cm depth no
correlation between the two could be found. Rut depths were
significantly ( p < 0.05) correlated with changes in soil density
at 10 and 20 cm depth (r = 0.411 and 0.333), but not with soil
density changes at 30 and 40 cm depth.
 L. Eliasson, I. Wästerlund / Forest Ecology and Management 252 (2007) 118–123 121

Table 4 Table 6
Significance levels ( p-values) for the effects on change in soil dry density, soil No. of machine passages vs. changes in soil dry density (g cm3), soil water
water content, and air filled pore volume, respectively, by block, slash depth, content (g cm3), and air filled pore volume (cm3 cm3), respectively
passage, and the interaction of slash depth and passage from the ANOVAs for
Depth (cm) No. of passages
each depth
1 2 5
Depth p-Value
3
Dry density (g cm )
Block Slash Passage Slash  passage
10 0.093 a 0.129 a 0.198 b
Dry density (g cm3) 20 0.080 a 0.106 ab 0.140 b
10 0.091 0.000 0.001 0.845 30 0.055 a 0.058 a 0.092 a
20 0.003 0.000 0.015 0.935 40 0.043 a 0.053 a 0.073 a
30 0.000 0.807 0.100 0.970
Water content (g cm3)
40 0.002 0.380 0.270 0.926
10 0.010 a 0.011 a 0.017 a
Water content (g cm3) 20 0.004 a 0.012 b 0.006 ab
10 0.006 0.220 0.052 0.859 30 0.015 a 0.025 b 0.019 ab
20 0.000 0.131 0.017 0.865 40 0.016 a 0.028 b 0.024 b
30 0.007 0.360 0.003 0.815
Air filled pore volume (cm3 cm3)
40 0.026 0.289 0.001 0.661
10 0.046 a 0.061 a 0.094 b
Air filled pore volume (cm3 cm3) 20 0.027 a 0.029 a 0.048 b
10 0.064 0.001 0.002 0.929 30 0.006 aa 0.003 aa 0.016 a
20 0.000 0.001 0.014 0.894 40 0.000 aa 0.007 aa 0.004 aa
30 0.000 0.987 0.058 0.965
Values on the same row followed by different letters were significantly separated
40 0.001 0.465 0.308 0.939
( p < 0.05). Values followed by ‘a’ are not significantly separated from 0.

At 10 and 20 cm depth the relative increase in soil dry slash depth in dm. Adjusted r2 was 0.501 at 10-cm depth and
density could be estimated with the following functions: 0.366 at 20-cm depth and at both depth all variables were highly
rdiff significant ( p < 0.01).
¼ 0:281 þ 0:105 lnðN pass Þ  0:129dslash
r0
4. Discussion
at 10-cm depth and
rdiff Forest soils in the Nordic countries are usually hetero-
¼ 0:130 þ 0:040 lnðN pass Þ  0:045dslash geneous and soil properties may vary within small distances. To
r0
minimise the influences of soil heterogeneity when studying
at 20-cm depth, where rdiff is the dry density increase, r0 the impacts of machine traffic, measurements preferably should be
initial dry density, Npass the number of passages and dslash is the made with non-destructive methods in the same spot. When
tracking changes in soil density, a dual probe gamma gauge
Table 5 may be one of few tools for non-destructive measurements (cf.
Slash thickness in the strip road vs. changes in soil dry density (g cm3), soil
water content (g cm3), and air filled pore volume (cm3 cm3), respectively
Depth (cm) Slash thickness class
0 10 20
3
Dry density (g cm )
10 0.212 a 0.135 b 0.074 b
20 0.159 a 0.101 b 0.066 b
30 0.075 a 0.064 a 0.065 a
40 0.069 a 0.057 a 0.043 a
Water content (g cm3)
10 0.012 a 0.016 a 0.010 a
20 0.010 a 0.005 a 0.007 a
30 0.022 a 0.018 a 0.020 a
40 0.022 a 0.025 a 0.021 a
Air filled pore volume (cm3 cm3)
10 0.093 a 0.068 ab 0.039 b
20 0.051 a 0.034 ab 0.019 b
30 0.007 aa 0.007 aa 0.006 aa
40 0.004 aa 0.003 aa 0.004 aa
Fig. 2. Observed soil dry density increase (g cm3) vs. slash reinforcement
Values on the same row followed by different letters were significantly treatments (no slash = solid line, 10 cm slash hatched line, and 20 cm slash
separated ( p < 0.05). Values followed by ‘a’ are not significantly separated dotted line) and number of passages (one passage = squares, two passages = -
from 0. circles and five passages triangles).
122 L. Eliasson, I. Wästerlund / Forest Ecology and Management 252 (2007) 118–123
Rawitz et al., 1982; Jansson, 1998), as the measurements can be
made repeatedly in exactly the same holes for the measurement
probes if these are filled with wooden rods between
measurements. The wooden rods had no effect on comparisons
between treatments or on the soil compaction process, although
they did absorb some moisture during the experiment.
Slash thickness is difficult to measure accurately, both
depending on what pressure to apply before measurement and
due to variations of the slash thickness within a strip road, and
thus a large number of measurements are needed to get a good
estimate. Furthermore, the effect of slash thickness on rutting
and soil compaction depends on slash properties (size, strength,
etc.). The mass of slash and slash size distribution within a
defined area could give a better estimate on these effects but is
more difficult to apply for practical use.
Rut depths increased when the number of passages increased
but no treatment difference was found. However, in general ruts
were shallow except for in block 2, where a thicker humus layer
in combination with a wetter soil led to deeper ruts.
Furthermore in block 2, the humus largely consisted of
sphagnum moss and peat in contrast to other blocks where it
mostly consisted of decomposing litter and roots.
In studies with similar objectives it has been observed that
slash cover on strip roads provide soil protection (Jacobsen and
Moore, 1981; Wronski et al., 1990; McDonald and Seixas,
1997), the results of the present study confirms this. The thin
slash cover (10 cm) gave less protection than the thick
especially after multiple passages. With increasing number
of passages wear and breakage of the slash cover probably
contributed to reduce the effects of slash, especially when the
slash cover was thin (Wronski et al., 1990), however, no
significant interaction between slash thickness class and
number of passages was found. It is probable that the type
of slash, i.e. depending on tree species and size of trees
harvested, will influence the effect of slash on soil compaction
and the depth to which slash influences soil compaction.
Furthermore, soil type and soil moisture content will affect the
effects of slash on soil compaction. These relationships need
further studies.
In the present study the use of slash from a spruce forest as a
cover on the strip road reduced relative soil compaction at
10 cm soil depth by 12.9% per 10 cm of slash cover and at
20 cm soil depth by 4.5% per 10 cm of slash cover. Thus, the
major effects of slash seem to occur in the top soil, which also is
the most important for spruce tree growth (Wronski and
Murphy, 1994). When using the functions predicting relative
dry density increase care must be taken not to use them outside
of the material they are based on. The functions are based on
slash depths between 0 and 2 dm and logically a very thick slash
bed might prevent soil compaction but it will not cause a
reduction in soil density, as long as no mixing of slash and soil
occurs.
The absence of significant treatment differences in soil dry
density changes at 30 and 40 cm depth can partly be explained
by low potential for compaction, due to a combination of almost
water filled pores and a fine soil that restricted soil water
movements.
In order to reduce the risk for soil disturbance without using
logging debris to reinforce the strip roads technical solutions
such as larger tyres, lower tyre pressure, and bogie-tracks can
be used, i.e. methods similar to those used on agricultural
vehicles (Alakukku et al., 2003; Chamen et al., 2003). An
increase of the tyre width from 600 to 800 mm reduced rut
depths with approximately 50% for an eight-wheeled 22 Mg
forwarder (Myhrman, 1990). As there are legal limits on
machine width on public roads and the tyre of large forwarders
usually are between 700 and 750 mm wide, the possibility to
further increase tyre width is limited. Due to high wheel loads
and uneven terrain, with obstacles such as stones and stumps,
tyre pressures on large forwarders are held high compared to on
agricultural machinery. Reducing tyre pressure on a laden large
forwarder from 600 to 300 kPa tended to reduce soil
compaction in the uppermost 20 cm of the soil during the
first forwarder passage, however, after four forwarder passages
no differences in soil compaction could be found (Eliasson,
2005). As a large share of the soil compaction were caused by
the harvester and as it is difficult to reduce harvester tyre
pressure without compromising machine stability and thus the
ability to reach out with the boom, other solutions are needed to
reduce soil disturbance caused by the harvester. One solution
could be to use bogie tracks, which was found to reduce rut
depth and cause comparable changes in cone index after traffic
when used on a trailer with a bogie axle load of 12.5 Mg
compared to when the trailer was used without bogie tracks
(Bygdén et al., 2004). Due to the risk of track inflicted damage
to the tyres, tyre manufacturers recommend that tyre inflation
pressures were kept close to maximum levels when bogie tracks
are used.
In the present study the rear bogie of the loaded forwarder
carried 62% of the total load. An even mass balance would
reduce the rear axle load with approximately 4.5 Mg, which
could reduce the soil compaction to some extent (Håkansson
and Petelkau, 1994).
To reinforce strip roads with the amount of slash used in the
present study approximately 24 Mg slash per ha are necessary
for the 10 cm treatment and 56 Mg slash/ha for the 20 cm
treatment, assuming 12.5 m between strip roads and a strip road
width of 4 m. There are further benefits of leaving the slash in
the cut than just a reduction of soil compaction, as it is shown
that removal of the slash has negative effects on the growth of
the new stand (Egnell and Valinger, 2003). On the other hand
the income from slash sales to heating plants contributes to the
net revenue of the cut and is said to partly pay for site
preparation and planting of the site at the same time as it makes
site preparation and planting easier. Site preparation has an
amelioration effect on compacted soil (Miwa et al., 2004), but
not all of the compacted soil will be affected by site preparation
and the amelioration effects are dependent on the site
preparation technique used.
If heating plants would accept forest fuel contaminated by
soil particles, slash could be used both to reinforce strip roads
and thereafter as forest fuel. However, at present this is not the
case as it would necessitate improved chipping and combustion
techniques.
 L. Eliasson, I. Wästerlund / Forest Ecology and Management 252 (2007) 118–123
This study shows that soil compaction in the top soil, so
important to growth, can be reduced by slash reinforcements of
the strip roads. It would seem worthwhile to reinforce strip
roads with slash on sensible parts of clear-cuts even when slash
is harvested for energy use. Further studies are needed to
evaluate if it is possible to further reduce soil disturbance by
proper combinations of slash reinforcement and bogie tracks or
by a combination of slash reinforcement and reduced tyre
pressures. Studies are also needed to clarify how much of the
compacted soil that is loosened by scarification and to which
depth scarification loosens the soil.
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