Bearing Design

in Machinery
Engineering Tribology
and Lubrication

Avraham Harnoy
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark, New Jersey

Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York • Basel

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To Renana, Amir, and Alon
Preface

Most engineering schools offer senior courses in bearing design in machinery.

These courses are offered under various titles, such as Tribology, Bearings and
Bearing Lubrication, and Advanced Machine Design. This book is intended for
use as a textbook for these and similar courses for undergraduate students and for
self-study by engineers involved in design, maintenance, and development of
machinery. The text includes many examples of problems directly related to
important design cases, which are often encountered by engineers. In addition,
students will find this book useful as a reference for design projects and machine
design courses.
Engineers have already realized that there is a need for a basic course and a
textbook for undergraduate students that does not focus on only one bearing type,
such as a hydrodynamic bearing or a rolling-element bearing, but presents the big
picture—an overview of all bearing types. This course should cover the funda-
mental aspects of bearing selection, design, and tribology. Design engineers
require much more knowledge for bearing design than is usually taught in
machine design courses.
This book was developed to fill this need. The unique approach of this text
is that it is not intended only for scientists and graduate students, but it is
specifically tailored as a basic practical course for engineers. For this purpose, the
traditional complex material of bearing design was simplified and presented in a
methodical way that is easily understood, and illustrated by many examples.
v
vi Preface

However, this text also includes chapters for advanced studies, to upgrade the text
for graduate-level courses.
Engineering schools continually strive to strengthen the design component
of engineering education, in order to meet the need of the industry, and this text is
intended to satisfy this requirement. Whenever an engineer faces the task of
designing a machine, his first questions are often which bearings to select and
how to arrange them, and how to house, lubricate and seal the bearings.
Appropriate bearing design is essential for a reliable machine operation, because
bearings wear out and fail by fatigue, causing a breakdown in machine operation.
I have used the material in this book for many years to teach a tribology
course for senior undergraduate students and for an advanced course, Bearings
and Bearing Lubrication, for graduate students. The book has benefited from
the teaching experience and constructive comments of the students over the
years.
The first objective of this text is to present the high-level theory in bearing
design in a simplified form, with an emphasis on the basic physical concepts. For
example, the hydrodynamic fluid film theory is presented in basic terms, without
resorting to complex fluid dynamic derivations. The complex mathematical
integration required for solving the pressure wave in fluid-film bearings is
replaced in many cases by a simple numerical integration, which the students
and engineers may prefer to perform with the aid of a personal computer. The
complex calculations of contact stresses in rolling-element bearings are also
presented in a simplified practical form for design engineers.
The second objective is that the text be self-contained, and the explanation
of the material be based on first principles. This means that engineers of various
backgrounds can study this text without prerequisite advanced courses.
The third objective is not to dwell only on theory and calculations, but
rather to emphasize the practical aspects of bearing design, such as bearings
arrangement, high-temperature considerations, tolerances, and material selection.
In the past, engineers gained this expert knowledge only after many years of
experience. This knowledge is demonstrated in this text by a large number of
drawings of design examples and case studies from various industries. In
addition, important economical considerations are included. For bearing selection
and design, engineers must consider the initial cost of each component as well as
the long-term maintenance expenses.
The fourth objective is to encourage students to innovate design ideas and
unique solutions to bearing design problems. For this purpose, several case
studies of interesting and unique solutions are included in this text.
In the last few decades, there has been remarkable progress in machinery
and there is an ever-increasing requirement for better bearings that can operate
at higher speeds, under higher loads, and at higher temperatures. In response to
this need, a large volume of experimental and analytical research has been
Preface vii

conducted that is directly related to bearing design. Another purpose of this text is
to make the vast amount of accumulated knowledge readily available to
engineers.
In many cases, bearings are selected by using manufacturers’ catalogs of
rolling-element bearings. However, as is shown in this text, rolling bearings are
only one choice, and depending on the application, other bearing types can be
more suitable or more economical for a specific application. This book reviews
the merits of other bearing types to guide engineers.
Bearing design requires an interdisciplinary background. It involves calcu-
lations that are based on the principles of fluid mechanics, solid mechanics, and
material science. The examples in the book are important to show how all these
engineering principles are used in practice. In particular, the examples are
necessary for self-study by engineers, to answer the questions that remain after
reading the theoretical part of the text.
Extensive use is made of the recent development in computers and software
for solving basic bearing design problems. In the past, engineers involved in
bearing design spent a lot of time and effort on analytical derivations, particularly
on complicated mathematical integration for calculating the load capacity of
hydrodynamic bearings. Recently, all this work was made easier by computer-
aided numerical integration. The examples in this text emphasize the use of
computers for bearing design.
Chapter 1 is a survey of the various bearing types; the advantages and
limitations of each bearing type are discussed. The second chapter deals with
lubricant viscosity, its measurement, and variable viscosity as a function of
temperature and pressure. Chapter 3 deals with the characteristics of lubricants,
including mineral and synthetic oils and greases, as well as the many additives
used to enhance the desired properties.
Chapters 4–7 deal with the operation of fluid-film bearings. The hydro-
dynamic lubrication theory is presented from first principles, and examples of
calculations of the pressure wave and load capacity are included. Chapter 8 deals
with the use of charts for practical bearing design procedures, and estimation of
the operation temperature of the oil. Chapter 9 presents practical examples of
widely used hydrodynamic bearings that overcome the limitations of the common
hydrodynamic journal bearings. Chapter 10 covers the design of hydrostatic pad
bearings in which an external pump generates the pressure. The complete
hydraulic system is discussed.
Chapter 11 deals with bearing materials. The basic principles of practical
tribology (friction and wear) for various materials are introduced. Metals and
nonmetals such as plastics and ceramics as well as composite materials are
included.
viii Preface

Chapters 12 and 13 deal with rolling element bearings. In Chapter 12, the
calculations of the contact stresses in rolling bearings and elastohydrodynamic
lubrication are presented with practical examples. In Chapter 13, the practical
aspects of rolling bearing lubrication are presented. In addition, the selection of
rolling bearings is outlined, with examples. Most important, the design consid-
erations of bearing arrangement are discussed, and examples provided. Chapter
14 covers the subject of bearing testing under static and dynamic conditions.
Chapter 15 deals with hydrodynamic journal bearings under dynamic load.
It describes the use of computers for solving the trajectory of the journal center
under dynamic conditions. Chapters 16 and 17 deal with friction characteristics
and modeling of dynamic friction, which has found important applications in
control of machines with friction. Chapter 18 presents a unique case study of
composite bearing—hydrodynamic and rolling-element bearing in series. Chapter
19 deals with viscoelastic (non-Newtonian) lubricants, such as the VI improved
oils, and Chapter 20 describes the operation of natural human joints as well as the
challenges in the development of artificial joint implants.
I acknowledge the constructive comments of many colleagues and engi-
neers involved in bearing design, and the industrial publications and advice
provided by the members of the Society of Tribology and Lubrication Engineers.
Many graduates who had taken this course have already used the preliminary
notes for actual design and provided valuable feedback and important comments.
I am grateful to my graduate and undergraduate students, whose valuable
comments were instrumental in making the text easily understood. Many solved
problems were added because the students felt that they were necessary for
unambiguous understanding of the many details of bearing design. Also, I wish to
express my appreciation to Ted Allen and Marcel Dekker, Inc., for the great help
and support with this project.
I acknowledge all the companies that provided materials and drawings, in
particular, FAG and SKF. I am also pleased to thank the graduate students Simon
Cohn and Max Roman for conducting experiments that are included in the text,
helping with drawings, and reviewing examples, and Gaurav Dave, for help with
the artwork.
Special thanks to my son, Amir Harnoy, who followed the progress of the
writing of this text, and continually provided important suggestions. Amir is a
mechanical project engineer who tested the text in actual designs for the
aerospace industry. Last but not least, particular gratitude to my wife, Renana,
for help and encouragement during the long creation of this project.

Avraham Harnoy
Contents

Preface v
Symbols xvii

Chapter 1 Classification and Selection of Bearings 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Dry and Boundary Lubrication Bearings 5
1.3 Hydrodynamic Bearing 6
1.4 Hydrostatic Bearing 9
1.5 Magnetic Bearing 12
1.6 Rolling Element Bearings 14
1.7 Selection Criteria 17
1.8 Bearings for Precision Applications 19
1.9 Noncontact Bearings for Precision Application 20
1.10 Bearing Subjected to Frequent Starts and Stops 21
1.11 Example Problems 22

Chapter 2 Lubricant Viscosity 33

2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Simple Shear Flow 34
ix
x Contents

2.3 Boundary Conditions of Flow 36

2.4 Viscosity Units 37
2.5 Viscosity–Temperature Curves 38
2.6 Viscosity Index 40
2.7 Viscosity as a Function of Pressure 41
2.8 Viscosity as a Function of Shear Rate 43
2.9 Viscoelastic Lubricants 43

Chapter 3 Fundamental Properties of Lubricants 47

3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Crude Oils 48
3.3 Base Oil Components 49
3.4 Synthetic Oils 50
3.5 Greases 56
3.6 Additives to Lubricants 58

Chapter 4 Principles of Hydrodynamic Lubrication 67

4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Assumptions of Hydrodynamic Lubrication Theory 69
4.3 Hydrodynamic Long Bearing 72
4.4 Differential Equation of Fluid Motion 72
4.5 Flow in a Long Bearing 74
4.6 Pressure Wave 79
4.7 Plane-Slider Load Capacity 81
4.8 Viscous Friction Force in a Plane-Slider 81
4.9 Flow Between Two Parallel Plates 82
4.10 Fluid-Film Between a Cylinder and Flat Plate 84
4.11 Solution in Dimensionless Terms 86

Chapter 5 Basic Hydrodynamic Equations 94

5.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 94

5.2 Reynolds Hydrodynamic Lubrication Equation 97
5.3 Wide Plane-Slider 103
5.4 Fluid Film Between a Flat Plate and a Cylinder 104
5.5 Transition to Turbulence 105
5.6 Cylindrical Coordinates 110
5.7 Squeeze-Film Flow 111
Contents xi

Chapter 6 Long Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing 118

6.1 Introduction 118

6.2 Reynolds Equation for a Journal Bearing 120
6.3 Journal Bearing with Rotating Sleeve 121
6.4 Combined Rolling and Sliding 122
6.5 Pressure Wave in a Long Journal Bearing 125
6.6 Sommerfeld Solution of the Pressure Wave 127
6.7 Journal Bearing Load Capacity 129
6.8 Load Capacity Based on Sommerfeld Conditions 131
6.9 Friction in a Long Journal Bearing 132
6.10 Power Loss on Viscous Friction 134
6.11 Sommerfeld Number 134
6.12 Practical Pressure Boundary Conditions 135

Chapter 7 Short Journal Bearings 147

7.1 Introduction 147

7.2 Short-Bearing Analysis 149
7.3 Flow in the Axial Direction 153
7.4 Sommerfeld Number of a Short Bearing 153
7.5 Viscous Friction 154
7.6 Journal Bearing Stiffness 155

Chapter 8 Design Charts for Finite-Length Journal Bearings 161

8.1 Introduction 161

8.2 Design Procedure 162
8.3 Minimum Film Thickness 163
8.4 Raimondi and Boyd Charts and Tables 164
8.5 Fluid Film Temperature 181
8.6 Peak Temperature in Large, Heavily Loaded Bearings 188
8.7 Design Based on Experimental Curves 190

Chapter 9 Practical Applications of Journal Bearings 196

9.1 Introduction 196

9.2 Hydrodynamic Bearing Whirl 197
9.3 Elliptical Bearings 198
9.4 Three-Lobe Bearings 199
xii Contents

9.5 Pivoted-Pad Journal Bearing 200

9.6 Bearings Made of Compliant Materials 202
9.7 Foil Bearings 203
9.8 Analysis of a Foil Bearing 204
9.9 Foil Bearings in High-Speed Turbines 207
9.10 Design Example of a Compliant Bearing 209

Chapter 10 Hydrostatic Bearings 212

10.1 Introduction 212

10.2 Hydrostatic Circular Pads 214
10.3 Radial Pressure Distribution and Load Capacity 214
10.4 Power Losses in the Hydrostatic Pad 218
10.5 Optimization for Minimum Power Loss 219
10.6 Long Rectangular Hydrostatic Bearings 222
10.7 Multidirectional Hydrostatic Support 223
10.8 Hydrostatic Pad Stiffness for Constant Flow-Rate 226
10.9 Constant-Pressure-Supply Pads with Restrictors 233
10.10 Analysis of Stiffness for a Constant Pressure Supply 235
10.11 Journal Bearing Cross-Stiffness 243
10.12 Applications 244
10.13 Hydraulic Pumps 244
10.14 Gear Pump Characteristics 248
10.15 Flow Dividers 252
10.16 Case Study: Hydrostatic Shoe Pads in Large Rotary Mills 252

Chapter 11 Bearing Materials 267

11.1 Fundamental Principles of Tribology 267

11.2 Wear Mechanisms 273
11.3 Selection of Bearing Materials 275
11.4 Metal Bearings 279
11.5 Nonmetal Bearing Materials 283

Chapter 12 Rolling Element Bearings 308

12.1 Introduction 308

12.2 Classification of Rolling-Element Bearings 314
12.3 Hertz Contact Stresses in Rolling Bearings 323
12.4 Theoretical Line Contact 324
Contents xiii

12.5 Ellipsoidal Contact Area in Ball Bearings 331

12.6 Rolling-Element Speed 340
12.7 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication in Rolling Bearings 342
12.8 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of a Line Contact 345
12.9 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Ball Bearings 351
12.10 Force Components in an Angular Contact Bearing 361

Chapter 13 Selection and Design of Rolling Bearings 378

13.1 Introduction 378

13.2 Fatigue Life Calculations 390
13.3 Bearing Operating Temperature 395
13.4 Rolling Bearing Lubrication 399
13.5 Bearing Precision 411
13.6 Internal Clearance of Rolling Bearings 414
13.7 Vibrations and Noise in Rolling Bearings 416
13.8 Shaft and Housing Fits 418
13.9 Stress and Deformation Due to Tight Fits 429
13.10 Bearing Mounting Arrangements 436
13.11 Adjustable Bearing Arrangement 440
13.12 Examples of Bearing Arrangements in Machinery 447
13.13 Selection of Oil Versus Grease 458
13.14 Grease Lubrication 460
13.15 Grease Life 467
13.16 Liquid Lubrication Systems 471
13.17 High-Temperature Applications 478
13.18 Speed Limit of Standard Bearings 479
13.19 Materials for Rolling Bearings 481
13.20 Processes for Manufacturing High-Purity Steel 484
13.21 Ceramic Materials for Rolling Bearings 485
13.22 Rolling Bearing Cages 490
13.23 Bearing Seals 490
13.24 Mechanical Seals 498

Chapter 14 Testing of Friction and Wear 502

14.1 Introduction 502

14.2 Testing Machines for Dry and Boundary Lubrication 503
14.3 Friction Testing Under High-Frequency Oscillations 505
14.4 Measurement of Journal Bearing Friction 509
14.5 Testing of Dynamic Friction 511
14.6 Friction-Testing Machine with a Hydrostatic Pad 512
xiv Contents

14.7 Four-Bearings Measurement Apparatus 514

14.8 Apparatus for Measuring Friction in Linear Motion 517

Chapter 15 Hydrodynamic Bearings Under Dynamic Conditions 521

15.1 Introduction 521

15.2 Analysis of Short Bearings Under Dynamic Conditions 522
15.3 Journal Center Trajectory 526
15.4 Solution of Journal Motion by Finite-Difference Method 526

Chapter 16 Friction Characteristics 531

16.1 Introduction 531

16.2 Friction in Hydrodynamic and Mixed Lubrication 532
16.3 Friction of Plastic Against Metal 537
16.4 Dynamic Friction 537

Chapter 17 Modeling Dynamic Friction 540

17.1 Introduction 540

17.2 Dynamic Friction Model for Journal Bearings 542
17.3 Development of the Model 543
17.4 Modeling Friction at Steady Velocity 546
17.5 Modeling Dynamic Friction 548
17.6 Comparison of Model Simulations and Experiments 550

Chapter 18 Case Study: Composite Bearing—Rolling Element

and Fluid Film in Series 556

18.1 Introduction 556

18.2 Composite-Bearing Designs 558
18.3 Previous Research in Composite Bearings 563
18.4 Composite Bearing with Centrifugal Mechanism 564
18.5 Performance Under Dynamic Conditions 568
18.6 Thermal Effects 576

Chapter 19 Non-Newtonian Viscoelastic Effects 582

19.1 Introduction 582

Contents xv

19.2 Viscoelastic Fluid Models 584

19.3 Analysis of Viscoelastic Fluid Flow 586
19.4 Pressure Wave in a Journal Bearing 590
19.5 Squeeze-Film Flow 592

Chapter 20 Orthopedic Joint Implants 596

20.1 Introduction 596

20.2 Artificial Hip Joint as a Bearing 598
20.3 History of the Hip Replacement Joint 599
20.4 Materials for Joint Implants 601
20.5 Dynamic Friction 602

Appendix A Units and Definitions of Material Properties 605

Appendix B Numerical Integration 609

Bibliography 615

Index 625