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JANSONS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Lecture Notes

Prepared by

Mr.C.Naveen Kumar
Mr.R.Dinesh
JANSONS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Lecture notes

B.E Mechanical Engineering


(Sixth Semester)

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UNIT 1 Vehicle Structure & Engines
• Types of automobiles
• Vehicle construction and different layouts
• Chassis, frame and body
• Resistances to vehicle motion and need for a gearbox
• Components of engine - their forms, functions and materials

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Automobile
 An automobile is a self propelled vehicle.
 In other words, an automobile is one which can move by itself.
As the name implies, it is a mobile or a moving power unit on
road.
 Self propelled means a unit which contains its own power
source, necessary for moving within itself. As a vehicle, it is
used for transportation of passengers and goods.
 Bus, Car, Truck, Motorcycle, Scooter, etc., arc good examples
for self propelled vehicles.

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Automobile
 The Petrol or Diesel is the source of power for Automobiles.
 Internal Combustion or Heat Engines the function of which is
to convert heat energy available in the fuel into mechanical
work.

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Automobile
 Germany is the birth place of automobile.
 The list of German automobile pioneers is a long one starting
with Nicholas Cugnot, August, Otto, Carl Benz, Gottlieb,
Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach and Rudolf Diesel and going all
the way up to Ferdinand Porsche and Felix Wankel.

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General Classification of automobiles
 The single unit vehicles or load carriers
 Articulated vehicles
 The heavy tractor vehicles
Single Unit Vehicle
 They are conventional four-wheelers. The great majority of
vehicles made of two axle design.
 In these vehicles the front axle is a steering non-driving axle.
 Nowadays there has been drastic development so the axles and
driving are improved and varied according to usage.

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General Classification of automobiles
Articulated Vehicles
 A lower powered three-wheeler with a single steering wheel in front
and a conventional rear driving axle is an example of articulated
vehicles.
 It has a greater handling ability in awkward places. It can be turned
about its own tail due to the three-wheel construction.
 The coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of
these vehicles is arranged for automatic connection.
 But for uncoupling operation, a lever is provided within the driver’s
cabin to reverse the whole process.
 A pair of retractable wheels in front is also provided. Along with the
coupling or uncoupling operation, they can be raised or lowered
automatically.

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General Classification of automobiles
Articulated Vehicles

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General Classification of automobiles
Heavy tractor vehicles
 Heavy tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used to move
heavy loads, they commonly operate in pair either in tandem or
as ‘puller’ and ‘pusher’.
 While descending appreciable gradients, stability is provided
by the later arrangement.

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Automobile Classification
1. Based on use
 Auto-cycles and Mopeds
 Scooters and Motorcycles
 Cars, Station wagons and Pick-ups
 Lorries (Buses) and Trucks
 Tractors

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Automobile Classification
2. Based on number of wheels and axles
 Two-wheelers such as mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles.
 Three-wheelers such as tempos, road rollers, tractors.
 Four-wheelers such as cars, jeeps, minibuses, trucks, tractors,
buses and racing cars.
 Five-wheelers such as road rollers.
 Six-wheelers such as truck-tankers, good carriage vehicles.
 Eight or more-wheelers such as a car transporting vehicles,
rocket transporters.

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Automobile Classification
3. Based on prime mover used
 Steam engine driven automobiles
 I.C engine driven automobiles
a) Petrol vehicles b) Diesel vehicles c) Gas vehicles
 Gas turbine driven automobiles
 Wankel engine driven automobiles
 Electric power driven automobiles
 Battery (Chemical power) driven automobiles
 Solar energy driven automobiles
 Hybrid powered automobiles

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Automobile Classification
4. Based on capacity
 Light weight or light duty vehicles – pick ups, cars, jeeps, station
wagon.
 Medium weight or medium duty vehicles – Tempo, minibus, station
wagon, small trucks.
 Heavy weight or heavy duty vehicles – trucks, buses, dumpers.
 Extra heavy duty vehicles.
 Special purpose (load) vehicles.

5. Based on purpose served


 On-the-road vehicles - Scooters, Cars, trucks, etc.,
 Off-the-road vehicles- Tractors, Construction equipment, etc.,
 On and Off-the-road vehicles- Military tanks, Gun carriages,
Bulldozers, etc

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Automobile Classification
8. Based on the fuel used
 Petrol vehicles - Jeeps, cars, Motor Cycles.
 Diesel vehicles - Truck, Bus, Tractor, Bulldozer.
 Dual Fuel (petrol and Diesel) vehicles such as Fargo, Podge,
Bedford trucks.
 Gas vehicles - Coal gas, Gas turbine or Producer gas Vehicles,
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Volvo.
 Hydrogen vehicles such as Musashi III Car.
 Steam vehicles - Steam road rollers, it is now obsolete.

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Automobile Classification
9. Based on the type of wheel drive system
 Single Wheel drive ( 1 Wd)
 Two Wheel drive (2 Wd)
 Four Wheel drive (4 Wd)
 All Wheel drive (6 Wd or more)

 Left hand drive and Right hand drive vehicles

10. Based on the engine capacity


 800 cc
 1.2 L, etc

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Construction of four wheeler automobile
An automobile is a combination of a large number of parts. It
can be divided into two major constituents:
 Chassis and
 Body.

 Body is the part where the passengers have their seat on the
luggage and cargo to be carried is placed.
 Chassis is the main machine portion, which contain most of the
components required for the operation and running of the
automobile.
 The portion of the automobile without body is called chassis.
The body fixed over the frame of the vehicle is generally
detachable.

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CHASSIS

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Chassis
 The shape of the chassis is determined by location of the power
unit, the arrangement of the suspension system and the loads to
be carried.
 The function of the chassis is to provide a mounting for all the
assembles over the frame and keep them in correct relative
positions, inspite of all the varying loads to which they are
subjected.
 It must be strong and rigid, and is usually made from steel
pressings which are welded and riveted together. Reinforcement
is provided, where necessary, to add to its rigidity.

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Chassis
 Cross bracings are provided in the chassis to withstand the shock,
blows, twists and vibrations.
 As per the layout, the engine is mounted on the front part of the frame.
 Rubber cushioned mounts or pads are used to support the engine on
the frame.
 The clutch is placed, next to the engine, connected to the flywheel;
 Transmission or the gear box is positioned or attached to the clutch
shaft.
 Then a propeller shaft is laid to connect the gear box on one end and
the final drive on the other end. These are enclosed in a housing,
bolted to the rear axle spring, which is connected to the frame through
springs.

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Chassis
 The entire arrangement mounted and bolted on the chassis frame
is supported by the front and rear suspension systems. This is
positioned over front and rear wheel and tyre assemblies, to
avoid or minimize the transmission of shock to the frame.
 Chassis consists of
1. Frame
2. Power unit (Engine)
3. Transmission systems - clutch, propeller shaft with universal
joints, differential and the rear axle shafts;
4. Running systems - brakes, wheels, tyres, frame, suspension
and the steering system.
5. Auxiliary systems
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Chassis component – Power unit
 Power unit consist of an internal combustion engine. It is usually
mounted at the front end of the car.
 The clutch and the gear-box are placed immediately behind it.
 The three components (engine, clutch and gear-box) are
assembled into a single unit.

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Chassis component – Transmission unit
 This system or mechanism carries the power from engine to the
wheels of the vehicle.
 It is bolted through the clutch to the engine at the front and the
rear to the springs which are connected to the chassis to prevent
the engine vibrations from transmitted to vehicle. It generally
consists of
 Friction clutch
 Gear-box providing three, or four different ratios of torque
(output to input),
 Propeller shaft for transmitting the torque output from gear-box
to the rear axle
 Final gear reduction in the rear axle and differential gear for
distributing the final torque between the wheels equally.

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Chassis component – Transmission unit
 Gear Box: It consists of various types of gears which are
constantly in mesh. The Gear changes are made by sliding the
dogs. The main function of the gear-box is to provide the
necessary variation to the torque applied by the engine to the
road wheel according to operating conditions.
 Propeller Shaft: It is universally jointed shaft. Its function is to
transmit the power from the rear end of the gear-box to the final
reduction gear in the axle.

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Chassis component – Transmission unit
 Universal Joint: Due to the flexing of the road springs, the rear
axle is constantly moving up and down. The propeller shaft
fitted to the rear axle must also be free to move up and down. To
permit the turning of the propeller shaft when this movement is
taking place, universal joints are fitted at each of its ends.
Therefore, the relative movement between the engine and the
driving wheel is maintained by the universal joint.
 Differential Gear: It carries the power from the propeller shaft
to the rear wheel axles. It helps the two rear wheels to turn at
different speeds when rounding a curve. The outer wheel must
over-run the inner wheels when taking a turn. The differential
gear also ensures that the final output torque is equally
distributed between the two wheels without any consideration of
their relative speeds.

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Chassis component – Transmission unit
 Clutch: It is a friction type uncoupling device. It consists of a
single steel disc faced with suitable friction material. It is
clamped between two surfaces directly driven by the engine. For
disengaging the clutch, the two surfaces are positively separated
by pressing the clutch pedal. The main function of the clutch is
to take up the drive smoothly from the engine and to release or
disengage that drive whenever desired. The disengagement of
clutch is required while changing the gear or bringing the
vehicle to rest.

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Chassis component – Suspension
System
 The various parts are attached to the basic structure by means of
springing suspension system.
 This system is used to prevent the road shocks to the various
vehicle components and the occupants and to preserve stability
under various road conditions. There are two types of
suspension system:
(a) The conventional system: where the springs are attached to a
rigid beam axle. It is mostly used in the front axle of commercial
vehicles and for rear axle of all types of vehicles.
(b) The independent system; in this system there is no rigid axle.
Each wheel is free to move vertically without any reaction on its
mating wheel. This is mostly used is small rear axle suspensions.

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Chassis component – Front Axle &
steering system
 It is used for steering front wheels carried on stub axles
swiveling upon king pins the axle extremities. Steering arms and
track rod link the two stub axles together for swiveling them by
a steering wheel about the king pins. The steering wheel linked
to one of the stub axle by a shaft, a gear box and suitable linkage
is operated by the driver’s hand wheel. An axle in which one-
piece beam was used to support the vehicle through springs
(axle and spring arrangement) was previously used.
 Now, an arrangement known as independent front suspension
has replaced the axle and spring arrangement.
 Under the control of springs, the wheels are free to rise and fall
vertical independently of each other.

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Chassis component – Rear Axle
 Rear axle or driving axle is a tube like shaft enclosing driving shafts
with suitable bearings for rotating the wheels. It is used for fixing the
rear wheels.
 It is enlarged at the centre for enclosing the final drive gears used for
providing main speed reduction between the engine and the driving
wheels.
 When going round a curve, the inner wheel has to travel a smaller
distance in comparison to the outer wheel. But both the rear wheel
would rotate at the same speed if they are connected by a shaft. This
rotation of both the wheels would result in slipping of one or both of
them on the road surface causing excessive tyre wear as well as severe
twisting loads on the shaft. Moreover, the two wheels of the exactly
similar diameter can only turn at the same speed without slip on the
straight road. Each wheel is provided with its own separate half-shaft
connected by a differential gear and meeting at about the centre of the
axle.

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Chassis component – Rear Axle
 Therefore, when going round a curve, the wheels are free to
rotate at different speeds although they are provided with equal
drive by the differential gear.
 For preventing the transmission of shock from uneven road
surfaces to the vehicle, springs are used to support the vehicle on
the axle. In order to allow for the vertical movements of the
wheels relative to the frame as well as to allow the parts of the
shaft to operate at different angle, another arrangement is used in
which the final drive gears and the differential gear is mounted
in a casting attached to the frame with independently sprung
wheels attached to them by means of shafts through devices
called universal joints.

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Chassis component – Wheels
 The wheels which are four in number are fitted below the car
chassis to support the load of the vehicle and passengers as well
as run the car.
 They are fitted with hollow rubber tyres filled with air in rubber
tubes under sufficient pressure necessary for carrying the load.
 The shocks caused by road irregularities are absorbed by them.
By fitting springs between the wheels and the vehicle allowing
the vertical movement of the wheels in relation to vehicle,
greater part of unevenness of road surfaces is taken care of.

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Chassis component – Auxiliary
systems - Brakes
 Brake assemblies are mounted at the end of the axles and each
consists of a non rotating back-plate and shoe assembly which is
enclosed by a drum.
 The drum rotates with the road wheels, and the back-plate are
bolted rigidly to the stub axles and to the ends of the rear axle
case.
 Two shoes are mounted on each back-plate and each carries a
friction lining of an asbestos material. Some linings are riveted
to the shoes by copper or brass rivets, while others are secured
by means of a chemical bonding process.
 The shoes may be thin steel pressings or aluminum alloy
castings but they must be rigid and they must absorb and
dissipate heat quickly.

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BODY
 All parts and accessories needed for the comfort of the human
being are contained in the body of the vehicle. These include
doors, windows, lights, fans, seats, air-conditioner and other
accessories. The body differing in shape and size from vehicle to
vehicle is generally made of steel and wood or steel alone.

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Layout

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Layout of four wheeler automobile
Some of the important layout of a motor vehicle based on the
drive are:
 Front engine rear wheel drive layout
 Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
 Front engine front wheel drive layout
 Four wheel drive layout

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Front engine rear wheel drive layout
 In this layout a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives
a beam type rear axle suspended on leaf springs through a
propeller shaft with two universal joints.
 With the help of coil springs, the front wheels are independently
sprung.
 This layout is one of the oldest layouts which remained
unchanged for many years.
 Some of the advantages provided by this system are:
 Reasonably balanced weight distribution between the front and
the rear wheels providing good handling characteristics
 For easy front wheel steering movement engine occupies the
reduced width between the arches.
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Front engine rear wheel drive layout
 Behind the rear seats, large luggage space is available providing
increased carrying capacity as well as space for easy body
movement
 Accessibility to various components like engine, gear box and
rear axle is better in comparison to other layouts
 The control linkages such as accelerator, choke, clutch and gear
box are short and simple
 Full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicles
movement is taken by the forward facing radiator in reduced
power losses from a large fan.

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Front engine rear wheel drive
layout

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Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
 This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft
when the engine is mounted adjacent to the driven wheels.
 The engine-clutch-gearbox-final drive form a single unit in this
layout. In order to reduce the ‘overhang’ distance between the
wheel centers and the front of the engine, the final drive is
generally placed between the clutch and the gear box.

Advantages
 It has a simpler drives shaft layout in comparison to front wheel
drive.
 The weight of rear engine on the driving wheels provides
excellent traction and grip especially on steep hills when
accelerating.
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Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
 Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
 Due to the absence of the propeller shaft the obstructed floor
space is reduced.
 The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and
smooth air flow.
 The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried
away from the passengers.
 This drive arrangement results in compact layout and short car.

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Rear engine rear wheel drive layout

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Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
Disadvantages
 It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front,
which houses the fuel tank also.
 Natural air cooling is not possible, it requires a powerful fan.
 Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box
controls.
 The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be
more affected by side winds at high speeds. This makes the
vehicle unstable resulting in over steering and turning very
sharply into a curve.

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Front engine front wheel drive layout
 No propeller shaft is used in front engine front wheel drive and
differentials are included in the same assembly.
 This layout provides optimum body-luggage space and a flat
front line resulting in a transverse longitudinal engine position.
 Good road adhesion is provided by the large proportion of the
vehicles’ weight acting on the driven wheels.
Advantages
 As compared to rear wheel driven car, this is faster and safer
travelling due to good road holding.
 Under steady conditions generally this type of drive is preferred.

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Front engine front wheel drive layout
 The engine, clutch, gear box and final drive are combined
similar to the rear engine car. This provides a more comfortable
drive due to final drive spring.
Disadvantages
 Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels with short
shafts, special universal joints and a more complicated assembly
are required.
 To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy break, the
required weight at the rear usually necessitates special
arrangement.
 The tractive effort which most needed on steep gradients and
during acceleration is reduced.

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Front engine front wheel drive layout

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Four wheel drive layout
 To increase maneuverability of the vehicle required to travel on
rough unconstructed roads and trucks another arrangement
known as Four-wheel drive is provided.
 Due to all the four wheels getting driven, whole weight of the
vehicle is available for traction.
 The system is provided in jeeps which are known as 4 x 4 wheel
drive vehicles.

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Four wheel drive layout

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Chassis component – Frame
 Frame is the main skeleton of the vehicle.
 It serves as the main foundation and base for alignment for the
chassis.
 In most of commercial vehicles in India, The front end of the
frame carries the engine and the rear end carries rear axle
housing, the wheels and tyres. The other components on the
frame are Power unit, Transmission systems, Running systems
and Auxiliary systems.
 The frames are made of box, tubular channel or U-shaped
section, welded or riveted together.
 The frame is provided with cross rods to increase the rigidity,
withstand shocks and vibration.

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Chassis component – Frame
 The frames are made of box, tubular channel or U-shaped
section, welded or riveted together.
 The frame is provided with cross rods to increase the rigidity,
withstand shocks and vibration met during the operation.
 Mostly the chassis frame is of 'X' constructions with some type
of cross members made up of pressed steel, mild steels and
nickel alloy sheets. Modern chassis frames are pressed steel
members and are rigidly attached to each other by riveting or
welding.
 Frame curves upwards at the rear to provide space for the rear
springs.
 It is tapered at the front to provide space for the turning of the
front wheels when steered.

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Frame
Functions of the Frame are
 To carry the weight of the vehicle and passengers.
 To withstand the engine and transmission torque.
 To bear thrust, acceleration and braking torque.
 To resist the centrifugal forces when cornering.
 To withstand bending and twist.
 To strengthen, to resist the severe twist and bending forces at
high speed over rough road.
 To provide correct spacing between the different components.
 To serve as a bed for fuel tank, battery and other mounting units.
 To bear the suspension system.

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Frame
 The frames are made of box, tubular, channel or U-shaped
section, welded or riveted together.
 The frame is provided with cross rods to increase the rigidity,
withstand shocks and vibration met during the operation.
 Mostly the chassis frame is of 'X' constructions with some type
of cross members made up of pressed steel, mild steels and
nickel alloy sheets. Modern chassis frames are pressed steel
members and are rigidly attached to each other by riveting or
welding.
 Frame curves upwards at the rear to provide space for the rear
springs.
 It is tapered at the front to provide space for the turning of the
front wheels when steered.

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Frame - forces
Various loads acting on the frame are
1. Short duration Load - While crossing a broken patch.
2. Momentary duration Load - While taking a curve.
3. Impact Loads - Due to the collision of the vehicle.
4. Inertia Load - While applying brakes.
5. Static Loads - Loads due to chassis parts.
6. Over Loads - Beyond Design capacity.

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Frame - Types
Three Types of Frame are
 Conventional type
 Integral or unitized or frameless type.
 Semi-integral type

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Frame - Conventional type
 Here all the mechanical components are attached to the frame
and the body is superimposed on it.
 This is a standard practice for all commercial vehicles and in
some private and open cars.
 In this, pressed steel frame of channel section, Tubular or Box
section and Channel section are used.
 Channel section is good for bending;
 Tubular section resists torsion and
 Box section serves as good resistance to bending and torsion.

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Frame - Conventional type
 It provides easy mounting of the body.
 The frame is closer at the front to provide adequate steering lock
 The frame is unswept at the rear to provide clear space for the
movement of the axle.
 It also makes the chassis height low.

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Frame - Conventional type
 This consists of two longitudinal or side members A and B,
generally made in the form of pressings of channel section.
These are generally arranged to be closer at the front.
 The side members are brazed by a number of cross members C.
 Dump irons D are provided at the front and rear ends.
 Brackets 'E' are fitted as shown, to which springs are connected
and brackets are provided to support the running boards.
 Some more brackets F supporting the engine, gear box, brakes,
shafts etc., are provided at the required places. The frames are
stiffened with cross pressing for independent suspension and are
stiffer at the front end.

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Frame - Conventional type
 This consists of two longitudinal or side members A and B,
generally made in the form of pressings of channel section.
These are generally arranged to be closer at the front.
 The side members are brazed by a number of cross members C.
 Dump irons D are provided at the front and rear ends.
 Brackets 'E' are fitted as shown, to which springs are connected
and brackets are provided to support the running boards.
 Some more brackets F supporting the engine, gear box, brakes,
shafts etc., are provided at the required places. The frames are
stiffened with cross pressing for independent suspension and are
stiffer at the front end.
 Example- Commercial vehicles
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Frame - Integral or frameless type

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Frame - Integral or frameless type
 The structure contains an under frame with side members and cross
members which are welded together as a single assembly.
 The pressed steel body is attached to the under frame by welding and
riveting.
 A sub-frame can be attached to the body frame in the front of the body
shell, to carry the engine on the front suspension.
 Grooves are pressed in the steel floor and side panels to provide
increased stiffness to the floor.
 Throughout the structure, the stresses are evenly distributed.
 Good torsional rigidity and resistance to bending are provided by this
structure and reinforcement with thicker material is provided at some
points where certain components are to be attached.
 In certain cases, rubber insulations are used in the sub frame to mount
the engine and suspension members.

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Frame – integral type or frameless type
Advantages
 Low weight
 Desired body panels are achieved.
 Very good resistance against bending & torsion
 Design and production costs are very high, so suits well for mass
production.
Disadvantages
 Amplifies road and engine noise to passengers. So special
sound-deadening materials are used.

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Frame – X frame type
 Cross members which crosses in the form of X - fork as shown
in fig.
 The side members and cross members are rigidly attached to
each other by riveting or welding.
 Heavy side members are eliminated and cross members are
connected with the floor of the body. 'X' member may be of
channel or box section.
 This imparts torsional rigidity to the frame.
 Examples - SUV, Passenger cars

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Frame – Semi-integral type
 In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which
engine gear box and front suspension is mounted.
 It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the
front frame can be taken easily to replace the damaged chassis
frame.
 This type of frame is used in FIAT cars and some of the
European and American cars.

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BODY
 Body is the superstructure of the vehicle. This is bolted to the
chassis. A complete vehicle is referred to the combination of
Chassis and Body.
 Body is the cover to the Chassis. The body may be shaped
according to the needs and convenience. The body of the motor
vehicle must fulfill the following requirements:
 Sufficient space to accommodate passengers and luggage.
 Suitable shape to reduce air resistance
 It should be light and strong enough to resist bending, torsion
and impact stresses.
 It should have continuous access to the engine and suspension
system.
contd…

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BODY
 The load should be distributed evenly.
 The mounting of the body should have minimum vibrations.
 It should be cheap and simple in manufacture.
 The design of the panels should be suitable for mass production
and changes in style and design.
 It should be made of sheet metal of sufficient thickness for
adequate safety during collision.
 It should provide clear vision and be of aesthetic in shape.

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BODY

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BODY – forces and materials
 Torsional stiffness imposed by irregular roads.
 Weight of components fitted to it.
 Thrust of springs.
 Minor impacts.

Materials: Mild Steel sheets of 0.6 – 3mm. Apart from this, CI,
Aluminum, Magnesium, copper, zinc, glass and polymers are
used.
Processes: Forming process is equipped. Some times stamping
process is used to make some parts.

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BODY – Construction details
 The roof is supported by roof-headers. The roof enclosed by two
roof-header and two roof-rails and are supported on pillars.
 Pillars are used to attach doors and windows.
 The weights of roof, pillars and other members are borne by the
rails and sills.
 Bumpers in the front and rear provide safety against any
collision.
 A Radiator yoke is provided to accommodate radiator and
cooling systems.
 Shear Panels are provided to encase the engine.
 The body resembles a box.

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BODY - types
* Car * Truck - Punjab body straight truck
* Truck half body * Truck - Platform type
* Tractor * Tractor with articulated trailer
* Tanker * Dumper truck
* Delivery van * Station wagon
* Pick-up * Jeep

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BODY - types

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BODY - types

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1. Car Body Styles
I. Closed cars:
 Hatchback – has 4 doors and a door at the back, i.e. 5 doors.
Typically, hatchback is a small car which has luggage storage
area incorporated along in a single body compartment and is
accessible through the rear door. Precisely, these body-types
do not have an extra rear-end stuffed outside, and is also said
to be the two-box in dimension.

 Sedan – has two or four doors, single compartment with two


rows of seats. It has three box configuration with a separate
extended area to accommodate luggage. Due to considerably
a better length proportions, sedans also benefit in terms of
interior space over hatchback counterparts.
1. Car Body Styles
I. Closed cars:
 Coupe – only one row of seats for two persons. Only two
doors are provided.
II. Open cars
 Sports – Has two doors or less, provided with a collapsible
hood, a fold-flat windscreen and removable side-screen.
 Convertible – Roof in this is of folding type. So the car roof
can be closed or opened.
Closed Cars - Sedan

Honda Suzuki
Sedan SX4
Closed Cars - hatchback

Ford Fiesta 5 door Honda Civic


hatchback Hatchback
Closed Cars - Coupe

Honda Genesis Honda Accord


Coupe Coupe
Open Cars - convertible

Ford Mustang BMW M3


Open Cars - sports

Peugeot 9009 Dodge Viper


2. Truck – Punjab body
 It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is cargo area.
 Cargo area is huge and it suits for carrying two wheelers. Fuel
tank is located below to this.
 Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.

77
3 Truck – Half body
 It is designed to carry heavier loads. So it has stronger
construction and a diesel engine.
 It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is cargo area.
 Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.
 Fuel tank is located below of the cargo area

78
4 Truck – Platform type
 It is designed to carry heavier loads. It carries load carrying
capacity of about 3 ton for longer distance. So it has stronger
construction and a diesel engine.
 It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is cargo area.
 Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.
 Fuel tank is located below of the long cargo area
 A truck can have many axles depending on axle load
legislation.

79
5. Tractor
 The conventional has an engine and hood over the front axle in front
of the cab. The cab over engine has a flat nose cab with the driver
sitting in front of the front axle.
 A tractor unit can have many axles depending on axle load
legislation.

80
6. Tractor with articulated trailer
 Here the tractor is fitted with an articulated trailer. The controls
for the trailer are fitted in the driver cabin.
 A trailer unit can have many axles depending on axle load
legislation.

81
7. Tanker truck
 It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is a tank.
 The tank is mostly cylindrical in shape and it is meant for
storing and transporting fluids.
 Tank trucks are constructed of various materials depending on
what products they are hauling. These materials
include aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, and fiberglass
reinforced plastic (FRP).

82
8. Dumper truck
 It has three compartment – one for housing all the systems, the
successive compartment is driver cabin and the last one is
open-top cargo area.
 The open-top cargo area can be tilted and all the controls are
kept in second compartment.
 Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.

83
9. Van
 A Van has a body designed to carry light goods over short
distances.
 Max Weight of van is 7.5 ton. It carries load carrying capacity
of about 0.5 ton.
 The front cabin may have seating arrangement for two
passengers. There are two front doors which can slide
backwards.

84
10. Station Wagon
 The body of station wagon provides a big loading space and
more passenger space.
 The roof continues up to the extreme rear of the car and the
body has a door at the rear.
 The Estate car is an alternate name of station wagon.
 Station wagons are more or less similar to a hatchback but with
an entirely extended rear body (unlike sedan) to accommodate
the additional third row that allows to safely carry big size
goods, which can not easily adjust in boot (dickey) of a sedan.

85
10. Station Wagon

Ford Mustang
Station Wagon
11. Pickup Truck
 A pickup truck, often simply referred to as a pickup or truck,
is a light motor vehicle with an open-top, rear cargo area
(otherwise known as a bed).
 It has three compartment – one for housing all the systems, the
successive compartment is driver cabin and the last one is
open-top cargo area.
 Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.

87
12. Jeep
 It has two compartment – one for housing all the systems, the
successive compartment is driver seating area & cargo area and
it is open-top.
 Mostly it is a four wheel drive type.

88
Air Cooling System
Water Cooling System
NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM
The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder
reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C, which is above the melting point
of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine.
(Platinum melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C and aluminum at
657°C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in
the failure of the cylinder material.
Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil
will get oxidized, thus producing carbon deposits on the surface.
This will result in piston seizure.
Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a
distortion of the engine components due to the thermal stresses
set up. This makes it necessary for, the temperature variation to
be kept to a minimum.
Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the
engine.
REQUIREMENTS OF COOLING
SYSTEM
 It must be capable of removing only about 30% of the heat
generated in the combustion chamber. Too much removal of
heat lowers the thermal efficiency of the engine.
 It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot.
During the starting of the engine, the cooling should be very
slow so that the different working parts reach their operating
temperatures in a short time.

TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM


 Air cooling system or direct cooling system and
 Water-cooling system or indirect cooling system.
AIR COOLING SYSTEM
 Heat generated due to combustion in the
engine cylinder is conducted to the
outer parts of the engine, and finally
conducted away by the stream of air.
 In order to have efficient cooling by
means of air, providing fins around the
cylinder and cylinder head increases the
contact area.
 The fins are metallic ridges, which are
formed during the casting of the
cylinder and cylinder head
AIR COOLING SYSTEM
 The amount of heat carried off by the air-cooling depends upon
the following factors:
(i) The total area of the fin surfaces,
(ii) Conductivity of material,
(iii) The velocity and amount of the cooling air and
(iv) The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air.
 Air-cooling is mostly used for less horsepower engines,
motorcycles, scooters, small cars and small aircraft engines
AIR COOLING SYSTEM -
Advantages
 Design of air-cooled engine is simple.
 It is lighter in weight than water-cooled engines due to the
absence of water jackets, radiator, circulating pump and the
weight of the cooling water.
 It is cheaper to manufacture.
 It needs less care and maintenance.
 This system of cooling is particularly advantageous where
there are extreme climatic conditions in the arctic or where
there is scarcity of water as in deserts.
 No risk of damage from frost, such as cracking of cylinder
jackets or radiator water tubes.
AIR COOLING SYSTEM -
Disadvantages
 There is uneven cooling of engine parts.
 Engine temperature is generally high during working period.
 Fins under certain conditions may vibrate and amplify noise.
 Large amount of power is required to drive the fan.
 Engines give low output.
WATER COOLING SYSTEM
 It serves two purposes in the working of an engine:
(i) It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and
saves it from over heating.
(ii) It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and
economical working.
 This cooling system has four types of systems:
(i) Direct or non-return system,
(ii) Thermo-Syphon system,
(iii) Hopper system and
(iv) Pump/forced circulation system.
Direct or non-return system
 This is suitable for large installations
and where plenty of water is available.
 Heat generated due to combustion in the
engine cylinder is conducted to the
cylinder walls.
 The water from a storage tank is directly
supplied to the cylinder walls.
 The hot water is not cooled for reuse but
simply discharges.
 The low H.P. engine, coupled with the
irrigation pump is an example.
Thermo-Syphon system
 This system works on the principle that hot water being lighter
rises up and the cold water being heavier goes down.
 In this system the radiator is placed at a higher level than the
engine for the easy flow of water towards the engine.
 Heat is conducted to the water jackets from where it is taken
away due to convection by the circulating water. As the water
jacket becomes hot, it rises to the top of the radiator. Cold
water from the radiator takes the place of the rising hot water
and in this way a circulation of water is set up m the system.
 This helps in keeping the engine at working temperature.
Thermo-Syphon system
Disadvantages
 Rate of circulation is too slow.
 Circulation commences only when there is a marked difference
in temperature.
 Circulation stops as the level of water falls below the top of the
delivery pipe of the radiator. For these reasons this system has
become obsolete and is no more in use.
Hopper system
 There is a hopper or jacket containing water which surrounds
the engine cylinder. So long as the hopper contains water, the
engine continues to operate satisfactorily.
 As soon as the water starts boiling it is replaced by cold water.
 The hopper is large enough to run for several hours without
refilling.
 A drain plug is provided in a low accessible position for
draining water as and when required.
 An engine fitted with this system cannot run for several hours
without it being refilled with water.
Pump/forced circulation system
 In this method, a water pump is used to force water from
radiator to the water jacket of the engine. After circulating the
entire run of water jacket, water comes back to the radiator
where it loses its heat by the process of radiation.
 To maintain the correct engine temperature, a thermostat valve
is placed at the outer end of cylinder head.
 Water is by-passed through the water jacket of the engine until
the engine attains the desired temperature.
 This system is employed in cars, trucks, tractors, etc.
Pump circulation system - parts
Pump circulation system - parts
 The system consists of the following components
1. Water pump
2. Radiator
3. Fan
4. Fan-belt
5. Water jacket
6. Thermostat valve
7. Hose pipe
Water pump
 It is used to pump the circulating water.
 Impeller type pump will be mounted at
the front end.
 Pump consists of an impeller mounted
on a shaft and enclosed in the pump
casing. The pump casing has inlet and
outlet openings.
 The pump is driven by means of engine
output shaft only through belts. When it
is driven, water will be pumped.
Radiator
 The purpose of the radiator is to cool
down the water received from the
engine.
 The radiator consists of three main
parts: (i) upper tank, (ii) lower tank and
(iii) core.
 Hot water from the upper tank, which
comes from the engine, flows
downwards through the cores.
 The heat contained in the hot water is
conducted to the copper fins provided
around the cores.
 An overflow pipe, connected to the
Radiator
 When the water is flowing down through the radiator core, it is
cooled partially by the fan which blows air and partially by the
air flow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle.
 There are two types of radiators: Down flow type and cross
flow type. Both are equally efficient.
 Various designs of core are
Radiator
Thermostat Valve
 It is fitted in the water outlet of the
engine.
 During the warm-up period, the
thermostat is closed and the water pump
circulates the water only throughout the
cylinder block and cylinder head.
 When the normal operating temperature
is reached, the thermostat valve opens
and allows hot water to flow towards
the radiator
 Standard thermostats are designed to
start opening at 70 to 75°C and they
fully open at 82°C.
Fan
 The fan is generally mounted on the
water pump pulley, although on some
engines it is attached directly to the
crankshaft.
 It serves two purposes in the cooling
system of a engine.
(a) It draws atmospheric air through the
radiator and thus increases the
efficiency of the radiator in cooling hot
water.
(b) It throws fresh air over the outer
surface of the engine, which takes away
the heat conducted by the engine parts
and thus increases the efficiency of the
Water Jacket
 Water jackets are passages cored out
around the engine cylinder as well as
around the valve opening.
Antifreeze Mixture
 In western countries if the water used in the radiator freezes
because of cold climates, then ice formed has more volume and
produces cracks in the cylinder blocks, pipes, and radiator. So,
to prevent freezing antifreeze mixtures or solutions are added
in the cooling water.
 The ideal antifreeze solutions should have the following
properties :
(a) It should dissolve in water easily.
(b) It should not evaporate.
(c) It should not deposit any foreign matter in cooling system.
(d) It should not have any harmful effect on any part of cooling
system.
(e) It should be cheap and easily available.
(f) It should not corrode the system.
Antifreeze Mixture
 No single antifreeze satisfies all the requirements. Normally
following are used as antifreeze solutions :
(a) Methyl, ethyl and isopropyl alcohols.
(b) A solution of alcohol and water.
(c) Ethylene Glycol.
(d) A solution of water and Ethylene Glycol.
(e) Glycerin along with water, etc.
Advantages of Water Cooling
System
 Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head and valves.
 Specific fuel consumption of engine improves by using water
cooling system.
 Engine is less noisy as compared with air cooled engines, as it
has water for damping noise.
Disadvantages
 It depends upon the supply of water.
 The water pump which circulates water absorbs considerable
power.
 If the water cooling system fails then it will result in severe
damage of engine.
 The water cooling system is costlier as it has more number of
parts. Also it requires more maintenance and care for its parts.
Pressure Cooling System
 In the case of the ordinary water-cooling system where the
cooling water is subjected to atmospheric pressure, the water
boils at 212°F.
 But when water is boiled in a closed radiator under high
pressure, the boiling temperature of water increases. The higher
water temperature gives more efficient engine performance and
affords additional protection under high altitude and tropical
conditions for long hard driving periods.
 Therefore, a pressure-type radiator cap is used with the forced
circulation cooling system. The cap is fitted on the radiator
neck with an air tight seal.
Pressure Cooling System
 The pressure-release valve is set to open at a pressure between
4 and 13 psi. With this increase in pressure, the boiling
temperature of water increases to 243°F (at 4 psi boiling tap
225°F and 13 psi boiling temperature 243°F).
 Any increase in pressure is released by the pressure release
valve to the atmosphere.
 On cooling, the vapors will condense and a partial vacuum will
be created which will result in the collapse of the hoses and
tubes.
 To overcome this problem the pressure release valve is
associated with a vacuum valve which opens the radiator to the
atmosphere.
ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
 I. C. engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous
movement of two metallic surfaces over each other, there is wearing
moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in the engine.
 Lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful
effects.
 The parts which require lubrication are Cylinder walls and piston,
Piston pin, Crankshaft and connecting rod bearings, Camshaft
bearings, Valve operating mechanism, Cooling fan, Water pump and
Ignition mechanism
PURPOSE OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM
Reducing frictional effect:
 The primary purpose of the lubrication is to reduce friction and wear
between two rubbing surfaces.
 Two rubbing surfaces always produce friction. The continuous friction
produce heat which causes wearing of parts and loss of power.
 In order to avoid friction, the contact of two sliding surfaces must be
reduced as far a possible. This can be done by proper lubrication only.
 Lubrication forms an oil film between two moving surfaces.
Lubrication also reduces noise produced by the movement of two
metal surfaces over each other.
PURPOSE OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM
Cooling effect:
 The heat, generated by piston, cylinder, and bearings is removed by
lubrication to a great extent. Lubrication creates cooling effect on the
engine parts.
Sealing effect:
 The lubricant enters into the gap between the cylinder liner, piston
and piston rings. Thus, it prevents leakage of gases from the engine
cylinder.
Cleaning effect:
 Lubrication keeps the engine clean by removing dirt or carbon from
inside of the engine along with the oil.
Lubrication theory
Fluid film theory:
According to this theory, the lubricant is, supposed to act like mass of
globules, rolling in between two surfaces. It produces a rolling effect,
which reduces friction.
Boundary layer theory:
According to this theory, the lubricant is soaked in rubbing surfaces and
forms oily surface over it. Thus the sliding surfaces are kept apart from
each other, thereby reducing friction.
TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
 Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals.
 Lubricants made of animal fat, does not stand much heat. It becomes
waxy and gummy which is not very suitable for machines.
 Vegetable lubricants are obtained from seeds, fruits and plants.
Cottonseed oil, olive oil, linseed oil and castor oil are used as lubricant
in small Simple machines.
 Mineral lubricants are most popular for engines and machines. It is
obtained from crude petroleum found in nature. Petroleum lubricants
are less expensive and suitable for internal combustion engines.
PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS
 It should have sufficient viscosity to keep the rubbing surfaces apart
 It should remain stable under changing temperatures.
 It should keep lubricated pans clean.
 It should not corrode metallic surfaces.
 Oiliness to ensure adherence to the bearings for less friction and wear.
 Sufficient film strength to prevent metal-to-metal contact.
 Free flow of lubricant even at low temperatures. (i.e.) low pour point.
 Non-toxicity and non inflammability.
 Non-foaming characteristics.
 Cleaning ability.
 Low cost.
TYPES OF LUBRICANT SYSTEM
1. Petroil system or Mist lubrication system.
2. Wet sump lubrication system
 Splash system
 Splash and pressure system
 Full pressure system
3. Dry sump lubrication system
Mist lubricant system
 The 2 stroke engines are lubricated by adding 3% to 6% oil in the fuel
tank itself.
 The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the carburetor. The fuel
gets vaporized and the oil in the form of mist, goes into the cylinder
through the crank case.
 The oil that impinges the crank case wall lubricates the main and
connecting rod bearings and the rest of the oil lubricates the piston,
piston rings and cylinder.
 The main advantage is simplicity and low cost.
Splash system
Splash system
 In this system, there is an oil pan, provided below the connecting rod.
The oil pan has a depression or a trough like arrangement under each
connecting rod.
 Oil is maintained at a uniform level in the oil trough. This is obtained
by continuous flow of oil from the oil sump either by means of a gear
pump or by gravity.
 A dipper or splasher is provided at the lower end of the connecting
rod.
 This dipper dips into to oil trough and splashes oil out of the pan.
 The splashing action of oil maintains a fog or mist of oil that drenches
the inner parts of the engine such as bearings, cylinder walls, pistons,
piston pins, timing gears etc.
Splash system
 This system is usually used on single cylinder engine with closes
crankcase.
 For effective functioning of the engine, proper level of oil maintained
in the oil pan.
 Lubrication depends largely upon the size of oil holes and clearances.
 This system is very effective if the oil is clean and undiluted.
 Its disadvantages are that lubrication is not very uniform and when the
rings are worn, the oil passes the piston into combustion chamber,
causing carbon deposition, blue smoke and spoiling the plugs.
 There is every possibility that oil may become very thin through
crankcase dilution. The worn metal, dust and carbon may be collected
in the oil chamber and be carried to different parts of the engine,
causing wear and tear.
Pressure or Forced feed system
Pressure or Forced feed system
 In this system, the oil is pumped directly to the crankshaft, connecting
rod, piston pin, timing gears and camshaft of the engine through
suitable paths of oil.
 Usually the oil first enters the main gallery, which may be a pipe or a
channel in the crankcase casting. From this pipe, it goes to each of the
main bearings through holes. From main bearings, it goes to big end
bearings of connecting rod through drilled holes in the crankshaft.
From there, it goes to lubricate the walls, pistons and rings.
 There is separate oil gallery to lubricate timing gears. The oil also goes
to valve stem and rocker arm shaft under pressure through oil gallery.
 Lubricating oil pump is a positive displacement pump, usually gear
type or vane type.
Pressure or Forced feed system
 The excess oil comes back from the cylinder head to the crankcase.
 The pump discharges oil into oil pipes, oil galleries or ducts, leading
different parts of the engine.
 This system is commonly used on high speed multi-cylinder engine in
tractors, trucks and automobiles.
Full Pressure or Full Forced feed system
Full Pressure or Full Forced feed system
 In a full force-feed lubrication system, the main bearings, rod
bearings, camshaft bearings, and the complete valve mechanism are
lubricated by oil under pressure.
 In addition, the full force feed lubrication system provides lubrication
under pressure to the pistons and the piston pins. This is accomplished
by holes drilled the length of the connecting rod, creating an oil
passage from the connecting rod bearing to the piston pin bearing.
 This passage not only feeds the piston pin bearings but also provides
lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls.
 This system is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with full-
floating piston pins.
Splash and pressure system
Splash and pressure system
 In a combination splash and force feed, oil is delivered to some parts
by means of splashing and other parts through oil passages under
pressure from the oil pump.
 The oil from the pump enters the oil galleries. From the oil galleries,
it flows to the main bearings and camshaft bearings.
 The main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that feed oil into
drilled passages in the crankshaft. The oil flows through these passages
to the connecting rod bearings.
 From there, on some engines, it flows through holes drilled in the
connecting rods to the piston-pin bearings.
Splash and pressure system
 Cylinder walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the
connecting-rod bearings.
 Some engines use small troughs under each connecting rod that are
kept full by small nozzles which deliver oil under pressure from the oil
pump.
 These oil nozzles deliver an increasingly heavy stream as speed
increases. At very high speeds these oil streams are powerful enough to
strike the dippers directly.
 This causes a much heavier splash so that adequate lubrication of the
pistons and the connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher speeds.
 If a combination system is used on an overhead valve engine, the upper
valve train is lubricated by pressure from the pump.
Dry sump lubrication system
Dry sump lubrication system
 In a dry sump, extra oil is stored in a tank outside the engine rather
than in the oil pan.
 There are at least two oil pumps in a dry sump. One pulls oil from the
sump and sends it to the tank, and the other takes oil from the tank
and sends it to lubricate the engine. The minimum amount of oil
possible remains in the engine.
 A dry-sump system has several advantages over wet, but the main one
is additional power. Because there is only a minimum of oil in the pan,
oil clinging to or splashing against the rotating assemblies of the engine
is greatly reduced.
 Other advantages are increased oil capacity because of the external
tank, the ability to easily add remote oil coolers, and because the pan
doesn’t store oil, it can be quite shallow to allow for lower engine
placement.
Dry sump lubrication system
 A dry-sump system is
 More complicated,
 More expensive, and
 Heavier,
 but it offers continuous lubrication under all conditions and the
promise of increased power through reduced windage.
RESISTANCES TO VEHICLE
MOTION
FORCES ACTING ON A VEHICLE

 Resistance
a. Aerodynamic
b. Rolling
c. Grade

 Tractive effort
 Tractive effort and resistance are the two main forces that
oppose one another and determine the performance of
roadway vehicles.
 Tractive effort is the force exerted against the roadway
surface to allow a vehicle to move forward.
 Resistance encompasses all forces that push back and
impede motion. Both of these are in units of force.
FORCES ACTING ON A VEHICLE

F = Tractive Effort
m = Vehicle Mass
a = Acceleration
Ra = Aerodynamic Resistance
Rrl = Rolling Resistance
Rg = Grade Resistance

F  ma  Ra  Rrl  Rg
AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE

 Aerodynamic resistance is a force that is produced by


turbulent air flow around the vehicle body.
 This turbulence is dependent on the shape of the vehicle, as
well as the friction of air passing over the vehicle's surface.
 A small portion of this resistance comes from air flow through
vehicle components, such as interior ventilation.
 If ρ = Air Density
A = Frontal area of the vehicle
CD = Coefficient of Drag
V = Speed of the vehicle, then
AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE

Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and air vents
(3%)


Ra  CD Af V 2
2

PRa  CD Af V 3

2
from National Research Council Canada
ROLLING RESISTANCE

 Rolling resistance is caused by a vehicle's internal mechanical


friction and the interaction of tires with the roadway surface.
Three main causes exist that create this resistance.
 The first is the rigidity of the tire and the roadway surface.
 The second is tire pressure and temperature.
 The third is vehicular operating speed.
 If W = Weight of the vehicle
V = Speed of the vehicle, then
Rolling Resistance Rrl

Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)

2. Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)

3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel ( 6%)

Simplifying approximation:

Rrl  f rlW
PR rl  f rlWV  V 
f rl  0.011  
 147 
GRADE RESISTANCE Rg

 Grade resistance is the simplest form of resistance. It is the


gravitational force acting on the vehicle.
 If W = Weight of the vehicle
G = Grade (length/length), then Rg  W sin  g
θg
For small angles, sin  g  tan  g
Rg  W tan  g Rg

tan  g  G
θg
Rg  WG W
TRACTIVE EFFORT

 Tractive effort is the force that allows the vehicle to move


forward, subject to the resistances of the previous three
forces.
 If Fmax = Maximum Tractive Effort
μ = Coefficient of road adhesion
W = Vehicle Weight
lr = Distance from rear axle to vehicle's center of gravity
lf= Distance from front axle to vehicle's center of gravity
frl = Coefficient of rolling friction
h = Height of center of gravity above the roadway surface
L = Length of wheelbase
Maximum Tractive Effort

 Front Wheel Drive Vehicle W


lr  f rl h 
Fmax  L
h
1
L

 Rear Wheel Drive Vehicle


W
l f  f rl h 
Fmax  L
h
1
L
Available Tractive Effort

The minimum of:


1. Force generated by the engine, Fe

2. Maximum value that is a function of the vehicle’s


weight distribution and road-tire interaction, Fmax

Available tractive effort  minFe , Fmax 


Tractive Effort Relationships
Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

Fe = Engine generated tractive effort


 Force reaching wheels (lb)
Me = Engine torque (ft-lb)
M e 0 d ε0 = Gear reduction ratio
Fe  ηd = Driveline efficiency
r r = Wheel radius (ft)

 Power

 ft  lb  torque ft  lb engine rpm


hp  550    2
 sec  550  sec 
60 
 min 
Vehicle Speed vs. Engine Speed

2rne 1  i 
V
0

V = velocity (ft/s)
r = wheel radius (ft)
ne = crankshaft rps
i = driveline slippage
ε0 = gear reduction ratio
Typical Torque-Power Curves
Explanation of the use of gear boxes

 All cars need a gearbox because the power and torque


developed by internal combustion engines vary depending on
the speed.
 Normally, the highest torque is obtained at a lower power. Fig
shows the characteristic curves of power and torque
depending on the speed of the engine.
 It is noted that the maximum torque is achieved at 3500
rpm., While the maximum power at 5800 rpm.
 It is said that engine operation is stable in the range 3500-
5800 rpm. The speed of 3500 rpm is the lower limit of
stability of this engine.
Explanation of the use of gear boxes

 It is clear that we must make the engine work in the stable


speed range, regardless of the resistance encountered by the
vehicle while driving.
 The gearbox is a device to achieve this performance by
modifying speed and torque.
Gear box

 Gearboxes are very special gear trains.


 From an operational standpoint, these systems are
transmitters between the engine and wheels. Its mission is to
connect two wheels with the same output speed of the engine,
but in the mean while generate different speeds for the
wheels or even reverse the rotation when needed.
More explanation on the use of gear boxes

 The presence of the gearbox in a transmission system is


essential. Otherwise, the engine would not use its resources
well.
 For example, if a vehicle had to climb a ramp, the resistance
torque increases and the engine would not have enough
power to continue at the same speed.
 To overcome the resistance torque it is necessary to place a
gear box which can vary the torque, according to the needs of
the speed.

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