Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Lecture Notes
Prepared by
Mr.C.Naveen Kumar
Mr.R.Dinesh
JANSONS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Lecture notes
1
UNIT 1 Vehicle Structure & Engines
• Types of automobiles
• Vehicle construction and different layouts
• Chassis, frame and body
• Resistances to vehicle motion and need for a gearbox
• Components of engine - their forms, functions and materials
2
Automobile
An automobile is a self propelled vehicle.
In other words, an automobile is one which can move by itself.
As the name implies, it is a mobile or a moving power unit on
road.
Self propelled means a unit which contains its own power
source, necessary for moving within itself. As a vehicle, it is
used for transportation of passengers and goods.
Bus, Car, Truck, Motorcycle, Scooter, etc., arc good examples
for self propelled vehicles.
3
Automobile
The Petrol or Diesel is the source of power for Automobiles.
Internal Combustion or Heat Engines the function of which is
to convert heat energy available in the fuel into mechanical
work.
4
Automobile
Germany is the birth place of automobile.
The list of German automobile pioneers is a long one starting
with Nicholas Cugnot, August, Otto, Carl Benz, Gottlieb,
Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach and Rudolf Diesel and going all
the way up to Ferdinand Porsche and Felix Wankel.
5
General Classification of automobiles
The single unit vehicles or load carriers
Articulated vehicles
The heavy tractor vehicles
Single Unit Vehicle
They are conventional four-wheelers. The great majority of
vehicles made of two axle design.
In these vehicles the front axle is a steering non-driving axle.
Nowadays there has been drastic development so the axles and
driving are improved and varied according to usage.
6
General Classification of automobiles
Articulated Vehicles
A lower powered three-wheeler with a single steering wheel in front
and a conventional rear driving axle is an example of articulated
vehicles.
It has a greater handling ability in awkward places. It can be turned
about its own tail due to the three-wheel construction.
The coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of
these vehicles is arranged for automatic connection.
But for uncoupling operation, a lever is provided within the driver’s
cabin to reverse the whole process.
A pair of retractable wheels in front is also provided. Along with the
coupling or uncoupling operation, they can be raised or lowered
automatically.
7
General Classification of automobiles
Articulated Vehicles
8
General Classification of automobiles
Heavy tractor vehicles
Heavy tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used to move
heavy loads, they commonly operate in pair either in tandem or
as ‘puller’ and ‘pusher’.
While descending appreciable gradients, stability is provided
by the later arrangement.
9
Automobile Classification
1. Based on use
Auto-cycles and Mopeds
Scooters and Motorcycles
Cars, Station wagons and Pick-ups
Lorries (Buses) and Trucks
Tractors
10
Automobile Classification
2. Based on number of wheels and axles
Two-wheelers such as mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles.
Three-wheelers such as tempos, road rollers, tractors.
Four-wheelers such as cars, jeeps, minibuses, trucks, tractors,
buses and racing cars.
Five-wheelers such as road rollers.
Six-wheelers such as truck-tankers, good carriage vehicles.
Eight or more-wheelers such as a car transporting vehicles,
rocket transporters.
11
Automobile Classification
3. Based on prime mover used
Steam engine driven automobiles
I.C engine driven automobiles
a) Petrol vehicles b) Diesel vehicles c) Gas vehicles
Gas turbine driven automobiles
Wankel engine driven automobiles
Electric power driven automobiles
Battery (Chemical power) driven automobiles
Solar energy driven automobiles
Hybrid powered automobiles
12
Automobile Classification
4. Based on capacity
Light weight or light duty vehicles – pick ups, cars, jeeps, station
wagon.
Medium weight or medium duty vehicles – Tempo, minibus, station
wagon, small trucks.
Heavy weight or heavy duty vehicles – trucks, buses, dumpers.
Extra heavy duty vehicles.
Special purpose (load) vehicles.
13
Automobile Classification
8. Based on the fuel used
Petrol vehicles - Jeeps, cars, Motor Cycles.
Diesel vehicles - Truck, Bus, Tractor, Bulldozer.
Dual Fuel (petrol and Diesel) vehicles such as Fargo, Podge,
Bedford trucks.
Gas vehicles - Coal gas, Gas turbine or Producer gas Vehicles,
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Volvo.
Hydrogen vehicles such as Musashi III Car.
Steam vehicles - Steam road rollers, it is now obsolete.
14
Automobile Classification
9. Based on the type of wheel drive system
Single Wheel drive ( 1 Wd)
Two Wheel drive (2 Wd)
Four Wheel drive (4 Wd)
All Wheel drive (6 Wd or more)
15
Construction of four wheeler automobile
An automobile is a combination of a large number of parts. It
can be divided into two major constituents:
Chassis and
Body.
Body is the part where the passengers have their seat on the
luggage and cargo to be carried is placed.
Chassis is the main machine portion, which contain most of the
components required for the operation and running of the
automobile.
The portion of the automobile without body is called chassis.
The body fixed over the frame of the vehicle is generally
detachable.
16
CHASSIS
17
Chassis
The shape of the chassis is determined by location of the power
unit, the arrangement of the suspension system and the loads to
be carried.
The function of the chassis is to provide a mounting for all the
assembles over the frame and keep them in correct relative
positions, inspite of all the varying loads to which they are
subjected.
It must be strong and rigid, and is usually made from steel
pressings which are welded and riveted together. Reinforcement
is provided, where necessary, to add to its rigidity.
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Chassis
Cross bracings are provided in the chassis to withstand the shock,
blows, twists and vibrations.
As per the layout, the engine is mounted on the front part of the frame.
Rubber cushioned mounts or pads are used to support the engine on
the frame.
The clutch is placed, next to the engine, connected to the flywheel;
Transmission or the gear box is positioned or attached to the clutch
shaft.
Then a propeller shaft is laid to connect the gear box on one end and
the final drive on the other end. These are enclosed in a housing,
bolted to the rear axle spring, which is connected to the frame through
springs.
19
Chassis
The entire arrangement mounted and bolted on the chassis frame
is supported by the front and rear suspension systems. This is
positioned over front and rear wheel and tyre assemblies, to
avoid or minimize the transmission of shock to the frame.
Chassis consists of
1. Frame
2. Power unit (Engine)
3. Transmission systems - clutch, propeller shaft with universal
joints, differential and the rear axle shafts;
4. Running systems - brakes, wheels, tyres, frame, suspension
and the steering system.
5. Auxiliary systems
20
Chassis component – Power unit
Power unit consist of an internal combustion engine. It is usually
mounted at the front end of the car.
The clutch and the gear-box are placed immediately behind it.
The three components (engine, clutch and gear-box) are
assembled into a single unit.
21
Chassis component – Transmission unit
This system or mechanism carries the power from engine to the
wheels of the vehicle.
It is bolted through the clutch to the engine at the front and the
rear to the springs which are connected to the chassis to prevent
the engine vibrations from transmitted to vehicle. It generally
consists of
Friction clutch
Gear-box providing three, or four different ratios of torque
(output to input),
Propeller shaft for transmitting the torque output from gear-box
to the rear axle
Final gear reduction in the rear axle and differential gear for
distributing the final torque between the wheels equally.
22
Chassis component – Transmission unit
Gear Box: It consists of various types of gears which are
constantly in mesh. The Gear changes are made by sliding the
dogs. The main function of the gear-box is to provide the
necessary variation to the torque applied by the engine to the
road wheel according to operating conditions.
Propeller Shaft: It is universally jointed shaft. Its function is to
transmit the power from the rear end of the gear-box to the final
reduction gear in the axle.
23
Chassis component – Transmission unit
Universal Joint: Due to the flexing of the road springs, the rear
axle is constantly moving up and down. The propeller shaft
fitted to the rear axle must also be free to move up and down. To
permit the turning of the propeller shaft when this movement is
taking place, universal joints are fitted at each of its ends.
Therefore, the relative movement between the engine and the
driving wheel is maintained by the universal joint.
Differential Gear: It carries the power from the propeller shaft
to the rear wheel axles. It helps the two rear wheels to turn at
different speeds when rounding a curve. The outer wheel must
over-run the inner wheels when taking a turn. The differential
gear also ensures that the final output torque is equally
distributed between the two wheels without any consideration of
their relative speeds.
24
Chassis component – Transmission unit
Clutch: It is a friction type uncoupling device. It consists of a
single steel disc faced with suitable friction material. It is
clamped between two surfaces directly driven by the engine. For
disengaging the clutch, the two surfaces are positively separated
by pressing the clutch pedal. The main function of the clutch is
to take up the drive smoothly from the engine and to release or
disengage that drive whenever desired. The disengagement of
clutch is required while changing the gear or bringing the
vehicle to rest.
25
Chassis component – Suspension
System
The various parts are attached to the basic structure by means of
springing suspension system.
This system is used to prevent the road shocks to the various
vehicle components and the occupants and to preserve stability
under various road conditions. There are two types of
suspension system:
(a) The conventional system: where the springs are attached to a
rigid beam axle. It is mostly used in the front axle of commercial
vehicles and for rear axle of all types of vehicles.
(b) The independent system; in this system there is no rigid axle.
Each wheel is free to move vertically without any reaction on its
mating wheel. This is mostly used is small rear axle suspensions.
26
Chassis component – Front Axle &
steering system
It is used for steering front wheels carried on stub axles
swiveling upon king pins the axle extremities. Steering arms and
track rod link the two stub axles together for swiveling them by
a steering wheel about the king pins. The steering wheel linked
to one of the stub axle by a shaft, a gear box and suitable linkage
is operated by the driver’s hand wheel. An axle in which one-
piece beam was used to support the vehicle through springs
(axle and spring arrangement) was previously used.
Now, an arrangement known as independent front suspension
has replaced the axle and spring arrangement.
Under the control of springs, the wheels are free to rise and fall
vertical independently of each other.
27
Chassis component – Rear Axle
Rear axle or driving axle is a tube like shaft enclosing driving shafts
with suitable bearings for rotating the wheels. It is used for fixing the
rear wheels.
It is enlarged at the centre for enclosing the final drive gears used for
providing main speed reduction between the engine and the driving
wheels.
When going round a curve, the inner wheel has to travel a smaller
distance in comparison to the outer wheel. But both the rear wheel
would rotate at the same speed if they are connected by a shaft. This
rotation of both the wheels would result in slipping of one or both of
them on the road surface causing excessive tyre wear as well as severe
twisting loads on the shaft. Moreover, the two wheels of the exactly
similar diameter can only turn at the same speed without slip on the
straight road. Each wheel is provided with its own separate half-shaft
connected by a differential gear and meeting at about the centre of the
axle.
28
Chassis component – Rear Axle
Therefore, when going round a curve, the wheels are free to
rotate at different speeds although they are provided with equal
drive by the differential gear.
For preventing the transmission of shock from uneven road
surfaces to the vehicle, springs are used to support the vehicle on
the axle. In order to allow for the vertical movements of the
wheels relative to the frame as well as to allow the parts of the
shaft to operate at different angle, another arrangement is used in
which the final drive gears and the differential gear is mounted
in a casting attached to the frame with independently sprung
wheels attached to them by means of shafts through devices
called universal joints.
29
Chassis component – Wheels
The wheels which are four in number are fitted below the car
chassis to support the load of the vehicle and passengers as well
as run the car.
They are fitted with hollow rubber tyres filled with air in rubber
tubes under sufficient pressure necessary for carrying the load.
The shocks caused by road irregularities are absorbed by them.
By fitting springs between the wheels and the vehicle allowing
the vertical movement of the wheels in relation to vehicle,
greater part of unevenness of road surfaces is taken care of.
30
Chassis component – Auxiliary
systems - Brakes
Brake assemblies are mounted at the end of the axles and each
consists of a non rotating back-plate and shoe assembly which is
enclosed by a drum.
The drum rotates with the road wheels, and the back-plate are
bolted rigidly to the stub axles and to the ends of the rear axle
case.
Two shoes are mounted on each back-plate and each carries a
friction lining of an asbestos material. Some linings are riveted
to the shoes by copper or brass rivets, while others are secured
by means of a chemical bonding process.
The shoes may be thin steel pressings or aluminum alloy
castings but they must be rigid and they must absorb and
dissipate heat quickly.
31
BODY
All parts and accessories needed for the comfort of the human
being are contained in the body of the vehicle. These include
doors, windows, lights, fans, seats, air-conditioner and other
accessories. The body differing in shape and size from vehicle to
vehicle is generally made of steel and wood or steel alone.
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Layout
33
Layout of four wheeler automobile
Some of the important layout of a motor vehicle based on the
drive are:
Front engine rear wheel drive layout
Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
Front engine front wheel drive layout
Four wheel drive layout
34
Front engine rear wheel drive layout
In this layout a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives
a beam type rear axle suspended on leaf springs through a
propeller shaft with two universal joints.
With the help of coil springs, the front wheels are independently
sprung.
This layout is one of the oldest layouts which remained
unchanged for many years.
Some of the advantages provided by this system are:
Reasonably balanced weight distribution between the front and
the rear wheels providing good handling characteristics
For easy front wheel steering movement engine occupies the
reduced width between the arches.
35
Front engine rear wheel drive layout
Behind the rear seats, large luggage space is available providing
increased carrying capacity as well as space for easy body
movement
Accessibility to various components like engine, gear box and
rear axle is better in comparison to other layouts
The control linkages such as accelerator, choke, clutch and gear
box are short and simple
Full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicles
movement is taken by the forward facing radiator in reduced
power losses from a large fan.
36
Front engine rear wheel drive
layout
37
Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft
when the engine is mounted adjacent to the driven wheels.
The engine-clutch-gearbox-final drive form a single unit in this
layout. In order to reduce the ‘overhang’ distance between the
wheel centers and the front of the engine, the final drive is
generally placed between the clutch and the gear box.
Advantages
It has a simpler drives shaft layout in comparison to front wheel
drive.
The weight of rear engine on the driving wheels provides
excellent traction and grip especially on steep hills when
accelerating.
38
Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
Due to the absence of the propeller shaft the obstructed floor
space is reduced.
The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and
smooth air flow.
The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried
away from the passengers.
This drive arrangement results in compact layout and short car.
39
Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
40
Rear engine rear wheel drive layout
Disadvantages
It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front,
which houses the fuel tank also.
Natural air cooling is not possible, it requires a powerful fan.
Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box
controls.
The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be
more affected by side winds at high speeds. This makes the
vehicle unstable resulting in over steering and turning very
sharply into a curve.
41
Front engine front wheel drive layout
No propeller shaft is used in front engine front wheel drive and
differentials are included in the same assembly.
This layout provides optimum body-luggage space and a flat
front line resulting in a transverse longitudinal engine position.
Good road adhesion is provided by the large proportion of the
vehicles’ weight acting on the driven wheels.
Advantages
As compared to rear wheel driven car, this is faster and safer
travelling due to good road holding.
Under steady conditions generally this type of drive is preferred.
42
Front engine front wheel drive layout
The engine, clutch, gear box and final drive are combined
similar to the rear engine car. This provides a more comfortable
drive due to final drive spring.
Disadvantages
Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels with short
shafts, special universal joints and a more complicated assembly
are required.
To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy break, the
required weight at the rear usually necessitates special
arrangement.
The tractive effort which most needed on steep gradients and
during acceleration is reduced.
43
Front engine front wheel drive layout
44
Four wheel drive layout
To increase maneuverability of the vehicle required to travel on
rough unconstructed roads and trucks another arrangement
known as Four-wheel drive is provided.
Due to all the four wheels getting driven, whole weight of the
vehicle is available for traction.
The system is provided in jeeps which are known as 4 x 4 wheel
drive vehicles.
45
Four wheel drive layout
46
Chassis component – Frame
Frame is the main skeleton of the vehicle.
It serves as the main foundation and base for alignment for the
chassis.
In most of commercial vehicles in India, The front end of the
frame carries the engine and the rear end carries rear axle
housing, the wheels and tyres. The other components on the
frame are Power unit, Transmission systems, Running systems
and Auxiliary systems.
The frames are made of box, tubular channel or U-shaped
section, welded or riveted together.
The frame is provided with cross rods to increase the rigidity,
withstand shocks and vibration.
47
Chassis component – Frame
The frames are made of box, tubular channel or U-shaped
section, welded or riveted together.
The frame is provided with cross rods to increase the rigidity,
withstand shocks and vibration met during the operation.
Mostly the chassis frame is of 'X' constructions with some type
of cross members made up of pressed steel, mild steels and
nickel alloy sheets. Modern chassis frames are pressed steel
members and are rigidly attached to each other by riveting or
welding.
Frame curves upwards at the rear to provide space for the rear
springs.
It is tapered at the front to provide space for the turning of the
front wheels when steered.
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Frame
Functions of the Frame are
To carry the weight of the vehicle and passengers.
To withstand the engine and transmission torque.
To bear thrust, acceleration and braking torque.
To resist the centrifugal forces when cornering.
To withstand bending and twist.
To strengthen, to resist the severe twist and bending forces at
high speed over rough road.
To provide correct spacing between the different components.
To serve as a bed for fuel tank, battery and other mounting units.
To bear the suspension system.
49
Frame
The frames are made of box, tubular, channel or U-shaped
section, welded or riveted together.
The frame is provided with cross rods to increase the rigidity,
withstand shocks and vibration met during the operation.
Mostly the chassis frame is of 'X' constructions with some type
of cross members made up of pressed steel, mild steels and
nickel alloy sheets. Modern chassis frames are pressed steel
members and are rigidly attached to each other by riveting or
welding.
Frame curves upwards at the rear to provide space for the rear
springs.
It is tapered at the front to provide space for the turning of the
front wheels when steered.
50
Frame - forces
Various loads acting on the frame are
1. Short duration Load - While crossing a broken patch.
2. Momentary duration Load - While taking a curve.
3. Impact Loads - Due to the collision of the vehicle.
4. Inertia Load - While applying brakes.
5. Static Loads - Loads due to chassis parts.
6. Over Loads - Beyond Design capacity.
51
Frame - Types
Three Types of Frame are
Conventional type
Integral or unitized or frameless type.
Semi-integral type
52
Frame - Conventional type
Here all the mechanical components are attached to the frame
and the body is superimposed on it.
This is a standard practice for all commercial vehicles and in
some private and open cars.
In this, pressed steel frame of channel section, Tubular or Box
section and Channel section are used.
Channel section is good for bending;
Tubular section resists torsion and
Box section serves as good resistance to bending and torsion.
53
Frame - Conventional type
It provides easy mounting of the body.
The frame is closer at the front to provide adequate steering lock
The frame is unswept at the rear to provide clear space for the
movement of the axle.
It also makes the chassis height low.
54
Frame - Conventional type
This consists of two longitudinal or side members A and B,
generally made in the form of pressings of channel section.
These are generally arranged to be closer at the front.
The side members are brazed by a number of cross members C.
Dump irons D are provided at the front and rear ends.
Brackets 'E' are fitted as shown, to which springs are connected
and brackets are provided to support the running boards.
Some more brackets F supporting the engine, gear box, brakes,
shafts etc., are provided at the required places. The frames are
stiffened with cross pressing for independent suspension and are
stiffer at the front end.
55
Frame - Conventional type
This consists of two longitudinal or side members A and B,
generally made in the form of pressings of channel section.
These are generally arranged to be closer at the front.
The side members are brazed by a number of cross members C.
Dump irons D are provided at the front and rear ends.
Brackets 'E' are fitted as shown, to which springs are connected
and brackets are provided to support the running boards.
Some more brackets F supporting the engine, gear box, brakes,
shafts etc., are provided at the required places. The frames are
stiffened with cross pressing for independent suspension and are
stiffer at the front end.
Example- Commercial vehicles
56
Frame - Integral or frameless type
57
Frame - Integral or frameless type
The structure contains an under frame with side members and cross
members which are welded together as a single assembly.
The pressed steel body is attached to the under frame by welding and
riveting.
A sub-frame can be attached to the body frame in the front of the body
shell, to carry the engine on the front suspension.
Grooves are pressed in the steel floor and side panels to provide
increased stiffness to the floor.
Throughout the structure, the stresses are evenly distributed.
Good torsional rigidity and resistance to bending are provided by this
structure and reinforcement with thicker material is provided at some
points where certain components are to be attached.
In certain cases, rubber insulations are used in the sub frame to mount
the engine and suspension members.
58
Frame – integral type or frameless type
Advantages
Low weight
Desired body panels are achieved.
Very good resistance against bending & torsion
Design and production costs are very high, so suits well for mass
production.
Disadvantages
Amplifies road and engine noise to passengers. So special
sound-deadening materials are used.
59
Frame – X frame type
Cross members which crosses in the form of X - fork as shown
in fig.
The side members and cross members are rigidly attached to
each other by riveting or welding.
Heavy side members are eliminated and cross members are
connected with the floor of the body. 'X' member may be of
channel or box section.
This imparts torsional rigidity to the frame.
Examples - SUV, Passenger cars
60
Frame – Semi-integral type
In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which
engine gear box and front suspension is mounted.
It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the
front frame can be taken easily to replace the damaged chassis
frame.
This type of frame is used in FIAT cars and some of the
European and American cars.
61
BODY
Body is the superstructure of the vehicle. This is bolted to the
chassis. A complete vehicle is referred to the combination of
Chassis and Body.
Body is the cover to the Chassis. The body may be shaped
according to the needs and convenience. The body of the motor
vehicle must fulfill the following requirements:
Sufficient space to accommodate passengers and luggage.
Suitable shape to reduce air resistance
It should be light and strong enough to resist bending, torsion
and impact stresses.
It should have continuous access to the engine and suspension
system.
contd…
62
BODY
The load should be distributed evenly.
The mounting of the body should have minimum vibrations.
It should be cheap and simple in manufacture.
The design of the panels should be suitable for mass production
and changes in style and design.
It should be made of sheet metal of sufficient thickness for
adequate safety during collision.
It should provide clear vision and be of aesthetic in shape.
63
BODY
64
BODY – forces and materials
Torsional stiffness imposed by irregular roads.
Weight of components fitted to it.
Thrust of springs.
Minor impacts.
Materials: Mild Steel sheets of 0.6 – 3mm. Apart from this, CI,
Aluminum, Magnesium, copper, zinc, glass and polymers are
used.
Processes: Forming process is equipped. Some times stamping
process is used to make some parts.
65
BODY – Construction details
The roof is supported by roof-headers. The roof enclosed by two
roof-header and two roof-rails and are supported on pillars.
Pillars are used to attach doors and windows.
The weights of roof, pillars and other members are borne by the
rails and sills.
Bumpers in the front and rear provide safety against any
collision.
A Radiator yoke is provided to accommodate radiator and
cooling systems.
Shear Panels are provided to encase the engine.
The body resembles a box.
66
BODY - types
* Car * Truck - Punjab body straight truck
* Truck half body * Truck - Platform type
* Tractor * Tractor with articulated trailer
* Tanker * Dumper truck
* Delivery van * Station wagon
* Pick-up * Jeep
67
BODY - types
68
BODY - types
69
1. Car Body Styles
I. Closed cars:
Hatchback – has 4 doors and a door at the back, i.e. 5 doors.
Typically, hatchback is a small car which has luggage storage
area incorporated along in a single body compartment and is
accessible through the rear door. Precisely, these body-types
do not have an extra rear-end stuffed outside, and is also said
to be the two-box in dimension.
Honda Suzuki
Sedan SX4
Closed Cars - hatchback
77
3 Truck – Half body
It is designed to carry heavier loads. So it has stronger
construction and a diesel engine.
It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is cargo area.
Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.
Fuel tank is located below of the cargo area
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4 Truck – Platform type
It is designed to carry heavier loads. It carries load carrying
capacity of about 3 ton for longer distance. So it has stronger
construction and a diesel engine.
It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is cargo area.
Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.
Fuel tank is located below of the long cargo area
A truck can have many axles depending on axle load
legislation.
79
5. Tractor
The conventional has an engine and hood over the front axle in front
of the cab. The cab over engine has a flat nose cab with the driver
sitting in front of the front axle.
A tractor unit can have many axles depending on axle load
legislation.
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6. Tractor with articulated trailer
Here the tractor is fitted with an articulated trailer. The controls
for the trailer are fitted in the driver cabin.
A trailer unit can have many axles depending on axle load
legislation.
81
7. Tanker truck
It has a compartment – i.e., housing all the systems, and the
driver cabin and the last one is a tank.
The tank is mostly cylindrical in shape and it is meant for
storing and transporting fluids.
Tank trucks are constructed of various materials depending on
what products they are hauling. These materials
include aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, and fiberglass
reinforced plastic (FRP).
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8. Dumper truck
It has three compartment – one for housing all the systems, the
successive compartment is driver cabin and the last one is
open-top cargo area.
The open-top cargo area can be tilted and all the controls are
kept in second compartment.
Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.
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9. Van
A Van has a body designed to carry light goods over short
distances.
Max Weight of van is 7.5 ton. It carries load carrying capacity
of about 0.5 ton.
The front cabin may have seating arrangement for two
passengers. There are two front doors which can slide
backwards.
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10. Station Wagon
The body of station wagon provides a big loading space and
more passenger space.
The roof continues up to the extreme rear of the car and the
body has a door at the rear.
The Estate car is an alternate name of station wagon.
Station wagons are more or less similar to a hatchback but with
an entirely extended rear body (unlike sedan) to accommodate
the additional third row that allows to safely carry big size
goods, which can not easily adjust in boot (dickey) of a sedan.
85
10. Station Wagon
Ford Mustang
Station Wagon
11. Pickup Truck
A pickup truck, often simply referred to as a pickup or truck,
is a light motor vehicle with an open-top, rear cargo area
(otherwise known as a bed).
It has three compartment – one for housing all the systems, the
successive compartment is driver cabin and the last one is
open-top cargo area.
Mostly it is a front engine rear wheel drive type.
87
12. Jeep
It has two compartment – one for housing all the systems, the
successive compartment is driver seating area & cargo area and
it is open-top.
Mostly it is a four wheel drive type.
88
Air Cooling System
Water Cooling System
NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM
The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder
reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C, which is above the melting point
of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine.
(Platinum melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C and aluminum at
657°C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in
the failure of the cylinder material.
Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil
will get oxidized, thus producing carbon deposits on the surface.
This will result in piston seizure.
Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a
distortion of the engine components due to the thermal stresses
set up. This makes it necessary for, the temperature variation to
be kept to a minimum.
Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the
engine.
REQUIREMENTS OF COOLING
SYSTEM
It must be capable of removing only about 30% of the heat
generated in the combustion chamber. Too much removal of
heat lowers the thermal efficiency of the engine.
It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot.
During the starting of the engine, the cooling should be very
slow so that the different working parts reach their operating
temperatures in a short time.
Resistance
a. Aerodynamic
b. Rolling
c. Grade
Tractive effort
Tractive effort and resistance are the two main forces that
oppose one another and determine the performance of
roadway vehicles.
Tractive effort is the force exerted against the roadway
surface to allow a vehicle to move forward.
Resistance encompasses all forces that push back and
impede motion. Both of these are in units of force.
FORCES ACTING ON A VEHICLE
F = Tractive Effort
m = Vehicle Mass
a = Acceleration
Ra = Aerodynamic Resistance
Rrl = Rolling Resistance
Rg = Grade Resistance
F ma Ra Rrl Rg
AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE
Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and air vents
(3%)
Ra CD Af V 2
2
PRa CD Af V 3
2
from National Research Council Canada
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
Simplifying approximation:
Rrl f rlW
PR rl f rlWV V
f rl 0.011
147
GRADE RESISTANCE Rg
tan g G
θg
Rg WG W
TRACTIVE EFFORT
Power
2rne 1 i
V
0
V = velocity (ft/s)
r = wheel radius (ft)
ne = crankshaft rps
i = driveline slippage
ε0 = gear reduction ratio
Typical Torque-Power Curves
Explanation of the use of gear boxes