Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Report 7
Summary Report
By the
ii
NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
This committee was appointed by the Highway Research Board to advise the
Board and its project staff in relation to administrative and technical matters.
K. B. Woods, Chairman
Head, School of Civil Engineering, and
Director, Joint Highway Research Project, Purdue University
W. A. Bugge, Vice-Chairman
Director, Washington Department of Highways
iv
Preface
v
Acknowledgments
vi
Contents
National Advisory Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Chapter 1. Condensed Summary of Principal Objectives and Major Findings . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Intent of the AASHO Road Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter 3. Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Objectivity of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Applicability of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 4. Description of the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Test Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Test Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Measurement Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Pavement Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 5. Pavement Serviceability and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Rating of Pavements in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Pavement Performance Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Procedures for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 6. Flexible Pavement Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Flexible Pavement Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Pavement Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Paved Shoulder Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Analysis by Wheelpaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Special Base Type Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Structural Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Deflection Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Study of Overlays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 7. Rigid Pavement Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Rigid Pavement Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Pavement Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Subbase-Paved Shoulder Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Structural Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Studies of Strain and Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Chapter 8. Bridge Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bridge Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fatigue Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Comparison of Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Dynamic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ultimate Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 9. Special Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Pavement Performance-Loop 2....... .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 54
Tire Pressure-Tire Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Commercial Construction Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Special Suspension Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Military Vehicles with Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Military Tracked Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Braking, Impact and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Special Studies During Research Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
vii
THE AASHO ROAD TEST
Report 7
Summary Report
Chapter 1
This chapter consists of a very brief sum- heavier axle loads would affect their life
mary of the principal objectives of the AASHO expectancy.
Road Test and the findings that relate to these Highway administrators have long recog-
objectives. More detailed summaries will be nized the need for scientific investigation of the
found in later chapters of this report. relationships among various factors that are
The AASHO Road Test near Ottawa, Illinois, involved in the design of highway pavements
was conducted over a two-year period to pro- including those related to the pavement struc-
vide research data useful in the design of effi- ture and those concerned with the magnitude
cient highways at economical cost for highway and frequency of loads. More precise knowledge
engineers. The Road Test was composed of of these relations will provide assurance that
separate major experiments: one relating to future highways will serve with optimum
flexible pavement with asphalt concrete sur- efficiency and economy. The AASHO Road Test
facing, one to rigid pavement with concrete was one important step in a farseeing program
surfacing, one to short-span bridges with steel conceived by the American Association of State
beams and one to short-span bridges with con- Highway Officials to fill some of the gaps in
crete beams. current knowledge.
Construction of the specially-constructed test Since the performance of a pavement under
facilities began in August 1956, and test traffic traffic is affected by a large number of varia-
was started on October 15, 1958. Ten lanes bles, a single comprehensive experiment, of
were tested under controlled loading ranging such scope as to produce significant results with
from 2,000-lb single-axle loads in one lane to respect to all the variables, would become so
48,000-lb tandem-axle loads in another. A total complex and expensive as to be wholly infeasi-
of 1,114,000 axle loads had been applied to the ble. If kept within reasonable bounds of size
surviving pavement and bridges when the and cost but still including all variables, it
traffic test was completed on November 30, would very likely produce little or no informa-
1960. tion of value concerning the effect of any of the
The structural design of highway pavements variables.
has been based on empirical techniques, aug- In consideration of these matters the spon-
mented in large measure by long experience of sors of the AASHO Road Test chose to study
highway engineers in the design and operation only a few, most important relationships.
of highways. The excellent pavements in the Consequently, although the project was large
nation's highway network are evidence of the by usual highway research standards, it was
success that highway designers have achieved essentially a simple test program.
in the design and construction of pavements No attempt was made to study innovations
to perform their function-to provide for the in highway design or construction. Rather,
safe and efficient movement of traffic. Despite the intent was to provide information on con-
this successful experience, however, it has not ventional types of flexible and rigid pave-
been known, with the desired degree of cer- ments. Research of a different type would be
tainty, whether the pavements that have served needed if the purpose were to develop new
traffic well were constructed as economically as kinds of pavements and to test their perform-
possible, or how greater traffic volumes or ance characteristics.
1
2 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, RE PO RT 7
One of the basic concepts of the ex1)eriment ume. These relationships, ther fore, can be
was to i:;f;nrly and evalu ate the performance of used as a basis for imp1·ov d design procedures
pavements and bridges through failure. Since having fa r greater certainty than t hose em-
failtu·e was th u es ential t th . uccess of ployed ·n th past. Of c m· , the eff cts f
th research a11 briclg· and a substantial por- extending th r, ng of val'iables that w e?·e in-
tion of the test pav ments wer cl · igned to fail clud -cl in th project snch as I ad repetitions
or otherwise to show sever distr ess under or pav ment thiclme ses, and th effects of
the test traffic. The direct compaTison of types variabl s that wer not included must be ac-
of pavements or bridges was not the intent of counted for in other ways.
this experiment. The r >lati n hj p b tw en load and per-
Construction of the test pavem nts was very formance, as adj Ld cl to inc rp ratP- ·cost and
carefu lly controlled. It would not be conomi- th r variables may also s rv as a basis for
cally feasible in l10rmal highway construction detemnining the cost of providing highw·:iy for
to provide t he extraordinar y materials c ntrol vari() US 1oad classes of v hie! s and ther by
and ticld inspection facilities that w re con- fumi h obj ctive information for th esfal Jish-
sidered neces ai-y f l' the con truction f the ment of an equitable highway-us r tax struc-
t st pavements. Cons quently the variability ture.
in the characteristics of the vari u pav m nt A highly :imp rtaut by-product f the
components was consid rably lower than could AASHO Road Test was the development of a
be exp cted in routi11e hjg hway constru ction. new c nc pt for th evaluation of pavement
However, by JJresent-day standards the p cin- per£ rman c . The level of a particular pave-
cations for ~m r.h item as strength of materials ment's ability t rvc the tnweling publi c has
anrl compaction of pavement com1Jonents were been t nned its . 'l'Vic cib'ili ty, and it is the
not extra rclinarily high. T illu trnte this tr('ncl of erviceability with time r load a v-
point, th compaction of the mbanlanent so il plication. that has been d fin I as pavement
wa pecifi ~ to average 97.5 percent of the p •1'/o·rman . Wh n ·~ ·pecif'ieu nunimum de-
standa rd AASHO test valu e. This vain wa gr of er viceability i reach d m·;ij l' main-
considm·ed to represent. t.hr> rl~n~ity for emba11k- te rnnce or }'('!Con ·truction i r ·quired.
ment material Lhat would have been obtained Other impo1·tant n lings re. ulting fr om th
in routine highway construction in 1955. pavement 1 .rformance study include i11forma-
The principal objective o t h pav ·m nt r - t ion on the cquivaJe.n<.:ies of sing·} . and tandem
sear ch in the AA HO Road T t wa to estab- axle anang ments. For any given pav -m nt
li h r lationships hawing hm·V' llel'.fonna nce of design, th · ·quatfons permit the determillation
pavements is influenc d by trnctural desi ·n, of the single-axle load that would bring about
repre ented IJy t:ompon nt thicknesses of the th e same performanc as a given tandem-axle
pavement structure and loading, repre ented load . For example th exp riroents h w d
by the magnitude and f ·equ ncy of a xle loads, that for a giv n lo in rviceability a flerible
for both rigid and flexible pavements f con- pavement would "ith tand about the ame
ventional design. The most impo 'tant finclings numb l' of 33 000-lb tan.cl · m-axl J oa~ as
of the Road Test r late to thi obj e tive. 18,000-lb sin >'le-axle l ads, r ·ib ut the same
These findings ai:e p1·es nted in th -• form of number f 41,000-lb tandem-axle loads as
equations a nd grnphs showing the relationship 22,.100-lb oi ngfo axle l ads.
song·ht . The equations ar ·iven il1 AASHO Similar fig ures for ri ·id pavement ar
- - - - - ---i.1.ua.U-.....w=i._.i;IX.j.ULL.i.._u."- "Pa vem en l: Research," 29,000-lb tancl m versu 1 ,000-lb s i.ngle and
along with several graphical representations 36,000-lb tand ~111 ver us 22,tJOO-lb single-axle
that show the l:;lJedfic effects of particular loads.
variable on pavement performance. Some f Flexible pavements lost er iceability
the graphs are given in Cha1 ters 6 and 7 of thr ugh the dev I pm nt r r ut and ronghne s
this report. in th vrheelpath ~Uld by era king in hP. ·
Although it has long been known that pave- a ·phaltic concr t urfacing ventually r quir-
ment life is affected by many things, among ing patching of t lte urCace.
which are axle loads and number of load ap- Appreciabl r utting d v I p d in th flexible
plications, the Road Test equations show, for pavenwnt t.P.l':t • edi n uncl r the heavy ch~rn
the first time and for the Road Test conditions, neliz d test traffic. The studies sh w cl that, on
the extent to which change in performance is the average, 32 p rcent o.f Lite sm face rut was
associated with any specific change in axle load du to d crease in ul'face thiclmes , 1.t! percent
and number of repetitions thereof. For the to decrease in base thickness, 45 p rcent to
Road Test conditions the equations can be used decrea e in ubba thiclrne s and only 9 per-
to estimate the design requirements for a speci- cent to a rnt in th embankmenl mat r ial.
fied level of pavement perfor mance when a Additional compaction or c n olidati n f the
particular load and traffic volume is used or to pavement tructur und r traffic apparently
estimate the life of an existing pavement con- was respon ible for onl) a mall amount f the
sidering the anticipated loads and traffic vol- decrease in thiclrn 'S of the layer of various
CONDENSED SUMMARY 3
materials. Thus it is assumed that a large part ble pavements. Of all test sections in the main
of the rutting was associated with the lateral experiment that failed, 40 percent of the rigid
movement of the material outward from the and 5 percent of the flexible sections failed in
center of the wheelpath. the fall. Corresponding percentages for the
For the Road Test conditions the tests winter periods were 11 and 9; in the spring
showed that in the design of flexible pavement periods, 22 percent of the rigid section failures
1 in. of asphalt concrete was equivalent to 3 occurred, while 80 percent of the flexible-
in. of crnshed lime tone base, or 4 in. of sand- section failures were found; and in the summer
gravel subbase in their load-carrying abilities. periods, 27 percent of the rigid and 6 percent
Flexible pavement bases treated with bitu- of the flexible failures occurred. Test traffic
minous material or cement were far superior to associated with these failures was fairly uni-
untreated crushed limestone or gravel bases in formly distributed among the seasons. Twenty-
resisting loss of servic ability under load. An six percent of the test traffic was applied in
indication of this superiority can be seen in fall periods, 21 percent in winter periods,
Table 5 of this report. 25 percent in spring periods, and 28 percent in
Rigid pavements 1 st serviceability by the summer periods.
d velopment of roughness along the wheel- The combined effects of traffic and weather-
paths, by slab crackin •· or by the necessity of ing on pavement surface skid resistance were
patching the pavement slU·face due to severe studied. Coefficients of friction (for wet pave-
cracking and roughness. All of the failures in ment) after 2 years and 1,100,000 axle-load
the rigid pavements were preceded by pumping applications averaged about two-thirds of the
of material from beneath the concrete slabs. values for the pavements as built.
Generally this material consisted of the subbase All of the findings discussed above relate
sand-gravel and included the coarser fractions specifically and only to the conditions at the
of %.- to 1-in. size. S vere pumping of the sub- Road Test site. Application of the results under
base material was experienced in the sections other environments, and to other materials and
having the two thinnest slab thicknesses in procedures can be made only after careful con-
each loop; however, ome pumping appea1·ed in sideration of all factors affecting pavement
all sections (except under the 2,000-lb axle performance.
load). Practically all pumping occurred along In further consideration of the findings re-
the pavement dge. No cracking wa ob erved lated to pavement performance, it should be
in Loop 1 where no traffic was operated. borne in mind that the test traffic was applied
In the rigid pavement-experiments, the use of over a period of only two years. Consequently,
sand-gravel subbase increased the life of the it was necessary to relate performance to num-
pavements appreciably when pavements with ber of axle applications without consideration
subbase were compared to pavements with no of deterioration that may have been associated
subbase. · However, increasing the subbase with the effects of long-time, permanent
thickness from 3 to 9 in. produced no signifi- changes in embankment and pavement struc-
cant effect. ture condition due to weathering, or operations
Half of the rigid pavement sections in the such as the use of chemicals for ice removal.
main experiment were reinforced with wire However, in the two-year test period some
mesh and were constructed with transverse such loss of serviceability undoubtedly did oc-
contraction joints spaced at 40 ft, whereas the cur, even though it was not possible to separate
other half were not reinforced and had 15-ft these losses from losses associated with traffic.
joint . spacing. All of the transverse joint An important part of the AASHO Road
contamed dowel bar for load transfer. During Test was a study of short-span highway
the two-year period of test traffic no igniftcant bridges. Eighteen bridges were tested under
difference in performance was found between traffic. Each was a simple span structure
the otherwise equivalent 40-ft reinforced and consisting of three beams and a reinforced
15-ft nonreinforced sections. concrete slab. Each bridge was constructed on
Faulting occasionally occurred at cracks but a 50-ft span and was one traffic lane in width.
never at the doweled transverse joints. Four of the bridges were reinforced concrete,
Another major objective was to find meth- four had prestressed concrete beams, and ten
ods of predicting pavement performance. It had steel beams.
was found that future performance of pave- The first objective-to determine the be-
ment could be predicted with reasonable havior of certain short-span highway bridges
accuracy from certain measurements of deflec- under repeated applications of overstress-was
tions and strains made at the time the pave- concerned with the fatigue life of structures
ment was constructed or during a critical subjected to repeated high stresses and with the
period in th spring of the year. manner in which distress is caused by repeated
The season of the year had a marked in- high stresses.
• fluence on the rate of failure of the test The second objective-to determine the
pavements, particularly in the case of the flexi- dynamic effects of moving vehicles on these
4 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
short-span highway bridges-was concerned with reasonable accuracy on the basis of simple
with the behavior of individual test bridges laboratory tests if the history of stresses in
under· moving loadti. IL involved a cunelation the bridge is known. The dynamic studies of
of observed dynamic effects with those pre- the test bridges resulted in the formulation of
dicted by theoretical computations. theoretical concepts that will permit analytical
The findings of the bridge research are dis- evaluation of stresses and deflections of bridges
cussed in detail in Report 4. In general, actual caused by moving vehicles.
observations on the test bridges were in re- The behavior of composite steel bridges in
which the slab was connected to the beams
markably good agreement with those predicted was clearly superior to that of noncomposite
by theories concerning deflection and strain in steel bridges. The behavior of prest.ressed ~on
bridges. The observe.d distress caused by re- crete beams post-tensioned with parallel wire
peated applications of a stress indicated that cables was inferior to that of beams preten-
the life of highway bridges can be predicted sioned with seven-wire strands.
Chapter 2
History
The events leading to the three most recent limited extent was abandoned in favor of a
large-scale highway research project , Road more comprehen ive road test to be sponsored
Test One-MD, the W ASHO Road Test and the by the entire Ass ciation. In October, comply-
AASHO Road Test, are described in detail in ing with a reque t by the A sociation, a High-
AASHO Road Te t Report 1, 'History and way Research Board task committee submitted
Description of the Project" (HRB Special Re- a report, ' Pro po al for Road Tests, ' after
port 61A). The fo ll0wing is a ummary of which the A ociation appointed a working
these events and the activities f the AASHO committee to prepare a prosp ctus on the proj-
Road Test. ect. By D ce1nber it had been decided to include
For many years the member States of the bridges in the research.
American Association of tate Highway Offi- In June 1952, the Working Committee pro-
cfals had been confronted with the dual p1·oblem duced a report, "AASHO R ad Test Project
of constructing pavements to carry a growing· Statement." In July it selected a site for the
traffic load and establishing; an equitable policy pl'Oject near Ottawa, TII. In Janual'Y 1953, it
for vehicle sizes and weights. The As ocia- submitted a second xeport, "AASHO Road Test
tion recognized the need for factual data for Project Program," and in August 1954, a third,
u e in re olviug the problem. The1:efore, in ntitled ' roject Program Supplement." In
Septemb r 1948, it set up a proc dme for May 1955 this comrnjttee p ·oduced its fourth
initiating and administering research pr jects and final report, "Statement of Fundamental
to be jointly financed by two or more States. Principles, Project Elements and Specific
In December of the following year a meeting Directions."
was h ld at Columbus, at the request of the MeanwhiJ , in March 1953, AASHO had
Governo1· of Ohio, to consider the Pl.'Oblem of f ormuJ ated a plan for prorating the cost of
vehicle weight and its effect upon exi ting and the project among its member departments
future pav ments. The onfer nee 'vas at- and, later had received assurances of par-
tended by representatives of the Council of ticipation from the States, the Automobile
State Governments and highway officials of 14 Manufacturers As ociation, the Bureau of
eastern and midwestern States. The need for Public Roads and th American Petroleum In-
more factual data concerning the effect of axle dustry; the Department of Defense had agreed
loads of various magnitudes on pavements was to furnish military personnel for driving the
confirmed. · vehicle .
As a result, Road Test One-MD was con-
ducted in 1950. An exi ting concrete pavement On February 22, 1955, the Highway Re-
in Maryland was teste l under repeated applica- search Board with the approval of its parent
tion of two sing·le- and two tandem-axle loads. organizati n the National Academy of Sci-
The Highway Research Board administered the ences-National Research Council, accepted
test and published the results as HRB Special from the Association the resp usibility to ad-
Report 4. minister and direct the new project. The Board
Concurrently, the Committee on Highway opened a field office at Ottawa in July 1955;
Transport of the American Association of State and a task force of the Illinois Division of
Highway Officials recommended that additional Highways moved to the site in August to under-
road tests be ini tiated by the regi nal members take th preparation of plau ana to prepare
of the Association. As a result the Western for the construction of the te t facilities .
A ciatio11 of tate Highway Officials spon- In March 1956, the Board appointed the
sor d the WASHO Road Test, consisting of a National Advisory Committee as its senior
number of specially-built flexible l)avements in advi Ory group and in April selected a project
Idaho te tecl in 1953-54 undel· the sam loads director.
used in the Maryland test. The results of this In June 1956 the National Advisory Com-
test, also conducted by the Highway Research mittee passed a re Iution recommending that
Board, were published as Special Reports 18 the Executive Committee of the Highway Re-
and 22. search Board consid r th inclusion in the
In March 1951, the Mississippi Valley Con- facility of a fifth test loop to be subjected to
fer uc of State Highway Engineer had light axle loads. Thi resolution, recommended
started planning a third regional project. How- by the Bureau of Public Roads, was based on
ever, the idea of another xegional project of the pending enactment of the Federal-Aid
5
6 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
Highway Act of 1956. In July, the Executive INTENT OF THE AASHO ROAD TEST
Committee of the Board approved this change
and made additional changes involving special The following form a1 sb1.t.P.mfmt of thP. intP.nt
studies areas. The final layout of the test facili- of the Road Test was approved by the Execu-
ties is described in Section 1.2.2 of Road Test tive Committee of the Highway Research Board
Report 5. January 13, 1961:
Construction of the test facilities began in The AASHO Road Test plays a rol e in the t ota l
Au gust 1956, a nd test traffi c wa inaugurated enginee'l:i11g and conomic p1·o<:ess of providing high-
ways for the nation. It is important that this role
on October 15, 1058. Test traffi c w as op rated be understood.
until Novemb r 30, 1960, at which time 1,114,- The Road Test is composed of separate miijor
000 axle loads had been applied to the pavement ex periments, on t-elating to asp halt concrete pave-
and the bridges. 111e11 L1 one i·elating to portland ement concrete pave-
ment, and 011 e to shor t span bridges. There a1·e
A special stu dies program was condu ct ed in m nnerous seconda ry expel'J ments. In each of the
the spring and early summ r of 1961 over orne majo r experiments, t he objective is to relate desig n
of t he r ma ining t est sections. Strains, deflec- o p 1·for man e under ·ontroll ed loading condi tions.
tions and pressures were measured in the e L1 Lh ~ as[Jlia lL cv11crete a nd I ortland cement con-
crete experiments some of the pavemen t test sections
studies und · r a wi de variety of -vehicl · types, are uml rdesigned :md others overdes igned. Each
loa d s uspensions tires a nd tire pressures. Spe- experiment requires separate analysis. Event ually
cial military vehicles, inclu ded at t he i:equest the coll ection a nd a na lysis of additional engineeril1g
of t he Army a wel l as hi ghway construction and economic data for a local environment are neces-
sary in order to develop fi nal and meaningful rela-
equipmen t, were includ d in these tests. The tions between jl l\V m nt types.
r es ults of t he studies ar p r ented in Road All of the short pan bridges are underdesigned.
Test Report 6. Each is a lU:!IJ!lntl ~ cuse sludy.
During 196 , t he r esear ch staff cone ntrat d F a ilures and di t ress of the pavement test sections
and the beam of the shor t span bridges are
on analysis of the test dab an d the preparati n importa nt to the success of eac.h of t he experiments.
of reports. E ach of the m.aj or r porL · ' n: The Hig hway Res earch Boal'd vf Lh~ National
app1·oved by a r eview subcommitt e of th e Academy of Sciences- ational Resea rch Council has
National Adv i.. Ol'y Committee an d later ub- t he responsibility of adrninisleriJ1g the project for t he
upoiwor tl o Am rio311 Associiit io i of ~tnt~ H ic hway
mitted to the entire National Advisory Com- ffic.ial , within th bounds of the olJjeciives of the
mittee and t he Regional Ad visory mmittees test. T he Boar d is also responsible fo1· collecting
prior t o its publi cation by the H ighway Re- ngin eering data, developing methods of anal ysis
search B ai:d . All r eports wer com pleted by ll.ll ll 1nei;eHLaliuJL u.r la ta, pr p:ir ing· ornprchcn nivc
r ports desci'..ibing he tests, and drawing valid find-
the project staff, r eviewed by the various com- ings and conclusions. It is here t ha t the r ol e of
mittees, and submitted to the Executive Com- t he Hig·hway Resem·ch Board ends.
mittee of the Board. As t h total engineer ing mi d economic process of
The fi eld office for the proj e t was closed in pt·oviding highways for the nation 'is developed,
enginecriJ1g data from the AASHO Road Test and
January 1962. However, the H ighway Resear ch e11gineering and economic data fro m many othe ·
Board ag1·eed to cont inue certain studie asso- u1·ce will flow to the sponsor a11d its membe ·
ciat ed with the Road Test pavement per- depal·tments. It is here that stud i.es will be made and
formance analyses in its Washington office. fina l conclusions dra wn that will be helpful to the
executiv and legislative bra11ches of our seve1·al
The r esults of these studies will be reported by levels of gove1·nment a nd to the highway adminis tra-
the Highway Research Board. tor and engineer.
Chapter 3
Objectives
The objectives of the AASHO Road Test as of the National Advisory Conunittee, acting
stated by the National Advisory Committee upon the proposals of the origina"I AASHO
were as follows: Transport Committee's working committee.
The statistical panel played an important role
1. To determine th e signifi.cant relationships between in the experimental layout through its recom-
the mm1ber of repetitions of specified axle loads of mendations for complete factorial designs,
diffexellt magnitude aml arra ngement and the per-
formai1ce of dHTe1·ent thicknesses of w1iformly randomization, and replication.
designed and constructed a phaltic co11c1•cte, plain Within the space, time and funds available,
I ortlru1cl c ment concr le, and reinforced portland only a few variables could be studied thor-
cement concrete surfaces on different thicknesses of oughly. The experiment was designed and the
bases and subbases when on a basement soil of known
characteristics. test facilities built specifically for the study of
2. T o determine the significant effects of specified these variables. In general, mathematical
vehicle axle loads and gross vehicle loads when models were developed to represent associations
applied at known frequency on bridges of known among experimental variables, then statistical
design and characteristics.
3. To make special studi s dealing wi th such subje ts methods were employed to determine the con-
as paved should r , base type., iia vem n t fatigue, stants for the models and to describe the
til' size and pre sures, and heavy mjlitar y vehicJes reliability of the evaluated models. Thus ex-
and to orr late the fin din ·S of these special stud ies perimental designs and analytical procedures
with the results of the basic resea rch.
4. To p1·ovide a record of the ty1le and exte11t of were developed in order to obtain unbiased esti-
effort and material requfred to ke p each of he mates of the effects (and the statistical signifi-
test section or portion thereof in a satisfa ··tory cance of many of the effects) of controlled
omli tion until discontinu d for test rnn·pose . experimental factors. The designs and pro-
5. To develop il1strumentation, iest pro chrres, data,
charts, graphs, and form ulas, wh .icl1 will reflect the cedures did not, however, make it possible to
capabilities of the various test sections; and which obtain effects of other factors that were either
will be helpful hi future highway design, in the held constant or varied in an uncontrolled
evaluation of the load-canyi11g capabilities of exist- fashion, for example, embankment soil,
ing highways and in det rmining the most 11romising
area fol' further highway ·e ca1· •h . strength of materials, and environmental con-
ditions. Coefficients were obtained for the ef-
The wo ·k done in conn ction with Obj ectives fects of axle load and axle configuration. In the
1 and 5 and with some of the special studies cases of load effect on both pavement types
mentioned in b.i ctive 3, is discussed in detail and axle configuration effect on rigid pavement,
in Report . Material r lating to Obj ective 2 the differences observed in performance were
will be f und in Road Test Report 4 and so great as to leave practically no doubt that
Objective 4 is discus ed in R port 3. Other the effects were significant.
special studies suggested in Objective 3 are Basic data will be made available to other
discussed in Report 6. groups equipped to perform independent
analyses. Further analyses are encouraged by
OBJECTIVITY OF FINDINGS the Highway Research Board in the expectation
that the over-all usefulness of the project will
Discussion of the results given in the Road be enhanced.
Test reports has generally been limited to
specific relationships derived from the data. APPLICABILITY OF FINDINGS
Restraint ha been x rcised in expressing
opinions, conjecture and peculations. Con- The findings of the AASHO Road Test, as
clusions have been drawn only when supported stated in the relationships shown by formulas,
by data acquir d dm'ing the te t . graphs, and tables throughout the reports, re-
At the r eque t of the . ati nal Academy of late specifically to the physical environment of
Sciences a panel of statisticians was appointed the proj ect, to the materials used in the pave-
in 1955 so that professi ual advice was avail- ments, to the range of thicknesses and loads
able for both the designs of the Road Test ex- and number of load applications included in the
periments and for the proc dures by which the experiments, to the construction techniques em-
exp rim ntal dat.:'1. w uld be analyzed . It wa ployed, to the specific times and rates of ap-
not the fuu.ction of this gr up to recommend plication of test traffic, and to the climatic
vari ab les nor levels fo r variables to be includ d cycles experienced during construction and
in the Road Test. This was the responsibility testing of the experimental pavements. More
7
8 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
specific limitations on certain of the nudings should be based upon experimental or other
are giv n in the discussion of result in various evidence of the effects on pavement perform-
scction3 of thiE report. GenernliZ<itions ctn<l ance of diff crcnces in clfrn.a.t e., , 01'.t. t.yrrn, m,f1.tP.-
e. •fraJ:>Olations of these .findings to conditions 1"ials, constntction and 1naintenance practices
otJwr than those that exi t cl cit the Road T est and traffic.
Chapter 4
The AASHO Road Test was located near the Illinois River. Surface drainage, however,
Ottawa, Illinois, in LaSalle County, about 80 is g·enerally slow . Geologic information indi-
miles outhwest of Chicago (Fig. 1). The test cate that the area wa cover d by ice during
facility was constnteted along the alignment of several glacial periods and that the sub urface
Interstate 80. The site was chosen because the soils we1·e depo ited r modified during these
soil within the area is uniform and of a type periods. Surface soil were ubsequently de-
representative of that found in large area of rived from a thin mantle of Joess deposit d
the country, because the climate is typical of during the po t-glacial peri cl and were reason-
that found throughout much of the northern ably uniform in the area of the project. S ii
United States, and because much of the earth- drainage is generally poor. Bedrock is found
work and pavement construction could ulti- 10 to 30 ft below the surface.
mately be utilized in the construction of a sec- The upper layer of soil was from 1 to 2 ft
tion of the National System of Interstate and thick and consisted g nerally of A~<; or A-7-6
Defense Highways. soil with similar characteristics. The adjacent
underlying stratum was u ually fr m 1 to 2 ft
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS thick and most of this material was fairly
pla tic A-7-6 soil. Samples of substrata gener-
The topography of the Road Test area is level ally exhibited A-6 charact ri tics.
to gently undulating with elevations varying In the interest of obtaining uniformity the
from 605 to 635 ft . Drainage is provided by soil making up the top ft of embankment
several small creeks which are tributaries of directly under the t est pavements was taken
<.Michigan
'"
Figure 1. Site location.
9
10 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
from borrow areas near the project. This soil, freezing of the immediate surface. Normally
underlying the surface stratum, was shown by the average depth of frost penetration in the
tests to have a J?lasticity index from 11 to 15, area i1:; aLuu l 28 in.
a liquid limit from 27 to 32, and a grain size Summaries of climatological data observed
distribution of 80 to 5 percent finer than the at weather stations on the project are given in
200 m h si ve 58 to 70 percent finer than Figures 2 tlu·ough 4 and frost depth informa-
0.02 mm and 34 to 40 percent fme1· than 0.005 tion in • igure 5. Depth of frost under the test
mm. Maximum dry densities were in the range pavements was obtained by means of special
of 11 . to 118 pcf and optimum moisture con- instrumentation illvolviug the mP.asurement of
tents in the range of 14 to 16 percent when electrical resistance of the soil as described in
compa t d in accordance with standard pro- Hi,qhway Research Abstracts, Vol. 27, No. 4.
cedure, AASHO T99-49. More detailed climatological and frost informa-
The climate of the area is temperate and the tion is available in the form of IBM listings in
average annual precipitation is about 34 in. of
which about 2.5 in. occurs as 25 in. of snow. Data Systems 3300, 3301, 3140 and 3240.
The average mean ummer temperature is Figure 6 su.rnmaTizes the observations made at
76 F and the average mean winter temperature the pruject on th elevation of the water table
is 27 F. The soil usually r main frozen during under the test pavements and adjacent naturnl
the winter except for alternate thawing and ground.
I&.
0
u.i
~ 60
ij
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~ 40
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1956 1957 1958 1959 1960
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12
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1956 1957 1958 1961
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 11
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a: w
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width of th e roadway, and all tlm1ing opera- uniformity f the comp nents f th various
ti n on the grade were limited to specially Lt! ·l "1::di ns in rd r to p rmit compuri:Jon of
de ignatcd trc:msiti n a.rea ·. Specificati n fo1· thP.ir pP.1'formancc on the basis of thei · design
d ns ity of com1 acted ernbanlunent soil, subbase characteristics. No attempt at up rcompa -
and ba material include l tipu lations f tion or extraordinary construction was made.
maximum densities as well as the conven- Rather t he specifications we1· uch as to p ·o-
tional minimums. vid pavem nt · mpone11t imilar to those
These and other construction control meas- encounter cl in n ·maJ 1'lighway construction.
ures were considerably more strict than those Construction was p rf onned under contl'acts
encounter d in normal pavement constructi n. ne )·otiat d thr ugh n rma l Illino is c ntractual
The purpose of these measures was to insure channels. It was sta1ted in late s ummer 1956
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 13
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1959 1960 1961 1961 1958 1959 1960 1961
PAVEMENT SURFACE
Loop 6
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and completed in time for test traffic to begin dicated the need to readjust the height and
in the fall of 1%8. S. J . Groves and Sons was arrangement of the test loads. This delayed
the principal contractor in a joint venture fuU-scale tl'affic uutil November 5, 1958. From
with Arcole Midwest, Inc., in the embankment November 1958 to January 1960 controlled
construction and with Rock Roads, Inc., as a test traffic consisted o six vehicles in each lane
subcontractor for asphaltic concrete surfacing. of Loops 3 through 6, four vehicles in lane 1
Valley Builders, Inc., built the bridges. of Loop 2 and eight vehicles in lane 2 of Loop 2.
To achieve the intended number of load applica-
TEST TRAFFIC tions in the available time, the traffic was
increased in J ru1Uary 1960 to ten vehicles in
A detailed description of the operatio11 of the each lane of Loop 3 th1·ough 6, six in lane 1
test traffic is presented in Road Test Report 3. and 12 in lane 2 of Loop 2. These vehicle dis-
As previously stated, Loop 1 was not subjected tributions were selected in order that axle-
to test traffic. On lane of this loop was used load applications could be accumulated at the
fol' subsurface and special load studies, the same rate in each of the ten traffic lanes.
other for observing the effect of environment All lanes had identical specifications for
on pavements not subjected to traffic. The re- transverse pJacement, speed, and rate of axle-
maining five loops, 2 through 6, were subjected load accumulation. Tire pressure and ::;leering
to traffic for l:ilighLly more than two years. axle loads were represenLaUv~ of normal prac-
Every vehicle in any one of the ten traffic lane tice. Some of the vehicles were gasoline and
had the same axle load and axle connguration. others die. el powered. Further information
The assignment of axle loads and vehicle typ s concerning the vehicles i contained in Road
to the various lanes is shown in Figure 13. Test Reports 1 and 3.
The vehicles were loaded with concrete block Whenever possible (most of the time), traffic
that were anchored down with steel bands and was operated at 35 mph on the test tangents.
chains. Although the traffic phase was inaugu- Traffic was cheduled to operate over an 18-hr,
r ated on Octotier 1!\ 1 %8; early operation in- 40-min period each day, 6 days a week, except
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 15
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16 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
®"'" ••.
4 12 28
@ { (D L!j compassed such measurements as the severity
of pumping of r·igid pavements, changes in
6 24 54
FRONT LOAD LOAD layer thickness in flexible pavements, pavement
temperatures, subsurface conditions, and
numerous othe'l· measurements.
•• 6 18 42 In general, measm·ements were restricted to
those variables that had been demonstrated by
previous research to be related significantly
••• 9 32 73
to pavement performance. A further restric-
tion, applying especially to subsurface studies,
was imposed by the overriding necessity to
{ © J1l:r •• 6 22.4 51
keep the test traffic moving .
In spite of these r strictions, a formidable
®
® •
"'" ••• 9 40 89
amount of data was accumulated, and pecial
electronic sy ·terns were valved to facilitate the
® { © J1l:r ,, 9 30 69
storag·e and initial processing o · the data. For
example, in the cas of some programs means
were provided to record automatically in the
®"'"
Figure 13.
••• 12 48
3. Complete maintenance histories of each test ventional repairs could be made duTing the
ection are available in DS 6300. daily 5-h -, 20-min traffic break.
'!'he objectives of the Road Tesl we1· 11- All repairs were made with flexible-typP.
cerned with the performance of the test sec- pavement material. D ep patches and recon-
tions as con tructed. Consequently, mainte- struction consisted f compacted crushed stone
nance operations were held to a minimum in base material surfaced with hot-mixed as-
any section that was still considered under phaltic concrete. Overlay consisted of asphal-
study. When the "present serviceability" (see tic concrete. Thin patches were made either
Chapter 5 nnd, for more detail, Section 1.8 with hot-mix or cold-mix materials. Crushed
Report 5) of any section drovped .to a sp ci- stone base mat rial and cold-mix surfacing
fied level the section w'as considered to be were stockpiled at several locations on the
out of test and maintenance o · recousl.1·u tion project, and hot-mix aspL.alLic 'm1crete was
was performed as needed. generally purchased from a nearby contractor.
8ince the prime ob.ie tive of the maint i1ance As a general 1·11lP., pavement maintenance
work was to keep test traffic operating as
much as possible, minor repairs were made was don by project forces \vith project-owned
when required regai:dles of weather 01· time equipment. However, in the critical spring
of day. The use of pierced steel aviation land- periods of 1959 and 1960, it was necessary to
ing mats permitt d traffic to OJ?erate through augment the project maintenance forces with
a complete driving period so that more con- additional men and equipment.
Chapter 5
The first objective of the Road Test was de- These men made independent ratings of the
signed to obtain relationships between the per- ability of 138 sections of pavement, located in
formance of the pavement and the pavement three States, to serve high-speed, mixed truck
design variables for various loads. In order to and passenger traffic. Both rigid and flexible
define performanc , a new concept was evolved pavements were included, and certain sections
founded on the principle that the prime func- were selected for rating in each of five cate-
tion of a pav ·ment is to serve th traveling gorie ranging from very poor to very good .
public satisfactorily. Briefly it wa · c011 idered At approximately the same tim that the panel
that a pavem nt that maintain d a high 1 vel rated the pavement ction , Road Test field
of abiUty t erve traffic over a period of time crews measured variations in longitudinal and
is superior in performance to one whose riding transverse profiles, as well as the amount of
qualities and g neral condition deteriorated at cracking and patching of each section.
a. mor rapid rate under the ame traffic. The By multiple regression analysis it was pos-
term "present serviceability" was adopted to sible to correlate the present serviceability rating
indicate the momentary ability of a pavement with the objective measurnments of longi-
to serve traffic, and the performance of the tudinal profile variations, the am uut of crack-
pavement was represented by its serviceability ing and patching and, in the ca of flexible
history in conjunction with its load application pavements, transverse profile variations (rut-
history. . ting). For both types of pavement this analysis
Though the s rviceability of a pavement is resulted in a formula whereby pavement meas-
patently a matter t be determined ubj c- urements would be used to compute a "present
tively a metho l for c nverting it to a quantity serviceability index" which closely approxi-
based on obj ective measurem nts was d vised. mated the mean rating of the panel. The neces-
Sine th Road Te t was cone med nly with sary measurements and serviceability index
the structural features of the pavement, such computati n wer mad for each R ad 'Ie t
items a gl'ade alignment. acce s, c ndition of section at two-w ek il1tervals throughout the
shoulders, sli1 perines and glare were excluded traffic phase.
from con ideration in arriving at a v·1Jue for Formulas for the present serviceability in-
pavement serviceability. dex of both the flexible and rigid pavements,
The serviceability of each test section was together with the definitions of the measure-
determined every two weeks during the traffic
testing phase, and performance analyses were ments entering into them, are given at the end
based on the trend of serviceability with in- of this Chapter. The method of measuring
creasing number of load application . The longitudinal profile variations was the same for
both pavement types and is described below.
serviceability-] erformance c ncept is de cribed
in detail in Appendix F of R ad Test Report 5. The instrument used for recording longitudi-
nal profile variations was the longitudinal
profilometer pictured in Figure 14 and shown
RATING OF PAVEMENTS IN SERVICE schematically in Figure 15.
Serviceability was found to be influenced by The instrument output was a continuous
longitudinal and tran ver e roughness as well ana log of the lop f the pavement in each
as the extent of cracking and patching. The wheelpath, togeth r with 1-ft <listance mark
proportionate contribution of these factors to a long th margin the tap (Fig. 16). Th
an over-all serviceability rating is a matter of tapes w re f d into a11 automatic electronic
subjective opinion. Furthermore, the degree of chaTt reader (Fig. 17) that measured the ordi-
serviceability loss to be associated with a given nate of the chart at intervals equivalent to
change in any one of these .elements depend n 1 ft on the pavement, d igitized tJ1is information
subj ·d ive jud ment. T btain a g· od estimate and punched it on perforated paper tape suit-
of th pinion of th traveling public i11 the able for u e a an input to the proj ect' di ·ital
s ubj ectiv matters a Pav ment Serviceability computer.
Rating Panel wa appoint d. This panel in- To correlate profile variation with service-
clud d highway d siCTn r , highway mainte- ability ratings made by the panel, the hundreds
nance engineers, highway administrators, men of slope measurements taken in each section
with materials interests, trucking interests, were reduced to a single statistical parameter
automobile manufacturing interests and others. representing the roughness of the section. The
19
20 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
parameter selected was the variance of the Each 2-week period was termed an "index
slope measurements, abbreviated SV. period," and the last day of each p riod was
The slope variance for each section was called an index day." Index days were num-
calculated by the digital computer directly from bered sequentially from 1 to 55, the first
the tape output of the chart reader. For use by occurring on Novemb r 5, 1958, and the fifty-
other agencies, th R ad Test staff has ue- ftfLh on November 30 1960. Because all sec-
veloped a simplified profilometer (Fig. 18), des- tions had been subjected to almost the same
ignated the CHLOE Profilometer, whose out-· number of applications of axle loads on any
put is slope variance. Thus, neither a chart given date, the pairing of an index value with
·eader nor a digital computP.r i::; rfl<Jll i 1·P.rl whf'n an index day is equivalent to specifying the
the HLOE P:rofil meter i used . servic ability index corr spondil1g to a given
It was found that of the several types of numl r f axle applications.
measurements used in the ::;ervicPahility index The ::;ervkeability history of each section was
formulas, longitudinal profile variation of a converted to a "smoothed serviceability his-
section of pavement, when represented by the tory" by a moving average technique. Typical
logarithm of the slope variance, correlated serviceability data and smoothed serviceability
most highly with the rating of that section histories are shown in Figure 19.
by the panel. It was observed early in the traffic phase of
the Road Test, confirming experience else-
PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE DATA where, that for sections of pavement which
were not adequately designed for the particular
Pavement performance analyses were based load, the rate of deterioration was related to
on the trend of the serviceability index (deter- seasonal changes. This was especially so in
mined at intervals of two weeks, or more often the case of flexible pavements. The design of
when required) with increasing axle applica- the Road Test experiment did not permit a
tions. clearcut comparison of the damage rate in the
9"-1
I
f-.
I
-- 0
PAVEMENT
H
SURFACE
upon performance. The procedure a lso in- forms that can be used as models for service-
cluded methods for estimating th preclSlon ability trends, and everal of these may fit the
with which the data fit t h a urned model. data with mor e or less the same precision.
The procedures used in the Road Test analyses Different model· were tested for goodness of
ar set forth in detail in Appendix G of Road fit to the Road Test performance data. Prefer-
Test Report 5. ence for one model over another was governed
There are many different mathematical mainly by relative goodness of fit, but con-
SMOOTHEO SERVICEABILITY
..i.-t......._....., HISTORY
9
~ + +
+
"
Bl-Y/EEKLY SERVICEABILITY
INDEXES
Average residuals, correlation indexes, and in- performance equations fit the Road Test data
ferences from the significance tests are sum- with satisfactory precision. In time, other
marized in Report 5. models may be found LhaL also fit the data satis-
Many different models and fitting procedures factorily and which may prove equally or more
were studied and one selected from which the useful.
TABLE 2
PAVEMENT COMPONENT THICKNESS
FLEXIBLE p AVEMENT
Loop
Item
3 6 5 2 1 4
Test axle loadings (lb) 12,000 S' 30,000 s 22,400 s 2,000 s No Traffic 18,000 s
24,000 T 48,000 T 40,000 T 6,000 s 32,000 T
Factorial test sections 60 60 60 44 48 60
Special study sections 24 24 24 24 16 24
Asphalt concrete
Surfacing thicknesses (in.) 2,3,4 4,5,6 3,4,5 02,1,2,3 1,3,5 3,4,5
Base thicknesses (in.) 0,3,6 3,6,9 3,6,9 0,3,6 0,6 0,3,6
Subbase thicknesses (in.) 0,4,8 8,12,16 4,8,12 0,4 0,8,16 4,8,12
25
26 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
TABLE 4
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS, FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 1
Asphaltic
Crushed Cement- Asphalt- Concrete
Item Subbase Stone Gravel Treated Treated
Base Base Base Base Surface Binder
Mix Mix
1
Identificat ion: Sub base, uncrushed natural sand-gravel ; Cr us hed stone base crushed dolomitic 1imestone;
Gravel base, unc ·ushed natural gl·avel; Treated base, asphall cem nt 01· 1iorUand cement and subbase mat rial;
Asphalt ic concrete, crushed dolomitic limesto11e a11d uncrushed natural sand with dolom itic limestone lust filler.
'AASHO T99-57.
'Laboratory d ns ity u ing Marshall procedure.
• Befor s ubgi-adll1g.
' 85-100 pen tr a.tion grade asphalt.
'Type I portla11d cement.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RESEARCH 27
Index Days
11 22 33 44 55 11 22 33 44 55
rt~~-.~.-~~~~~~-.-~~-.-~ r-.~-.~~.-~~~-.-~~~--r-~--.
a. 4.5
Q)
::>
~ 3.5
-
..0
0
cu
...cu~
2.5
1.5
--
Sect. 579
Flexible Pavement
----
Sect. 673
--- Sect. 341
Rigi d Pavement
(/)
0 200 600 1000 200 600 1000
Weighted Applications (thousands) W
Figure 20. Pavement serviceability trends.
28 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
x
w
~4 t-~~-t-~+--+--+-+--1-+-t+~~--1r-----t~+-+-1-+-H+-----:~~~
----
!! I 11 o • • •I ' ' I' ~
N(;\.E
i --
"II' SI . ..--
"--
ARE A OF
E X T RAPOLAT ION
Figure 21. Main factorial e"'Xperiment, relationship between design and axle
application at JJ = 2.5 (from Road Test equations).
timate how much difference in life can be ex- under the 2-kip load about 2 in. more asphaltic
pected if axle loads or frequency are changed. concrete, or 6 in. more base, would have been
Furthermore, for a given axle load and for an required for the outer wheelpath for the entire
estimated number of axle-load applications, the test section to prevent loss of serviceability to
pavement structure needed to prevent deteri- 2.5 for a million load applications than was re-
oration to any specified level of serviceability quired for the inner wheelpath.
can be determined. Of course, these findings
apply specifically only to Road Test conditions. SPECIAL BASE TYPE EXPERIMENTS
Generalizations to other areas, materials, and An important investigation within the flex-
climates will require experimental or other ible pavement experiment involved a study of
evidence of the effects of other conditions on the relative effectiveness of certain treated and
performance. untreated bases. Four base types were studied:
crushed stone, uncrushed gravel, and cement-
PAVED SHOULDER EXPERIMENT treated and bituminous-treated sand-gravel.
All results from the AASHO Road Test were There were 12 test sections in each of Loops 3,
not positive or useful. The flexible pavement 4, 5 and 6 in this study. The bases in this ex-
experiment in which the effectiveness of paved periment were constructed in wedge shapes
shoulders was studied is an example of one that varying from thick to thin in the direction of
was not. Here the designers of the experiments traffic. Each section was 160 ft long and for
chose over-all pavement structures for the purposes of study was divided into four 40-ft
paved shoulder experiments that were too thin subsections. The average base thickness varied
to survive more than about 100,000 load appli- from subsection to subsection in about 3-in.
increments.
cations. Consequently, with few exceptions, all
of the sections failed early in the test regard- The experiment design was such that no
mathematical analysis of the performance was
less of the width of paved shoulder. It was attempted. A graphical analysis was made that
concluded that the experiment produced no
clear evidence of any effect of paved shoulders permits comparison of the performance of the
on performance of the test pavements. If stone, cement-treated and bituminous-treated
thicker designs had been used the effect of bases. Most of the sections containing the un-
paved shoulders on performance might well treated gravel base failed early in the test and
are omitted from the major analyses of per-
have been more evident. formance.
Table 5 gives the results of the graphical
AN AL YSIS BY WHEELP ATHS analysis. The thickness of each base type
Observation of the Road Test flexible pave- needed to prevent loss of serviceability below
ments disclosed that distress generally started 2.5 at 1,114,000 applications (the end of the
in the outer wheelpath near the pavement edge traffic test) are given for the various Road Test
and progressed more rapidly in this wheelpath loads. The base thickness figures apply to pave-
than it did in the inner wheelpath near the ment structures that also include 3-in. asphal-
pavement centerline. Since the data from tic concrete surfacing and 4-in. subbases.
which serviceability histories were constructed
were taken by wheelpaths, it was possible to TABLE 5
perform analyses of the performance of the THICKNESS OF BASE1 REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN
flexible pavement by wheelpaths. An independ- SERVICEABILITY AT p = 2.5 AT 1,114,000 LOAD
ent analysis of the inner wheelpath perform- APPLICATIONS, FROM GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
ance was made as was an analysis of the outer
wheelpath performance. These analyses dis- Cement- Bituminous-
closed that the performance relationships previ- Load Treated Crushed Treated
ously described for both wheelpaths had very (lb) Uncrushed Dolomitic Uncrushed
Sand- Limestone Sand-
nearly the same characteristics as those for the Gravel Gravel
outer wheelpath alone. This indicates that since
most distress in flexible pavement generally oc- 12,000 S' 7' 10 3
curs first in the outer wheelpath, pavement 24,000 T' 7' 12 4
structure designs based on the requirements 18,000 s 8 13 5'
for the outer wheelpath alone may be nearly 32,000 T 8 13 6'
the same as the structure design needed for an 22,400 s 10 15 3 7
entire pavement. On the other hand, the analy- 40,000 T 10 15' 7
sis of inner wheelpath performance when com- 30,000 s 12 20 11
pared with over-all section performance dis- 48,000 T 11 18 10
closed that appreciably less pavement structure
was required for the inner wheelpath than was
1
With 3-in. asphaltic concrete surfacing and 4-in.
sub base.
required for the outer wheelpath or the section ' S = single axle; T = tandem axle configuration.
as a whole. For example, in all lanes except 3
Interpolated or extrapolated values.
30 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
Examination of Table 5 discloses that the cent to decrease in subbase thickness, and only
treated bases were far superior to the untreated 9 percent to a rut in the embankment material.
bases, and that the bituminous-treated base was Decreases in thickness of the layers of ma-
somewhat better than the cement-treated base terial were apparently caused only to a small
in resisting loss of serviceability under load. It extent by additional compaction or consolida-
Rhoulo hP notPo that theRe treated bases were of tion under the traffic. Thus, it was assumed that
a relatively high type. The cement-treated base a large part of the rutting was associated with
had 4 percent cement by weight and an 840- movement of the material laterally from the
psi 7-day compressive strength, and the center of the wheelpaths.
asphalt-treated base had 5.2 percent asphalt In sections that survived the test, rutting
cement and a Marshall stability of 1,600 (Table developed at a faster rate during the first year
4). of traffic than during the second year. In test
sections in the special base experiment there
STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION appeared to be an optimum thickness for each
load and base type insofar as rutting was con-
As previously stated, flexible pavements lost cerned. As base thickness increased from this
serviceability when they developed roughness optimum, rut depth remained essentially con-
along the wheelpaths, cracking, ruts in the stant. As base thickness decreased from this
wheelpaths, and when it was necessary to patch optimum, rut depth increased rapidly.
the pavements. Considerable study was de- Careful records were kept of the formation
voted to the behavior of the various pavement of cracks in the pavement surfacing. An equa-
components and their influence on these modes tion was developed for computing the number of
of serviceability loss. Transverse profiles were axle loads sustained by a pavement before alli-
determined from precise level surveys and from gator cracking appeared. This equation dis -·
an automatic electronic profile device, thick- closed that for the same thickness the surfac-
ness measuring instruments were installed in ing material was 3.3 times as effective as the
the pavement, trenches were cut transversely base material and about 4 times as effective as
in failed sections . and the development of rut- the subbase material in p ·eventing surface
ting in the wheelpaths was frequently measured c1·acking. Figure 26 shows the types of distress
as was longitudinal profile with the AASHO noted in the flexible pavements.
profilometer. Some of the instruments used in
these measurements are shown in Figures 23, DEFLECTION STUDIES
24, and 25. The fifth Road Test objective called for
The trench studies disclosed that rutting was means to estimate future pavement perform-
due primarily to decreases in thickness of the ance based on measurements that could be
surfacing, base and subbase. The data showed taken early in the life of a pavement. A great
that, on the average, 32 percent of the surface deal of effort at the Road Test and the greatest
rut was due to decrease in surface thickness, part of the million-dollar instrumentation pro-
14 percent to decrease in base thickness, 45 per- gram was directed towards the fulfillment of
this objective. In flexible pavements deflections tion of the pavement. There was also high
of the pavement surface measured under correlation between deflections measured in the
moving wheel loads proved to be good predic- critical spring period and pavement design.
tors of future pavement performance. These relationships for the various Road Test
A high degree of correlation was found single-axle loads are shown in Figure 27. D1,
between pavement design and deflections meas- D2 and De are the thicknesses in inches of sur-
ured in the fall immediately after the construe- facing, base and subbase, respectively; d is
1.-
-
Figure 25. Manual rut depth gage.
Evidence of longitudinal rutting, water in wheelpaths Pronounced rutting, Class 2 cracking.
after a rain in a no-traffic period.
1
I
Dci =.049 0 +.014 0 +023 0
2 3
.160 .160 L og d= .7 4+ 1.13 Log L 1- --
0
~ 3 61 Log (l+ Od)
en
w
:i::
u
~
~
.120 .120
G(~
.z
~
I-
u
w .080 .OBO
~
w
c
.040
0 0
0 0.2 04 0.6 O.B 1.0 l2 14 0 0.2 04 0.6 0.8
Figure 27. Relationship between pavement design and creep speed deflection
(from Road Test equations).
deflection in inches; and L1 is axle load in formance. Figure 28 shows graphically the
thou ands of pound . r esults of these studies. The curves were plotted
Eguation were also cle1·ived to relate deflec- from equati ns <level p d from the deftect ion-
t ion to load, to veh icle speed, m1d in the non- perfo rmance data. Axle app lications are plot -
trnffic loop to seasons of the year. D fl.ections ted on t h vertical scale in logar ithmic form.
f flex ibl pavem n t surfacing incr ased almost The applications shown a r e the number of
linearly with load and decrea. ed with increas- loads that can be app lied befor e the pavem ent
ing vehicle speed. Increasing vehicle speed from reache a serviceabi lity of 2.5. On the hor izontal
0 t o 50 mph i·esulted in about a 50 percent sca le the deflection is shown. The curves on
r eduction in deflection. the left were derived from deflection data taken
Studies were also made of the effect of sur- in the fall of 1958 immediately after construc-
facing t emperature on deflection. It was shown tion was completed and pri r to test traffi c.
that deflections increased with surface t empera- The curves on t h r ight were developed from
t ure up to about 70 or 80 d gl:e s and remain cl deflections t ak en in the criti ca l spring period.
es en t i a lly constant ab v · t his lev 1. From the right-hand curves it can be seen that
Th e ma in purpose of the iefiection studies as if th spring deflection under an 18,000-lb
previous]) stated wa t how relationships s ingle-axle load was about 0.035 in . the pave-
between deflecti on and future pavement per- ment withst od on the average one million ap-
8
"'t;i
..
ti
(/)
~
ti
7 1-4.~~-1---1-----1---1- Fa1L 1958 -Deflections--
I p ~z .,5 I
u ·l----i"'-~-1-
+l.72 Log L 1- 3.07 og d)
:::; 7
0.
0.
<[
_,"'
)(
<[
c 4
"'....
§
..."'
:ii:
c
3 --
§
2 '---'--~'-----'--~'-----L-~---1-~...L-~
0 .020 .040 .060 .080 . 100 .120 .020 .040 .060 .080 .100 .120 .140 .160
plications (log of 1,000,000 = 6.0) of 18,000-lb test sections. It was clear that overlays were
single-axle loads bef re its serviceability fell hi hly effective as a means for extending the
to 2.6. Hovrever, if Urn . Iffing- defl cti n nuder service life of these pavements.
the same load was of the order of .073 in. the Attempts at mathematical analysis designed
pavement withstood only 100,000 18,000-lb axle to establish specific Telationship etween per-
applications (log of 100,000 = 5.0). formance aud overlay design were unsuccess-
ful, b cau"e thl:l vutl.:ume of eac.:h analysis
STUDY OF OVERLAYS proved to be highly dependent on the assump-
tion made concerning the mathematical model
A study of the effectiveness of aspbaltic con- for the analysis Further work will QQ :;it
crete overlays included 99 flexible pavement tempted by the Highway Research Board.
Chapter 7
TABLE 6
PAVEMENT COMPONENTS
RIGID PAVEMENT
Loop
Item
3 6 5 2 1 4
Test axle loadings (lb) 12,000 S 1 30,000 s 22,400 s 2,000 s No Traffic 18,000 s
24,000 T 48,000 T 40,000 T 6,000 s 32,000 T
Factorial test sections 56 56 56 40 48 56
Special study sections 12 12 12 8 12
Concrete slab thicknesses (in.) 3.5, 6.5, 8.0, 11.0, 6.5, 9.5, 2.5, 3.5, 5.0 2.5, 9.5, 5.0, 8.0,
5.0, 8.0 9.5, 12.5 8.0, 11.0 5.0, 12.5 6.5, 9.5
Subbase thicknesses (in.) 0',3,6,9 0',3,6,9 0',3,6,9 0,3,6 0,6 0',3,6,9
Note: All slab thicknesses occur as both reinforced and plain pavement.
1
S = single, T = tandem axle configuration.
'Not in factorial expe1·iments.
35
36 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
ments and the methods of construction are creased, as large cracks deve1oped in the
described in detail in AASHO Road Test Re- surface, and as it was necessa1·y to ad l patches
port 2 (Special Report 61B) along with com- to the pavem nt surface. 'l'he plot of the bi-
prehensiv ummarizations of material control we -kly servi ·eability indexes against increasing
test data. As on the fl exible pavement test number of load applications formed the service-
l.augeuts, µavemen structures were constructed ability history for e.ach tP.i:;t section. Data taken
o.ver a specially prepared embankm ent so.il 3 ft from these histories were analyzed to find the
thick. The characteri tics of this mate ·ial are relationships among performance, design and
given in Table 3. The characteristics of the lu1;uJi11g.
other materials nse<l in the consl.n1diuu of th These analyses yielded equations that show
rigid pavement test sections al'e g;iven in Tables mathematically the relationships sought h1 the
4 and 7. Mesh reinforcement, dowel and tie bars first Road Test objective. The equations are
were selected in accordance with AC! recom- most cmwenient1y displayed in graphical form.
mendations for the slab thicknesse ilwolved. Figure 29 is a plot prepared from the equations
As for the flexible sections, construction f showing the pavement structuTe needed for any
rigid test pavements was performed by paving given number of weighted applications in order
contractors working under rigid specifications to prevent deterioration of the pavement's
and trict controls in the interest of obtaining serviceability below 2.5. The axle-load applica-
uniformity of the pavement components. No tions are not weighted as they were in the case
extraordiI1ary measures for increa ing pave- of the flexible pavement experiment since no
ment life were taken. The specifications were rational weighting function for rigid pave-
such as to provide pavement component ments was found.
similal' to those obtained in normal highway The vertical scale (Fig. 29) contains slab
construction. thickness only. IL was 11ot found necessary to
include a term for subbase thickness in the
PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE equation nor a term for pavement reinforce-
m nt. Although pavements with subbase per-
Rigid p!'l.Vf~mP.11t performance was also de- formed considerably bett.1u- than those on the
fined as the trend of the history f ervice- embankment soil, no significant effect of vary-
ability with increasing load applications. ing subbase thickness ver the range from 3
Serviceability of the test pavements was deter- t 9 in. wa f und. Furthermore there was no
mined every bV'o week through ut the com· e significant difference in performance of those
of the traffic test by mean of an index com- sections having 40-ft joints and mesh rein-
puted from measurements taken on the pave- forcement and those sections having 15-ftjoint
ment surface. Serviceability of rigid pavements spacing and no reinforcement. As previously
was lost as roughness in the wheelpaths in- stated, the transverse joints in all concrete sec-
tions had load transfer dowels.
TABLE 7 As in the case of the flexible pavements, the
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS, RIGID PAVEMENT
1
equations and curves represent serviceability
trend data from a large number of test pave-
For Pavement Thicknesses ments. Some Road Test sections failed sooner
Item
and some later than indicated by the smooth
5 In. and 2.5 and curves; thus, some allowance should be made
Greater 3.5 In. for the scatter of the data. The scatter of
Road Test rigid pavement performance data
Design characteristics: was such that the slab thickness may be esti-
Cement content, bags/
cu yd 6.0 6.0 mated from the equations to within about ±12
Water-cement ratio, pel'cent. As for flexible pavements, the per-
gal/bag 4.8 4.9 fonna11ce of actual rigid pavements in service
Volume of sand,2 percent may 'N 11 vary from that predicted by the Road
total agg. vol. 32.1 34.1 Test perf011nance equations due to the fact that
Air content, % 3-6 3-6
Slump, in. 1.5-2.5 1.5-2.5 conditions and material environment and
Maximum
• 3 •
aggregate lonrling are unlikely to be identical to those at
size, in. 2.5 1.5 the Road Test.
Compressive strength, psi: Figul'e 30 was also developP.cl from the rigid
14 days 4,000 4,000
1 year 5,600 6,000 pavement performance equations. Here the
Flexural strength, psi: required slab thickness is plotted against axle
14 days 640 670 load for three diffe1·ent numbei·s of load applica-
1 year 790 880 tions sustained before the serviceability fell to
1
2.5. These curves provide a convenient means
For characteristics of sub base, see Table 4; Type I to determine the tandem-axle load that wil] be
cement was used.
2
Uncrushed natural sand. associated with performancP. equivalent to that
'Uncrushed natural gravel. under any given single-Rxle load. For example,
RIGID PAVEMENT RESEARCH 37
- - - - EXTRAPOLATED CURVE
~10.01--~-f---j----J---J-l-+4++---+--l--l--l--+-H-++----l--+--+-+--1-+++-+-S~
'I
u
z
Ill
~ 7.51----t----l----ll---l-l--l-+-++- - - t ---t---+--+--+-H-++-----t---+--+-
z
:ii:
u
J:
I-
m ~01---i-----+-1--11-1--1-1H-f-----+--+-
<
...J
(/)
2.
101....-----.----~----------..-----.----.-----....-----..----...
"'
w 8
:c
u
z
,;; 5,J - - - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - 1 - -
<ll
w
z
~
u
~4·---------J
ID
<
...J
"'
°o.______.4_____8._____,..12----~l~G---~20----~2~4----~28:----~3~2----~36
SINGLE AXLE LOAD, KIPS
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72
TANDEM AXLE LOAD, KIPS
according to Figure 30, a 6-in. slab carried or for a given pavement structure, how much
million applicati ns of 1 ,000-lb singl -axl the life may be affected if axle loads are
load or 1 million applications of 29,000-lb chang·ed . Also for a given axle load and an
ta.ndem-axle load before its serviceabil ity fell estimat l numb r of axle-load applications
to 2.5. Other imilar equivalencies ma)r als be the pavement structure needed to prevent
fo und; e.g., 22,400-lb single versus 36,000-lb deteriorati n to a specifie l level of service-
tandem. ability can be determined.
The equations from ·which these curves were
developed are the most important findings of SUBBASE-P A VED SHOULDER
the rigid pavement experiment. From these EXPERIMENT
equations, for conditions similar l Road rrest
conditions, engineers can determine how much No increase in life resulted from use of
difference there wm be in the requirements f r paved shoulders. However, the results may
pavement sb·ucture if axle loads are changed, have been affected in some cases by damage to
38 'fHE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
the shoulders by test traffic. Sections with STUDIES OF STRAIN AND DEFLECTION
subbasc had an average life about one-thinl
longer than that of sections without subbase. WiLhin the rigid pavement experiment con-
siderable study was devoted to developing
means for predicting future pa ement per-
STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION formance from nynamic measurements of
Rigid pavements lost serviceability when strains or deflections under moving loads.
thP.y <1evelopecl xoughness along the wheelpaths, Furthermore, studie of strain distribution on
when cracking developed, and when it was Lhe surface of pavement slabs were made.
neces ary t patch the pavement urface. Care- The first phase of this ::iLuuy involved deter-
ful records were maintained of the development mination of relationships between strains and
of cracks in paving slabs and of pumping of deflections on the one hand, and pavement de-
material from beneath the slabs. Transverse sign, load, temperature and speed on the other.
trenches were cut through many failed sections R ad Test Report 5 includes graphs and equa-
to permit the study of subsurface components. tions showing these relationships.
These studies disclosed that all failures in rrhe RP.Cond phase of the study involved
rigid pavements were preceded by pumping of determi11atio11 of equations by which future
material from beneath the concrete slabs. Gen- -performance could be predict d from train and
erally, this mat rial con 'i ted of he subba e cleflecti n measurements. The avernge life (to
gravel including the coarser fraction . Pump- a serviceability of 2.5) of sections all having
ing· of embankment soil w·rn generally confined the same slab thickness could be predicted with
to those sections constructed without subbase. satisfactory accuracy from the average of 24
Severe pumping of the subbase maLerial was edge strains measured at th same point at dif-
experienced only in the sections with the two ferent times under a moving single-axle load.
Similar predictions could be made from slab
thinner slab thieknesses in each loop. However, edge and corner deflection mea ured under
some pumpiug apvear d in all sections (except standing or creep speed l ad . However, ihese
Lo p 2, Jan 1) . e1·.v liltle 11ut rfol pumped lH'ed "ctiom; wen! ~um~what l accurat .
th1·ough joints or cracks- rathe1·, th ma.io1·
pumping noted was along the pavement edge. Observations of deflections measured under
loads disclo ed that the g n ral level of deflec-
Figure 31 shows typical example::; uf edge tions mea ured at approximately the same time
pumping. of day ove · a period of several months did not
Pumping apparently was not related to sub- change appreciably with increasing number of
base thickness nor was any consistent differ- load applications. Other factors being equal,
ence found between pumping in reinforced and strains and deflections were directly propor-
nonreinforced pavements. tional t magnitude of load; that is, the heavier
At the end of test traffic, data indicated that the load, the greater the strain or rleflection.
pumping increased as load increased (the Air temperature and radiation and the re-
greater the load the more the pumping, given sultant temperature differences between top
equal slab thickness) and decreas d as slab and bottom of the slabs had a considerabl
thickness iucrea ed (the thicker the slab the effect on the deflections at slab comers which
lesser the pumping, given equal load). sometimes increased severalfold from after-
Faulting occasionally occurred at cracks but noon to eaTly morning of the following day.
never at transverse joints (all joints were Strains and deflections measured at a point 7 .5
doweled). There was a tendency for the crack- ft from the trnnsverse joint along the pavement
ing per unit of surface area in reinforced eel e v. ere al o affected but not t such a great
extent. The corner deflection of the 40-ft rein-
sections with 40-ft panel lengths to exceed that forced slab usually exceeded the deflection of
in nonreinforced sections with 15-ft panel the 15-ft nonreinforced slab provided load,
lengths. No part of the cracking of pavements slab thickne s, and temperature conditions were
in the traffic loops was attributed solely to the same. n the other hand, train and deflec-
environmental changes since no cracks were tions measured 7.5 ft from the joint along the
observed in the non-traffic loop. pavement edge were not affected significantly
From cracking data, equations were derived by panel length,
from which the number of axle applications Edge train and corner deflection decreased
associated with any level of cracking can be as vehicle speed increased. For example, an
computed for a given pavement design and increase in speed from 2 to 60 mph decreMP.o
load. Figure 32 shows the four classes of the strain or deflection by about 30 perc nt.
cracks reported in the Road Test cracking Figures 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39 illustrate
surveys. Figure 33 shows the development of s me of th in trumentation used in measuring
cracking in a test section with increasing load strain and deflection in the l'igid pavements at
applications. the Road Test.
Void in shoulder through which subbase material was Subbase material ejected from beneath pavement over-
ejected from beneath pumping slab. night and deposited along edge.
Typical pile of subbase material pumped from beneath Embankment material pumped from beneath a pavement
pavement, showing change in gradation of material from constructed without a subbase.
fine to coarse in direction of traffic, toward reader.
This void beneath pavement extended more than 5 ft Transverse cross-section of a pumping slab showing void
from edge. beneath pavement.
Figure 32. Examples of the four classes of cracks in rigid pavement at the Road Test: upper left, Class 1; upper right, Class 2;
lower left, Class 3; lower right, Class 4. Only Class 3 and 4 cracks entered into the determination of the serviceability index.
RIGID PAVEMENT RESEARCH 41
DIRECTION OF TRAFFIC
Figure 33. Progression of cracking in a 3.5-in. nonreinforced section with paved shoulders on 6.0 in. of
subbase, 24-kip tandem-axle load.
42 THE AASHO ROAD TEST , REPORT 7
( d)
(b)
( e)
I•~ -
Figure 35. Instrument van taking dynamic measurements. Device on pavement just
ahead of truck meas ure transverse placement.
I
·--'-l----
Figure 37. Measuring static rebound deflection with the Benkelman beam.
44 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
Figure 38. A finished installation of strain gages in Loop 1. There were 18 installations
of this type. Ramp protected cables from truck-mounted vibrating loader.
Bridge Research
45
46 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
vived the test were subjected to 556,100 vehicle l. Fatigue cracking in varying amounts oc-
load applications. After the regular Road Test curred in five steel beam bridges that had
was completed, additional data on fatigue be- partial-length cover plates welded to the bot-
havior were obtained by vibrnting ome of the tom flanges of the beams. In these beams, the
bridges 11 ar their natural frequency. The minimum stresses at critical points were 8,300
major findings were as follows: to 22,100 psi; the minimum stresses were
Figure 45. Fatigue crack in bottom flange of a steel beam at the end
of a cover plate.
caused primarily by dead load (the bridge by the test vehicles an 173,900 by mechanically
without vehicle). The test vehicles caused live- vibrating the bridges. Figure 46 shows fatigue
load stresses with mPanR, at the endR of the failure of reinforcing bars in one of the test
cover plates, r;:i,nging from 12,500 to 26,000 psi. b ·idges.
Cracking occurred between 477,900 and 536 000 3. In both of the previous cases the fatigue
trip f th test vehir.l~s. Figure 45 shows a distress occurred in the same manner as that
fatigue crack in the bottom flange of a steel observed in laboratory tests of beams and the
beam at the end of a cover plate. number of stress cycles agreed reasonably well
2. Fatigue failures occurred in the steel bars with computed estimates. Thu laboratory
of two reinforced concrete bridges. Here, the fatigu~ data can be used to foreca t the life to
minimum stress in the steel bars was 16,400 failure, within reasonable limitc;, wh enever a
psi, and the test vehicles caused additional good estimate can be made of the magnitude
stresses with a mean range of 22,600 psi. Fail- and number of repetitions of stress.
ures occurred after approximately 730,000 4. A steel beam bridge without cover plates
cycles of stress of which 556,100 were applied showed no fatigue cracking after 392,400 trips
of the test vehicles. The minimum stress was However, theTe were at least fouT bridges of
12,700 psi. This, too, was in accord with each major type and compa1·ison of relative
laboratory data that showed that these beams performance were made within all three such
could have withstood approximately 2,000,000 groups. Such comparisons support the follow-
xepetitions of a 28,000-psi stress range in addi- ing conclusions:
tion to the minimum stres . 1. The behavior of composite steel bridges
5. In the most highly-stressed prestressed (where the beams and the deck slab were con-
concrete bridg;e there was a minimum stress of nected) was clearly superior to the behavior of
146,000 psi in the prestressing steel. The mean noncomposite bridges (where the bond between
stress ranges caused by the test vehicles were beams and slab was deliberately broken and
20,200 to 26,200 psi. Laboratory tests had there wa practically no interaction).
established an endurance limit of 49,000 psi 2. Some prestressed concrete beams were
in the stre s range. Thu , the laboratory data post-tensioned with parallel-wire cables and
indicated that failure was not lil.:ely, and none some were pretensioned with 7-wire strands.
occurred up to 556, 700 cycles of stress. In the beams stressed with parallel-wire cables,
6. Fatigne cracking of concrete wa:s detected severe cracking caused a radical change in the
in prestressed concrete beams subjected to response of the beam to loading. The tiffness
tensile stresses lower than the modulus of of the beams decreased substantially, and there
rupture of the concrete. However, the cracking was an indication of progressive loss of bond
was detected only with the aid of a micr scope between the concrete and the cables. The ulti-
and had no observable effects on the behavior mate flexurnl capacity of the bridge was de-
of the bridge. creased by bond failure. On the other hand,
cracking of the beams with 7-wire strand
COMPARISON OF BRIDGE TYPES cau ed practically no change in the l'esponse of
the beams to loading. Bond was preserved and
The Road Test bridges reproduced only cer- deflection of the bridge w re es entially the
tain aspects of a typical highway bridge. The same as those of au tmcracked bridge.
following major differences should be kept in 3. Th tee! bars in some reinf reed con-
mind: the test bridges had only three beams crete beams were stressed to about 3,000 p i
and were only one lane wide; the tre s level while others were stressed to about 42 000 psi.
during the i·egular test traffic ·were above those In both, the maximum crack width in the con-
normally experienced in the actual service life crete exceeded 0.01 in. in the unloaded condi-
of a highway bridge; and the duration of the tion. The test vehicles caused a maximum addi-
tests was only 2.5 years. ti nal opening of 0.002 in. How ver there was
The three major kinds of test bridges were a greater number of the larger cracks in the
designed under different criteria and therefore higher stressed beams. Cracking of reinforced
direct compari ons of the relativ performance concrete b ams increased with traffic; Figure
of the tee!, prestressed concrete, and 1~ein 47 shows the progression of crack development
forced concrete strnctures could not be made. in one of the beams of a concrete bridge.
BRIDGE 89
Exterior Beam Below the Slab
September 1958
MIDSPAN~
~
0
... • •5 •
10 15 20 25
June 1959 .. ..
.4 • • • •
...
...
0 5 10 15 20 25
January 1961
•
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 47. Crack patterns on reinforced concrete beams.
50 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
.-. •
bridge tests, the magnitudes of the observed
impacts are not indicative of those which VEHICLE 96
would be obtained tmder more typical condi-
tions. However, the theory can be used to
evaluate impact factors for various types' of
bridges and vehicles used on the highway sys-
tem.
I I 307" I I
3. The observed effects of irregularities VEHICLE 97
•w
( roug·hness) of the bridge decks and a pp1·oach
slabs re-emphasized the importance of the
smoothness of pavement and deck surfaces.
Furthermore, limiting vehicle speed to about
15 mph or less resulted in a drastic reduction I~s I, 110 J s1 I 22e , liszli;~I
of impact, a finding particularly significant in
relation to the operation of overloads over VEHICLE 98
highway bridges.
UL'l'lMATE STRENGTH
The bridges that survived tests with repeated
high overstress were tested to failure with in-
creasing loads. Ten bridges were included in
..
VEHICLE 99
..............
the study; four had steel beams, four had
~ ., \:~"'--••••
prestressed concrete beams, and two had rein-
forced concrete beams. fo .-
The ten bridges were subjected to passages
of vehicles having successively heavier loads.
1 192 • l~ol ,69,,,s~ I . 406 , [ssl~sl
Each load was applied 30 times. The testing
was discontinued when the slab was crushed, Figure 48. Special test vehicles.
BRIDGE RESEARCH 51
at midspan exceeded 13 in. Figure 49 shows a structures. Figure 51 shows these bridges at
noncomposite bridge at the end of the test. the end of the study.
2. Of the four prestressed concrete bridges 4. The live-load moments at failure were 2.2
in this study, three failed by fracture of the to 6.6 times the design moments caused by the
prestressing steel and one by crushing of the assigned test vehicles. The total moments at
concrete slab following an apparent bond fail- failure, including both dead and live loads,
ure between the wires and the grout. The where 2.1 to 3.7 times the design moments
beams of the latter bridge had been extensively that would be permitted on the basis of the
cracked by the regular test traffic. Figure 50 current allowable design stresses.
shows prestressed concrete bridges after 5. The total moments at failure were in
failure. satisfactory agreement with the moments com-
3. Both reinforced concrete bridges in this puted by the plastic and ultimate strength
study failed by yielding of the tension rein- analyses thus indicating that such analyses can
forcement followed by crushing of the slab. The be used to evaluate the heaviest load that can
permanent set at failure exceeded 14 in. in both cross a bridge.
r
a
Special Studies
In this chapter, studies are discussed that with low pressure, low silhouette (LPLS) tires.
were conducted during the main test but which '!'his program was designed to provide com-
we1· not directly ass ciat d "i th major pave . parisons betwe n the performance of simila1·
m nt or bridge re a1·ch. 0 th r sti1dies are pavement sections subjected to vehicle with
discussed that were conducted primarily for th e same loading and axle configurations but
the Departm nt of the Army during the sp cial with different tire designs and pressul'es. Prior
study progTatn that followed the main test. to th e studi es, Jane 1 of L op 2 had been
The experiment design ancl Lhe iusLrwnenta- subjected to over a million 2,000-lb axle loads
tion available did not have the refinement to ann lanP. 2 to the same numb i· of 6,000-lb axle
detect adequately the effects of Lhe ariables of loads. The previous traffic on the test pave-
tire preSSUl'e, tire design, vehicle suspension ments used in this study possibly influenced
and the several hicle and axle contigm-ations the test results in favor of the LPLS tires.
used in the post-test studies. These tests were Figure 52 shows the vehicles used in this study
cond ucted p1'in1arily t d tect gr ss t rends in -note particularly the tires.
the dynamic measurements of strains and de- In this experiment, about 16,400 axle loads
flections ai1d dynamic axle loads, to raise ques- were applied. In the flexibl paveme11t the l ss
LioH::; fo.1.· fuLun:! 1·esear •h and to provide a basis u.C 't:!L'Vic abi lity for the section ubjectcd to
for developing better testing techniqu s and the LPLS Lire::; was generally I ss than that
instrumentation to identify and mea m· the for the c mparable s ctions subj cted to the
critical i·espon e of v icle and pav m nt. conventional ( tandard military tread) tire .
Many f th finrlings of t hese sp cia l studies 'T'he ~P.r.tions Rllhjecten to the conventional tires
were not definitive but th summari s report d showed a greater increa in cracking m1d
·honld . ugge t furth r areas of research. The patching than did the ections subjected to the
p h\l stu<li s are nc;!~c:rihP.d in detail in Road L • tir . ~ however, the increase in depth of·
Test R po1-t 6 (Special R p rt 61F). rut was greater for the L ctions than
for the conventional tfre section . nly the
PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE-LOOP 2 sections tested under conventional tires in this
Certain test sections in Loop 2 were sub- study had shown cracking during the main
jected to 32,000-lb tandem-axle loads applied Road Test. Furthermore, rutting that had
by military vehicles with conventional tires or developed during the main Road Test was some-
Figure 52. M-52 tractor-semitrailers equipped with LPLS tires (left) and conventional
tires (right).
54
SPECIAL STUDIES 55
what greater in the sections subjected in this erally greater than those for the tandem-axle
study to conventional tires. vehicles. No effects of tire pressure or design
The relative performance of replicate sec- were noted.
tions subjected to both LPLS and conventional
tires based on serviceability loss, increase in COMMERCIAL CONSTRUCTION
cracking and patching, and increase in rut EQUIPMENT
depth indicated a beneficial but not highly
significant effect of the LPLS tires. The objective of this study was to determine
In the rigid pavements, loss of serviceability the dynamic effect on bridges and pavements of
for sections subjected to LPLS tires was gen- commercial construction equipment and, inso-
erally less than that for the sections under the far as possible, to relate the dynamic effects
conventional tires. However, only a few tenths of these vehicles to those observed for con-
of a point loss in serviceability was noted. ventional dual-tire truck units. One medium
Somewhat more cracking developed during this and one small two-axle tractor scraper units
test in the slabs tested under the LPLS tires were operated over pavement sections on which
than in the slabs tested under the conventional dynamic measurements were made of strain,
tires. However, prior to this study no cracks deflection, transmitted embankment pressure,
had developed in the sections that were tested and dynamic load effect. In the flexible pave-
under LPLS tires. ments, the relationships between deflection and
Pumping had developed during the main wheel load for the two scraper units agreed
Road Test only in the sections tested under with the relationships for conventional truck
conventional tires, and it continued to progress units. The rate of increase of deflection with
more rapidly during this special test than did wheel load for the medium scraper was con-
the pumping in the adjoining sections. Pro- siderably lower than the rate for the conven-
gression of pumping once started, however, tional units.
was also observed during the main Road Test. With the instrumentation available the study
In this study it was noted that reinforced of the effect of a change in tire pressure on
pavements performed appreciably better than pavement deflection failed to indicate any trend
nonreinforced pavements of the same slab at any wheel load or inflation pressure tested.
thickness. For both units, deflection decreased as vehicle
speed increased; however, the effect of vehicle
TIRE PRESSURE-TIRE DESIGN speed was more pronounced for the small than
for the medium scraper. In addition, the speed
The objective of this program was to investi- effect was greater at the higher wheel loads.
gate the possible effects of changes in tire As vehicle speed increased there was a de-
pressure and design on the dynamic effects crease in pressure transmitted to the embank-
associated with pavement structures and ment by both scrapers at all levels of wheel load
bridges. The tests were conducted on pavement and tire inflation pressure tested. However,
sections in Loops 4 and 6 which had survived changes in inflation pressure did not noticeably
over a million applications of either 18,000-lb affect the transmitted pressure.
or 30,000-lb single-axle loads and on bridges In the rigid pavement study, for both
that had been subjected to over 500,000 vehicle scrapers, compressive edge strains increased
passages. with wheel load but were affected very little by
In the flexible pavements tire inflation pres- vehicle speed or tire inflation pressure. Tensile
sure changes in the 01·der of 50 psi ace mpanied strains (measured at the pavement edge) were
by a limited tire design change had little effect not noticeably affected by wheel load, vehicle
on the dynamic deflections of the pavement speed or inflation pressure.
sections and little or no effect on the pressure In the bridge tests, although the trend was
transmitted to the embankment. not consistent for all bridges tested, the mean
In the rigid pavements, changes in tire pres- strain and deflection amplification factors for
sure or tire design produced no noticeable effect both scraper units were lower than those for
on the dynamic edge strain or deflection the single-axle conventional vehicles but greater
measurements. However, had instrumentation than those for the tandem-axle vehicles.
been available to measure strain or deflection
in the pavement surface at points other than SPECIAL SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
at the edge, some effect might have been found.
In the test bridges under study the strain This study was concerned with the dynamic
and deflection amplification factor (dynamic effects on pavements and bridges of vehicles
strain or deflection as a ratio of static strain equipped with special suspension systems and
or deflection ) relationships in this study agreed comparison of these effects with the dynamic
with t hose given in Road Test Report 4; that effects of conventional vehicles having similar
is, an increase in speed ·was associated with axle loads and tire pressures. The instrumenta-
larger amplification factors, and the amplifica- tion available at the time of the study made
tion factors for single-axle vehicles were gen- possible the measurements of strain, deflection,
56 THE AASHO ROAD TEST, REPORT 7
transmitted embankment pressure, and dy- vehicle characteristics limit the findings of this
namic load. Included in the study were a program to general trends and indicate the
tandem-axle semitrailer equipped with com- need for further research.
bination fluid and air suspension system; a In the flexible pavement, for all the military
semitrailer equipped with a unique staggered units in the study, the effect of vehicle speed
wheel suspension system in which no axle is on the deflection and transmitted embankment
common to any two wheels; a tandem tractor pressure agreed with the relationships found
equipped with a variable single-spring suspen- for the conventional units. For two of the
sion system with rear-axle orive; a tanoem heavy-duty transporters (GOER and HETAG)
tractor equipped with standard Hendrickson the rate of increase in pavement deflection with
walking-beam-type suspension with rubber load increase in wheel load was greater than for the
cushions; a tandem tractor equipped with conventional units.
similar walking-beam suspension with steel leaf In the rigid pavement studies the rate of de-
springs; and a military tractor semitrailer crease of edge strain and corner deflection with
equipped with LPLS tires. Conventional Road increase in vehicle speed for the military
Test tractor semitrailers were also included in vehicles was of the same order of magnitude
the study. as that ohserveo for the conventional units.
In the flexible pavement studies, the changes The values of strain and deflection at several
in deflection for the several designs of suspen- axle loads for the military equipment were
sion systems were less than the difference slightly lower than the values for the conven-
attributed to experimental error. An increase tional units at the same wheel loads. Some of
in vehicle speed caused a comparable decrease this difference, however, was a result of pave-
in pavement deflection for all special suspension ment temperature differential.
and conventional vehicles, The pressure trans- Compressive edge strains recorded for the
mitted to the embankment soil was generally GOER and HETAG were found to be slightly
lower for the special suspension units, with lower than those for equivalent axle loads on
little variation among the several types, than conventional vehicles at all levels of speed and
for the conventional units. The effects of load included in this study. However, the
vehicle :,;peed on Lhe LransmiLLed pressure were corner deflection values for t he HET AG we1·e
uniform for all special suspension and con- higher, and for the GOER were lower than
ventional units. those recorded for the conventional units.
In the rigid pavement study the decrease in In the studies o 1 bridges, th e relatioa::;hips of
edge strain and corner deflection caused by an amplificatio11 factors to vehicle speed and
increase in vehicle speed was reasonably uni- vehicle class ·eported in the report of the other
form for the several special suspension systems. special studies were found to exist for this
Similar relationships for the conventional units study as well.
showed no appreciable differences that could be The amplification factors for the HETAG
associated with the changes in the suspension and GOER were found to be appreciably higher
systems. than those for any of the conventional vehicles
In the bridge studies the mean amplification tested.
factors for the con veulional single-axle vehicles
were higher than those for the tandem-axle MTLT1'ARY TRACKED VEHICLES
vehicles, both conventional and special. How-
ever, the mean strain amplification factors for The objective of this study was to investigate
all the special vehicles were appreciably higher the dynamic effects on paven')ents of track-
than the factors for the conventional units at laying mi1ita1·y eq uipment and to compare the
30 mph. At speeds of 15 mph this was not true effects to those o conventional equipment. It
for either strain or deflection amplification was evident after conducting this study and
factors. reviewing the data that the instrumentation
available at the Road Test was not adaptable
MILITARY VEHICLES WITH TIRES to the track-laying equipment as far as the
determination of the dynamic effects on the
The objective of this study was to investigate p::tvP.mentR ano bridges were concerned . In
the dynamic effects on pavements and bridges geMr::i.1, t.lrn n~latim1sh ips between vehicle speed
of specialized units of military highway and and deflection in both rigid and flexible pave-
off-highway equipment and to compare these ment and between vehicle speed and edge com-
effects where possible with those for conven- pression strains for the track equipment indi-
tional units at several axle loads and vehicle cated the same trend as for conventional units.
speeds. The vehicles tested are shown in Figure
53. Strain, deflection and embankment pres- BRAKING, IMPACT AND ACCELERATION
sures were measured as in the previously de-
scribed studies. This study was designed to investigate means
As was true for the other special studies, the of determining the dynamic effects on pave-
large number of indeterminate variables and ments, bridges, and in the cargos of a selected
SPECIAL STUDIES 57
CONVENTIONAL TIRE
LPLS TIRE
L-3 M-52
Heavy-Duty Tank Transporter Tractor-Semitrailer
group of vehicles when subjected to external ments were conducted by Road Test personnel,
accelerations. others by outside agencies at the request of and
An early pilot study developed the fact that with the cooperation of Road Test personnel,
it would not be possible with the instrumenta- and still others by outside agencies primarily
tion available to draw any conclusions con- for their own benefit. The existence of the
cerning the effect of braking forces. Road Test physical plant constructed under
Each of the several vehicles selected for this highly-controlled conditions and wl:Jjedeu to
study was operated over ramps so that its exactly known traffic loadings made it an ideal
wheels dropped onto the pavement. Simulta- testing ground for these side studies. Nearly
neously, pav ment strains, deflections and em- all of these side studies were large enough to
bankment pr stn· s and vehicle and cargo ac- warrant independent publication. Where this
celerations were recorded. was the case, references are given in Chapter
In general an increase in height of ramp 10 of AASHO Road Test Report 6.
caused an increase in deflection and embank- In this summal"y statement, no attempt is
ment pressure at creep speeds. It did not, how- made to report findings. Only a simple listing
ever, cause an appreciable increase in edge of the projects is included.
strains. The rate of increase in either deflec-
tion or embankment pressure was not uniform 1. Development of nuclear testing equip-
for increase in height of ramp or vehicle speed. ment. The project staff undertook an extensive
A summary of the analog acceleration rec- instrumentation development program for
ords shows that the magnitude of either the measurement of in-place density of the various
vehicle or cargo accelerations was such that the layers of the pavement structure at the Road
significance of the vehicle speed, tire pressure, Test. .
or tire design could not be determined. Vehicle 2. Volumetric determination of Westergaard
and cargo acceleration recorded during the im- foundation modulus. The U. S. Army Corps of
pact study indicated a definite relationship be- Engineers, Ohio River Division Laboratories,
tween vehicle speed and height of ramp. An conducted several tests on Road Test pave-
increase in speed and ramp height was asso- ments in accordance with a procedure de-
ciated with an increase in load cargo and vehi- veloped at their laboratories for the determina-
cle accelerations. Figure 54 shows some of the tion f th Westergaard k. In this procedure,
ramps used in these studies. measurements are made from the top of the
rigid pavement slab.
3. Frost depth determination. A device was
SPECIAL STUDIES DURING developed at the Road Test by which determi-
RESEARCH PHASE nation of depth of frost could be made without
This section is included to call attention to disturbing the pavement.
several experiments conducted at the AASHO 4. Driver behavior studies. The U. S. Army
Road Test but not related directly to the proj- Personnel Research Office conducted several
ect's major objectives. Some of these experi- studies of the alertness of personnel engaged
Figure 54. GOER operated over ramps in drop tests at rigid pavement
instrumentation van.
SPECIAL STUDIES 59
in the fatiguing and monotonous job of driving for wet flexible and rigid pavements, respec-
test vehicles. tively. After two years of test traffic and
5. Dynamic testing-Shell road vibration 1,100,000 axle applications, these coefficients
machine. Measurements were made with the had been reduced to averages of 0.44 and 0.42
Shell Oil Company road vibration machine on for flexible and rigid pavements, respectively.
selected Road Test sections to investigate sea- 8. Relaxation tests. Samples of prestressing
sonal variation in stiffness of the pavements wire and strand used in prestressed concrete
and to attempt to l'elate stiffness to pavement bridges were tested for up to 12,600 hours to
performance. determine their stress-relaxation characteris-
6. Dynamic testing-U. S. Army Corps of tics.
Engineers. A dynamic road testing device de- 9. Creep and shrinkage tests. Concrete cyl-
veloped by the Waterways Experiment Station, inders were observed for over 2.5 years to
U. S. Army Corps of Engfoeers, was also used determine the creep and shrinkage character-
for some special studies at the Road Test. istics of the concrete used in prestressed con-
7. Skid studies. A major side study of the crete beams.
resistance to skidding of wet and dry flexible 10. Fatigue studies. Laboratory fatigue tests
and rigid type pavements was conducted at the of prestressing strand and wire were carried
Road Test during the traffic phase of the main out at Lehigh University and laboratory
test. The skid trailer, developed and owned fatigue tests of reinforcing bars were made at
by the General Motors Corporation was used the Portland Cement Association Laboratories.
in these studies. At the beginning of test traffic, The samples tested were from the materials
coefficients of friction averaged 0.72 and 0.63 used in the construction of the test bridges.