EXPERIMENT NO.

STUDY OF FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION

Title: STUDY OF FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION

Objectives: STUDY OF FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
INTRODUCTION: Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a technology used in power plants in
which the bed suspends solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process.
The result is a turbulent mixing of gas and solids and the tumbling action, much like a bubbling
fluid, provides more effective chemical reactions and heat transfer. FBC plants are more flexible
than conventional plants in that they can be fired on coal and biomass, among other fuels. FBC
reduces the amount of sulphur emitted in the form of SOx emissions. Limestone is used to
precipitate out sulphate during combustion, which also allows more efficient heat transfer from
the boiler to the apparatus used to capture the heat energy (usually water tubes). The heated
precipitate coming in direct contact with the tubes (heating by conduction) increases the
efficiency. Since this allows coal plants to burn at cooler temperatures, less NOx is also emitted.
 Fig: fluidized bed combustion system

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF FBC:

The solid substrate (the catalytic material upon which chemical species react) material in the
fluidized bed reactor is typically supported by a porous plate, known as a distributor. The fluid is
then forced through the distributor up through the solid material. At lower fluid velocities, the
solids remain in place as the fluid passes through the voids in the material. This is known as a
packed bed reactor. As the fluid velocity is increased, the reactor will reach a stage where the
force of the fluid on the solids is enough to balance the weight of the solid material. This stage is
known as incipient fluidization and occurs at this minimum fluidization velocity. Once this
minimum velocity is surpassed, the contents of the reactor bed begin to expand and swirl around
much like an agitated tank or boiling pot of water.
TYPES OF FBC: FBC systems fit into essentially two major groups, atmospheric systems
(FBC) and pressurized systems (PFBC), and two minor subgroups, bubbling (BFB) and
circulating fluidized bed (CFB).

PRESSURISED FLUID BED COMBUSTION:

Pressurized Fluid Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of fluid bed technology that is meant
for large-scale coal burning applications. In PFBC, the bed vessel is operated at pressure up to 16
kg/cm2. The gas from the fluidized bed combustor drives the gas turbine. The steam turbine is
driven by steam raised in tubes immersed in the fluidized bed. The condensate from the steam
turbine is pre-heated using waste heat from gas turbine exhaust and is then taken as feed water
for steam generation. The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined cycle power
generation. By combining the gas and steam turbines in this way, electricity is generated more
efficiently than in conventional system. The overall conversion efficiency is higher by 5% to 8%.

CIRCULATING FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (CFBC):

CFBC technology utilizes the fluidized bed principle in which crushed (6 –12 mm size) fuel and
limestone are injected into the furnace or combustor. The particles are suspended in a stream of
upwardly flowing air (60-70% of the total air), which enters the bottom of the furnace through
air distribution nozzles. The fluidizing velocity in circulating beds ranges from 3.7 to 9 m/sec.
The balance of combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the furnace as secondary air. The
combustion takes place at 840-900oC, and the fine particles (<450 microns) are blown out of the
furnace with flue gas velocity of 4-6 m/s. The particles are then collected by the solid separators
and circulated back into the furnace. Solid recycle is about 50 to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt.
ADVANTAGES OF FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION BOILERS:
1. High Efficiency: FBC boilers can burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over 95%
irrespective of ash content. FBC boilers can operate with overall efficiency of 84% (plus or
minus 2%).
2. Reduction in Boiler Size: High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area immersed in
the bed result in overall size reduction of the boiler.
3. Fuel Flexibility: FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels. Even fuels like
flotation slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt efficiently. These can be fed either
independently or in combination with coal into the same furnace.
4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel: FBC boilers can give the rated output even with inferior
quality fuel. The boilers can fire coals with ash content as high as 62% and having calorific value
as low as 2500 kcal/kg. Even carbon content of only 1% by weight can sustain the fluidized bed
combustion.
5. Ability to Burn Fines: Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC
boiler, which is very difficult to achieve in conventional firing system.
6. Pollution Control: SO2 formation can be greatly minimized by addition of limestone or
dolomite for high sulphur coals. 3% limestone is required for every 1% sulphur in the coal feed.
Low combustion temperature eliminates NOx formation.
7. Low Corrosion and Erosion: The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower
combustion temperature, softness of ash and low particle velocity (of the order of 1 m/sec).
8. Easier Ash Removal – No Clinker Formation: Since the temperature of the furnace is in the
range of 750 – 900o C in FBC boilers, even coal of low ash fusion temperature can be burnt
without clinker formation. Ash removal is easier as the ash flows like liquid from the combustion
chamber. Hence less manpower is required for ash handling.
9. Less Excess Air – Higher CO2 in Flue Gas: The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the order of
14 – 15% at full load. Hence, the FBC boiler can operate at low excess air - only 20 – 25%.
10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up: High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick start up and
shut down. Full automation of start up and operation using reliable equipment is possible.
11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations: Inherent high thermal storage characteristics can easily
absorb fluctuation in fuel feed rates. Response to changing load is comparable to that of oil fired
boilers.
12. No Slagging in the Furnace-No Soot Blowing: In FBC boilers, volatilization of alkali
components in ash does not take place and the ash is non sticky. This means that there is no
slagging or soot blowing.
13. Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System: Automatic systems for coal and ash
handling can be incorporated, making the plant easy to operate comparable to oil or gas fired
installation.
14. Provision of Automatic Ignition System: Control systems using micro-processors and
automatic ignition equipment give excellent control with minimum manual supervision.
15. High Reliability: The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in a high
degree of reliability and low maintenance costs.
16. Reduced Maintenance: Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is maintained
for long periods.
17. Quick Responses to Changing Demand: A fluidized bed combustor can respond to changing
heat demands more easily than stoker fired systems. This makes it very suitable for applications
such as thermal fluid heaters, which require rapid responses.
18. High Efficiency of Power Generation: By operating the fluidized bed at elevated pressure, it
can be used to generate hot pressurized gases to power a gas turbine. This can be combined with
a conventional steam turbine to improve the efficiency of electricity generation and give a
potential fuel savings of at least 4%.

Conclusion:
We have studied Fluidised Bed Combustion system, its advantages and different Fluidised Bed
Combustion Boilers.
 EXPERIMENT NO.2

Study of High pressure Boiler

Title: Study of High Pressure Boiler

Objectives: To study the working and construction of High pressure

boiler

Description:
This experiment consists of study of the different high pressure boiler and itd
construction and working

Theory:
High Pressure Boilers
In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally
used as they offer the following advantages. In order to obtain efficient
operation and high capacity, forced circulation of water through boiler tubes is
found helpful. Some special types of boilers operating at super critical
pressures and using forced circulations are described in this chapter.
(a) The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced
quantity of steam is required for the same power generation if high pressure
steam is used.
(b) The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the
arrangement of furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the
heat exchange area.
(c) The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
(d) The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
(e) The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this
reduces the possibility of gas and air leakages.
(f) Some special types of high pressure supercritical boilers are described in
this chapter.
LA MONT Boiler
A forced circulation boiler was first introduced in 1925 by La Mont. The
arrangement of water circulation and different components are shown in the
figure. The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating
drum (boiler) through the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to
the feed water passing through the economizer. A pump circulates the water at
a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam evaporated. This water is circulated
through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is separated in the
separator drum. The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of
evaporation) prevents the tubes from being overheated.

Fig. La Mont Boiler

The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar
above the drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water
through the nozzle into the evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is
further passed through the super-heater.Secure a uniform flow of feed water
through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke is fitted entrance to each
circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tonnes of
superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bars and temperature of 500°C.
Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large capacity power
Benson Boiler
The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and
attachment of bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached
bubbles reduce the heat flow and steam generation as it offers higher thermal
resistance compared to water film :
(a) If the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm), the steam
and water would have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble
formation can be completely avoided.
(b) Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not
required for Benson as the pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler is
easier and quicker as all the parts are welded at site and workshop job of tube
expansion is altogether avoided.
(c) The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and
majority of the parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
(d) The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The
space problem does not control the size of Benson boiler used.
(e) The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using
small diameter and close pitched tubes.
(f) The superheater in the Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation
system, therefore no special starting arrangement for superheater is required.
(g) The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
(h) The Benson boiler can be operated most economically by varying the
temperature and pres- sure at partial loads and overloads. The desired
temperature can also be maintained constant at any pressure.
(i) Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation
in the natural circulation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler. This
feature of insensitiveness to load fluctuations makes it more suitable for grid
power station as it has better adaptive capacity to meet sudden load
fluctuations.
(j) The blow-down losses of Benson boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation
boilers of same capacity.
(k) Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small
diameter and has very little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.
During starting, the water is passed through the economiser, evaporator,
superheater and back to the feed line via starting valve.
During starting, first circulating pumps are started and then the burners are
started to avoid the overheating of evaporator and superheater tubes.

Loeffler Boiler
The major difficulty experienced in Benson boiler is the deposition of salt and
sediment on the inner surfaces of the water tubes. The deposition reduced the
heat transfer and ultimately the generating capacity. This further increased the
danger of overheating the tubes due to salt deposition as it has high thermal
resistance. The difficulty was solved in Loffler boiler by preventing the flow of
water into the boiler tubes. Most of the steam is generated outside from the
feed water using part of the superheated steam coming-out from the boiler.
The pressure feed pump draws the water through the economizer and delivers
it into the evaporator drum. About 65% of the steam coming out of super
heater is passed through the evaporator drum in order to evaporate the feed
water coming from economizer.
The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam from the evaporator
drum and is passed through the radiant superheater and then convective
superheater. About 35% of the steam coming out from the superheater is
supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. The steam coming out from H.P. turbine is
passed through reheater before supplying to L.P. turbine. The amount of steam
generated in the evaporator drum is equal to the steam tapped (65%) from the
superheater. The nozzles which distribute the superheated steam through the
water into the evaporator drum are of special design to avoid priming and
noise.
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is more
compact than indirectly heated boilers having natural circulation. These
qualities fit it for land or sea transport power generation. Loffler boilers with
generating capacity of 94.5 tones/hr and operating at 140 bar have already
been commissioned.
SCHMIDT-HARTMANN Boiler
The operation of the boiler is similar to an electric transformer. Two pressures
are used to affect an interchange of energy. In the primary circuit, the steam at
100 bar is produced from distilled water. This steam is passed through a
submerged heating coil which is located in an evaporator drum. The high
pressure steam in this coil possesses sufficient thermal potential and steam at
60 bars with a heat transfer rate of 2.5 kW/m2-°C is generated in the
evaporator drum. The steam produced in the evaporator drums from impure
water is further passed through the superheater and then supplied to the
prime-mover. The high pressure condensate formed in the sub- merged heating
coil is circulated through a low pressure feed heater on its way to raise the feed
water temperature to its saturation temperature. Therefore, only latent heat is
supplied in the evaporator drum. Natural circulation is used in the primary
circuit and this is sufficient to affect the desired rate of heat transfer and to
overcome the thermo-siphon head of about 2 m to 10 m. In normal
circumstances, the replenishment of distilled water in the primary circuit is not
required as every care is taken in design and construction to prevent leakage.
But as a safeguard against leakage, a pressure gauge and safety valve are fitted
in the circuit.
VELOX-Boiler
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is transferred from
the gas at a much higher rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The
advantages of this theory are taken to obtain the large heat transfer from a
smaller surface area in this boiler. Air is compressed to 2.5 bars with the help
of a compressor run by gas turbine before supplying to the combustion
chamber to get the supersonic velocity of the gases passing through the
combustion chamber and gas tubes and high heat release rates. The burned
gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus of the
tubes. The heat is transferred from gases to water while passing through the
annulus to generate the steam. The mixture of water and steam thus formed
then passes into a separator which is so designed that the mixture enters with
a spiral flow. The centrifugal force thus produced causes the heavier water
particles to be thrown outward on the walls. This effect separates the steam
from water. The separated steam is further passed to superheater and then
supplied to the prime-mover. The water removed from steam in the separator is
again passed into the water tubes with the help of a pump.
The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further passed over the
superheater where its heat is used-for superheating the steam. The gases
coming out of superheater are used to run a gas turbine as they carry
sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of the gas turbine is used to run the
air-compressor. The exhaust gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed
through the economizer to utilize the remaining heat of the gases. The extra
power required to run the compressor is supplied with the help of electric
motor. Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulated
through the tubes with the help of water circulating pump. This prevents the
overheating of metal walls.

Conclusion:
The various High pressure boilers are studied.
 EXPERIMENT NO.5
STUDY OF POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTS

Title: Study of Power Plant Instruments

Objectives: To study various instruments used in power plants.

Description: In power plants various instruments are used for a number of

reasons so as to operate the power plant efficiently. Instruments provide
accurate information for guidance to safe, continuous and proper plant
operation.

Classification of instruments: The two general classifications of instruments are:

1. Those employing purely mechanical methods
2. Those employing electro-mechanical methods
The instruments can also be classified as follows:
1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Indicating and Recording instruments
4. Indicating and integrating instruments
5. Recording, Indicating and integrating instruments
Commonly used instruments in a power plant are:
1. Pressure gauges
2. Thermometers
3. Liquid level gauges
4. Flow meters
5. Gas analyzers
6. Humidity measuring instruments
7. Impurity measuring instruments
8. Speed measuring instruments
9. Steam calorimeter and fuel calorimeter
10. Electrical instruments
1. Pressure gauges: Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and
vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A
manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to
measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically
to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a
vacuum—which is further divided into two subcategories, high and low vacuum (and sometimes
ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure
vacuums has an overlap.

Fig: Pressure gauge

2. Thermometers:
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of
different principles. A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature sensor (e.g. the
bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with temperature, plus
some means of converting this physical change into a numerical value (e.g. the scale on a
mercury thermometer).
 Fig: Thermometer

3. Liquid level measurement:

Level sensors detect the level of substances that flow, including liquids,
slurries, granular materials, and powders. Fluids and fluidized solids flow to
become essentially level in their containers (or other physical boundaries)
because of gravity whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a
peak. The substance to be measured can be inside a container or can be in its
natural form (e.g., a river or a lake). The level measurement can be either
continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure level within a
specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain
place, while point-level sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or
below the sensing point. Generally the latter detect levels that are excessively
high or low. There are many physical and application variables that affect the
selection of the optimal level monitoring method for industrial and commercial
processes. The selection criteria include the physical: phase (liquid, solid or
slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum, chemistry, dielectric constant of
medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation (action), acoustical or
electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also
important are the application constraints: price, accuracy, appearance,
response rate, ease of calibration or programming, physical size and mounting
of the instrument, monitoring or control of continuous or discrete (point) levels.

Fig: Liquid level sensor

4. Flow meter: Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. Positive-displacement flow meters
accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times the volume is filled to
measure flow. Other flow measurement methods rely on forces produced by the flowing stream
as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by
measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area.
 Fig: Flow meter

5. Gas analyzers: These are used to analyze the constituents of flue gas and to find the exact
percentages of each constituent.

Fig: Gas analyzer

6. Humidity measurement: Humidity is a term for the amount of water vapour in the air, and
can refer to any one of several measurements of humidity. Humid air is a mixture of water
vapour and other constituents of air, and humidity is defined in terms of the water content of this
mixture, called the absolute humidity. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent measures the
current absolute humidity relative to the maximum. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water
vapour content of the mixture to the total air content (on a mass basis). The water vapour content
of the mixture can be measured either as mass per volume or as a partial pressure, depending on
the usage. There are various devices used to measure humidity. A device used to measure
humidity is called a psychrometer or hygrometer.

Fig:Hygrometer

7. Impurity measurement: Impurities are substances inside a confined

amount of liquid, gas, or solid, which differ from the chemical composition of
the material or compound. Impurities are either naturally occurring or added
during synthesis of a chemical or commercial product. During production,
impurities may be purposely, accidentally, inevitably, or incidentally added into
the substance. The levels of impurities in a material are generally defined in
relative terms. Standards have been established by various organizations that
attempt to define the permitted levels of various impurities in a manufactured
product.

8. Speed measuring instruments: Speed of rotation of turbines and generators is measured

using Tachometers

Fig: Tachometer

9. Calorimeters: Calorimeters are used to calculate dryness fraction of steam in order to know
its quality.
 Fig: Calorimeter

10. Electrical instruments: Multimeters and energy meters are used to measure various
electrical quantities such as current, voltage, frequency and power factor.

Fig: Multimeter

Conclusion: After studying above instruments, measurement of various

parameters of power plants can be done.
 EXPERIMENT NO
STUDY OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Title: To study Nuclear power plants.

Objectives: To study Nuclear power plants.

Introduction- Nuclear generating stations exist for the purpose of converting

the energy obtained from the fission of certain nuclei to electricity. This energy
conversion takes place via a number of intermediate stages that require many
pieces of equipment organized into several systems under the control and
protection of both manual and automatic operations. This chapter presents the
main features of a nuclear power plant, so that as each system is studied in
greater detail in subsequent chapters and in other courses, the reader should
always be able to place such detail into the overall context of an operating
station.

Figure -Nuclear Power plant

THEORY:-
ENERGY CONVERSION The basic nuclear generating station energy cycle is
shown in Figure 1.1. Fuel containing fissile material (Uranium) is fed to the
reactor where fission takes place. The energy liberated appears in the form of
heat, which is used to boil water. The steam produced from the boiling water
spins a turbine-generator set, where the heat is converted first to kinetic
energy in the turbine and to electricity by the generator; the electricity
produced (denoted as megawatts) is supplied to the electric power system.

Figure 1.1. Basic flow of energy in a nuclear generating station.

It is important to recognize that while the transport of heat from the

reactor to the turbine takes place in one or two closed loop systems that are
highly efficient, the transformation of the heat energy of the steam to the
kinetic energy of the turbine is accompanied by a large loss of energy as the
steam is condensed to water prior to recirculating it back to the steam
production system. Approximately 60% of the heat energy removed from
the fuel is rejected to the condenser cooling water. As we will see, several other
systems are also cooled by water. Under normal operations only a few % of the
energy is lost directly to the atmosphere. As indicated in Figure 1.1 spent fuel
is periodically removed from the reactor. On the generator end the flow of
electrical energy is shown to be in two directions to indicate the electrical
energy consumption of the station itself. This very much oversimplified
representation of a nuclear generating station will become increasingly more
complex as we study the details of the many systems involved directly or
indirectly in the energy conversion processes, and in ensuring that these
processes are always under control and are operated in a safe manner. Energy
Balance Nuclear generating stations are designed to operate for extended
periods at a constant power level, requiring that a steady state balance is
maintained between the rate of energy released from the fuel in the reactor and
the electrical output of the generator. This must be achieved despite inherent
variations in the burn-up of fuel in the reactor, disturbances in the energy
conversion processes, in the demands of the electrical power system and in the
energy exchanges between the environment and the station. As a minimum the
plant control system must be able to adjust reactor power to produce the
desired amount of electricity. Since under normal operating conditions the
generator is synchronized to the electric power grid, the electrical energy
produced by the generator is determined by the energy of the steam admitted
to the turbine. A mis-match between the energy produced by the reactor and
the steam energy required to produce the desired electrical output will result in
a change of steam temperature and pressure. Because steam pressure
measurements respond more quickly than temperature measurements, it is
steam pressure that is used to indicate an imbalance of energy between reactor
and generator, and is therefore the parameter chosen as an input to the control
system to maintain the required balance.
A very much simplified plant control system is shown in Figure 1.2. The
key inputs to the control system are:
• Reactor power
• Steam pressure
• Generator output (MW).
The station control system is designed to keep steam pressure constant
while matching the stations output to the desired setpoint. If the setpoint is the
desired level of megawatts, then the control system adjusts reactor power by
changing the position of the reactivity control devices, and the control system
is said to be in ‘reactor lagging’ mode. If the setpoint is the desired reactor
power output, then the control system adjusts the steam flow to the turbine by
changing the opening of the governor valve, thereby altering the
generator’s output, and the control system is said to be in ‘reactor leading’
mode. The choice of which type of setpoint to specify depends on the operating
status of the generating station and the requirements of the electrical power
grid, and input to the control system by the authorized station operator.

Figure 1.2. Simplified Nuclear Generating Station Control System.

WATER MODERATED REACTORS

 Most of the nuclear power plants in operation around the globe use
reactors that are both moderated and cooled by water. Reactors that use
enriched uranium use ordinary (or light) water as both moderator and coolant.
The reactor core is contained in a pressure vessel with no separation between
moderator and coolant. Two main types of light water reactors have been
developed, the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) and the Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR). In the former the reactor coolant forms a closed primary loop in
which it is not permitted to boil under normal operating conditions, and the
steam is produced in a secondary loop. In a BWR the coolant is allowed to boil
and the steam is fed directly to the turbine. The main characteristics of PWR
and BWR reactors are shown in Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4. The next two
sections outline some of the main design and operating features of these types
of reactors. Reactors fueled with natural uranium must use heavy water
instead of light water as the moderator, and in order to achieve maximum
neutron economy, many heavy water moderated reactors also use heavy water
as the coolant. The currently used designs are of the pressurized primary loop
type similar to PWRs, but instead of a pressure vessel, pressure tubes contain
the coolant and the fuel, while the moderator is in a low pressure, low
temperature calandria vessel. Since this text deals extensively with the CANDU
(Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) type of pressurized heavy water reactors, the
illustration of a CANDU in Figure 1.5 is provided only as a means of easy
comparison with the PWR and BWR reactor types.
Figure 1.3. Pressurized Water Reactor.
 Figure 1.4. Boiling Water Reactor.

Figure 1.5. CANDU Reactor.

.
Conclusion: The various Nuclear Reactors, their operation and basics of
nuclear power plants have been studied.
 EXPERIMENT NO.
Title: Study of Environmental Impact of Power Plant

Objectives: To study the environmental impact of various Power Plants. To

study different environmental aspects and its impact on society. To create
awareness regarding environmental issues.

Description:
This experiment consists of study of environmental impact of various Power
Plants. It also includes the study different environmental aspects and its
impact on society

Theory:
Power plants use fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which cause a
variety of health and environmental problems and are not a long-term solution
to energy needs. Power plants use water for cooling. As this water is discharged
back to the river, thermal (heat) pollution occurs. Power plants emit mercury,
as well as millions of tons of carbon dioxide, the most significant greenhouse
gas and contributor to global climate change. These plants also emit lead,
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, and nickel.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

The greenhouse effect means absorption of some of the heat radiated from the
Earth’s surface by greenhouse gases (water vapour, CO2 and other compounds
in the lower atmosphere). If the levels of, CO2 in the atmosphere progressively
increase as a result of human activity, this will eventually increase the natural
greenhouse effect and result in a rise of temperature in the lower atmosphere
leading to wide-spread climate change.

CLIMATE CHANGE:

Cyclones, storm, hurricanes are occurring more frequently and floods and
draughts are more intense than before. This increase in extreme weather
events leads to more powerful storms and hotter, longer dry periods. Warmer
temperatures mean greater evaporation, and a warmer atmosphere is able to
hold more moisture and hence there is more water that can fall as
precipitation. Similarly, dry regions are prone to lose still more moisture if the
weather is hotter and hence this leads to more severe droughts and
desertification.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:

Ozone layer depletion is the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer that
shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation that is harmful to life. This
destruction of ozone is mainly caused by the breakdown of certain chlorinated,
brominates or other halogenated hydrocarbons. These compounds break down
when they reach the stratosphere and then catalytically destroy ozone
molecules.

ACIDIFICATION:

The environment can either be acidified by direct emissions of acids to aquatic

or terrestrial systems or through complex chemical reactions. Such reactions
occur when emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds and other
substances are transformed in the atmosphere, often far from the original
sources, and then deposited on earth in either wet or dry form. The wet forms,
popularly called ‘acid rain’, can fall as rain, snow, or fog. The dry forms are
acidic gases or particles. Acidification is linked to adverse effects on aquatic
ecosystems and terrestrial plant life, especially in areas with poor neutralizing
(buffering) capacity. Acids can also leach out poisonous trace metals from the
rock matrix in the soil, thus causing damage to flora, fauna and humans.

EUTROPHICATION:

There are two main issues of eutrophication. The first is the adverse effect
from a decline in dissolved oxygen levels in the aquatic environment. This can
happen either when the introduction of a limiting nutrient (generally P or N)
leads to increased growth of algae (sometimes leading to blooms of toxic
species) and thus to more biomass, or when more biomass is introduced
directly. The decay of this biomass may lead to a decrease in oxygen levels. The
second issue of eutrophication is the fertilization of terrestrial plants, due to
the introduction of nitrogen species (NOX, NH3 or NH4).

PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANT FORMATION:

Photochemical smog affects human health, as well as plants and animals. Its
production is the result of a highly complex combustion or mineralization
reaction of organic materials in the atmosphere (volatile organic compounds,
VOCs). The reaction occurs when the organic molecules are combined with
NOX, the active component is ozone, a by-product of the above reaction.

ECOTOXIC IMPACT: In this sub-category all (carcinogenic, pathogenic)

substances that can have a toxic effect on the environment, i.e. plants animals
or humans, are aggregated. Ecotoxicity is divided into three classes:

1. Toxically contaminated soil

2. Toxically contaminated water

3. Radioactivity

THERMAL POLLUTION:

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that

changes ambient water temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is
the use of water as a coolant by power plants. When water used as a coolant is
returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in
temperature decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition.

Conclusion: On studying the various power plants we have come to a curb

that though power plants generates electricity but it is troublesome for the
environment so we have to deal it with the various techniques to reduce the
pollution from various Power plants.