DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS AND STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS

OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS PIERRE SHALE, TRINIDAD

SANDSTONE, AND VERMEJO FORMATION OF THE
RATON BASIN, TRINIDAD, COLOR.ADO^
by
STEPHEN MARTIN TUR, B.A.
A THESIS
IN
GEOSCIENCES

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillm.ent of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE

Approved

Accepted

December, 197 9
 U ''••-• -'

i9Y?. ^ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to sincerely thank Dr. D.K. Davies, chairman

of my committee, for his guidance in completing this
thesis. Dr. R.M. Flores was especially helpful with
his extensive assistance in both the field and in
writing this manuscript. Further appreciation is given
to Dr. A.D. Jacka for reviewing the thesis. The author
is indebted to the U.S.G.S. Coal Resource Branch, Denver,
Colorado, for their financial assistance during the
summer of 1978 when the field data was collected.
Discussions with U.S.G.S. geologist Walter Danilchik
while in the study area, proved most informative and
extremely useful. During the writing of this thesis,
the advice of, and discussions with Michael F. Erpenbeck,
a fellow graduate student, were both welcomed and
sometimes useful. I am also grateful for Madonna
Norris's aid in typing and final preparation. Lastly,
a special thanks is given to my parents, Mr. and Mrs.
Stanley R. Tur, for their understanding and encourage-
ment in obtaining this degree.

11
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
Acknowledgements ii
List of Illustrations v
INTRODUCTION 1
Location of Study Area 2
Previous Work 4
Methods of Investigation 6
Geologic Setting 8
Pierre Shale 10
General Characteristics 10
Lithic Characteristics 15
Prodelta Facies 15
Distal Bar Subfacies 14
Offshore Facies 15
Lower Shoreface Subfacies 18
Depositional Environment 19
Trinidad Sandstone 22
General Characteristics 22
Lithic Characteristics 25
Distributary Mouth Bar Subfacies 25
Destructional Bar 25
Distributary Channel Subfacies 27
Shoreface Facies 28
Middle Shore Subfacies 28
Upper Shoreface-Beach Subfacies 28

111
 Depositional Environment 50
Distributary Mouth Bar 50
Destructional Phase 52
Distributary Channel 54
Shoreface 54
Middle Shoreface 34
Upper Shoreface - Beach 35
Vermejo Formation 36
General Characteristics 36
Lithic Characteristics 56
Delta Plain Facies 36
Back-Barrier Facies 42
Depositional Environment 43
Delta Plain 43
Back-Barrier 47
Summary of Depositional Environments 51
Conclusion - 56
References Cited 59

IV
 LIST OF ILLUSTRA.TIONS
Page
Figure 1. Location map of the study area 3
Figure 2. Stratigraphic cross section
southwest of Trinidad 11
Figure 3. Stratigraphic cross section
northwest of Trinidad 12
Figure 4. Pierre Shale and Trinidad Sandstone
near the Trinidad Dam 14
Figure 5. Wavy bedding in the Pierre Shale. . . . 14
Figure 6. Load-flow structure in the Pierre
Shale 17
Figure 7. Ripple laminations and Ophiomorpha
burrow in the Pierre Shale. '. . . . . . 17
Figure 8. Ophiomorpha burrows in the Trinidad
Sandstone T 24
Figure 9. Destructional unit in the Trinidad
Sandstone 26
Figure 10. Distributary channel sandstone in
the Trinidad Sandstone 26
Figure 11. Rosselia burrows in the Trinidad
Sandstone 29
Figure 12. Tabular, planar crossbeds in the
Trinidad Sandstone 31
Figure 13. Fossil beach placer in the Trinidad
Sandstone 31
Figure 14. Rose diagram of the Trinidad Sandstone
distributary channel crossbeds 33
Figure 15. Rose diagram of the Trinidad Sandstone
distributary channel crossbeds 55
Figure 16. Stratigraphic cross section west
of Trinidad 57

V
Figure 17. Slump blocks in the Vermejo
Formation 39
Figure 18. Parallel and cross laminations
in the Vermejo Formation 39
Figure 19. Crevasse-splay and coal deposits
in the Vermejo Formation 41
Figure 20. Viburnum leaf in the Vermejo
Formation 41
Figure 21. Crevasse-splay, overbank and
coal deposits in the Vermejo
Formation 45
Figure 22. Channel sandstone, splay sandstone,
shale and coal deposits in the
Vermejo Formation 45
Figure 2 3. Overbank deposits in the Vermejo
Formation 46
Figure 24. Depositional model of delta plain
facies 49
Figure 25. Composite stratigraphic section
of the Pierre Shale, Trinidad
Sandstone and Vermejo Formation,
in the study area 52
Figure 26. Depositional model of the Pierre
Shale, Trinidad Sandstone and
Vermejo Formation in the study area. . . 54

VI
 INTRODUCTION

This investigation concerns the Upper Cretaceous

coal bearing deposits and associated formations in the
east-central Raton Basin. The rock sequence consists
of shales, siltstones, sandstones, carbonaceous shales
and coals that were deposited in a variety of related
environments. Numerous freshly exposed outcrops in
Las Animas Countv, Colorado, disDlav vertical and lateral
sequences of sedimentary structures, textures, and trace
fossils characteristic of fluvial, paralic, littoral
and offshore marine depositional environments.

The Pierre Shale, the basal formation studied,

intertongues at its upper contact with the overlying
Trinidad Sandstone. The coal bearing Vermejo Formation
conformably overlies the Trinidad Sandstone and repre-
sents the major transition from marine to continental
sedimentation. The three formations were deposited in
a progradational deltaic and coastal barrier sequence
during a regressional phase of the Late Cretaceous
Seaway.
The purpose of this study is to: (1) determine
the depositional environments and subenvironments of the
rocks, (2) interpret the depositional history,
(3) demonstrate the paleo-environmental control to coal
deposition, and (4) define lithologic characteristics
of potentially economic coal bearing facies.
 Location of Study Area

The area of investigation is situated in the east-

central portion of the Raton Basin, southeastern
Colorado (Figure 1). The area of study extends north-
south from the northern limits of Trinidad to the New
Mexico-Colorado boundary, 37° 11'N latitude to 37°N
latitude and extends east-west from 104°37 1/2'
longitude to 104° 14 1/2' longitude. The outcrops that
were studied are located on Federal and State land,
along the Interstate 25 and State Highway 12, along
the relocated Colorado and Wyoming Railroad tracks and
on the northern edge of the Raton Mesa. In addition,
fresh exposures were studied in the vicinity of the
newly constructed Trinidad Dam, west-southwest of
Trinidad, Colorado.
 DENVER •

COLORADO
_c^_
^STUDY AREA

105 104
37 45 - _j

RATON BASIN

N
STUDY
\ AREA

COLQ^DO __
37^
NEW/MEXICO

20 KM

• STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION

Figure 1. Location map of the study area

 4
Previous Work

The Trinidad Sandstone was the name given by Hills

(1889) for the predominant cliff-forming sandstone that
outcrops southeast of the town of Trinidad in the Elmoro
Quadrangle. The underlying marine shales were recog-
nized by Hills and the Pierre Shale, while the overlying
terrestrial coal-bearing sediments were thought to be
the Laramie Formation. The Laramie Formation was later
divided into the Vermejo and Raton Formations separated
by a conglomeratic sandstone contact (Lee, 1917). This
work served for almost 40 years as a very useful refer-
ence in the correlation and identification of both
formations.
The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists
published a guidebook in 1956 devoted entirely to the
geology of the Raton Basin. In this guidebook, Johnston
and Wood (1956) presented a stratigraphic correlation
of the Upper Cretaceous rock units within the basin.
In 1969, Matuzezak interpreted the environments of
deposition of the Pierre Shale, Trinidad Sandstone and
Vermejo Formation within the Colorado portion of the
Basin as consisting of beach, nearshore, and offshore.
Pillmore and Mayberry (1976) through classification of
trace fossils, proposed that the environm.ent of deposi-
tion of the Trinidad Sandstone occurred in a shallow

neritic environment, in the vicinity of Vermejo Park and

Raton, New .Mexico.
 Master theses of Zuess (1967), Manzolillo (19''6)
and Billingsly (1978), performed immediately north and
south of the study area, interpreted the environments
of deposition of the Upper Cretaceous rocks as prodelta,
delta front and delta plain deposits. In a field trip
in the vicinity of the Trinidad Dam sponsored by the
Rocky Mountain Section of the Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Flores and Danilchik
(1978), based on sedimentary structures, trace fossils,
and lithologic characteristics, interpreted the Pierre
Shale as prodelta and distal bar deposits, the Trinidad
Sandstone as distributary mouth bar with destructional
phases and distributary channel deposits, and the Vermejo
Formation as delta plain deposits.
 Methods of Investigation

One hundred thirty five closely spaced (average

of 1/2 miles apart), stratigraphic sections were meas-
ured and described during the summer of 19 78, with the
use of Jacobs staff and tape. Key or marker beds were
individually traced along the outcrops and were used
as correlation units. The litholcgies of each section
were plotted on a strip log at a scale of 10 feet to
1 inch, and were used as a field guide to stratigraphic
correlation. Information from the strip logs were then
utilized to construct cross section panels in order to
describe two dimensional characteristics of the litho-
logic units, and delineate facies and subfacies. Nets
of cross section panels were established to assess the
three dimensional characteristics of the various facies
and subfacies.
Data from field mapping were recorded on U.S.
Geological Survey 7.5 minute topographic quadrangles
of Abeyta, Barela, Fisher's Peak, Starkville, Trinidad
and Trinidad East in Las Animas County, Colorado.
Descriptions of measured sections are being prepared
for open file by the U.S.G.S. at Denver, Colorado. ^^^^
Thin sections were made from 51 sandstone sampels
collected throughout the Trinidad Sandstone and Vermejo
Formation. Crossbed orientations of the Trinidad
Sandstone and channel sandstones of the Vermejo
Formation were measured in order to determine directions
of transport of the sediments.
 8
Geologic Setting

A thick sequence of Precambrian metasediments

underlies the Raton Basin (Lessard and Bejnar, 19^6).
From Cambrian to Silurian time, the southern part of
the Basin became part of the Transcontinental Arch,
which then subsided in the Devonian and again in the
Mississippian. During the Pennsylvanian, the present
Raton Basin occupied the Rowe-Mora structural basin,
which was part of Kay's (1951) Colorado-New Mexico
zeugogeosyncline. From the Pennsylvanian through most
of the Cretaceous, a thick sequence of marine and non-
marine sediments were deposited in the basin. The
Late Cretaceous Laramide Orogeny influenced the final
retreat of the western interior epeiric seaway towards
the east. Presently the Raton Basin is bounded by the
subsurface Asphipa Arch which is an extension of the
Wet Mountains to the north-northeast, by the Las Animas
Arch and Sierra Grande Uplift to the east-southeast,
and by the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to the west.

According to Baltz (1965), as much as 12,000 feet

of Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary deposits are
present in the Raton Basin. The Pierre Shale, Trinidad
Sandstone and Vermejo Formation were deposited during
the final regression of the Late Cretaceous Seaway.
These rock units represent a progradational sequence of
 9
marine shales grading upward to transitional delta front
beach sandstones, and fluvial-delta plain coal-bearing
deposits.
Locally the Raton Basin is capped by Cenozoic
basaltic lava flows with associated sills and dikes.
The most noticeable effect of these intrusions is the
metamorphism of coal to coke in the Vermejo and Raton
Formations.
 Pierre Shale

General Characteristics

Within the study area, approximately 200 feet of

the upper part of the Pierre Shale is exposed, although
Baltz (1965) considered the formation to have a total
thickness of 2100 feet in the area. It is laterally
continuous along the study area as shown by cross sections
(Figures 2 and 3). The Pierre Shale, according to its
formational name, is not entirely composed of shale in
the study area. It consists of shale, siltstone, and
sandstone; the former being the dominant rock type
(see Figures 2 and 3).
Sedimentary structures, lithic associations, and
trace fossils were mainly used to classify the Pierre
Shale into two distinct environmental units. Sedimen-
tary structures consist of ripple, parallel and low
angle cross laminations along with load casts, sole
marks, and wavy and convolute bedding. Lithic associa-
tion shows coarsening-upward characteristics, shale in
the lower part and interbedded shale, siltstone and
sandstone in the upper part. Trace fossils include
Ophiomorpha, Rhizocorallium and Asterosoma.
On the basis of the differences in sedimentary
structures, lithic associations, and trace fossils, the

10
 11

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I STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION ~ " — - — — — - - - - - — — ,.

Figure 3. Stratigraphic cross section of the Pierre

Shale, Trinidad Sandstone, and Vermejo
Formation, northeast of the Trinidad Dam,
0 to 1 mile west-northwest of Trinidad.
 13
Pierre Shale is divided into two depositional sequences:
prodelta-distal bar sequence, and offshore-lower shore-
face sequence. These sequences are laterally contem-
poraneous of an overall deltaic and beach-shoreface
complex which represents the entire Pierre Shale strata
within the study area.

Lithic Characteristics

Prodelta Facies
The prodelta facies of the Pierre Shale exposed
west and southwest of Trinidad, consists mainly of black
to dark gray friable shales. Remnant bedding planes are
present but have been destroyed or obscured by intense
bioturbation. The facies is a coarsening-upward
sequence which displays friable shales in the lower part
grading upward into interbedded shale and siltstone
sequence. Macerated plant fragments locally form very
thin carbonaceous laminations along bedding planes
throughout the sequence. Calcareous concretions that
range in size from 5 by 2 1/2 feet to a few inches in
diameter occur in few localities.
Thin layers of siltstone increase in both thickness
and frequency near the top of this facies. The thick-
ness of the siltstone ranges from a few inches to 22
feet. The increase in the frequency of occurrence of
siltstone in the upper part of this facies is shown
in Fi£ure 4. Bioturbation in the form of trails ani
 14

Figure 4. Prodelta (P), distal bar (DB), and distri

butary mouth bar (DMB) subfacies of the
Pierre Shale, Trinidad Sandstone near the
Trinidad Dam.

Figure 5. Wavy bedding in the distal bar subfacies

of the uppermost part of the Pierre
Shale.
 15
unidentified vertical and horizontal burrows appear at
the siltstone-shale contacts and in the siltstone;
however, no body fossils were found in these deposits.
Ripple laminations in the siltstones make up the most
common type of internal structure.

Distal Bar Subfacies

The distal bar subfacies of the Pierre Shale
gradationally overlies the silty portion of the upper
prodelta facies. The distal bar subfacies consists of
a lower part of interbedded silty shales, sandy silt-
stones and silty sandstones. The siltstones and shales,
which are the most common rock type of the lower part
of the distal bar subfacies, are highly bioturbated
except for occasional siltstones exhibiting parallel
or ripple laminations. Sandstones are tan to buff
colored and display small-scale low angle cross
laminations as well as parallel and ripple laminations.
Sole marks and horizontal burrows are common bedding
plane features of the sandstones. Shale and plant
fragments occur as laminations of the sandstone beds.
The upper part of the distal bar subfacies consists
mainly of thick, very-fine grained sandstone that are
interbedded with thin siltstone and shale units. The
sandstone units are buff to tan color, lenticular to
sheetlike in shape and contain parallel laminations and
 16
low angle cross laminations. Wavy bedding occurs as a
common type of internal structure in the sandstones as
shown in Figure 5. Bioturbation becomes less prominent
vertically upward and sole marks are still common along
the basal contacts of most sandstone beds. Load-flow
structures also occur as shown in Figure 6; the bulbous
load pocket formed as the denser superincumbent sand
sank into the surrounding plastic silty shales. A
minor amount of small-scale convolute laminations were
observed in the silty shales, probably due to loading,
vertical escape of water or other factors. Macerated
carbonaceous matter, leaf fragments, shale laminations,
and rippled siltstone separate the sandstone beds.
The burrows observed in the distal bar subfacies
are Rhizocorallium, Asterosoma and Ophiomorpha. The
Rhizocorallium burrow is a ladder shaped trace fossil
formed from subhorizontal to horizontal linkage of "U"-
shaped tubes. They are 3 to 4 centimeters in width and
attain an unknown length. The Asterosoma burrow is 15
to 20 centimeters long; slightly curved oval tube. The
Ophiomorpha burrow is vertical "J" shaped and "corn-cob"
textured. Ophiomorpha and Asterosoma burrows are
mainly found in the upper part of the distal bar sand-
stone.

Offshore Facies
The offshore facies of the Pierre Shale, which is
 17

Figure 6 Load-flow structure in the distal bar

subfacies of the uppermost part of the
Pierre Shale.

Figure 7 Ripple laminations and a small Ophiomorpha

burrow in the lower shoreface subfacies of
the upper part of the Pierre Shale.
 18
mainly exposed in the southeastern part of the study area,
is a lateral equivalent of the prodelta subfacies. It
consists, like the prodelta facies, of dark gray to
black shale. It has similar characteristics as the
prodelta facies, however, it contains more local uniden-
tifiable burrows. In addition, the shelf shales contain
less coarse detritus compared to the prodelta facies.
A coarsening upward seuqence is still evident, as thin
layers of siltstone appear at the top of the facies.
Laminations within the shale are sub-parallel and irre-
gular with a few discontinuous wavy laminations present.
Vague tracks and feeding trails are common along these
laminations.

Lower Shoreface Subfacies

The lower shoreface subfacies of the Pierre Shale,
conformably overlies the shales of the shelf subfacies.
The lower shoreface subfacies consists of interbedded
shale, siltstone and sandstone and are laterally
equivalent to the distal bar subfacies. The lithic
associations and types of trace fossils are similar to
those of the distal bar subfacies; however, the lower
shoreface subfacies contains no bedding plane structures
(e.g. sole marks), loading structures (e.g. flowage
structures and convolutions), and the sandstone units
are more laterally continuous.
 19
Dark gray to black siltstone and silty shales are
interbedded with very-fine grained, buff colored
sandstone. The sedimentary structure of the sandstone
has dominantly sub-parallel laminations with low-angle
cross laminations (Figure 7). Abundant grazing trails
and organic debris is observed along the shale lamina-
tions of the sandstone beds. Small burrows of Ophiomor-
pha are sparsely distributed throughout the sandstones.
The petrographic analysis of the sandstones shows
31-46% quartz, 8-13% feldspar, 10-17% rock fragments,
17-31% matrix, 13-19% cement. Mica and glauconite was
observed in trace amounts.

Depositional Environment

The shale deposits of the Pierre Shale probably

represent suspended load sedimentation of mud derived
from local distributary channels representing the pro-
delta facies and from winnowing of fine detritus from
nearshore sediments representing the offshore facies.
Bioturbation together with mostly parallel laminations
in the siltstones suggest a neritic environment of
deposition with little or no paralic influence. In
general the neritic environment is characteristic of
a slow rate of sedimentation; however, the prodelta
portion of the neritic environment was prone to develop
a more rapid rate of sedimentation compared to other
 20
parts of the shelf. In addition, the close proximity
of the prodelta to an active area of sedimentation
allowed deposition of more coarse detritus in the form
of laminated silty shales in contrast to the more quiet
shelf environment.

The proximity of the neritic environment to active

areas of sedimentation also influences the differences
in the characteristics of distal bar and lower shore-
face subfacies. Rapid influx of coarse detritus and
poor flocculation of delta muds influenced the formation
of loading structures, as well as production of density
currents which caused sole markings in the distal bar
sandstones. Furthermore, the availability of coarse
detritus in the deltaic domain permitted deposition
of thicker and more frequently occuring sandstone units
in the distal bar in contrast to the lower shoreface
environment which contains fewer thick sandstone beds.
The laterally extensive sandstone bodies of the ^ower
shoreface subfacies, probably represent reworking of
nearshore sediments by possible tide and wave generated
currents. These sheet-like sandstones are present in
the distal bar subfacies, but not as extensive.
These sandstones which show graded bedding appear to
be products of turbidity flows or density currents.

According to Pillmore and Mayberry (19"6), the

presence of small Ophiomorpha burrows, as observed in
 21
the distal bar subfacies and lower shoreface subfacies,
represents sublittoral environments. Contorted beds
and load structures present only in the distal bar,
indicate that penecontemporaneous deformation occurred
during deposition. Within the distal bar subfacies
and lower shoreface subfacies, a vertical upward change
from parallel laminations to wavy bedding, together
with a decrease in bioturbation, demonstrates an
increased energy condition. The increasing amount of
coarse sediments in these subfacies reflects a greater
paralic influence on the deposition.
 Trinidad Sandstone

General Characteristics

The Trinidad Sandstone as the name implies, consists

mainly of sandstone and minor interbeds of shale and
siltstone. The shale and siltstone are commonly found
in the lower part of the formation. The Trinidad Sand-
stone is a prominent cliff-forming formation in the
study area and has an average thickness of 180 feet
except in Morley where it varies from 70 to 80 feet in
thickness. The Trinidad Sandstone conformably overlies
the Pierre Shale and has a gradational contace (see
Figures 2 and 3). The formational contact is arbi-
trarily defined in this paper as that level where very
thick, abundant sandstone units occur in the sequence.
The stratigraphic level of the contact varies locally
along the outcrop belt because the lowermost Trinidad
Sandstone laterally intertongues with the uppermost
Pierre Shale.
The Trinidad Sandstone, like the Pierre Shale, can
best be subdivided into different subfacies on the basis
of their sedimentary structures, trace fossils, nature
of the local contact, mineral composition, and grain
size of the individual sandstone units. Several sub-
facies can be distinguished: distributary mouth bar,
distributary channel, and shoreface. These subfacies
 25
are contemporaneous; the distributary mouth bar and
distributary channel subfacies is mainly exposed west
and southwest of Trinidad and the shoreface subfacies
exposed in the southeastern part of the sutdy area.

Lithic Characteristics

Distributary Mouth Bar Subfacies

The distributary mouth bar subfacies of the Trinidad
Sandstone makes up the lower part of the Trinidad Sand-
stone. The subfacies consists of thick (15 to 65 feet)
sandstone units, the lowermost sandstones are commonly
separated by thin shale and siltstone units, while the
upper sandstone units are separated by heavily burrowed
(destructional phase) sandstone. This subfacies contains
as many as 3 sandstone units, each a coarsening-upward
unit, but as an entire sequence it shows an overall
coarsening-upward characteristic.
Large Ophiomorpha burrows are widely distributed
and decrease vertically in abundance in the distributary
mouth bar subfacies (Figure 8). Sparse burrows of the
trace fossil Diplocraterion were found in the upper part
of this unit. Numerous bidirectional low angle cross
laminations, ripple and parallel laminations are present.
A petrographic analysis showed 41-48% quartz, 14-24%
feldspar, 8-20% rock fragments, 0-4% mica, 5-1'% matrix
and 6-25% cement. The rock fragments consist of
 24

Figure 8. Large Ophiomorpha burrows in the

distributary mouth bar subfacies of
the Trinidad Sandstone.
 25
sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous fragments with
the latter being the majority. Silica cementation
dominates over calcite cement, with very minor occurrences
of glauconite.

Shale clasts and shale laminations are observed

through the subfacies. Wood imprints up to three feet
long with brown calcareous concretions one to two inches
in diameter are occasionally present.

Destructional Bar
The destructional bar of the Trinidad Sandstone is
a tan, very fine to fine grained clay rich sandstone. It
grades laterally to thin laminated silty sandstone,
interbedded with dark gray siltstones and black shales.
The destructional bar sandstones are intensely burrowed
by Ophiomorpha as in Figure 9. Any internal structures
present in the sandstone during deposition have been
destroyed by the numerous burrows. The basal contact is
a low relief undulating surface. Wavy bedding is present
at the contacts between the interbedded siltstone and
sandstone. Carbonaceous debris in the bedding plane and
log imprints are common in the interbedded portion.
A higher percentage of clay matrix was observed
in the petrographic analysis as compared to the surround-
ing distributary mouth bar sands. The intense burrowing
of marine organisms probably aided in the clay rich
 26
m

Figure 9. Intensely burrowed destructional unit in

the distributary mouth bar subfacies of
the Trinidad Sandstone.

•-*v-

^ £,. a A.

Figure 10. Distributary channel sandstone with

accretion units separated by shale and
siltstone.
content of this unit by clay filling of these burrows.
The sam.ples contained 36-48% quartz, 12-20% feldspar,
15-22% rock fragments, 3-8% mica, which was mostly bio-
tite, 15-30% clay matrix, and 5-10% cement.

Distributary Channel Subfacies

The distributary channel subfacies of the Trinidad
sandstone is a gray to tan color, quartzose sandstone,
interbedded with dark gray shales, siltstones and
carbonaceous shales. An extremely sharp depositional
scour base marks the lower contact of this fining upward
subfacies. The subfacies occasionally consists of
numerous small erosional base channel sandstones with
accretion units apparent within them (Figure 10). Most
channel sandstones have a conglomeratic base consisting of
clay pebbles, 1/4" by 1/2" to 6" by 2' diameter shale
clasts, coal spars and fine to medium grained sandstone.
Logs imprints ranging in size from 2" to 8" are
common throughout this subfacies. Som^e shale fillings
occur in a few channels. A higher concentration of
feldspars, muscovite and silica cementation are distin-
guished during thin section analysis. A range of 38-45%
quartz, 20-35% feldspar, 12-20% rock fragments, 0-8%
mica, 3-10% matrix, and 5-15% mixed calcite and silica
cement comprise the general petrologic constituents.
Shoreface Facies ^8

The shoreface facies consists of middle shoreface

and upper shoreface-beach sandstones. This facies is
exposed in limited outcroppings in the southeastern part
of the study area.

Middle Shoreface Subfacies

The middle shoreface subfacies sandstone is light tan
in color, fine grained, well sorted and increases in grain
size vertically upward. The base of the sandstone is
gradational and is marked by the downward increasing
frequency of interlaminated siltstones and shales in the
basal ten feet. Except for discontinuous sub-parallel
and faint low angle cross laminations, this 50 foot
sandstone appears to be structureless. Sparse burrows of
Ophiomorpha were observed. An 18" zone of numerous trace
fossil burrows were observed (Figure 11). Monzolillo
(1976) questionably identified these burrows in outcrops
to the north of this study area as Rosselia, a littoral-
shallow shoreface trace fossil. The quartz content
ranged from 43-58%, with 9-14% feldspar, 10-16% rock
fragments, 7-23% matrix, 11-19% cement, with traces of
mica and glauconite.

Upper Shoreface-Beach Subfacies

The upper shoreface-beach sandstone is light tan
color, fine grained and well sorted. The two sandstones
 29

Figure 11. Probable Rosselia burrows in the

shoreface subfacies of the Trinidad
Sandstone.
 30
are grouped together because they cannot be differentiated
except for a subtle change in internal structures, such
as the preservation of a heavy mineral placer in the
beach sandstone. The lower contact is completely grada-
tional and is only marked by a change in structures, such
as the presence of planar low angle cross laminations
(Figure 12). Extremely sparse burrows of Ophiomorpha are
present in the middle of this 30 foot thick unit.
Discontinuous sub-parallel laminations are found through-
out .
Five feet from the top, a 1 1/2 foot thick heavy
mineral zone is present (Figure 13), which characterizes
the beach sandstone. The concentration of the dark
heavy minerals changes vertically in alternating light and
dark laminations. A spectrographic analysis performed on
the black sandstone indicated a concentration of ilmenite,
zircon and monazite (Danilchik, personal com.munication) .
The amount of heavy minerals in the alternating dark
zones of the beach placer ranged from 18 to 73%. Further
petrographic studies of the samples outside the heavy
mineral zone revealed 51 to 59% quartz, 9-16% feldspar,
6-15% rock fragments, 10-18% matrix, and 9-21% cement.

Depositional Environment

Distributary Mouth Bar

The flow of fluvial channels into an open sea is
 31

Figure 12. Tabular, planar crossbeds in the upper

shoreface-beach subfacies of the
Trinidad Sandstone.

Figure 13. A fossil beach placer in the upper

shoreface-beach subfacies of the
Trinidad Sandstone.
 3:
decreased, thus the slowed velocity causes its load to
be deposited at the mouth resulting in the formation of
a distributary mouth bar. The presence of local burrows,
low-angle cross laminations, ripple and parallel lamina-
tions, suggests waxing and waning energy conditions in
the distributary mouth bar. A rose diagram from crossbed
measurements within this subfacies (Figure 14), shows
bidirectional transport with a predominant south-east
direction and a secondary northeast component, which
agrees with the transport analysis of Monzollilo (19"6).
He interpreted the cross laminations as megaripple move-
ment by longshore currents and dominant winds along a
northwest-southeast trending shoreline. The bimodal cross
bedding is indicative of changing higher energy regimes,
as longshore and rip tides reworked and redeposited the
new detrital sediment.

Destructional Bar
Coleman and Gaglinano (1964) described the occurrence
of a destructional bar in a deltaic complex, when river
load is redistributed to a new location, allowing marine
processes to destroy old delta deposits. The significant
total lack of fluvial outflow of detrital sediments
results in reworking of previously deposited sediments bv
marine processes. Cotter (19:^5) reported the presence of
a deltaic destructional zone as having the appearance of
 33

N
A

Figure 14. The rose diagram was constructed from

crossbeds in the distributary mouth bar
sandstones of the Trinidad Sandstone.

N
A

Figure 15. The rose diagram, was constructed from

crossbeds in the distributary channel
sandstones, nearshore Trinidad Sandstone
 54
winnowed beach sand, which could develop on an inactive
deltaic lobe. The intense burrowing of Ophiomorpha
occurs within the quiet environment which is conducive
to its habitation.

Distributary Channel
The erosional basal contact, conglomeratic base,
and fining upward of grain size of the sandstone indicate
a channel origin. High angle crossbeds represent the
high energy flow in the distributary channels. Lateral
migration of the channels is indicated by development of
point bars. The shale and siltstone infilling of some
channels are probably results of localized abandonment
of that channel. A rose diagram (Figure 15), constructed
from the crossbeds shows southeast and northeast transport
directions, with the latter being the prominent direction.

Shoreface
Middle Shoreface
The presence of Ophiomorpha and Rosselia burrows
dictate a quiet, littoral-shallow environment. Good
sorting and lack of effective grain size may explain the
absence of well defined burrows (Davies, Ethridge and
Berg, 1971), as well as lack of distinct structures.
Longshore currents subparallel to the shoreline were
probably the main transport and depositional medium. The
structureless nature of this sandstone is characteristic
 35
of a middle shoreface environment, although associated
environments are key factors in defining this as the
middle shoreface.

Upper Shoreface - Beach

The upper shoreface sandstone is identified by the
presence of low-angle planar cross laminations, and
sparse burrows. These sedimentary structures suggest
deposition in the surf zone where wave-driven flow assoc-
iated with shoaling waves influence sedimentation. The
overlying beach sandstone contains heavy mineral placer
deposits common in Late Cretaceous beach sediments of the
western interior. Houston and Murphy (1977) consider these
black beach sandstones to be deposited in the swash zone
by traction processes and storm generated gravity-shear
sorting. Tidal and rip currents would be the predominant
currents involved in forming the structures found.
Longshore currents probably transported the sediments to
the location to be reworked by tidal and rip currents.
This high energy condition in the upper shoreface and
beach environments is also marked by a decrease in
abundance of the trace fossil Ophiomorpha.
 Vermejo Formation

General Characteristics

The Vermejo Formation consists of interbedded coal,

carbonaceous shale, shale, siltstone and sandstone. The
formation conformably overlies the Trinidad Sandstone.
The contact of the Vermejo Formation with the overlying
Raton Formation is defined by a widely distributed
conglomeratic sandstone. The Vermejo Formation averages
in the study area from 70 to 180 feet in thickness.

Lithic Characteristics

Delta Plain Facies

The delta plain facies contains coal and carbonaceous
shale beds that are as much as twelve feet in thickness.
These beds are separated vertically and laterally by
thick sequences of both light and dark gray shales
inter-bedded with siltstones and sandstones. Macerated
plant fragments, ironstone nodules, rooting, and tonstein
deposits are found within these shales. The shale may
grade vertically and laterally into medium gray, fine
grained siltstone and light gray silty sandstone. The
shales are generally massive with occasional discontin-
uous irregular laminations and are more abundant in the
lower part of the formation.
The coals are identified as high volatile A or B
bituminous, low sulphur and high ash (Pillmore, 1969).
 J /

<
-J
a.
O
< l.^-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^''*''^-«SSXX^VX»D<W^ UJ

or
UJ UJ
Q >

UJ
COAL AND
< CARBONACEOUS SHALE
<
X
o
n UNDIFFERENTiATED
GRAINED DETRITUS
FINE-
cc:
cr I-
<
I- SANDSTONE

a: SILL r 40 FT
I Mi
I STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION I

Figure 16. Stratigraphic cross section of the Trinidad

Sandstone and Vermejo Formation, northwest
of the Trinidad Dam, 1 to 5 miles west-
southwest of Trinidad.
 38
Some of the coal beds have been altered to natural coke
by igneous intrusions (Figure 16). Carbonaceous shale
is generally present above and below the coal beds,
sparse parallel laminations, macerated plant fragments,
and coal lenses are found within the carbonaceous shales.
Coal beds occur more frequently and in greater thickness
in the lower portion of the Vermejo Formation (see
Figures 2 and 3), and may extend laterally for as much
as 3 miles. Coal beds laterally grade into carbonaceous
shale.

There are two types of sandstone that can be

distinguished in this formation, based on grain size,
sedimentary structures, and mineralogy. Type I sandstones
are fine to medium grained, light gray to buff colored
and have erosional base that cuts underlying coal, shale,
siltstone or other sandstones. Abundant clay pebbles,
shale clasts, log imprints, coal spars and slump blocks
that measure up to 1 by 3 feet are found in the conglom-
eratic basal section (Figure 17). These sandstones are
lenticular and range in thickness from 6 to 40 feet and
up to 2 1/2 miles in width. Low to high angle cross
laminations and convolutions in the base, grade vertically
and laterally into parallel and ripple laminations
(Figure 18). Accretion units with carbonaceous debris
along the shale laminations are also present in this
fining upward sandstone. A petrographic analysis
 39

Figure 17 Slump blocks present within a distri-

butary channel sandstone in the Vermejo
Formation.

Figure 18. Cross laminations and parallel laminations

in a distributary channel sandstone of
the Vermejo Formation.
 40
showed 33-38% quartz, 21-43% feldspar, 15-26% rock
fragments, 1-6% mica, 6-14% matrix and 4-13% mixed
calcite and silica cement.

The type I sandstones grade laterally into interbed-

ded siltstone, shale, carbonaceous shale, coal and sand-
stone. The en echelon arrangement of the type I sand-
stones and their increasing abundance in the upper portion
of the formation can be observed in figures 2, 3, and 16.
Their wide variance in thickness (0 to 55 feet) and
lenticular shape (1/4 to 3 1/2 miles long) can also
be observed.

Type II sandstones are fine grained, tan to buff

colored with a sharp to gradational base (Figure 19). It
is interbedded with shale, siltstone, carbonaceous
shale, and coal, and may grade into these lithologies
vertically and laterally. Ripple and parallel laminations,
convolute bedding, low-angle cross laminations, rooting
and carbonaceous debris are common features in this
sandstone type. The plant fossil Viburnum (Figure 20)
was observed along with other non-distinct plant
fragments. Knowlton (1917) described Viburnum as a
species of the broad-leaf dicotyledons, an ancient
relative of the honeysuckle. coarsening upward of grain
size was observed in a few of the sandstone beds which
have a maximum thickness of 8 feet and an average
thickness of 4 feet. The mineral constituents are
 41

Figure 19. Crevasse-splay deposit overlaying a coal

bed in the Vermejo Formation.

Figure 20. The imprint of a Viburnum leaf in a

Vermejo Formation sandstone.
 4
similar to the type I sandstone except for a higher
concentration of matrix (14-33%). Type II sandstones
are laterally extensive and may be part of a thicker
coarsening-upward sequence of shale and siltstone into
type II sandstone.

Back-Barrier Facies

The back-barrier facies is laterally equivalent to

the delta plain facies. The poor exposure of few outcrops
of the back-barrier facies in the study area, limited
the amount of data available of this facies. Few thin
coal beds and carbonaceous shale beds, each 1/2 foot
thick, were observed interbedded with dark gray siltstone
and gray shale beds. These rock units occur in spotty
outcrops varying from 1 to 40 feet in thickness. In
addition, some fine to medium grained, light brown sand-
stones outcrop as resistant ledges. The sandstone ranges
from 2 to 5 feet in thickness, and contains climbing
ripple laminations, plant fragments, adn sharp base. This
sandstone resembles Type II sandstone of the delta plain
facies. Isolated outcrops of fine to medium grained,
tan sandstones, that show low-angle crossbeds, erosional
base and range from 6 to 14 feet in thickness, were also
observed. This sandstone also resembles the Type I
sandstone of the delta plain facies except that it is a
thin bed in the back-barrier facies. Furthermore, the
 45
sandstone was observed in only a few outcroppings in
the back barrier facies.

Depositional Environment

Delta Plain

The delta plain consists of a wide variety of

environments, consisting of distributary channel, back-
swamp, crevasse-splay , overbank-splay, and levee. The
fining upward of grain size in the type I sandstones are
typical of distributary channel deposits. The clay
pebbles and ripup clasts of the conglomeratic base
suggest a high energy regime within these distributary
channels. Large slump blocks fell into the distributary
channel as it eroded downward, from caving of the cut
bank side. The accretion units present in the thick
sandstones, suggest lateral migration of the major
distributary channels. Type II sandstones, which exhibit
a coarsening upward grain size, are commonly underlain
by siltstone and shale beds. This coarsening upward
sequence and the small-scale crossbeds of the Type II
sandstone suggest deposition in a miniature sub-delta
recognized as a crevasse-splay by Flores and Arndt
(1979). As the crevasse splay breaks through the levee,
the influx of coarse detritus temporarily, or perhaps
permanently interrupts accumulation of organic matter
within neighboring back swamps (Figure 21). Natural
healing of the crevasse would allow the backswamp to
 4i

return to its original reducing environmental setting.

As shown in Figure 22, thick channel sandstones (type I)
are thus associated laterally with crevasse-splay sand-
stones (type II), overbank deposits (interlaminated
siltstone, shale, sandstone and carbonaceous shale) and
levee deposits (silty sandstone, siltstone, shale, and
carbonaceous shale which may be interlaminated).
The overbank-splay and levee deposits formed during
flood stages when river level rose above the adjacent
levees. Fine grained sediments were deposited along the
levees and into low-lying areas (Flores and Arndt, 1979)
during these episodic events. In Figure 23, levee and
overbank-splay deposits show inclined beds possibly
reflecting the original slope of deposition. Since the
levee, crevasse splay, and overbank deposits were at
times subaerially exposed, vegetation then formed root
mottlings in these deposits.
Back swamp deposits are light and dark gray, massive-
looking shales interbedded with carbonaceous shale and
coal beds. The back swamp environment is divided into
a well drained or poorly drained zones (Figure 24).
Light gray shales are indicative of a well drained back
swamn since the dark carbonaceous material becomes
A.

oxidized in subaerially exposed zones. Dark gray shale,

carbonaceous shale and coal, on the other hand, formed
in the reducing environment r)resent in the subaqueous
 45

Figure 21, Interbedded crevasse-splay sandstone, coal

and overbank shale of the lower delta plain
facies of the Vermejo Form.ation,

Figure 22 Channel sandstone, right, grades laterally

to the left, into splay sandstone over-
lying light gray shale and coal.
 46

Figure 23. Interlaminated siltstone, shale, sandstone,

and coal dipping to the right, possibly
represents original depositional slope.
 47
poorly-drained back swamp. These coal beds formed so
long as the accumulation of organic matter and the rate
of local subsidence is greater than the influx of
detritus and/or lowering of the water table level. Coal
deposits may be split or terminated by crevasse-splay
and overbank splay sediments as a result of flooding
conditions in the main distributary channels. Random
meandering of the distributary channels also causes
erratic distribution and lateral discontinuity of the coal
deposits (Flores, 1978). That is, meandering of the
distributary channels limits the extent of backswamps
formed in the interdistributary areas. Thin coal beds
that occur next to major channel sandstones can be
interpreted as deposits in well-drained backswamps that
received detritus during seasonal flooding, thus diluting
the organic matter and thereby disrupting the deposition
of thick coal seams. Thick coal beds which formed
in poorly-drained back swamps, are usually split by the
influx of crevasse splay sediments. The point of
convergence of the split in the coal beds marks the
distal limit of the detrital plume while the direction
of the crevasse splay outflow is toward the converging
coal seams,

Back-Barrier
The thick sections of shale and siltstone, very thin
coal and carbonaceous shale beds, thin channel sandstones.
 48
and thin crevasse-splay sandstones were observed to be
present in the back-barrier. Association of these
deposits with the underlying offshore and lower shoreface
deposits of the Pierre Shale and shoreface deposits of
the Trinidad Sandstone, and the contemporaneous deposi-
tion of this facies with the delta plain facies of the
Vermejo Formation suggest that the Vermejo Formation in
the southeastern part of the study area was deposited
in a back-barrier environment.
The Vermejo Formation to the south of the study
area, in the vicinity of Raton, New Mexico, has been
described as a coastal swamp complex (Leighton, 19'9)
with thick accumulations of coals being infrequently
cut by river estuary sandstones. In the Raton area,
Pillmore (1969) associated the large elongate character-
istics of the coal beds in the lower part of the Vermejo
Formation as back-barrier deposits. These coal beds
show elongate orientations to the shoreline marked by the
Trinidad Sandstone's beach deposit. These observations
are similar to the swamps in modern strandplain (Hoyt,
Henry, and Howard, 1966) in southeast U.S., in which
the peat-forming environment forms at the back of the
beach-barrier complex. The long dim.ension of these peat-
forming swamps are parallel to the length of the beach-
barrier complex. Pillmore and Leighton noted that the
coals in the lower part of the Vermejo Formation in the
 49

o
CD
s

CD
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CD
s:

O
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0)

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o

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C r-H
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C^H CD

cti V

<D

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 50

Raton area are thicker and more laterally continuous

compared to the coals in the upper part of the formation.
 51

Summary of Depositional Environments

The upper part of the Pierre Shale, Trinidad Sand-

stone, and Vermejo Formation in the study area were
deposited in fluvial-deltaic and coastal barrier systems.
This interpretation is based on the variations in litho-
logy, sedimentary structures, transport directions,
textures, mineral composition, and geometry of the rock
types. A composite stratigraphic section is shown in
Figure 25, and exhibits differences in the lithology and
sedimentary structures of the deltaic and coastal-barrier
complexes. Within these stratigraphic sections, the
proximity of the shoreline and detrital source increased
vertically upward, which is suggestive of progradational

deposition,
A northwest-southeast trending paleoshoreline with
dominant longshore currents to the southeast is inter-
preted from crossbed measurements of the Trinidad
sandstone. Crossbed measurements within the Vermejo
Formation showed no preferred orientation due to the
random meandering of the distributary channels through the
delta plain. Matuszezak (1969) also concluded that the
Trinidad shoreline trend was from northwest to southeast
based on the orientation of heavy mineral zones, ripple
mark directions and an isopach map of the Trinidad
Sandstone, According to Weimer and Land (1975), the
 ^1

O
LU
BACK- T-:L-1-T DELTA
QZ
BARRIER UJ PLAIN
>

P \ ^ ^ . | DISTRIBUTARY

CO
CHANNEL

I T • -r••Tr»^l
BEACH-
< . "vr • .

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V v^.t>'^ DELTA
FRONT
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UJ

cr
r - 5 0 F T. IT
UJ

Figure 25 Composite stratigraphic section of the Pierre

Shale, Trinidad Sandstone, and Vermejo
Formation in the study area.
 53
Trinidad Sandstone's deposition occurred during the
retreat of the Cretaceous Seaway in Maestrichtian time
to the northeast, perpendicular to the proposed shoreline
High wave energy had a major effect on the geometry
of the prograding deltaic deposits; this is observed by
the preservation of the predominant southeast longshore
current crossbeds in the Trinidad Sandstone. Due to the
uniform thickness and sheet-like distribution of the
sandstone bodies, a Coleman and Wright (1973) tvpe IV to
type V deltaic sand pattern is expressed. A marine
dominated cuspate-arcuate shape is suggested for the
overall geometry of this delta complex (Figure 26). The
dominant southeastward longshore currents then redistri-
buted some of the deltaic sediments to the coastal
barrier system in the southeast.
Knowlton (1917) based on plant fossils of the
Trinidad Sandstone and Vermejo Formation, and the lack
of discernable growth rings in the preserved wood,
concluded that there was no significant seasonal changes
in temperature in what appears to have been a warm,
moist, temeprate to subtropical climate. The climate
stayed relatively constant into the time of deposiiton
of the Raton Formation, even though the detrital source
area switched from the San Luis uplift to the Sangre de
Cristo uplift.
 I
UJ UJ UJ
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UJ UJ u. cr
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As the Cretaceous Seaway retreated, the Vermejo

delta plain prograded over the Trinidad distributary
channel and distributary mouth bar sandstones, which in
turn prograded over the Pierre distal bar and prodelta
deposits. In the southeast, a contemporary coastal
barrier sequence was deposited in a similar prograded
condition. The Vermejo back-barrier deposits prograded
over the Trinidad shoreface sandstone which in turn
prograded over the lower shoreface and offshore deposits
of the Pierre Shale.
 Conclusion

The Upper Cretaceous deposits in the Raton Basin,

Colorado, particularly the Vermejo Formation, yields
significant energy resources of coal deposits. Envir-
onmental-stratigraphic differentiation of the rock types
of the Vermejo Formation suggest that the lower part of
the formation is an excellent target for coal explor-
ation. Numerous minable coal beds are found in the
lower part of the formation which was deposited mainly
in backswamps of lower delta plain environments. The
coal which is as much as 6 feet thick, is laterally
extensive up to 3 miles along cross section. These
coals were formed in poorly drained backswamps on
crevasse splay-overbank platforms, adjoining major
channel deposits. Some coal beds, where three-dimen-
sional control is available, show elongate distribution
parallel to lengths of channel sandstones. Thus the
areal distribution of the rocks is controlled by the
distribution of the channel sandstone. In the lower
delta plain, the coals are mainly distributed between
distributary channels in poorly drained swamps of the
interdistributary areas. Occasional breaching of the
distributary channels by flood waters, formed crevasse-
splay and overbank deposits which caused splitting or
merging of the coal beds. Thus although the coals in
56
 5"
the lower delta plain deposits are thick, they commonly
show splitting or merging characteristics, causing
coals to decrease in thickness and divide into two
coals where crevasse-splay deposits separate the coals.
In the upper part of the Vermejo Formation, few thin
coals are as much as 2 feet thick that are laterally
variable up to 2 miles in cross section. The coals in
this part of the formation were formed in the upper delta
plain. This facies includes abundant channel sandstones
along with associated crevasse-splay and overbank
detritus. It is suggested that the lack of thick,
laterally extensive minable coals in this part of the
formation is a result of the predominance of well
drained backswamps over poorly drained backswamps. The
upper delta plain backswamps were apparently mainly
formed well above groundwater level to deter develop-
ment of highly reducing environments. Perhaps, this
condition could have been enhanced by constant overbank
deposition which built higher topographic platforms
that would keep pace with sedimentation. In addition,
whatever poorly drained backswamps formed in the upper
delta plain, may have been choked by suspended sediments
from flood waters. The upper delta plain deposits of
the Upper Vermejo Formation can therefore be character-
ized by abundant coarse grained detritus in the form of
 58
channel sandstones and overbank detritus associated
with poorly developed coal beds.
Thus, it is suggested that coal exploration in the
Vermejo Formation should include specific recognition
of the lower delta plain facies where the coals are
well developed. In addition, further differentiation
of the subfacies in this facies, into channel sandstones
and overbank areas should aid in reconstructing sub-
environments of coal deposition which are mainly parallel
to the length of the distributary channels.
 REFERENCES CITED

'''''pet;'''Geor'R.nf °^v.
Fetr. Geol, Bull., '^^o'"^ '^^^
49, no. 11,^^^i^^'' ^ ' Assoc.
p. 2011-2075.

"'^''Sf theVrfn J ' H I'^'y Stratigraphy and clay mineralogy

cLl.l 3;^^^^^^^ Sandstone and associated formations
^M^? T^ ^^^^rS'^^^^r^^^'^^^^^g ^^^^^ Colorado: Unpub.
M.S. Thesis (T-1925), Colorado School of Mines.
Coleman, J,M and S.M._Gagliano, 1964, Cyclic sedimentation
in the Mississippi River deltaic plain: Gulf Coast
Assoc. Geol. Socs. Trans., v. 14, p. 67-80.
Coleman, J.M. and L.D. Wright, 1973, Modern river deltas-
variability of processes and sand bodies; in Deltas
models for exploration: Houston Geoloc^ical Soc
p. 99-149.

Cotter, E. , 1975, Field guide and road log to the Western

Book Cliffs, Castle Valley, and parts of the Wasatch
Plateau: Brigham Young Univ. Geol. Studies, v. ^"
pt. 2, p. 92-96.
Davies, D.K.-, F.G. Ethridge and R.R. Berg, 1971, Recog-
nition of barrier environments: Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol. Bull., V. 55, no. 4, p. 550-565.
Flores, R.M., 1978, Coal depositional models in some
Tertiary and Cretaceous coal fields in the U.S.
Western Interior: Organic Geochemistry, Sp. Pub.
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