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THE

SOILS OF CENTRAL TRINIDAD

I

BY

E. M. CHENERY, Ph.D., B . S C , A.R.C.S., D.I.C.

Soil Chemist, Department of Agriculture, Tnmdad, B.W.I.

1).

GoVER^MENT PRINTING OFFICE, T R I N I D A D , B W I 1952

ISRIC LIBRARY

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 THE

SOILS OF CENTRAL TRINIDAD

ISRfC LIBRARY

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1 SJ . 0 ,
j Wagemngon, Th» N'StherlanO? J

BY

E . M. O H E N E R Y , Ph.D., B.SC, A.R.C.S., D.I.C.

Soil Chemist, Department of Agriculture, Trinidad, B.W.I.

Scanned from original by ISfUC - World Soil Information, as ICSU

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i
I

I
 ERRATA
Page
5 Line 51 Insert (13) after grade map
6 Line 2 For " Hutchinson " read " Hutchison "
6 Line 14 For " West " read " E a s t "
7 Line 6 For " consdierable " read " considerable "
8 Line 14, IS For " it was . . . . it is " read " they were . . . . they are ".
8 Line 16 For " Loam " read " loam ".
9 Line 31 For " obtained " read " obtaining "
9 Line 47 For " hilly " read " rolling "
10 Line 24 For " affect " read " affects "
11 Line 3 For " 3 to 50 feet " read " —3 to 25 feet "
11 Type 18 For " silty clay loam silty clay " read " silty clay loam][to^silty clay "
11 Type 21 For " Oropouehe " read " Oropuche "
11 Type 24 For " Phase " read " phase "
11 Line 48 For " 50 t o 125 feet " read " 50 to 190 feet "
12 Line 1 For " Hilly " read " Rolling "
12 Type 40 Delete " üne "
12 Type 49 Delete " silty clay ioam to "
12 Type 49 Insert " E.M.C."
12 Line 41 For " Chereny " read " Chenery "
13 Line 7 For " Leesia Hexandra " read " Leesia hexandra "
13 Line 21, 22 Read " Mayaro where it still sui'vives and on the alluvial detrital deposits
at the "
13 Line 47 Insert comma after " Sohult "
13 Lme 49 Insert comma after " H.B.K."
13 Line 52 For " 0 . 0 . " read " D.C."
14 Line 3 " Wild cane " dropped one line
14 Line 9 Insert comma after " Chase "
14 Line 30 For " commelina " read " Commelina "
14 Line 37 For " Coccinea " read " coccinea "
14 Line 57 For " O.C." read " D.C."
15 Line 53 For " catylist " read " catalyst "
16 Line 13 For " grow " read " grows "
16 Line 38 For " 3 t o 50 feet " read " —3 to 25 feet "
16 Line 45 For " occurs " read " occur "
18 Line 12 Omit brackets from " Montrichardia arborescens "
18 Line 38 For " Leersia " read " Leesia "
19 Line 24 For " 3 + 1 + 1 " read " 3 x 1 x 1 "
19 Line 29 Insert " usually " before " slightly "
19 Line 32 For " soil " read " soils "
21 Type 21 For " Oropouehe " read " Oropuche "
22 Line 5 For " concretion " read " concretions "
22 Line 15 For " 28 to 75 feet " read " 25 to 75 feet "
23 Type 28 For " loam " read " loams "
23 Line 31 Insert comma after " surface ".
24 Line 2 For " charter " read " Charter "
24 Line 4 For " ife " read " life "
24 Line 10 For " 50 to 125 feet " read " 60 to 190 feet "
24 Line 49 For " consists " read " consist "
24 Line 52 For " This " read " Below this "
25 Line 24 For " rust " read " rusty "
25 Line 26 For " 3 acres " read " 30 acres "
25 Line 39 For " Buehannan's " read " Buchanan's "
26 Line 42 For " Hilly " read " RoUing "
26 Type 40 Delete " fine "
27 Line 10 For " A fine phase " read " A flat phase "
30 Line 40 For " Acurelnaoussara " read " Acurel-moussara "
30 Line 42 For " too " read " two "
30 Line 45 For " They are " read " I t is "
30 Line 59 For " shelly " read " sheUy limestone "
30 Line 58 For " deposit " read " deposits "
32 Line 14 Insert " P04 " after " 40 p.p.m ".
33 Line 39 Insert " below " after " and "
35 Line 52 For " of" read " or "
36 Line 9 Insert " and rolling " after " undulating "
36 Line 10 Insert " gley " after " term "
37 Line 7 For " Oropouehe " read " Oropuche "
39 Type 21 For " Oropouehe " read " Oropuche "
40 Line 23 For " Hilly " read " Rolling "
41 Type 53 For " 9,000 " read " 9,500 "
42 Line 14 For " ,0000—1 " read " 0—1,000 ".

•_
 CONTENTS
PAGE

1. O B J E C T S AND U S E S 5

2. PHEVIOtTS WOBK 5

3. GEOGBAPHIO P O S I T I O N 6

4. PHYSIOGBAPHY 6

5. CLIMATE 7

6. GEOLOGY 7

7. S O I L CLASSIFICATION AND D E F I N I T I O N S 8

8. VEGETATION 13

9. METHODS 15

10. DESCBIPTION O F SOILS 16

11. SOILS AND CBOPS 33

12. G E N E T I C CLASSIFICATION 35

13. TABULATED SUMMARY 38

14. REFEEBNCES 43

Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England

24TH MAY-24TH JULY, 1949

 i

j
 1. OBJECTS AND USES
THE purpose of this report is to describe the soils
of Central Trinidad, as depicted on the accompany-
ing map, and their relation to agriculture and
natural vegetation. The uses to which a soil map
may be put are not always self-evident and the
following may be cited in order to place this work
in its proper perspective.
1. Warnings as to the likely shortage of food in
the world have been made in high places several
times during the past year or two. The jjara-
mount importance of a stock-taking of the food
producing potentialities of all land is stressed
before adequate planning and policy making can
be undertaken (1, 21). The soil map may be
regarded as the balance-sheet of such a stock-
taking. It represents the integration of every
aspect of the soil both academic and practical and
it has been the basis for ascertaining whether or
not the land is suitable for growing a particular
agricultural or forest crop.
2. The data of the soil survey has already proved
useful in the selection of sites for Land Settlements,
and Agricultural Experiment Stations.
2. PREVIOUS WORK
The systematic study of the soils of Central
Trinidad was commenced in 1926 by the Depart-
ment of Chemistry and Soils of the Imperial
College of Tropical Agriculture under Professor
F. Hardy. The first survey was made of the
sugar-cane belt in order to correlate soil conditions
with incidence of froghopper damage (11).
Attention was diverted to cocoa and forest soils
(17) in about 1929 and these were investigated in
much more detail by the deep auger and pit
method (12) (described later.) In 1936 the present
writer was appointed to continue the soil survey
as a long-term project and operations were begun
in July 1936 and carried on until February 1947.
This work has been described, in part, in two
published papers (8, 13) and several private
estate reports. In 1937 Mr. C. F. Charter made
detailed morphological studies of the soils of the
sugar-cane belt and classified them on the Enghsh
system into 25 series in 1939 (5), to which was
added 9 series in 1941, (7) and 2 series appear to
have been discarded. At about the same time the
present writer, working independently, produced
a similar classification for the cacao and forest
soils of Eastern Trinidad which was enlarged later
to include (admittedly in a rather general manner)
the soils of the whole island. The generalized
soil map and land grade map were the results of
the field work of 1936-39. A great deal more land
3. Reclamation or improvement schemes con-
nected with swamp land have found the soil maps
of considerable use, e.g., Caroni, Nariva and
Oropouche drainage and irrigation schemes.
4. In the study of the distribution of the kinds
of natural vegetation found in Trinidad, accurate
information on the soils was essential to the
elucidation of many ecological problems (3).
5. In the selection of sites for the establishment
of cultural, manurial and varietal experiments it
is necessary to choose land of a single soil type and
this can only be done by a prehminary soil survey.
It is gratifying to record that the potash manuring
programme of the Caroni Estates group of the
Tate and Lyle Sugar company has been based on
this soil map.
6. In all academic or pedological studies of the
soil it is desirable to know what relationship a
particular soil bears to other soils in the locality
and the world as a whole. To define these
relationships is the fundamental object of aU soil
surveys.
has been surveyed since then and older conceptions
and maps re-investigated and revised where
necessary. The final map of Central Trinidad
represents a compilation of all the available soil
data of the area. Well estabhshed soil names
have been used wherever possible, which has
meant the suppression of certain names of Charter
in favour of more widely used names of the
I.C.T.A.
Apart from soil data much relevant lithological
information has been incorporated into the soil
map. These were taken from the field spot sheets
of the exploration geologists of the oil companies
operating in Central Trinidad, viz : Trinidad
Leaseholds Ltd., United British Oilfields of
Trinidad (Shell) and Kern Trinidad Oilfields.
Parts of the hthological maps contained such a
wealth of detail and corresponded so closely to
well defined soil types that they were transferred
to the soil map with very httle modification. Thus
the boundaries of the limestone soils, Tamana
Series, are due entirely to Mr. A. E. Gunther of
U.B.O.T. for the Biche district and Dr. K. Rohr
of T.L.L. for the Central Range. The north-
western portion of the map of the Central Range
Reserve is also the work of Gunther and the
Piparo district after Rohr's geological maps.
Most of the boundary between the hills and flat

land on the western borders of the Nariva swamj)
is due to Dr. A. Hutchinson of U.B.O.T. Small
areas in the Esperanza-Springvale district are
after Dr. N. Boutakoff of Kern Trinidad Oilfields.
Considerable portions of the black marl belt
between Princes Town and Rio Claro are based on
the field observations of other officers of the
Department of Agriculture : Dr. B. Montserin,
the late Dr. F. J. Pound and Messrs. Mulloon and
Guevara. The greater part of the maps of Orange
3. GEOGRAPHIC
The island of Trinidad lies between 10° 3 '
and 10° 44' North latitude and between 60° 55'
and 61° 44' West longitude. It measures about
50 miles in average length and 37 miles in average
breadth and has an area of 1,754 square miles.
The area with which this report is concerned
4. PHYSIOGRAPHY
Central Trinidad is divided into five distinct
topographical regions :
1. Swamps—Two large swamps, the Caroni in
the North-west and the Nariva in the East and
four smaller ones are foimd along the coast line.
All of which, except the Nariva Swamp, are the
tropical equivalent of estuarine mud-flats. The
Nariva Swamp is not dead flat for most of its area
and is for the greater part only seasonally
inundated by fresh water and not sea water. Sea
water is kept out by a broad sand bar (the Cocal)
which supports a head of fresh water on the land-
ward side sufficient to prevent the infiltration of
salt water.
2. Northern Plain—-This includes the detrital
fans and aprons of the Northern Range which have
been dissected into terrace-hke structures by fast
flowing rivers. These rivers have cut well-
defined trenches into the detritus which are at
20 to 100 feet lower level and are lined with recent
alluvium. Westwards from Arouca towards the
Gulf of Paria this recent alluvium fans out over
broad flood plains of the Caroni, Caparo and Couva
river systems. The detrital terrace attains its
highest elevation at Valencia where it constitutes
a broad watershed 190 feet high. It is interesting
to note that the terrace feature is not formed on
the northern banks of the recent alluvium of the
Caroni and Oropouche Rivers as the land there
has a gentle southerly and practically continuous
slope three to five miles long. The detritus
apparently flattened out in the vicinity of the
present-day flood plains of the Caroni River as all
the deposits to the South are broad flats, although
/
Grove and Esperanza Sugar Estates are the work
of Charter. Mr. G. C. Witt who was appointed
Soil Survey Officer in January, 1948 has been
responsible for the completion of the south-western
corner of the map in the San Fernando-Oropouche
district.
Grateful thanks are offered to all the above and
especially to Professor Hardy, to whose initiative
this Soil Survey owes its existence, for permission
to use the laboratory and field data accumulated
by his department.
POSITION
covers 910 square miles or 52 per cent, of the total,
comprising the whole of the " waist" of the
island, i.e., aU the land South of the Northern
Range to an arbitrary line drawn due West from
the mouth of the Godineau River to the East
coast.
they have been dissected by subsequent stream
action.
3. The Northern Peneplain—This comprises the
foothills of the northern flank of the Central Range.
They are, in general, round topped clay ridges of
about 200 feet elevation with two belts of sand
hiU-cappings 70-90 feet higher which are probably
the remnants of a vast Pleistocene Llanos
plain (3).
4. The Central Range—Running diagonally
across the centre of the island is a chain of hiUs
known as the Central Range. Three high areas
stand out prominently from a general elevation
of 500 feet : the Montserrat Hills rising to 900 feet.
Mount Tamana the highest point at 1,009 feet and
Mount Harris in the East rising to 884 feet.
San Fernando HiU is three miles to the South of the
strike of the Central Range and stands out as a
conspicuous dome. The northern side and
extremities of the Central Range merge gradually
into the peneplained foothills but the southern
flank is often very steep and scarp-like.
5. Naparima Peneplain—All the undulating land
(San Fernando Hill is regarded as part of the
Central Range) South of the Central Range falls
into this region. The general elevation is remark-
ably constant at 100 feet in the West and 200 feet
in the East, despite the frequency of the dissections
caused by streams, rivers and landslips. A few
outcrops of gritty sandstone stand out above the
northern half of' the peneplain, e.g.. Centre Hill,
and harder marlstone above the southern half,
e.g., Dunmore Hill.
 iaten /ram

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 7

5. CLIMATE

Apart from a very narrow strip along the East
coast the climate of Central Trinidad may be
regarded as Monsoonal or Seasonal. The
" seasons" are a dry season from January to
April and a wet season from May to December
which may be interrupted by an Indian Summer
or petite careme of two or three weeks in September
and/or October. Temperatures are equably high ;
the average monthly maximum in Port-of-Spain (2)
has a range of only 3.4° F. between 86.4° F. in
January and 89.8° F. in May, while the average
monthly minimum shows a range of 4.2° F.
between 67.6° F. in February and 71.8° F. in
September. Differences between the above and
conditions in Central Trinidad are certain to be
very slight but further records are not available.
The relative humidity of the air is high, almost
invariably saturated (100 per cent.) at night
decreasing to 60 per cent, on a dry season after-
noon and 75 per cent, on a wet season afternoon.
Sunshine averages 6-7 hours daily and very few
sunless days occur throughout the year. Winds
during the dry season blow continuously at 5 to
25 m.p.h. from the North-east but in the wet
riMP i*
season they drop entirely, or are little more than
a shght breeze.
Rainfall varies from an average of 55-70 inches
on the West coast to 108 at Mount Harris. Annual
differences are consdierable, for example, at
Mount Harris during the soil survey of that
district 158 inches fell in a year but in a dry year
this rainfall may be at low as 86 inches. Amounts
of rainfall during the dry season are the most
important factor in determining the nature of the
crops to be grown and natural vegetation. Four
inches of rain per month is taken as the optimum,
below which drought occurs, as in most of the dry
season and above this, waterlogging, as in most of
the wet season. Soils and natural vegetation,
however, do not reflect the differences in rainfall
to much extent in Central Trinidad, and according
to Beard (3) the whole of the land that is not
actually swampy was formerly covered by Ever-
green Seasonal Forest.
The coastal cUmate is confined to a strip a few
hundred yards wide running round the East coast.
Constant winds, laden with salt give rise to a dry
type of forest and the only agriculture possible is
coconut growing.

6. GEOLOGY

UnUke the rest of the West Indian Islands,
which are either coral or volcanic, or both,
Trinidad is structurally part of the South
American continent as can be seen from a com-
parison of the hthology, stratigraphy and tectonics
of the island with those of the mainland on the
West side of the Gulf of Paria. Affinities between
the fauna and flora of the two areas are also very
close. The rocks of Central Trinidad are entirely
sedimentary with representatives from the whole
sequence between Holocene and Lower Cretaceous.
In hthology every possible variation is found from
a loose, fine grained quartz sand to a clay shale and
from soft marl to hard limestone. Details of the
geological history and tectonics of the area are
not publicly available and all that can be said here
is that they are extremely complicated and
incompletely understood. Fortunately for the soil
surveyor little of the stratigraphic complications
are reflected in the nature of the soil, as can be seen
in the table below, but the tectonics are reflected
in the rapid lateral changes in Hthology. The
development of the red clay soil type Talparo
Clay (No. 50) from deposits varying from Pliocene
to Eocene Age is the best example of the
independence of soil formation and stratigrajjhy.

«Ü

Stratigraphy of Central Trinidad (16)

Soil Series
Age Formation Numbers
Holocene .Swamp Clays Beach Sands, River Alluvium, Recent Mudflow, Land 1 to 32
slides.
Pleistocene ... ..Detrital gravel terraces, Hilltop sand ... ... ... .. 33 to 41
Pliocene .Matura Beds ... ... ... ... ... ... 42
Talparo Formation ... ... ... ... ... ... 50
Miocene .Springvale Formation. Forest Formation, Brasso Formation, Napa- 47, 50, 54, 55, 59 60
rima Clay, St. Croix Beds
Oligocene .Cipero Formation ... ... ... ... ... ... 43,47,50,60
Eocene .Mount Moriah Beds, Pointe-a-Pierre—Nariva Beds ... ... 50,58,60,61
Upper Cretaceous ..Upper and Lower Argiline, Chaudiere Shale ... ... ... 52,60,62
Middle Cretaceous ..Maridale Marl, La Carrière Shale ... ... ... ... 57, 58
Lower Cretaceous ..Maridale Beds Cuche River Beds ... ... ... ... 57 58
 8
7. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND
The unit of soil study, known as the soil profile,
includes not only the top soil but every stratum of
subsoil down to the point where no further change
is visible. The factors which determine the nature
of the soil profile are—parent material, climate
and vegetation ; all broad or genetic systems of
soil classification are based on these factors.
Natural vegetation in all other parts of the world
is just as important as parent material in deter-
mining the genetic or world grouping of a soil but
in Trinidad the soils are largely diiferentiated
directly or indirectly on hthological features.
Consequently it is more convenient to describe the
basis of the soil classification before natural
vegetation rather than in the more customary
reverse order.
The soils of Central Trinidad and their relation
to the genetic system will be discussed in section 12.
The classification used in this report is primarily
of a practical land-use nature. In the second
place it is based on mappable soil characteristics
which are those " known to have or likely to have
significance in the growth of native or crop
plants " (15). Most soil scientists and agricul-
turists agree that the soil feature which should
receive first consideration in crop production, both
in tropical and temperate climates, is an adequate
water and air supply, or briefly and essentially,
sufficient rainfall and efficient drainage. Drainage
is, therefore, given first place in the classification
of the soils of Central Trinidad. Since drainage
is a composite effect of degree of slope (external
drainage) and ease with which water can pass
through the soil (internal drainage), the soils are
first arranged according to the reUef of the land and
then to the kind of internal drainage. Next in
importance for crop production is lime status,
which in Trinidad differentiates the better cocoa
and sugar-cane soils from the less productive soils.
Other fertility factors are closely related to lime
status {usually expressed as percentage degree of
saturation of the soil colloids with calcium) are
better internal drainage, stable surface crumbs ;
higher humus content and higher available potash
content. Calcareous soils are grouped together in
the classification table. It is desirable at this
juncture to define the terms used in soil mapping
and classification.
Soil type (20)—is a group of soils having similar
characteristics including texture of the topsoil,
developed from similar parent material.
Soil series (20)—is a group of soils having similar
features developed from similar parent material.
Except for texture of topsoils the members of a
soil series do not vary significantly.
Soil phase (20)—refers to the components of a
soil t5rpe or soil series having minor variation in
profile characteristics but differing in external
DEFINITIONS
characteristics such as stoniness, topography,
thickness of profile and other exterior effects.
The phase is essentially of practical agricultural use.
Soil complex (20)—is a cartographic soil unit
indicating a mixture of soil types, series or phases
that are associated so closely that they cannot be
shown separately on the soil map.
Catena—is used in this report to denote a
regular topographic sequence of soil types, derived
from similar parent material but differing in
drainage.
All the above soil categories are named after the
locaHty in which it was first studied or where it
is more extensively or typically displayed. Thus
Piarco fine sand and Piarco fine sandy Loam are
two soil types of the Piarco soil series.
Soil profile (20)—^is the vertical section of the
soil through all its layers extending into the parent
materia].
Parent material (18)—is the material from which
the soil has been derived, it may be unconsolidated
alluvium and detritus or rock.
Drainage—External drainage refers to the ease
with which water can run off the surface of the land
and largely depends on slope. Internal drainage
refers to the ease with which water can percolate
through the soil of which there are four classes (17)
Excessive, free, imperfect (formerly termed
partially impeded) and impeded.
Texture (20)—^indicates the proportions of the
size groups of individual soil particles.
Soil structure (20)—defines the state of aggrega-
tion of the soil particles.
Groundwater-table—is the upper limit of that
part of the soil or parent material which is wholly
saturated with water from reservoirs below. This
water would flow into a test pit to the level of
saturation.
Perched water-table—is the upper limit of that
part of the soil or parent material which is whoUy
saturated with water from above. Hydrostatic
pressure is never sufficient to overcome the
capillary pores in saturated soil and free water
never exudes into test pits through the main
profile surface, although it may flow down old
root traces.
Mappable features—For soil characteristics to be
of value in producing a soil map they must be
readily discernible in the field either visibly or by
very simple tests. Soil colour is the most
important of these features as it indicates the class
 9
of internal drainage, humus content, parent
raaterial and even lime status. Texture and
istructure are determined in the field simply by
appearance and feel. (Previous experience with
soils of known textures is essential before accurate
assessments can be made.) Free calcium carbon-
ate is indicated by effervescence with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Soil colour—Even the most casual observer of
the Trinidad countryside must be impressed with
the great variety of colours displayed by soils in
road cuttings and excavations. To attempt to
map soils on a strict colour basis would prove an
interminable task of doubtful value. Only those
soil colours that can be correlated with drainage
and fertility are taken into account in differenti-
ating soil types and series. These are summarized
below :
DRAINAGE AND SOIL COLOUR
Drainage excessive—Water moves tlirough the
soil rapidly and the colours are uniform (18)
(concolorous). Uniform yeUow orange or red soils
may be found in this class derived from loose sand,
sandstone or limestone.
Drainage free—^Water percolates easily yet
sufficient is retained for plant growth (18). Such
soils are uniformly coloured for at least the top
four feet below which mottling may occur. The
arbitrary depth of two feet of freely permeable
soil used in England (18) to define drainage as
" free " is too small under the high rainfall obtained
in Trinidad and if used there would include soils
which are waterlogged for 6 to 9 months of the year.
Drainage imperfect—Water moves through the
soil with some degree of difficulty during the wet
season (18). Consequently the subsoil presents a
mottled or variegated appearance but grey gley
colours do not appear until below two feet (one
foot in England). Such soils are saturated with
water for most of the wet season and are desiccated
in the dry season. Red mottled subsoils indicate
a high acidity in the mottled zone, complete
absence of free lime and according to the degree
of redness the length and severity of desiccation.
Yellow to yellowish brown mottling indicates less
severe drought conditions and saturation for most
of the year. Orange rust encrustations on roots
and root traces are a sure indication of prolonged
waterlogging.
Drainage impeded—^Water moves through the
soil very slowly or not at aU. In most Trinidad
clay soils water moves so slowly that a test pit can
be dug in the wet season when nearby drains
are fuU of water and yet no water will percolate
into the pit. Such soils show grey mottling or
background colour above two feet. Subsoil
mottling may be yeUow, orange or red with
Varying shades of grey as the background colour.
Swamp soils invariably have a grey cast to their
topsoils when dry, although they are almost black
when wet. Soils that are perennially inundated
are uniformly coloured grey to blue grey. Bright
blue or green permanently saturated groundwater-
gley horizons are occasionally found in very deep
test pits (10-15 feet).
Fertility and soil colour—-Dark brown (sepia) to
black topsoils in soils of hilly land are associated
with high nutrient status especially available
potash and calcium. Uniform dark to light
yellowish brown subsoils to about six feet indicate
a productive soil type provided they are not too
sandy. Red colours in soils either as background
or mottling indicate high acidity, proneness to
drought and poor humus status.
Soils which are olive brown or olive green in
general appearance are usually calcareous or nearly
base saturated. Mottling in a calcareous soil or
horizon is always yellow or yellowish brown and
never red, or shades of reddish brown. When
parent materials have different colours these are
only taken into account in erecting soil series if
they are very well defined, constant and correlated
with some other important soil feature.
Lime status—Variations in calcium carbonate
content that are tolerated in a soil series are often
rigidly defined in theory but less so in practice.
The extremely broken contours of the topography
of Central Trinidad and the resulting landslip or
erosion effects render strict limits of calcium
carbonate horizons an unmappable feature. Thus,
in the eastern half of the Brasso clay belt out of
1991 auger borings to four feet six inches only 157
(8 per cent.) were calcareous at or above 18 inches
deep and 961 (48 per cent.) were calcareous below
18 inches. The rest (44 per cent.) must have had
free calcium carbonate below the depth of the
auger as no red mottling was seen. If available
lime status is considered solely from the presence
of free calcium carbonate in the soil parent material
a feature that is both mappable and agriculturally
significant is available to the soil surveyor.
Effervescence with dilute acid and/or the presence
of olive colours and absence of red mottling may
be taken as an indication of satisfactory lime-
status for hilly land. On flat land absence of red
mottling does not necessarily indicate this since
higher soil moisture effects tend to produce
yellowish mottling.
Humus content—Differences in humus content
both in amount and depth of humic topsoil are
considerable in all the soils developed on hiUs.
Shallow humic topsoils (less than two inches) are
regarded as erosion phases of the normal types.
As in the case of soil colour, caution must be used
in assessing the agricultural value of a soil on its
humus content. Loose sands which are prone to
waterlogging often have a deep humic topsoil, e.g.,
Piarco and Valencia series but are extremely

deficient in calcium and other mineral nutrieiats,
extremely acid and very unproductive.
Texture—The American system has recently been
adopted by the English soil survey (18) and has
been used in this report in preference to the
Austrahan (19) and that of the I.C.T.A. (12). The
triangle of texture included Irere was complied by
U.S.A. Australian
Sand .Sand
Loamy Sand ... .Sand
Sandy Loam ... .Sandy Loam, Sand (part)
Sandy Clay Loam .Sandy Clay Loam, Clay Loam (part), Loam (pa
Loam •Loam, Clay Loam (part)
Clay Loam .Clay Loam (Light Clay)
Silt Loam .SiltLoam ...
Silty Clay Loam
Sandv Clay ... . Sandy Clay, Light Clay (part)
Silty'day .Medium Clay
Clay .Medium Clay, Heavy Clay
The sandy types are classed as fine sand if more
than 50 per cent, of the sand is of fine grade, e.g.,
Piarco fine sandy loam. AU except one of the
sandy soils of Central Trinidad are fine sands.
Texture of the subsoils greatly affect the water
relationship of soils, especially the abihty of
groundwater to move upwards to the zone of
plant roots. If there is a gradual but continuous
deoreas^e in texture (i.e., from heavy to Ught) from
the surface to the groundwater-table then
unrestricted uphft will take place as in the case of
the Northern Range alluvial soils and the famous
" Chocolate soil " of the Montserrat district. On
the other hand if a heavy soil horizon Ues below
a lighter one, the land will be waterlogged in the
wet season and completely dessicated in the dry
season, since the clay subsoil acts hke blotting
paper on whatever moisture occurs in the sand or
loam above. The Piarco series in the North and
the Moruga series in the South are good examples
of this.
Soil structure—A large number of structural
forms are recognized by soil scientists but very few
can be used with certainty as mappable features
in Central Trinidad and then, only in the dry
season. Surface crumb is found in several series,
e.g., Montserrat, Princes Town, Brasso. Single
grain structure occurs in the sandy Piarco, Valencia
and massive and compact structures are shown by
all clays in the wet season but the topsoils of these
soils crack into large irregular clods in the dry
season. The clods are smaller in the calcareous
series. Most heavy clays display slip surfaces
10
Osmond (18) after a recalculation of the Inter-
national silt grade sizes to fit the limits of the
American system. Eleven soil types are recognised
but it must be mentioned here that less than four
of these are usually found in any one soil series—
often only one. The textural types are as follows
with their approximate equivalents in the
Australian and I.C.T.A. systems.
I.C.T.A.
..Light Sand
. Sand
. Sand
..Sand
• Sand to Light Loam
.Light Loam
.Heavy Loam
.Heavy Loam
.Heavy Loam
.Silt
.Clay
throughout tlie year ; these are the glazed or
poUshed faces of the irregular structural units in
the deep subsoil.
SOIL PHASES
Phases due to slope
Certain soils are found on relief which is abnormal
to their external drainage class, e.g., flat phase
of Arena fine sand in which greater infiltration of
rain water is bound to take place than on the
normal phase which occurs on undulating land ;
also, parts of the Arena fine sand area are very
steep and have a shallow topsoil—these are
considered as the steep phase of that type.
Erosion jjhases
1. Sites of old land-slips in which gypsum and
calcium carbonate are found near the surface.
2. Erosion due to bad cultivation practices in
which the entire topsoil might be removed, e.g., the
white capped marl hills of the St. Madeleine
district and the red soils of the same district.
Stoniness phases
The presence of too many pebbles or stones in
an otherwise productive soil type might render it
completely unproductive. Pebbly or stony phases
occur in the soil tj'pes of the Arena, Talparo,
St. Augustine, Piarco and Mayaro series. Rocky
or bouldery phases occur in the Cleaver series and
Mt. Harris Catena.
On the basis of the foregoing a classification of
the soils of Central Trinidad is submitted.
 11

A CLASSIFICATION OF THE SOILS OF C E N T R A L T R I N I D A D

SOILS OF FLAT LAND (External Drainage very slow)
Low FLOOD PLAINS (Swampa), Elevation—3 to 50 feet
PBESENT NAMES

Internal Drainage Impeded Non-Oalcareous Parent Material

c Caroni Swamp peaty clay E.M.C. ...Caroni, Frederick
a Barataria peat E.M.C.
c Savaneta clay E.M.C.
a Caeandee clay E.M.C. ...Bejucal
6 Bejucal clay C.F.C. ...Bejucal (red mottled phase) Cottage
6 Frederick clay C.F.C. ...Frederick
o Brazil p e a t y fine sand E.M.C.
d Bois Neuf clay E.M.C. ...Nariva
0 Nariva Swamp clay E.M.C. ...Nariva
e Macaw peaty clay E.M.C.

INTBBMEDIATB-FLOOD PL.MNS (vegas). Elevation 2 to 50 feet

Internal Drainage Excessive Non-Calcareous Parent Material

e S t . Joseph sandy loam E.M.C.

Internal Drainage Free Non-calcareous Parent Material

b Washington loams C.F.C. ...Washington
o Tacarigna silt loam, silty clay loam C.F.C. .. .Tacarigua
6 Cocal fine sand E.M.C. ...Coeal Sand, Cecal light sand

Internal Drainage Imperfect Calcareous Parent Material

b Caracas clay E.M.C.
b Sevilla clay C.F.C. ...Sevilla, Guaracara (in part)
Non-Calcareous Parent Material
a Cunupia clay loam to silty clay C.F.C. ...Cunupia
6 Pasea silty clay loam silty clay C.F.C. ...Pasea, Recovery, Arouca
c L'Ebranche silty olay to clay ... E.M.C. ...Central Range Alluvium, Guaracara
Ortoire
a Sangre Grande silty clay E.M.C. ...Sangre Grande Clay (in part) Alluvium
c Oropouche silty clay E.M.C.

Internal Drainage Impeded Non-Calcareous Parent Material

b Aranguez silty clay loam E.M.C.
c Navet clay ... E.M.C. .Ortoire clay

H I G H FLOOD PLAINS (Broad Flats), Elevation 25 to 75 feet.

Internal Drainage Free Non-Calcareous Parent Material

a St. Augustine loams ... E.M.C. ...Paradise, Maraeas sand (flat Phase)
D'Abadie
6 River E s t a t e loams E.M.C. ...River fine sand
6 McBean sands to loams E.M.C. ...Newlands
b Golden Grove loam E.M.C.
a Guanapo fine sandy loam E.M.C.
Internal Drainage Imperfect Non-Calcareous Parent Material
a Couva loams C.F.C .. .Washington
b Waterloo loams to clay C.F.C
a Freeport loams to clay E.M.C.
b Orange Grove loams C.F.C. ...Orange Grove

SOILS OF UNDULATiNa LAND External Drainage Slow. Dotrital Terraces, Elevation 50 to 125 teet

Internal Drainage Imperfect Non-Calcareous Parent Material

a Streatham loams C.F.C. S t r e a t h a m , Dinsley
a Macoya fine sand E.M.C.
a Piarco fine sand to fine sandy loam C.F.C. .Piarco, Cumuto, Detrital Sand ]Ma.lon6y
a Aripo Savanna fine sand E.M.C.
a Valencia fine sand E.M.C. .Valencia Light Sand, Detrital Sand
Internal Drainage Impeded Non-Calcareous Parent Material
c Oropuna clay C.F.C. ..Oropuna
a Long Stretch fine sandy to silty clay E.M.C. , .Quatorn.ary Clay, Arouca
 12
SOILS OF H I L L Y LAND External Drainage Moderate to Fast. Low Hills, Dissected Peneplains, Elevation 100 to 250 ft.

PEBSBNT NAMES AUTHOR OLD N A M E S

Internal Drainage Excessive Non-Calcareous Parent Material

iO. a Arena fine sand E.M.C. .Caroni, Sum-sum, Milton

Internal Drainage Free Non-Calcareous Parent Material

41. a Las Lomas fine sandy loam t o loam E.M.C. ...Caroni, Esperanza, Madras
42. 6 Non Pared clay loam E.M.C. ...PorcellaniteSod

Internal Drainage Imperfect Calcareous Parent Material

43. o Princes Town clay F.H. .Hermitage, Cupar Grange

Non-Calcareous Parent Material

44. b Phoenix loams C.F.C. ...Phoenix, Dowe, P r a n .
45. 6 Cleaver sands t o loams E.M.C.
46. a Piparo silty clay E.M.C.

Internal Drainage Impeded Calcareous Parent Material

47. ft Tarouba clay C.F.C. ...Green clay
48. a Chickland clay E.M.C. ...Carolina

Non-Calcareous Parent Material

49. a Ecclesville silty clay loam to clay .Brechin, Bad Brasso Clay
50. a TaJparo silty clay to clay F.H. .Sapot-terre, St. Madeleine, Diamond,
Red Clay, E e d Weathering Clay

SOILS OF STEEP LAND External Drainage F a s t to Very Fast Central Range. Elevation 250-1,000 feet.

Internal Drainage Excessive Calcareous Parent Material

51. d Tamana clay E.M.C. ...Limestone Soil

Non-Calcareous Parent Material

52. a San Fernando sand E.M.C. ...Caroni
53. a Mayai'o sand t o fine sand E.M.C. ...Caroni, Good Brasso Sand

Internal Drainage Free Calcareous Parent Material

54. a Montserrat clay E.M.C, .Chocolate Soil

Internal Drainage Imperfect Calcareous Parent Material

55. a Brasso clay ... F.H. ...Good Brasso Clay, Marly Clay
56. b Marper silty clay to clay E.M.C. ...Marper Silt, San Salvador
57. b Canterbury silty clay E.M.C. ...Toco Loam, Calcareous Soil
58. a Biche clay E.M.C. ... Soft Limestone Soil

Non-Calcareous Parent Material

59. a Moruga loams F.H. ...Moruga Yellow Silt
60. d Mount Harris Catena ... E.M.C. .. .Mount Harris grit in red clay
61. a Mitan fine sandy loam to silty clay E.M.C. .. .Moruga, Ecclesville
02. c Chaudiere clay E.M.C. ...Ecclesville

Author's initials : F.H. = F . Hardy

C.F.C. = C . F . Charter
E.M.C. = E . M. Chereny
Origin of Name a—^Town, village or district
b—Estate or section of a n e s t a t e
c—River
d—B.m
e—Island
 ^^.^^^Mmm^
-J-
\iiiX^)rfacj^[),oAaa^3ati^

Montane Tyirests
I J^rtr Mttrianr Tlain Tares^

IprermecLais
^ ^ S«tsono/ Manione 'TareH
S»xmp
I s I ^ntmp forest
I T I fUm SivBinp
Iji ^Mj /fethaceous Swamp
J////A f^an^rofe
Mar&h
IffgT Marsh "Feral
[.'.•'."J lata""a.

Hr^tenfof^eqetation Tijpes iri Trinidad try Tre-Coltimbion'fimes

isicn /ram

OF re/fJIC3Ao
by J S. öeorc/. M/t,& Sc.,D Phi/.
 13

8. VEGETATION

The vegetation of Central Trinidad has been
fully described by Beard (3) according to whom,
most of the area was covered in Pre-Columbian
times by Evergreen Seasonal Forest. Evergreen
Seasonal Forest is an association of Garapa
guianensis Aubl. (Crappo) and Eschweilera
suhglandulosa (Steud.) Miers (Guatecare). The
structure of this forest is roughly as follows :
a. A discontinuous upper stratum of
occasional emergent trees reaching from
100 ft. to a maximum of 140 ft.
b. An almost continuous middle stratum
forming a canopy at 40 to 90 ft.
c. A lower storey at 10-30 ft., more or less
continuous, forming a sub-canopy.
d. Ground herbs and shrubs 0-6 ft.
Small patches of Semi-evergreen Seasonal Forest
were found on the drier hilltops of the Central
Range, the coastal ridges at Manzanilla and
Mayaro where it stiU survives and the alluvial and
on the soils of the detrital deposits at the western
end of the Northern Range which are now under
cultivation. Marsh Forest and Savanna occurred
on the flatter and wetter, eastern side of the
detrital belt just as they do today.
Beard stressed the close connection between
soil drainage and natural vegetation but the
relationships are few in respect of other soil
features except in the Nariva Swamp. There, the
boundaries of soil and vegetation types coincide
and the soil boundaries have actually been
delineated directly from aerial photographs, as
follows :
Soil series Formation Association-types
Navet ..Evergreen Carapa-Bactris
Seasonal Forest type
Bois Neuf ..Herbaceous Gyperus giganteus
Swamp
Nariva Herbaceous Leesia Hexandra
Swamp Swamp
Macaw ..Palm Swamp ...Boystonea
oleracea
The presence or absence of calcium carbonate in
the soil appears to have influenced the natural
forests only in so far as the sub-dominant palms
are concerned and even then to a limited extent.
In the Central Range Reserve the boundary of
the non-calcareous Talparo clay and the calcareous
Brasso clay is x)ractically identical with the
Co CO rite-Carat Palm, fasciation boundary. Despite
their abundance on calcareous soils and absence
from acid soils in the Central Range carat palms
are extremely common on the acid soils of the
forests of Southern Trinidad and also on the acid
alluvial Freeport clay.
Judging from the vast area of abandoned or
semi-dereliot land in Trinidad, the luxuriance of
the forest must have misled planters into believing
that the soil was correspondingly fertile—which
was very far from true. In fact the most luxuriant
forests (Mora) in the island actually grow in soils
almost devoid of plant nutrients. The mora trees
owe their being to lack of competition, a low
mineral nutrient requirement and high rainfall.
Beard suggested that a study of ground vegetation
might yield better agronomic indicators than the
natural forest. Following up this suggestion the
present writer has found that the shrubs and herbs
listed below have proved of value as soil indicators.

Herbaceous Plant Indicators for Trinidad Soils

1. Soils with (Ivy season desiccation b u t satisfactory moisture conditions in the wet season ; internal drainage
free

Common Name Scientific Name

Bamboo graas ... ...Paspalum fascicitlatum Willd.
Corn grass ...Rottboellia exaltata L.
Black sage ...Cordia cylindrostaehya (R. e t P.) E . et S.
Guava... ...Psidium guajava L.

2. Soils with dry season desiccation and wet season water-logging, internal drainage imperfect.

Common Name Scientific Name

Arunduiiella grass .. .Arundinella confinis (Schuit.) Hitchc.
Golden gras s ,.. Axonopus aureus Beauv.
Crown-lands grass ...Paspalum plicatulum Michx.
Hairy grass . . . P . rudgei Roem. et Schuit. Sacciolepis myuros (Lam.) Chase
Needle grass ...Imperator braziliensis Trin.
Cotton grass ...Andropogon leucostachys H.B.K. A. selloanus (Hack.) Hack.
Thatch grass ...A. bicornis L.
Beard grass .. .Trachypogon ligularis Nees.
Sardine Bush ...Miconia stenostachya (Schr. e t Mart) OC
 14
3. Soils raoist in dry soason inundated or saturated in wet season internal drainage impeded.

Gommon Name Scientific Name

Wild cane ..Eragrosiis rjlomerata (Walt.) Dewey
Gynefiuiii sagiUatum (Aubl.) Beauv.
Red Spangle-top ..Leptochloa filifonms (Lam.) Beauv.
Dense Razor grass ..PaspaLum densum Poir.
Water grass . . P . zizanioides H . B . K .
Blue grass ..P. distichum L.
Spike grass . .Hymenachne donacifoUa (Raddi) Chase Panicum laxum Sw.
Jungle rice ..Echinoahloa colonuni (L). Beauv.
Candelabra bush ..Leonotis nepaetijolia R. Br.
Bluebell bush ... ..Hydrophyllum sp.
Soap bush ..Pongatium indicum Lam.
Jussicea spp.
Sedges ..Oyperus spp.

4. Saliiae soils.
Small tree fern ...Acrostichum atireum L.
Needle Sedge ... Eleocharis mutata R. Br.

. Calcareous Soils.
Bahama or Bermuda graBs ...Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Feathery grass ..0pUsmenis Imrtellus (L.) Beauv.
Litaehne grass ...Litaehne pauciflora (Sw.) Beaxiv.
Large gamelot ...Setariapaniculifera (Steud.) Fourn.
Wild eoleus ...Goleus. sp.
Wild cosmos ...Cosmos caudatus K t h .
Stinging n e t t l e ... Urera baocifera (L.) Goud.

0. Soils with satisfactory lime s t a t u s (above 50 pej cent, saturated).

Water grass .. .Panicum frondescens Meyer
Ichnanthus spp.
eommelina. virginica L.
Cockroach grass .. .Zebrina pendula Sehnizl.
Aniseed pepper ...Piper spp.

7. Acid Soils.
Razor grass ..Paspalum viigatu.m L.
Carpet grass ..Paspalum pclygonalum Schrad.
Gamelot grass .,. ..Setaria poiretiana (Schuit.) K u n t h .
Black-stick . .Pachystaohys Ooccinea Nees.
* Aluminium plants ..Melastomataceae and Bubiaceae

8. Very acid, base deficient sand.

Razor grass (sedge) ..Pharus latij alius L.
Orthoclada laxa (L. Rich.) Beauv.
Panicum pilosum Sw.
P. stoloniferum Poir.
Scleria spp.
Aluminum plants ..Lycopodiaceae, Gleicheniaceae^ Gyatheaceae, Melastomataceae

9. N . P . K. rich soils
Bahama grass ... ...Gynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Hairy dwarf gamelot ...Setaria barbata (Lam.) K u n t h .

Aluminum plants are gregarious species which have t h e capacity for accumulating aluminum in their
leaves3 up to 1,000 times t h e normal amount, i.e.,i.e 100,000 p.p.m. The most common species or genera in
Trinidad are
Lycopodiaceae ... ...Lycopodium cernuum L.
Gleichoniaoeae ... ...Qleichenia spp.
Gyatheaceae ...Gyalhea spp. Hemitelia app. Alsophila spp.
Melastomataceae ...GUdemia spp. Miconia spp. especially
Miconia acinodendron (L.) Tr. and M.
prasina (B}Vf.) OC. Henrietta spp.
Rubiaceae ...Psychotrid spp. especially P . cuspitala Bred,
Palicourea spp. especially P . crocea (Sw.) e t S.
Rudgea freeinani Spr. et Williams
Goccocypselum guianense (Aubl.) K. Sch.
Borreria latifolia (Aubl.) Schum, B.
bartlinaiana D.C.

9. METHODS
Field methods
The soils were examined by the usual auger and
pit method but as the profiles were much deeper
than in temperate climates the auger holes and
pits were correspondingly deeper. The standard
exploratory auger for hilly land was 4 ft. 6 ins.
long and 1 inch diameter, and operated by two
labourers ; for flat land the auger was 8 ft. long
and \\ inches diameter, operated by three or four
labourers. Samples were withdrawn at 6 inch
intervals but in very hard, sandy clays only one
inch at a time. Visible features, texture and
reaction with dilute acid together with data on
crops, weeds or natural vegetation were noted for
each set of turnings either at the time of drilling
or at a more convenient later date. Deferred
examination had the advantage of enabling the
surveyor to see more holes in a day but in wet
weather the samples, although covered, might be
washed away. Pits were dug from 6 to 15 feet
deep, normally 8 feet and samples taken for
analysis from every horizon or if these were not
distinct from every foot or two of depth. Road
cuttings, trenches, river and stream banks were
examined and described as they were encountered.
The base maps on which all field data were
eventually plotted were of the scale 12 chains to
one inch or 1 : 9504, known locally as ward sheets.
These carried similar information to the 6 inch
ordinance survey maps of Britain but suffered
from the great disadvantage of having no contours
and often being very out of date with regard to
roads. Plotting of data directly in the field on
to the maps was not usually done unless the
country was open, the weather dry and the soil
types well known. A tracing or rough map was
more often used, and the numbers of the auger
holes or observations plotted on this as accurately
as possible. In closed forest or cocoa country,
irritation from insects, high humidity, heavy
rainfall, broken contours and thickness of vegeta-
tion made location of position often very difficult
and drawing actual soil bomidaries in the field
impossible. Detailed notes made on the spot from
compass observations and pacing from known
points rarely failed to give the exact position of an
observation provided traverse lines were run along
features already on the base map. Roads and
traces (cleared cart tracks) were systematically
traversed first, then the estate boundaries or field
boundaries where they were well defined by
markers such as the red and green dracenas
(Rayo). Corners of boundaries were usually
marked by iron or concrete pillars or inverted
sunken bottles. Soil mapping in sugar-cane land
was much easier as the fields were always sur-
rounded by well defined traces. The accuracy of
these on the base maj) was never taken for
granted ; they were always checked against the
aerial photographs and altered where necessary.
Mapping in forest country is rendered extremely
15
difficult by the absence of land-marks. Straight
paths had to be out from a known point and
" tied in " with chain and compass to other known
points (corners of forest reserves or trigono-
metrical stations.) These auger traverses were
sampled every 55 or 110 yards on hills or every
110 or 220 yards on flat land, the distances being
measui'ed by pacing. Where changes in soil type
were observed the point at which the change took
place was determined by augering back at shorter
intervals or by direct observation on drain cuttings.
The traverses were run at distances from 200 to
400 yards apart according to terrain and the
accuracy desired.
The auger holes and observations as plotted from
the field note books were given coloured symbols
for each soil type. When a sufficiently large
number had been plotted, together with the
relevant geological data taken from oil company
geologists' field sheets, it was possible to delineate
boundaries between the various soils. The degree
of accuracy depended entirely on the frequency
of the observations which in turn, rested on the
agricultural potentialities being considered high
enough to justify the expense involved. In other
words the boundaries of the most productive soil
types are the most accurate. Some idea of the
physical effort involved in this work may be
gauged by the following statistics :
Numbers of— Approx.
Auger borings 4 ft. 6 ins. ... 25,000
Auger borings 7-10 ft. ... ... 2,400
Auger borings 4 ft. by I.C.T.A. ... 2,000
Sam.ples described ... ... 300,000
Pits 6 ft. by I.C.T.A. ... ... 250
Pits 7-15 ft. ... ... ... 180
Mileage of forest traverses ... 400
Mileage of other traverses ... 1,500
Oil Company observations ... 30,000
Laboratory methods
The methods used by the Chemistry department
of I.C.T.A. described elsewhere, (12) those
employed in the Soil Survey Laboratory since
1945 are submitted as an appendix and are
listed below :
Mechanical Analysis : G. W. Robinson, Imp.
Bureau of Soil Science Tech. Com. 26.
1933.
Organic Matter : Walkley and Black. Soil
Science 37, 36, 1934.
Total Nitrogen, Kjeldahl method using
selenium as catylist.
Exchangeable Hydrogen : Schofield, J. Ag.
Soi. 23, 252, 1933.
pH by indicators or Marconi glass-electrode
set.
Total Exchangeable Bases Micro-modification
of Williams R. J., J. Ag. Sci. 19,589,1929.
 16

Exchangeable Calcium, Mioro-modification of
Williams R. J., ibid.
Available potash ( = soluble + exchangeable)
Modification of, Ismail and Harwood,
Analyst 62, 443, 1937.
Available phosphate. Truog (modified)
J. Am. Soc. Agron. 38, 820, 1946.
Base Exchange Capacity, Percentage satura-
tion with calcium and Lime Requirement
are derived from the above.
Individual soil types and soil series cannot be
diagnosed from laboratory data alone as all soil
types show a range of figures for each feature
determined, depending chiefly on the actual
texture of the sample and its organic matter
content.
Virgin Trinidad soils are generally well supplied
with nitrogen, low in available phosphate and
high in available potash if they are red or black
clays, otherwise they are medium to very low in
this nutrient.

10. DESCRIPTION OF SOILS

In this section 62 soil series are described but grow on the mangrove trunks below high tide
since many series have only one coraponent soil level. These are regularly collected and are
type the name of the actual types are given in the considered a delicacy.
headings. Full soil type names serve better to
emphasise the actual nature of the soil. Ten soil 2. Barataria peat—Drainage impeded
series (16 per cent, are derived from swam.p Barataria peat occupies about 200 acres on the
deposits, 20 (32 per cent.) from non-calcareous North side of the Caroni Swamp, bordering the
river alluvium and only 2 (3 per cent.) from first bend in the Churchill-Roosevelt highway.
calcareous alluvium. Detrital terraces contribute The soil resembles the English fen peats but i s
7 series or 11 per cent, of the total number. probably not so alkaline. It consists of about
Sedentary soils of hills comprise 11 (18 per cent.) 3 feet of black humus underlain by silty clay loam
non-calcareous series and 9 (15 per cent.) hill-wash and probably deep gravel beds as several
calcareous series. Hill-wash or alluvium and fresh water springs emerge here. The ground-
highly dissected ancient terrace alluvium give rise water table is about 2 feet from the surface and
to 3 (5 per cent.) series. the water is apparently in a continuous state
of flow.
In the descriptions, "topsoil" refers to the
humio A 0-1 horizon while surface soil refers to The plant nutrient status of this soil type has
the visible surface of the land. Subsoil includes not been examined but from the crops that are
the leached A2 and sometimes part of the B, grown, it has adequate lime and potash reserves.
horizons, and " deep subsoil" refers to the parent Water-cress growing is carried out successfully in
material or groundwater-gley horizons. All beds cut in the peat which is heaped into flat
depths mentioned are depths from the land topped banks for growing vegetables such as
surface. Areas were measured very roughly by lettuces and beans. Coconuts were originally
counting the grid squares (1,000 acres) on the planted throughout the area occupied by this soil
soil map. type but they have died out in all but the South-
eastern portion. Lack of sufficient root anchorage
was the probable cause.
SOILS OF LOW FLOOD PLAINS (SAVAMPS)
(Elevation—3 to 50 ft.) A saline phase of Barataria peat is found to the
South of the normal phase. This supports
1. Garoni Swamp peaty clay—Drainage impeded nothing but a sward of sedges, chiefly Eleocharis
This soil type covers about 12,000 acres on the mutata and a few large Acrostichum aureum ferns.
seaward side of the Caroni. Swamp, and at the
mouth of the Oropouche River. The surface is 3. Savaneta day—Drainage impeded
below mean sea level and is submerged to a depth In the vicinity of Savaneta Point on the seaward
of 1 to 2 feet at high tide. At low tide it is side of Brechin Castle sugar estate occurs about
usually quite dry and firm. The soil derived from 1,500 acres of a soil resembling a type found in
this recent swam.p deposit consists of dark British Guiana (Blairmont). The soil is derived
brownish grey to black humic clay with slight from a sand reef covered with recent swamp clay.
yellowish brown mottling at 6 to 18 inches. Below It consists of about 6 inches of brownish grey clay
this is soft brownish grey peaty clay containing overlying grey clay mottled bright yellowish
reddish brown mangrove rem,ains which turn dark brown. At about 36 inches a stratum of orange
brown on exposure. The profile is saline tlirough- brown sand appears and this becomes dark grey
out and no agricultural crops can be grown. or greyish green at about 5 feet.
The mangroves which occupy most of the area
have economic value as a source of tan-bark and The whole area of this soil type is probably
firewood for bakeries. A small species of oyster saline especially in the subsoil which combined
 17

with bad surface drainage makes it unsuitable for season. Flooding does not usually take place as
agriculture. Coconuts have been planted in the the whole area is trenched and drained for sugar-
past but most of them have died out, the cane cultivation. The profile is very strongly
vegetation reverting to sedge, fern and mangrove acid throughout (pH 4.5-5.0) being about 30-60
swamp. per cent, saturated with calcium and having a lime
requirement of 4 to 7 tons per acre. Available
4. Cacandee clay—Drainage impeded potash is high (160-280 p.p.m.)
Cacandee clay covers about 2,000 acres in the
North-eastern corner of the Caroni Swamp plain. Practically the entire area is under estate sugar-
None of the original vegetation is left but it was cane cultivation ; yields are high on limed and
probably a shallow-water grass swamp as the humio highly fertilized fields provided the hardier
clay topsoil is comparatively deep. This is black varieties of cane are grown. Losses from frog-
when wet and dark brownish grey when dry and hopper damage are often very severe.
about 15 inches deep. The subsoil is grey clay,-
mottled thickly with yellowish brown to about 6. Frederick clay—Drainage impeded
8 feet, below which occurs grey or grey green clay This soil type covers about 4,000 acres on the
of a soft butter-like consistency. Mangrove mid-easterly margins and southern corner of the
remains may occur below 9 feet. Caroni Swamp plain. The original vegetation was
probably mangroves which were displaced by
Flood water stands on the surface to a depth of grasses as the salt was washed out after a slight
6-15 inches in the wet season but in the dry season rise in land levels in subreoent geological time.
the topsoil dries very hard to about 18 inches but The topsoil consists of about 15 inches of black
becomes progressively molster until the ground- (brownish grey when dry) humic clay with a good
water table is reached at 11 feet. The whole surface crumb often stained with ferric hydroxide
profile is very strongly acid in reaction (pH 4-5) scum. Below this is a pale brownish grey horizon
being less than half saturated with calcium thickly mottled orange. The general colour
(25-50 per cent.) but the available potash content becomes darker with depth until at about 42 inches
is high' (160-400 p.p.m.). Nitrogen reserves are it changes to a very dark brown humic clay
also high. which may have a laminated structure. Bands of
this humic clay alternate with grey clay down to
The principal crop is rice, yields of which are at least 7 feet. Owing to the fact that most of
usually high (3,000 lbs. paddy per acre). Little the area of this soil type is below the mean sea
cultivation is practised in the dry season but with level a considerable acreage was inundated with
irrigation vegetables could be grown. salt water after the abandonment of the reclama-
tion scheme of 1921-23.
5. Bejucal clay—Drainage impeded
Located on the easterly fringe of the Caroni Frederick clay is saturated with water in the
Swamp plain is an area of this soil type covering wet season, the saline phase being actually under
about 4,500 acres. None of the original vegetation 6-15 inches of brackish water. I t dries out in the
is left but it was probably a shallow fresh water dry season but the groundwater table is still
grass mere, over recent clay alluvium, as in the fairly high (3 to 6 feet). The groundwater is more
case of Cacandee clay. The topsoil is usually or less saline, even in the normal phase, due
deep, consisting of about 15 inches of a dark probably to the infiltration along the laminated
brown, almost black, humic clay with a good crumb bands of humic subsoil. Reducing conditions are
structure on the surface. Below this very pale such that the groundwater contains up to
brownish grey mottling appears amongst fingers of 20 p.p.m. ferrous iron in solution and this when
the topsoil. At about 36 inches a narrow band oxidized becomes a brown scum on the surface
of bright orange clay mottled pale brownish grey of water in pits, the smell of H2S is very distinct.
occurs which probably marks the limit of dry
season cracking as the fingers of topsoil stop here. The surface soil is very strongly acid (pH 4.5)
A characteristic broad horizon of pale grey clay but the reaction becomes more alkaline with
thickly splotched with brick red then appears, increase in depth and salinity and may even
which in the dry season is the most tenacious part become neutral. Available potash is high (150-
of the profile. At about 6 feet the red mottling 200 p.p.m.) The chief crops are hardy sugar-cane
gives way to yellow or yellowish brown and well and rice, both of which yield very well in the
defined pipings of bright yellow material 1/3 inch normal phase of this soil type. The sugar-cane is
(jarosite) in diameter. These pipings have a core prone to severe froghopper damage. The saline
1/32 inch diameter of sub-recent roots. Another phase has reverted to a pure sward of low sedge,
red mottled horizon occurs below 8 feet but the {Eleocharis mutata) which grows to a height of
general colour is bluish grey indicating perma- 18 inches before it is burnt in the dry season.
nently wet gley conditions.
7. Brazil peaty fine sand—Drainage impeded
This soil type is subjected to waterlogging in the This soil type is located in narrow valley
wet season and severe desiccation in the dry bottoms on the western side of the Arena Reserve

oovering about 100 acres. It consists of at least
5 feet of uniform dark brown, loose, wet, humio
fine sand. Clay occurs at an undetermined depth
below 5 feet and the surface is perennially under
water from springs.
8. Bois Neuf clay—Drainage impeded
This soil type occurs on the western side of the
herbaceous portion of the Nariva Swamp. It
occupies about 5,000 acres and is almost entirely
covered by a pure stand of giant sedge (Cyperus
giganteus) with patches of the giant aroid
(Montricfiardia arborescens). Beneath a covering
of about 12 inches of sedge trash is a shallow
topsoil of only three inches of dark greyish brown,
friable humio clay. This changes sharply into a
com.pact brownish grey clay mottled orange which
persists to about 24 inches. The clay then
becomes a darker grey with a purplish cast and is
thickly mottled with orange-red, until at about
4 feet a permanently moist, uniform leaden grey
clay appears and continues to at least 8 feet.
The entire area is flooded to a depth of 3-12
inches in the wet season but dries out in the dry
season to such an extent that the groundwater
table is below 5 feet. The whole profile is
extremely acid (pH 4.0) but the surface soil is well
supplied with nitrogen (0.5%) and available
potash (200 p.p.m.)
A few hundred acres on the westerly fringe of
this area are cultivated for rice—yields of which
are usually high.
9. Nariva Swamp clay—Drainage impeded
This soil type is found in the middle of the
Nariva Swamp covering about 9,000 acres. It is
permanently inundated with fresh water 3 to 48
inches deep. On the surface of the water floats a
thick mat of grass and grass remains, locally
known as Cascadoux grass {Leersia hexandra) which
will support a man's weight. The soil consists
simply of about 6 inches of black, humic clay
overlying at least 7 feet of uniform dark grey clay
of a butter-like consistency. It is extremely acid
to very strongly aeid throughout the profile
(pH 4.0-5.0).
10. Macaw peaty clay—Drainage impeded
Occurring at the eastern margin of the Nariva
Swamp is a belt of inundated land, about 1,500
acres in extent, covered by very mixed vegetation
tall Cabbage palms {Roystonea oleracea), Acro-
stichum aureum, Montr ichardia arborescens,
Leersia hexandra and mangroves. The water
which may be 4 feet deep, is quite fresh but the
occasional presence of mangroves indicates local
saline subsoil conditions. The profile consists of at
least 7 feet of loose dark brown humic clay or silty
clay. No chemical data is available.
18
SOILS OF INTERMEDIATE FLOOD PLAINS—
(Elevation 2 to 50 ft.)
11. St. Joseph sandy loam—Drainage excessive
This is nothing more than the recent river
deposits of the St. Joseph and Aranguez Rivers
between 4 or 6 miles East of Port-of-Spain. It
covers an area of about 200 acres in strips about
100 yards wide on either side of the river. Visible
soil horizons have not been developed ; the
profile consists of about 7 feet of uniform yellowish
olive sandy loam full of small schist and mica
23articles. Another geological stratum occurs
below this, namely the old detrital terrace, which
is an impermeable, pale yellowish grey fine sandy
clay mottled browiiish red and full of round
quartz pebbles up to 2 inches diameter. Flooding
does not occur in the wet season, during which
time the top 4 feet of soil are moist but not water-
logged. In the dry season severe desiccation takes
place in spite of the nearness to the rivers. This is
because the rivers have cut beds about 4 feet deep
in the old detrital sandy clays which are so compact
and impermeable that the water is completely
isolated in a gutter-like channel.
St. Joseph sandy loam is strongly to medium
acid in reaction (pH 5-6) being about 50 per cent,
saturated with calcium. Available phosphate and
potash are high for a sand (124 and 88 p.p.m.
respectively.) The land is mostly under grass or
vegetable cultivation. Coconuts ha'^'e been tried
but the dry season desiccation is too severe for
them and they have practically died out.
12. Washington loams—Drainage free
These are the soils derived from the levee
deposits of the Caroni and Caparo Rivers which
have altered their courses so often in subrecent
geological time that the flood plain is dotted with
patches of light soil usually 2 or 3 feet above the
level of the surrounding flats. The total area of
these soils is about 4,000 acres and they vary from
clay and silt loams to fine sandy loam ; the most
widespread type being clay loam. The topsoil
consists of about 24 inches of yellowish brown clay
loam slightly spotted with a paler yellowish brown
and mottled orange brown sporadically below
16 inches. Fine sandy loam, often appears below
this, still yellowish brown in colour and faintly
mottled darker yellowish brown. Heavier material
occurs at about 40 inches and this is a dark
yellowish brown silty clay, mottled orange. Moist
dark blue grey clay occurs below this, the clay
being thickly mottled with yellowish brown and
orange and spotted or smeared sporadically with
black Mn02. Concretions are typically absent.
The nearness of these soils to the larger rivers
does not render them liable to serious flooding in
the wet season as the land slopes away from the
rivers. The surface dries out to about 30 inches
in the dry season but a layer of moist sand usually
 19

occurs just above the clay stratum at 5-7 feet. 15. Caracas clay—Drainage imperfect
The reaction is medium to slightly acid (pH 5.5- Caracas Clay covers about 500 acres in the upper
6.5.) and when not limed the saturation with part of the valley of the Savaneta River. The
calcium may fall as low as 18 per cent. Available sof 1 is derived from a recent clay deposit overlying
potash is invariably low (50-80 p.p.m.). a stratum of calcareous alluvium which came from
Practically the whole area of this series is under the shelly Montserrat hills. The surface soil is a
hardy sugar-cane cultivation. Good yields are very dark brown crumbly clay underlain by about
only obtainable when heavy dressings of potash 6 inches of cloddy humic clay. Below this is
are applied as well as sulphate of ammonia. about 18 inches of dark olive brown cloddy clay
with slip surfaces then a sharp transition to dark
13. Tacarigua silt loam to silty clay loam— yellowish browii sandy loam full of small particles
Drainage free of secondary calcium carbonate and shell frag-
ments. At about 5 feet dark olive brown and grey
Taearigua heavy loams cover about 800 acres non-calcareous clay is found.
on the margins of Tacarigua and Arouoa Rivers.
On account of their high content of mica and This soil type does not appear to dry out
schist particles of silt and very fine sand fraction severely in the dry season nor become waterlogged
sizes these soils are silky both in feel and glazed in the wet season. The reaction is slightly acid
appearance. The topsoil is olive brown silty clay to alkaline but the topsoil is 70 per cent, saturated
loam to about 24 inches, overlying more yellowish with calcium. Available potash is high
loam faintly mottled brown and orange brown (180 p.p.m.). Part of the land is under cocoa
(buff). Light yellowish brown sandy loam occurs which bears very well when the trees are not
at about 8 inches and this merges into orange brown severely infected with witches-broom. Sugar-cane
sand and gravel. The gravel consists of rounded does extremely well, especially the new hardy
quartz pebbles and grey schist fragments up to varieties.
3 + 1 + 1 inches, and is in lateral contact with the
stream beds, consequently it is always more or 16. Sevilla clay—Drainage imperfect
less moist. The regular increase in sandiness with This soil is found in three patches, covering in
depth is a characteristic and desirable feature of all about 7,000 acres, near the mouth of the
these soils. Caparo River and in the middle plains of the Couva
and Guaracara River systems. It is derived from
sub-recent clay alluvium washed down from the
The reactions of the Taearigua soils are slightly calcareous clay and shales of the Central Range.
acid to neutral with high calcium status. Avail- The topsoil consists of about 20 inches of uniform
able potash is comparatively high. According to dark olive brown clay with a surface crumb
Charter these soils are the best sugar-cane soil of structure and clod structure below. The subsoil
the northern part of the cane-belt. Noble canes is a somewhat paler olive brown clay speckled with
give excellent yields of both plant and ratoon orange brown, overlying olive grey to greenish
cane. This is due to a combination of satisfactory clay mottled yellowish brown. The general
water conditions and plant nutrient status. appearance of the profile is olive brown and of clay
texture throughout. Perched water-tables occur
14. Cocalfine sand—Drainage free near the surface (in the wet season) but the
This soil type is located in a strip about 16 miles permanent groundwater-table is below 7 feet.
long and 3,000 acres in area on the East coast Well developed slip-surfaces are usually present
from the L'Ebranche River to St. Margaret Village. on the structural units of the subsoil. Concretions
The portion North of Point Radix is known as of iron and/or manganese are typically absent.
the Nariva-Cocal and is a sand reef protecting the The whole area is under estate sugar-cane cultiva-
Nariva Swamp from salt water. South of Point tion, very good yields being obtained with the
Radix the soil is derived from beach sand presum- new hardy varieties when surface drains are
ably overlying clay at a great depth. Coeal fine adequate.
sand consists of uniform yellowish brown fine sand In reaction the profile is slightly acid or neutral
from surface to groundwater-table, which may and may be calcareous below 5 feet. Available
be as high as 3 feet. Under forest conditions a potash is fairly high (120-140 p.p.m.).
dark brown humic sand about 3 inches thick is
found in the surface. Internal drainage is free or 17. Cunupia clay loam to silty clay—Drainage
even excessive until the groundwater-tables are imperfect
reached ; considerable lateral water movement The soils of the Cunupia series are the most
takes place in the Manzanilla section as the water widespread of the alluvial soils of the Caroni plain,
from the Nariva Swamp continuouslj^ seeps covering about 20,000 acres. They comprise the
through and maintains a hydrostatic head whole of the middle and upper flood plains of the
sufficiently high to keep the salt water out. A Caroni River system and a good deal of the middle
deficiency of all plant nutrients probably occurs flood plain of the Caparo River. The topsoil is
and the soil owes its productivity to perennially a yellowish brown silty clay, silty clay loam or
high and moving groundwater which is eminently clay loam which becomes thickly mottled with
suitable for coconuts. orange and darker yellowish brown at about

12 inches. Black manganese dioxide stains and
semi-hard concretions may appear here and at
-any of the deeper horizons. Grey clay is found at
about 24 inches and this is mottled with yellowish
brown loamy material ; these mottlings being
the cross-sections of fissures or enlarged root
traces filled in with lighter topsoil. The clay
exhibits a definite blue cast at about 4 feet but is
still mottled with yellowish brown loam and
stained with manganese dioxide. This blue
material is the gley horizon indicating water-
saturation for most of the year—it persists down to
about 15 feet with occasional loamy bands. Wet
season water-tables are about 5 feet from the
surface but the permanent groundwater-table is
deeper than 15 feet.
Relics of a former flood plain are found at about
10 feet below the surface in the lower reaches of
the Caroni flood plain underneath the soils of the
Cunupia series. These are bluish white crimson
mottled silty clays which are exposed over
considerable areas in Longdenville and Guaico
districts where they constitute the Long stretch
series.
Charter describes the colour of the topsoils of
the Cunupia series as greyish brown but this is
misleading as this colour is only developed under
the bamboo-grass (Paspalum fasciculatum) swards
of the cane traces. Since the original soils were
not formed under grassland conditions but under it has a composite profile of 2 to 6 ft. of Pasea
high forest it is probable that the grey brown soils series overlying red mottled terrace clay of Long
are recent modifications of yellowish brown Stretch series ; it is depicted on the map as a red
forest soils. mottled phase of Pasea series.
The whole profile is acid in reaction (pH 4.5-6.5)
which decreases with depth and 30 to 60 per cent,
saturated with calcium. Available potash is low
to medium (60-110 p.p.m.). Most of the land is
under sugar-cane cultivation ; only the hardier
varieties are profitable as dry season droughts are
extremely severe. It is interesting to note that
in the mechanical cultivation of these soils for
sugar-cane only the heaviest possible equipment
is of use as the soils are only workable in the dry
state, by which time, owing to the high silt and
fine sand content they are extremely compact and
hard. The fine clod structure tilth produced by
discing, rotary hoeing or chizelling then lasts long
enough for the young cane sets to germinate and
becomes established before the heavy rains destroy
the tilth and compact the soil again. Rice is
successfully grown in areas prone to annual
fiooding and citrus fiourishes in old cacao land.
The cacao itself is now confined to a few estates
in the upper Caroni region ; it was once profitable
but during the slump was abandoned through high
upkeep costs and severe witches-broom infection.
18. Pasea silty clay loam to silty clay—Drainage
imperfect
These soil types are found in the North side of
the middle reaches of the Caroni river where they
20
cover about 3,500 aóres. They are developed
from micaceous silty clay deposits of Northern
Range streams and rivers. The topsoil is dark
olive brown silty clay loam or silty clay containing
semi-hard iron and manganese concretions. Below
this is found a light yellowish brown silty clay
thickly spotted with concretions. Mottled silty
clay appears at about 2 feet and the mottlings may
be either reddish or yellowish brown, the ground
colour being light olive. A silvery blue, gley
horizon starts at about 5 feet and this is also
mottled or splotched yellowish brown.
These soils are prone to annual flooding over a
large part of their area but this is considered
beneficial to the sugar-cane as it apparently
•reduces froghopper damage. Sugar-cane is the
chief crop, good yields being obtained under
«state management, growing hardy varieties.
Plant nutrient status is average for a Trinidad
acid silty clay and has to be augmented with
artificial and/or pen manure to produce profitable
crops.
The reddish brown mottled Recovery series of
Charter is included with his yellowish brown
Pasea series as they are impossible to map sepa-
rately owing to close inter-mingling and
inter-grading.
Charter's Arouca series has been suppressed as
19. L'Ebranche silty clay to clay—Drainage
imperfect
These soils are derived from the alluvial
deposits of the smaller rivers of the Central Range
and their out-wash into the Nariva Swamp
together with the fiats of the Ortoire River,
covering about 38,000 acres in all. They possess
a well defined dark brown humic silty clay topsoil
about 12 inches deep overlying bright yellowish
brown silty clay slightly mottled orange and
speckled with black manganese dioxide. Then
comes a broad horizon about 24 inches thick of
pale yellowish grey clay mottled orange brown
and yellowish brown and stained with black
Mn02. A bluish grey, gleyed horizon appears at
about 36 inches and the blueness darkens consider-
ably with depth, yellowish brown mottling, and
black Mn02 staining and orange rust encrusted
root traces occur throughout and persist down to
at least 10 feet.
L'Ebranche series difi^ers from the Cunupia
series in having a definite dark brown humic
topsoil, more alkaline reaction, the general
appearance is a darker yellowish brown, hard
concretions are absent as are lighter topsoils and
loamy bands in the subsoil. Proneness to drought
is not severe and floods aie much less frequent.
 21
The reaction is strongly acid to slightly acid
(pH 5-6.5) with 40 to 60 per cent, calcium satura-
tion. Available potash is low to medium
(70-110 p.p.m.). These soils were among the more
important cacao growing soils of the island before
the advent of witches-broom disease. Large
areas were abandoned between 1936-1945 but
with rising prices much of this was brought back
into cultivation. Citrus and subsistence crops do
very well on this soil with good cultivation
practices.
20. Sangre Grande silty clay—Drainage imperfect
This soil type covers most of the middle flood
plain of the Oropouche River system and occupies
about 14,000 acres. It is derived from recent
riverain silty clay alluvium which rests on the
remains of an old mangrove swamp or lagoon.
The topsoil of Sangre Grande silty clay consists of
about 20 inches of bright yellowish brown silty
clay which is somewhat darker in the upper
3 inches. A mottled horizon then appears, at first
it is orange mottled but at about 27 inches becomes
red or reddish brown and orange brown, the
ground-colour being yellowish grey. The
mottlings have a larger proportion of fine sand
than the ground material and they may dry out
into semi-hard concretions. Definite grey colours
begin at about 8 feet and become bluer with
depth. Bright orange mottling persists to 9 feet.
Black manganese dioxide staining extends from
55 to 96 inches below the surface. A more or less
uniformly coloured dark olive grey silty clay is
found at 9 feet, changing to clayey fine sand at
13 feet. At about 14 feet a brown to black peat
bed appears and extends to an undetermined depth.
The water relationships of this soil are
interesting in that below about 54 inches the soil
moisture content is practically constant through-
out the year (10). The surface is waterlogged for
most of the wet season but floods only occur
about once in 2 or 3 years.
The whole profile is extremely to very strongly
acid (pH 4-5) calcium saturation being only 15 to
50 per cent. Available potash is also low
(60-90 p.p.m.). Until recently the whole area
was under cacao which in the first three decades
of its existence was highly profitable but with the
incidence of witches-broom and slump prices most
of it was abandoned and/or cut down for food
crops. With careful planting, high bearing strains
of cacao can be profitably grown on this soil type.
Grapefruit and oranges do very well if fertilized.
21. Oropouche silty clay—Drainage imperfect
This is a very local soil type, restricted to the
larger bends of the Oropouche River where it
covers about 100 acres. I t is derived from very
recent flood deposits and is situated on terraces at inches for a large part of the wet season but in the
about 8 feet below the level of the main flood dry season the water-table is below 6 feet. The
plain. Little proflle development has taken place : whole profile is extremely acid in reaction (pH 4.5-
the colour is uniform yellowish brown becoming 3.5) but in spite of this, is well supplied with plant
slightly paler at about two feet from the surface.
Loamy micaceous material may appear at 2 feet.
This soil type is prone to very frequent flooding
in the wet season. It is very acid throughout
(pH 4.5-4.8) and available potash is medium at
about 80 p.p.m.
22. Aranguez silty clay loam—Drainage impeded
Aranguez silty clay loam covers about 1,500
acres between the lower reaches of the Caroni
and San Juan Rivers, being derived from recent
schisty micaceous alluvium. The topsoil consists
of about 6 inches of dark olive brown silty clay
loam full of root traces encrusted with orange
brown rust. Silvery grey silty clay loam sparsely
speckled with yellowish brown then appears and
continues down to about 2 feet, below which it
becomes greener. Grey and blue-grey silty clay
underlies this and at about 7 feet fossilized fibrous
organic matter is found. This soil type is flooded
every year and in the dry season is desiccated to
about 18 inches and its groundwater-table lowered
to below 7 feet. The reaction is variable, being
medium acid on the surface (pH 5.9), increasing
to neutrality at about 3 feet and then decreasing
until at the peaty horizon it is very strongly acid
(pH 4.6). The topsoil is about 60 per cent,
saturated with calcium and contains a com-
paratively small amount of available potash
(60 p.p.m.).
Rice is grown successfully during the wet
season and mixed vegetables during the dry
season but about 900 acres of this soil type in the
South are not cultivated as they have been
damaged by salt water.
23. Navet clay—Drainage impeded
This soil type covers about 40,000 acres on the
western side of the Nariva Swamp and in the
Manzanilla Windbelt Forest Reserve, and is
derived from recent riverain clay alluvium. The
land surface is usually covered with a film of
reddish brown iron hydroxide due to prolonged
flooding. Incipient hogwallowing effects are seen
in the gently undulating micro-relief ; the
amplitude of the undulations is about 6 inches and
the length 6 feet. The topsoil consists of only
1 | inches of dark brown humic clay changing
sharply to a thin horizon (3 inches thick) of paler
brown, orange-red mottled clay. The orange-red
mottling is due to an accumulation of surface iron
hydroxide films. Below this is a putty coloured
clay splotched with orange to a depth of 24 inches.
In the next 2 feet the mottlings change to yellowish
brown. Blue grey or leaden grey clay appears
at 4 feet and persists below 6 feet ; this is
sparingly mottled and speckled orange.
Navet clay is flooded to a depth of 6 to 12

nutrients except calcium. Total nitrogen is high
(.5 per cent. N), available potash is medium high
(150 p.p.m.) available phosphate is medium
(40 p.p.m.). Organic matter content is as high as
8 per cent, in the top 6 inches.
This soil type is very little cultivated, a little
rice and cocoa are grown in the river flats adjacent
to the Nariva Swamp. The greater part of the
area is covered by a forest society consisting of
Orappo trees (Carapa guianensis) and spiney roseau
palms [Bactris spp.) which is the wet soil varient
of the Crappo-Guatacare Association of Evergreen
Seasonal Forest.
SOILS OF HIGH FLOOD PLAINS
(Elevation 28 to 75 feet)
24. St. Augustine loams—Drainage free
These soils are developed on flattish apron-like
areas at the immediate foot of the Northern Range
West of Arima covering about 4,500 acres. They
are the recent hill-wash of the red weathering
schist mountains. The topsoil varies in texture
from a loam to silty clay loam and clay loam and
this texture decreases gradually with depth until
at about 7 feet it is a sandy loam or gravel. A low yielding. A large acreage of bamboos was
typical profile has a dark yellowish brown topsoil
becoming redder with depth until at about
18 inches it is a bright orange red when wet or
light reddish brown when dry. Uniform reddish
brown to reddish orange material persists down to
at least 7 feet. Silvery schist and mica fragments
are present below about 5 feet and impart a silky
sheen to the soil. Quartz and schist stones may
appear at any depth from the surface downward
but they are not extensive as they are confined
to the sites of old stream beds. The soils of the
eastern and southern extremities of the area
mapped as St. Augustine loams are definitely less
red in colour than is typical ; they are usually
bright orange schisty loams and were formerly
differentiated as D'Abadie series.
The St. Augustine loams dry out very badly
during the dry season into hard compacted
unproductive soils. In the wet season they soften
up sufficiently for a good tilth to be produced but
this quickly breaks down into crusts after heavy
rain. The profile is acid throughout and generally
deficient in mineral nutrients. Vegetables are
the chief crops grown and these have to be well
watered and manured to be profitable ; some
farmers' sugar-cane is also grown but it is not high
yielding. Large areas have been abandoned to
black sage and guava scrub.
25. Biver Estate loams—Drainage free
These soils are located in a broad block covering
about 4,000 acres between Barataria and Curepe.
Smaller patches of a few hundred acres in all occur
in the river valleys of the Central Range and at
Mayaro. They are developed in micaceous and/or
22
schisty sand alluvium. The topsoil is a uniform
dark yellowish brown loam to fine sandy loam
about 18 inches deep. This grades into a paler
yellowish brown fine sandy loam spotted with
black and orange semi-hard concretion. At about
5 feet the concretionary horizon passes into a
bright yellowish brown loam lightly stained brown
and orange. According to moisture conditions,
slight mottling may occur below this. The subsoil
of this series has a greasy feel due to an abundance
of small mica and schist particles. Desiccation is
severe in the dry season but in the wet season
drainage is so good that the soil can soon be
worked after heavy rain. Plant nutrient status
is somewhat below the standards for best crop
growth. The profile is strongly to slightly acid
(pH 5.0-6.2), being 30 to 70 per cent, saturated
with calcium. Exchangeable calcium is low
(3-9 m.e./lOOg), available potash is low (30 to 80
p.p.m.) but available phosphate is variable
(10 to 60 p.p.m.).
The principal crops are mixed vegetables for the
Port-of-Spain market, coconuts for drinking
purposes, fodder grasses and pastures. Sugar-cane
will grow if fertilized with potash but is usually
planted on this soil type for paper piilp making,
but the project had to be abandoned owing to high
labour costs and the fact that the bamboos did not
recover satisfactorily after cutting owing to lack
of dry season moisture.
26. McBean sands to loams—Drainage free
These soils are found in several blocks bordering
the Southern Main Road between Chaguanas and
Couva covering about 4,000 acres altogether.
They are derived from sub-recent river levee
sands. The land surface is cut up by fairly
frequent small gullies which give rise to very
gently rolling relief. The topsoil is a uniform
yellowish brown sand to about 36 inches, at which
depth a heavier horizon may appear which may
eventually be of a silty clay texture and light grey,
mottled orange in appearance. Broad strata of
sand and silty clay often alternate to considerable
depths below the first silty clay horizon. The
profile is characterized by an abundance of iron
and manganese concretions which vary from
small pisoliths to irregular cemented masses up
to 2 inches diameter and may occur at any depth
in the sandy topsoil. The clayey bands are
usually heavily stained with black Mn02. These
soils dry out severely in the surface during the dry
season but the alteration of clay and sand in the
deep subsoil produces local reservoirs of perennial
water which can be tapped by deep rooting crops
such as coconuts and sugar-cane.
The sandiness of the McBean soils is accompanied
by the usual potash and nitrogen deficiency of
light soils. Striking results have been obtained
with potash manuring of sugar-cane.
 23

Charter described (5) these soils as Newland are abundant on the surface and in any, or all, of
series. Since there are other localities with this the subsoil horizons. Charter describes maroon
name and the most typical locality is in the staining or mottling as a characteristic of these
MoBean section of Waterloo Estate the name has soils but this feature was very rarely found in
been changed to McBoan. more detailed survey of the area. Some profiles
did show slight red speckUng in the middle horizon
27. Golden Orove loam—Drainage free but this was due to the fact that a composite soil
Golden Grove loam covers about 1,200 acres in was present, namely an intermediate type
the Golden Grove coconut estate and its vicinity between the Couva and Waterloo series. Plant
just North of Piarco airport. Beneath a shallow nutrient status is medium for the heavier tj^oes
topsoil (3 inches) of olive brown loam a bright and medium low for the sandy loams.
brownish yeUow mealy loam persists down to
7 feet. It is sporadically speckled with semi-hard Sugar-cane is again the most important crop ;
orange iron and black manganese concretions. good yields are obtained under estate management,
Below 7 feet faint mottling with orange brown especially if the sandy types are fertilized with
appears. The soil dries out very severely in the potash.
dry season so much so that coconuts are not long
lived. Plant nutrient status is very low in all 30. Waterloo loams to clay—Drainage imperfect
respects but some of this is made good by ample These soils, as the name implies, are chiefly
root-room. Available or exchangeable calcium, found in the Waterloo Estates especially in the
phosphate and potash are all very low in amount. Perseverance and Union sections, the total acreage
is about 6,000. The topsoil is very variable in
28. Guanapo fine sandy loam—Drainage free texture and may be clay, silty clay, silty clay
loam or loam ; the heavier types are found on
These soil types occur in the trenches cut by the seaward side. Since all the land has been
the Northern Range rivers, Mausica, Arima, cultivated at somie time an undisturbed topsoil is
Guanapo and Aripo, through the old detrital never found but the general appearance is yellowish
terrace. The trenches or vegas are J to | mile brown somewhat mottled or speckled with grey
wide and cover about 3,000 acres. The general and orange. A thickly mottled yellowish grey
colour of the profile is similar to River Estate and orange silty clay occurs at 12 to 24 inches
loams, namely yellowish brown becoming more from the surface. Below this is a broader horizon
yellow and sandy with depth. Concretions are often 4 feet thick of compact light greenish grey
typically absent. At about 5 to 6 feet below the clay, mottled crimson and bright red ; fissures
surface old river bottom stony gravel is found which and root traces are heavily encrusted with orange
is continuous with the bottom of the existing rust. At about 5 feet a gley horizon is found
rivers and is thus water-bearing throughout the which is blue grey elay, mottled and piped with
dry season. yellowish brown loamy material. Deep ploughing
and draining often brings the orange and grey
The profile is normally acid but a neutral place subsoil to the surface and presents the silver and
exists in the Aripo valley where the river water is gold appearance described by Charter (5).
calcareous from the limestone rocks of the Aripo Concretions are rarely seen and manganese dioxide
massif. Available potash is low. staining is not very prominent. The horizons arc
usually very sharply defined.
Vegetables are extensively grown in the Agua
Santa district and to a less extent in the Aripo Hardy varieties of sugar-cane are grown on
flats of Fort Read. Cacao was formerly planted most of the area with patches of rice in the wetter
on the whole of the area but very little is left. spots. Good yields of cane are possible under
The most profitable use of the land of this soil type estate management where efficient drainage and
is the exploitation of subsoil gravel and sand for fertilizing practices are the rule. A considerable
the building trade. area of the lighter types was i^lanted with coconuts
about 40 years ago but they never did very well
29. Couva loams—Drainage imperfect and are now being replaced by cane. Severe dry
Couva loams occupy about 3,500 acres on the season drought and wet season waterlogging was
margins of the lower reaches of the Couva River the cause of the unprofitability of these coconuts.
and are derived from sub-recent levee deposits.
The topsoil consists of about 21 inches of dark The profile is extremely to strongly acid in
brown to olive brown silty clay loam to fine sandy reaction (pH 4 to 5.2) usually less than 50 per cent,
loam. Yellowish and orange brown sand or sandy saturated with calcium.' Potash is adequate in
loam occurs below this with irregular bands of the clays but deficient in the loams.
silty clay. The silty clay may occasionally persist,
in a single deep horizon down to 7 feet. The 31. Freeport loams to clay—Drainage imperfect
silty clay is fight yellowish olive, mottled with Freeport series is closely associated with McBean
grey and contains fissures filled with yellowish series in the district between Chaguanas and
brown loam. Hard manganese and iron pisoliths Couva. About 7,000 acres have been mapped

separately and another 1,500 acres are depicted as
a complex with McBean series. The topsoil is a'
dark yellowish brown clay to loam overlying
mottled material at about 10 inches. This is
usually bright orange brown loam with grey
clayey pipings. At about 5 feet greenish grey
clay appears which is piped with orange sandy
loam. Deep lying horizons of water bearing sand
may occur but they are less frequent than with the
McBean series. Iron and manganese concretions
may be found at any depth down to 5 feet, but
they are less common in the easterly parts of the
area. Freeport clays and loams resemble the
soils of Cunupia series but the mottling tends to
be a bright orange instead of yellowish brown,
concretions are much more abundant and flooding
rarely takes place ; dry season desiccation is
more severe.
Hardy varieties of sugar-cane, vegetables, rice
and a little cacao are grown on this soil with
varying degrees of success. Coconuts and limes
and coffee have been tried but were a failure due
to severe droughts. A common feature of the
land under peasant cultivation is the occurrence
of stands of tall Carat Palms (Sabal sp.) which are
never seen in the low flood plains.
The profile is very strongly acid to medium
acid (pH 4.6-6.0) usually less than 50 per cent,
saturated with calcium and deficient in potash
in the lighter types.
32. Orange Grove loams—Drainage imperfect
These soils cover about 2,500 acres of the Orange
Grove Estate and its vicinity, and are derived
from recent schisty alluvium. The topsoils are
uniform olive brown clay loam to fine sandy loam.
These become paler at about 12 inches and
mottled with bright yellowish brown and greenish
grey. Water bearing sand bands may occur at
any depth below 3 feet. This sand is micaceous
and schisty, coloured olive with orange brown
staining ; quartz pebbles may be present. A
dark greenish grey silty clay loam gley horizon
occurs below the sand. Iron and manganese
pisoliths may be found at any depth above the
water bearing sand. A characteristic of the
Orange Grove loams is the perennially wet subsoil
and the large number of fresh water springs which
emerge throughout the area.
Shallow phases of these soils are found in the
more easterly parts of the land mapped as Orange
Grove series. These soils have a tough red
mottled horizon appearing at about 4 feet which
is a buried remnant of the old alluvial terrace
formerly occupying most of the Northern Plain.
Plant nutrient status is low to medium in the
sandy tj^es, these being deficient in available
potash and phosphate.
Sugar-cane is the chief crop of these soils, good
yields being obtained with plant canes but the
24
stools usually ratoon very badly. According to
charter this is due to the constant subsoil moisture.
Canes that have a short or intermediate vegetative
ife complete their growth early, and they and
their ratoon systems may be senescent when they
are reaped. Whilst this results in high plant
cane tonnages, the ratoon yields are low and,
often unprofitable (6).
SOILS OF UNDULATING LANDS (Detrital Terraces,
Elevation 50 to 125 feet)
33. Streatham loams—Drainage imperfect
South of the uniformly coloured St. Augustine
loams is a belt of mottled, concretionary soils of
the Streatham series about 3,000 acres in extent,
derived from local Northern Range hill-wash.
They are characterized by a surface film of
bleached fine sand, usually containing hard
pisoliths of iron and manganese hydroxides. The
topsoil is about 5 inches deep, consisting of a
yellowish brown loam, most commonly silty clay
loam, with an abundance of pisoliths. A somewhat
paler, mealy loam is found below this to a depth of
about 18 inches. Then comes a conspicuous
horizon of bright orange-yellow silty clay loam,
splotched yellowish grey, red or reddish brown in
which are embedded round quartz pebbles up to
1^ inches diameter. At about 5 feet the pebbles
become larger and consist of a high proportion of
angular schist fragments ; the clayey matrix is
now a very pale bluish grey splotched with
yellowish brown. This horizon is saturated with
water throughout the wet season but the ground-
water-table is usually at 10-14 feet and in the
Curepe district the groundwater affords a source
of drinking water in shallow wells. Dry season
desiccation is acute and the soil sets like concrete.
The whole profile is extremely acid in reaction
(pH 3.8-4.8) being less than 20 per cent, saturated
with calcium. Available potash and phosphate
are very low in amount. The land is planted with
a mixture of crops such as sugar-cane, ground
provisions and rice all of which are low jdelding.
The Dinsley series of Charter has been included in
the Streatham series as their soils are not
sufficiently distinct to be mapped separately.
34. Macoya fine sand—Drainage imperfect
This soil type is found in three small patches in
the flat land South of the Streatham loams covering
about 100 acres in all. The topsoils consists of
12 to 30 inches of greyish white loose quartz sand,
slightly stained with brown humus on the surface.
This is bluish white sandy clay, mottled orange,
in .which quartz pebbles are embedded. A
permanent groundwater-table is found at about
4i feet from the surface.

About half of the area of this soil type is covered
by black sage—guava scrub and the rest cultivated
sjioradically for vegetables.
35. Piarco fine sand to fine, sandy loam—
Drainage imperfect
These soils are located in a belt about 4 miles
wide stretching from the Piarco airport to the
East coast. The area of unmixed soil covers about
24,000 acres and the complex with Valencia fine
sand 6,000 acres. They are derived from the
variable deposits of the Quaternary Northern
Range detrital terrace. The land surface has a
well defined " hogwallow" micro-relief, the
depressions of which are 12 to 18 inches deep with
sharp sides, and several square yards in area.
The topsoil consists of 6 to 12 inches of loose fine
sand or fine sandy loam which is dark greyish
brown when wet and very pale brownish grey when
dry. Below this occurs a more or less bleached
horizon. Exposed surfaces are covered with a
film of white fine sand wash. At about 30 inches
a mottled horizon of silty clay is found which is
at first light grey speckled with orange or stained
with rust root traces, then broadly mottled with
orange. AH shades of red mottling from scarlet
to purplish red then appear in a conspicuous
horizon a t least 3 feet thick and m a y even persist
to 11 feet below the surface according to depth
of the groundwater-table. When this is reached
the red mottling is displaced by yellow and the
typical blue of a wet gley horizon is seen. This
blueness which often disappears on drying is
sometimes a very bright pale blue colour without
a sign of greyness. The red mottled horizon m a y
contain both hard a n d soft crimson iron
concretions but they are not invariably present
nor are they very abundant. The red stained
l)art of this horizon m a y harden on exposure like
Buchannan's laterite.
Rounded quartz pebbles up to 2 inches diameter
may be found in any or every horizon and almost
invariably in the region of the groundwater table.
A stony phase of Piarco fine sand is delineated
on the m a p , occurring in the northern half of the
area where quartz pebbles are found in the top
3 feet.
A soil profile intermediate in character between
the above and Valencia fine sand is sometimes
found in small unmappable patches. These soils
display a humus horizon in the subsoil usually
without the cemented iron pan. They were
formerly separated as the Cumuto series but
further investigation has shown t h a t this separa-
tion is no longer justifiable on grounds of map-
pability. Another unmappable variant occurring
along the terrace edges, is practically devoid of
crimson mottling and has orange sand strata below
4 feet ; this is probably a type intermediate with
the Las Lomas series. The occurrence of a layer
of flat iron concretions at t h e top of the clay
subsoil which is described by Charter (5) as a
25
oharaeteristie of Piarco series is restricted to t h e
extreme western edge of the area and sometimes
a t t h e edges of gullies.
The Piarco soils are waterlogged for most of the
wet season and completely desiccated in t h e d r y
season. Although they are waterlogged in t h e
wet season t h e red mottled deep subsoils are usually
quite d r y and extremely h a r d to auger, even when
t h e hogwallows are full of water. The j^rofile is
extremely acid in reaction (pH 3.8-4.5) and t h e
plant nutrient status resembles t h a t of Valencia
fine sand. The n a t u r a l vegetation is again Marsh
forest b u t where t h e land is very flat, P a l m or
" Orchard " Savanna appear. When the surface
is dead flat the vegetation is a t h i n cover of
sparse grass and sedge rosettes and creeping
lycopodium.
Cultivation of these soils has proved extremely
difficult on account of t h e unfavourable water
relationships. Acid soil loving crops such as
pine-apples, cashew nuts or tonea beans can be
grown if the land is thoroughly drained and
mulched, besides being heavily dressed with a
complete fertilizer.
36. Aripo Savanna fine sand—Drainage imperfect
This soil t y p e occurs in two small (3 acres)
n a t u r a l savannas in the U.S. a r m y base of P o r t
Read. The surface soil is more t h a n 50 per cent,
exposed and is dead flat, not hogwallowed and
covered with a film of white fine sand wash. The
top 2 inches consist of a very pale p u t t y coloured
fine quartz sand containing root traces slightly
encrusted with orange ferric hydroxide, below
this is 6 inches of greyish white loose fine sand.
A hard, compact horizon of white fine sand is
then found which is the distinguishing feature of
this soil type. I t is only 6 inches thick but is so
hard t h a t it is almost impossible to penetrate with
a fork and quite impossible to auger as these tools
simply bounce oif. Underneath this is another
foot or so of light greyish brown compact fine sand
which is not so h a r d and is comparatively dry.
Whitish grey clayey sand appears a t about
24 inches and this becomes thickly marked with
orange and very stony a t 42 inches. The ground-
water-table is a t 44 inches. The extreme
comi)action displayed b y this soil t y p e is almost
certainly due to the unhindered beating of over
100 inches of rain per a n n u m on a bare fine sand
surface.
The whole profile is extremely acid and devoid
of plant nutrients. No cultivation is practised as
the land was p a r t of a forest reserve u n t i l loaned
to the U.S. The n a t u r a l vegetation consists of
sparsely distributed tufty clumps of grass, sedge
and creeping lycopodium.
37. Valencia fine sand—Drainage imperfect
Valencia fine sand covers about 7,000 acres in
the vicinity of Valencia village and another
 26

7,000 acres in association with Piaroo series, all olay. At about 50 inches verj' light bluish grey
derived from sub-recent to Quaternary N o i t h e r n fine sandy clay appears which dries white and is
Range detritus. Two small patches also occur in mottled bright red.
t h e North of Arena Forest Reserve derived from
loose Quaternary sand. This soil t y p e affords the No laboratory d a t a are available for this t y p e
best example of a tropical podsol (groundwater) b u t i t is undoubtedly very acid throughout t h e
to be seen in Trinidad. The land surface has a profile. The groundwater-table m a y be as high
characteristic " hogwallow " micro-relief and is as 40 inches. Some fair sugar-cane is grown on
covered with 2 t o 4 inches of forest leaf l i t t e r . this soil tjrpe b u t t h e p a r t of it in t h e Piarco
Beneath this is 8 to 18 inches of h u m u s stained Savanna is not cultivated.
fine quartz sand which appears very dark brown
when wet b u t pale brownish grey when dry, 39. Long Stretch fine sandy day to silty clay—
owing to t h e shrinkage of the humio coatings of Drainage impeded
t h e white sand grains. Below this is a bleached
horizon (A2) 3 to 12 inches thick of whitish quartz These soils are widespread on the Northern
sand a n d gravel. The B horizons follow w i t h Range detrital terraces and in the terraces fianking
2 to 6 inches of dark brown humus cemented sand the middle p a r t of the Caparo River Valley. Their
a n d gravel a n d then a thicker horizon of hard iron total acreage is about 13,000 and they are derived
cemented material. Below this occur sandy clays from Quaternary silty clay deposits. The surface
or clayey gravels coloured very pale grey, almost is characteristically hogwallowed and covered with
white, t o bluish grey, mottled and splotched 2 t o 4 inches of forest litter. The topsoil consists
orange and yellow aiad more rarely red. Drainage of about 3 inches of light brownish grey silty clay
is quite free u n t i l the h a r d p a n is reached, t h e n or fine sandy olay overlying about 18 inches of
lateral percolation takes place, t h e water p u t t y yellow silty clay, mottled and speckled
eventually finding an outlet in small gullies. orange and yellowish brown. This changes sharply
W a t e r is replaced so quickly in the wet season t h a t t o greyish white clay, mottled orange red and
t h e hogwallows are filled with clear brown humic brick red. At about 48 inches the ground colour
water most of the t i m e . I n the d r y season the has a definite blue cast a n d mottling is purplish
whole surface is desiccated and appears quite red. Water stands in t h e hogwallows during the
white with loose quartz sand. wet season a n d severe desiccation takes place in
t h e dry season. Soil horizons do not follow the
contour of the hogwallowed surface. Stony or
T h e whole profile is extremely acid in reaction bouldery phases are found in t h e most easterly
(pH 4-4.5) and practically devoid of all bases, t h e p a t c h of this type around Orosco Road, Matura.
exchangeable calcium content is often too low to
be measured b y t h e customary method.
The whole profileis extremely acid (pH 3 . 8 ^ . 0 )
a n d devoid of p l a n t nutrients, which combined
The n a t u r a l vegetation on t h e fiat land is Marsh
with unfavourable water relationships, makes these
forest in which t h e dominants are palms {Jessenia
soils oom])letely useless for agriculture. I n spite
oligocarpa)and galba trees {Calo2>hyllum lucidum).
of this, large areas of the original forests were cut
On the eastern side where the relief is more broken
down but were soon abandoned to secondarj^
a n Evergreen Seasonal Forest occurs which is
scrub—chiefly aluminium plants in t h e E a s t and
almost a pure stand of one species (Mora excelsa).
needlegrass savanna [Imperator braziliensis and
Considerable areas of both forests have been cut
Guratella americana) in t h e West. The n a t u r a l '
down for agricultural purposes b u t the results
vegetation is similar to t h a t of Valencia fine sand.
have been disastrous. One or two poor croj)s of
corn, pigeon peas, or hill-rice are all t h a t can be
obtained and the land is soon abandoned to
SOILS OF H I L L Y L A N D
secondary scrub. This consists chiefiy of
(Low Hills, Elevation 100 to 250 feet)
aluminium accumulating plants of the families
Melastomataceae and Rubiaceae.
40. Arena fine sand—Drainage excessive
This soil t y p e occupies a topographic position in
38. Oropuna clay—Drainage impeded Trinidad similar t o the hilltop gravels of England.
This soil t y p e was first described by Charter (5) I t is derived from Quaternary deposits which are
from t h e Oropuna Section of the Orange Grove said to be remnants of a vast sandy plain (Llanos)
E s t a t e but is more extensive in the Piarco which covered the great p a r t of the island in the
Savanna ; t h e total acreage is about 300. I t is Pleistocene Age (3). Arena fine sand is located in
derived from a fresh water swamp deposit overlying two, rather broken belts of sand capped hills and
the whitish grey olay, mottled red which under ridges rumiing diagonally SW-NE, from
better external drainage develops long stretch Pointe-a-Pierre to the Matura Forest Reserve.
silty clay. According to Charter, Oropuna clay An isolated patch occurs South of the Central
consists of 18 inches of black humic clay which Range near Kelly Village. The total acreage is
dries dark grey overlying about 12 inches of grey about 14,000. The topsoil consists of about
clay merging into a paler grey sandy clay mottled 18 inches of dark brown humic, loose fine sand
brown, containing worm holes filled with darker merging into orange and orange brown sand which

at about 6 feet becomes bright orange yellow in
colour. The topsoil on exposure in the dry season
may appear somewhat greyish through shrinkage
of the humus films. Colour phases occur but
they are confined to the Sum-Sum Hill district
where the general profile is often pinJi or pale
orange red. The area is too small to map a? a
district series, although Charter has given them
series names viz : Esperanza, Sum Sum and
Milton. A fine phase of Arena fine sand is found
in the middle of Arena Forest Reserve on a plateau
of 150 feet elevation, but normallj^ the terrain of
this soil type is steeply undulating. Valley phases
may occur and where the valley is peimanently
wet or actually inundated Brazil Peaty sand
is developed.
The whole profile is extremely acid in reaction
and low in plant nutrient content and once the
oiiginal forest has been cut clown severe dry season
desiccation takes place. Calcifuge crops have
been tried with varying degrees of failure. The
Forest Department has solved the problem of what
to do with this soil type and similarly infertile ones
of the Piarco and Valencia series in their improve-
ment felling technique (4) ; whereby all undesir-
able species of trees or large shrubs are cut down
leaving the useful species to fill in the gaps either
by natural seeding or actually planting by hand.
The natural vegetation is Evergreen Seasonal
Forest, Crappo-guatecare Association, fine leaf-
cocorite type.
41. Las Lomas fine sandy loam to loam—
Drainage free
Soils of the Las Lomas series occur widespread
over the lower hills of Central Trinidad, covering
about 16,000 acres, including complexes with other
types. They are derived from the more
undulating and sandy deposits of the Northern
Range detrital terrace and oldest alluvium of the
larger river systems. Flat phases may be found
at the southern extremities of the detrital terrace
and within the bends of rivers. The topsoil
consists of about 24 inches of bright yellowish
brown loam or fine sandy loam which merges into
a broad horizon of faintly orange mottled heavier
loam. At about 5 feet reddish orange mottling
appears in the heavier loams or if the soil is more
sandy it will be uniform reddish orange colour or
even brick red. Yellowish orange colours return
at about 8 feet. Colour changes are just as
variable laterally as they are vertically and cannot
be used as a feature in mapping of these soils,
except in a general way, for all the above variants
are likely to occur. Concretions are not a
constant feature but may be present as black
pisoliths, e.g., to the Eastof Arima or as ironstone
boulders in spots where the sandy soil is in contact
with a shaly clay formation, e.g. Las Lomas
district.
27
The whole j)rofile is extremely acid in reaction
and very low in plant nutrient content. Attempts
have been made to cultivate most of the land of
this soil series but they were usually soon
abandoned. With care calcifuge crops such as
pine-apples, cashew nuts and tonca beans and
even citrus can be grown but jdelds are very
erratic, owing to proneness to drought. The
greater part of the area of Las Lomas soils is now
covered with secondary scrub in which thickets of
aluminium accumulating species of the genera
Miconia, Bvdgea, Palicourea Psychotria and
Clidemia are very conspicuous.
42. Non Pareil clay loam—Drainage free
This soil type is derived from naturally burnt
clay-stone of Pliocene Age known as PorceUanite.
I t occurs in a few small areas (total acreage 100)
in the Comparo-Fishing Pond district but is quite
widespread in the Cedros peninsula. The topsoil
consists of about 12 inches of reddish brown clay
loam, with a good crumb structure merging into
red clay which rests on laminated brick red clay
containing large fragments of red or purple
porceUanite. No analytical data are available for
these soils but from the nature of the weed flora
they are certain to be extremely acid. On
account of the high rainfall, good surface crumb
and perhaps a high available potash content,
satisfactory stands of cacao, coffee, rubber and
tonca beans are possible on this soil type.
43. Princes Toivn clay—Drainage imperfect
Princes Town clay is the well known black marl
soil of the Princes Town-Rio Claro district. It
covers a total of 14,000 acres in a belt stretching
from San Fernando to EcclesviUe and a smaller
belt just North of Brickfield ; an isolated out-crop
occurs to the West of Pointe Radix. This soil,
which falls readily into the Rendzina group, is
characterized by a black humic clay topsoil which
varies from 4 to 24 inches in depth, often within
very short distances. The surface has a coating
of humus crumbs about | inch thick and below
this its structure is cloddy in the dry season and
massive in the wet season. Below the black
topsoil is a horizon of pale yellowish brown lime-
free clay about 6 inches thick overlying olive grey
and putty coloured calcareous clay containing
small white calcium carbonate concretions
(1/8 inch diameter). Slight orange staining may
appear between 24 and 42 inches. Below about
42 inches the parent marlstono is found which may
contain up to 60 per cent, of calcium carbonate.
It is soft and when dry breaks with a conchoidal
fracture ; black manganese dioxide and orange
ferric hydroxide staining and calcium carbonate
concretions are often but not invariably present.
The colour of the marlstone of the deposits younger
than the Princes Town-Rio Claro marls, e.g.,
Dunmore Hill marl, is very much whiter, but since
 28

the soil profiles are essentially the same no the Northern Range detrital cones. The topsoil
separation is made. Plant nutrient status is high consists of dark brown sandy clay loam or sand
in all respects except available phosphate. becoming paler with depth. This overlies orange
red to scarlet and brownish yellow, stony fine
The most important crop on this soil type is sandy or silty clay to about 5 feet. The propor-
sugar-cane which gives profitable yields even in tions of the colours are more or less equal and the
the wetter, eastern localities which were formerly stones increase in size with depth, being at first
under cacao. Cacao was highly productive during rounded quartz pebbles up to about 1 inch
the first two decades of its existence but yields diameter and finally 3-5 inch diameter admixed
declined severely from witches-broom infection with sub-angular schist rock. Below 5 feet stones
and large areas were abandoned during the slump. and boulders constitute most of the horizon and
Rising prices have recently encouraged planters may be as much as 24 inches diameter again
to rework their fields but most of them were too embedded in yellow and red silty clay. No
far gone to make this worth while—complete laboratory data is available but these soils are
replanting with high bearing strains would still certain to be very acid throughout the profile and
be profitable. low in plant nutrients. They are rarely cultivated
and are under either high Evergreen Seasonal
Conspicuous features of the land in the Forest or aluminium-plant scrub.
Ste. Madeleine district are the white capped hills.
These are the result of mechanical cultivation up 46. Piparo silty clay—Drainage imperfect
and down the slopes, whereby the black topsoil
This soil is derived from the muddy lava streams
was lost and the white marl exposed at the surface. (mudflow) of Ceatral Range mud-volcanoes
erupting from deep lying Eocene (or older) shales.
44. Phoenix loams—Drainage imperfect It covers about 700 acres in the neighbourhood of
These soils might be described as composite the Piparo mud-volcano and around the mud-
profiles of the Las Lomas and Lorn» stretch series voleano in the forest near Brickfield. Horizon
They are found in small patches of Esperanza differentiation is characteristically absent and the
(Phoenix Section) and Waterloo estates (Spring silty clay soil presents a uniform dark brown
Section) and again in the vicinity of Non Pareil appearance down to at least 6 feet below the
Estate, Sangre Grande. The total acreage is about surface. Crimson haematite concretions, calcite,
2,000 of which 400 are intimately mixed with pyrites and gypsum crystals may be found at any
Las Lomas sands. The topsoil consists of about depth but these are not of pedological origin as
12 inches of orange brown loam to fine sandy they are present in the shales several hundred feet
loam which in eroded spots may be missing. below. The mud fiow is saline when first erupted
This overlies orange to brick red sandy clay loam but the salt is rapidly washed out. Pair crops of
or sandy clay to a depth of about 24 inches. The ground provisions and sugar-cane are grown in
clay horizon then appears and this is light yellowish the Piparo district.
grey mottled crimson, persisting below 8 feet.
Iron and manganese concretions may occur 47. Tarouba clay—Drainage impeded
anywhere in the sandy portion of the profile,
being most abundant in the material just above This soil type is confined to the peneplained
the elay. Where the sand is more than 3 feet country Soutlx of the Central Range. It is most
deep the soil is mapped as Las Lomas. Charter extensive in the San Fernando-Princes Town
separated (7) the soils without the reddish orange district with discontinuous outcrops stretching to
sand as Madras series but as they are of limited the Nariva Swamp. It is derived from green clay
extent they are regarded as a colour phase of shales of Oligo-Miocene Age. The total area
Phoenix loams. covered is about 23,000 acres. The topsoil in an
undisturbed profile is dark olive brown clay
6-12 inches deep which overlies grey or olive grey
The whole profile is extremely acid in reaction, clay, mottled olive and yellowish brown, merging
being less than 15 per cent, saturated with into grey-green clay shale at a depth of 4 to 6 feet.
calcium. Available potash and phosphate are very The subsoil clay is calcareous to about 10 per cent,
low. Sugar-cane can be grown if very hardy calcium carbonate, some of which may occur as
varieties are planted and heavily dressed with small white or cream coloured concretions.
complete fertilizer. Rubber is grown in the Gypsum is almost invariably present as veins and
Non Pareil Estate, but the greater part of the area nests of crystals beginning at about 30 inches
covered by these soils is either pioor pasture, from the surface. Shining slip surfaces are a
village lots or waste land. marked feature of the deep subsoil. Land-slips
are common and give rise to eroded phases having
45. Cleaver sands to loams—Drainage imperfect yellowish brown topsoils and calcium carbonate
These are the soils fringing the northern limit at, or near, the surface.
of the area covered by this report. They occur
as a thin band stretching almost from coast to The reaction is slightly acid to mildly alkaline,
coast, occupying about 4,000 acres in all. They the available potash content is high but not so
are derived from the heterogeneous hill-creep of high as the Talparo clay (about 150 p.p.m.).

Tarouba clay is an important sugar-oane soil
and at one time a productive cacao soil too, but
this cultivation has become practically extinct
through neglect and disease.
The soil derived from the lava of the mud
volcano at Bois Neuf in the Nariva Swamp is a
calcareous silty clay very similar to Brasso clay-
in appearance, on which account it has been
depicted as that soil type ; that derived from the
mud-volcano at Casoadoux Trace, Mayaro is more
clayey and concretionary and has been mapped as
Tarouba clay.
48. Chickland clay—Drainage impeded
Within the northern belt of Talparo clay are
small outcrops of shelly clay with a total area of
about 1,000 acres. The topsoil is dark brown to
yellowish brown clay for about 12 inches then
yellowish olive mottled yellowish brown for
another 18 inches. Below this an abundance of
white shell fragments is embedded in the clay.
The shelly clay often appears in the surface of
exposed and eroded ridge crests.
No laboratory data are available for this soil
type but it appears to be fairly well supplied with
plant nutrients for the sugar-cane and cacao
grown on it are markedly m.ore vigorous and
healthy than that of the surrounding non-
calcareous clays.
49. Ecclesville silty clay loam to clay—Drainage
impeded
Ecclesville clay is found in a broad belt on the
northern flank of the middle part of the Central
Range. Smaller areas occur in the limestone
country near Biche, in the type localities at
Ecclesville and in several other much smaller and
widely scattered spots. The total acreage is about
30,000, Brechin series of Charter is included here
because the name Ecclesville is to be preferred on
the grounds of priority ; Hardy had studied these
soils at Ecclesville long before Charter had
described them in the vicinity of Brechin Castle
sugar estate.
This soil type is derived from non-calcareous
clay shales of Miocene Age. The topsoil is dark
yellowish brown silty clay or silty clay loam.
Grey mottling appears at 12 inches and becomes
more marked with depth. Black manganese
dioxide stains frequently occur below 24 inches.
At about 48 inches the predominant colour is grey
or very pale olive mottled and stained varying
shades of yellowish brown. Shaly clay stone or
siltstone is usually found at about 6 feet from the
surface ; this is some shade of grey stained
yellowish brown in fissures and bedding planes.
Gypsum crystals may occur below 3 feet, but they
are not invariably present.
The profile is strongly to medium acid (pH 5-6.5)
being about 50 per cent, saturated with calcium.
29
Much of the area was formerly planted with
cacao but very little survives today. Hardy
varieties of sugar-cane can be grown where the
slopes are not too steep as at Esperanza Estate.
50. Talparo silty clay to clay—Drainage impeded
These soil types, which are the most widespread
in Central Trinidad, are derived from Pliocene to
Upper Eocene non-calcareous clay shales. They
cover about 104,000 acres in two broad belts on
either side of the Central Range and a few small
areas at Mayaro, Manzanilla and Matura. They
are commonly known as red clays or red weathering
clays. The soil m.orphology assumes the same
pattern no matter what the age of the parent clay
formation may be. An undisturbed profile has
four distinct horizons : 1. dark to light yellowish
brown silty clay or clay for the first 6 inches ;
2. yellowish brown silty clay or clay mottled
orange for about 12 inches ; 3. red clay (salmon
red to brick red when wet, pale reddish brown to
reddish brown when dry), mottled pale grey or
olive grey for 2 to 4 feet, becoming grey mottled
red with depth ; 4. more or less laminated grey
clay, which varies from olive to blue or even
purplish grey stained yellowish brown in fissures
and bedding planes. The yellowish brown topsoil
is not very often seen in the sugar-cane belt as it
has either been lost by erosion or has been
incorporated with the red subsoil. The general
appearance of the cane fields on this soil type when
they have been ploughed is bright brick red when
wet or light reddish brown when dry, but closer
inspection always reveals the grey mottling of the
exposed subsoil. When the parent claystone is
carbonaceous much of the mottling in the deep
subsoil is purple in colour.
Gypsum crystals almost invariably occur below
4 feet and sometimes as high as 2 feet from the
surface. They may be found in sporadic nests,
irregular veins or in massive crystals up to 2 lb.
in weight. The larger crystals are usually found
near the line of contact of the acid Talparo clay
with the highly calcareous Princes Town clay,
always on the clay side of the line and never in
the marl. Iron concretions, crimson or orange in
colour, soft, semi-hard or hard may be seen in any
horizon but they are rarely abundant ; they seem
to be more frequent in the drier areas. They
vary considerably in size and shape from rods
about 1 inch diameter and 4 inches long to flat
angular pebbles besides the common pisolithic
form. Black manganese dendritic staining may
be found below 2 feet from the surface.
Internal drainage is impeded and is certainly
very little in amount after the dry season cracks
have sealed up. But during the time the cracks
are open a great deal of water may find its way
to the shaly clays viagypsum veins, old root traces
and bedding planes. If the slope is long and
steeper than about 60 ° and especially if it is a dip
slope the wet clay—dry claj' shale contact will be

lubricated to such an extent t h a t t h e wet niasw
will slide over a large concave area.
Heaviness in t e x t u r e a n d high acidity (pH 4 . 0 -
5.0) combine to m a k e t h e Talparo clays have one
of t h e highest lime requirements of all Trinidad
soils (5 to 7 tons per acre) b u t some of this require-
ment m a y be m e t by t h e gypsum, in so far as
calcium nutrition is concerned. Available potash
is usually present in adequate quantities and is
sometimes as high as 1,000 p.p.m.. Available
phosphate is usually very low in amount and t h e
capacity for fixing phosphate is v e r y high.
Under estate management these soils can
produce good crops of hardy sugar-cane, b u t high
levels of nitrogen a n d phosphate m a n u r i n g are
necessary as well' as liming a n d contour planting.
Large areas are under peasant cultivation, in
which case, yields a r e very much lower. Cacao
was formerly planted over most of t h e eastern
side of t h e red clay belt, b u t only when t h e trees
were young a n d well cared for, were good crops
obtained. Most of t h e cacao trees are now
extinct or abandoned.
SOILS O F S T B E P L A N D (Central R a n g e ; E l e v a t i o n
250-1,000 ft.)
51. Tamana clay—Drainage excessive
T a m a n a clay is derived from orange coloured
Miocene limestone which occurs in t h i n outcrops,
striking SW-NE from Pointe-a-Pierre to
Manzanilla and covering about 3,000 acres. They
are comparatively shallow soils and consist of a
topsoil about 9 inches thick of dark brown humic
clay with a fine clod structure overlying 3 to 12
inches of yellowish brown clay. Below this is t h e
parent material which is a bright orange brown
clay full of limestone brash. Massive rock
usually appears within t h e t o p 3 feet.
This soil is remarkable in t h a t it supports a
xerophytic t y p e of n a t u r a l vegetation—Semi-
evergreen Seasonal Forest, Acurelmoussara
Association, Figuier tjrpe, although i t m a y have a
rainfall of over 100 inches a year. This is
accounted for in t h e steepness of slope and t h e
non-availability of subsoil water. Although con-
siderable amounts of water must pass through t h e
cracks in t h e clay topsoil it is soon lost in t h e
highly shattered limestone a n d sinks t o great
depths.
As would be expected this soil is of little value
to agriculture. I n t h e Guaracara district it has
been widely planted with limes which are now i n
varying stages of extinction.
52. San Fernando sand—Drainage excessive
This soil type, a s t h e name implies, is located
a t San Fernando where i t occupies m,ost of t h e
dome shaped hill near t h e centre of t h e town and
a smaller b u t similar hill 2 miles E.S.E. of Tamana
30
H i l l in t h e Central Kange Reserve covering about
800 acres in all. Deep profiles of this soil in t h e
quarries form conspicuous landmarks. The actual
topsoil is very thin, consisting of a few inches of
pale brown sand usually full of angular argilinc
chips overlying flaggy argiline. This h a s
weathered t o a whitish coloured fine grained
siliceous rock for about 20 feet, below which it is
coloured light grey from, carbonaceous m a t t e r .
No laboratory d a t a are available, b u t it is
certain t o be poor in all mineral n u t r i e n t s a n d
prone t o severe d r y season desiccation. No
cultivation exists as t h e land is all under Crown
reserves, t h e vegetative cover being a thin stand
of Semi-evergreen Seasonal Forest.
53. Mayaro sand to fine sand—Drainage excessive
This soil t y p e is derived from soft Miocene
sandstone or conglomeritic sandstone, covering an
area of 9,500 acres (including complexes with other
types) in t h e Central Range and a t Mayaro. Very
small a'-eas occur within t h e Moruga series b u t
t h e y a r e impossible t o m a p accurately ; here
t h e y correspond t o t h e good Brasso sand t y p e .
Apart from a slightly darker topsoil t h e whole
profile of t h e norm,al phase is undifferentiated
into horizons a n d is a uniform yellowish brown
sand or loamy sand down t o 6 feet. Solid sand-
stone occurs a t an undetermined depth below this,
but a few erratics m a y be scattered on t h e surface
or m a y be exposed i n deep cuttings. I n t h e stony
phase which is derived from Brasso conglomerate
small black cherty pebbles m a y occur sporadically
throughout t h e profile or be restricted t o definite
strata. Mayaro sand is less acid a n d richer in
potash t h a n other sedentary sandy soils (e.g..
Arena a n d Las Lomas). Where slopes are not too
steep a n d t h e sites are sheltered from drying winds
good stands of cacao are carried b u t unfortunately
such sites are rare and of limited extent.
54. Montserrat clay—Drainage free
This is t h e well known " chocolate " soil of t h e
Montserrat hills where i t occurs in too large areas
a n d several small ones which extend i n a t h i n
outcrop as far as Mandillon Road. T h e t o t a l area
is about 2,000 acres. They are derived from
variable shelly Miocene limestone which is
commonly soft a n d green i n colour from t h e
presence of glauconite or chlorite. The surface
is usually covered with a mulch J to 1 inch thick
of stable dark brown humic clay crumbs. The
topsoil is dark yellowish brown friable clay,
merging into friable yellowish brown clay a t
about 6 inches which becomes paler in colour and
apparently lighter in t e x t u r e with depth t o below
7 feet. Close inspection will reveal t h a t t h e light-
ness is due t o t h e soil being full of particles of
calcium carbonate of fine and coarse sand size
which are produced either by comminution of t h e
shelly or redisposition of lime from highly
calcareous groundwater. The green parent rock
 31
has not been seen bj^ the writer in any 6 feet
profile. Small patches of soil may be seen near
streams which are indurated with redeposited
calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is present
throughout the profile in the normal phase of
Montserrat clay and may be as much as 55 per
cent, in the deep subsoil. On the most exposed
and steep ridge crests very small areas (less than
1 acre) of Montserrat clay appear to have a reddish
east due to more intense leaching and desiccation.
This soil, if it were sufficiently extensive, would be
mapped as a separate series.
The water relationships and nutrient status of
the Montserrat clays are eminently suitable for
cacao and bananas. Internal drainage is good
and external drainage usually not too rapid. The
highly humic topsoil acts as a buffer against dry
season desiccation and the gradually decreasing
gradation of texture with depth enables subsoil
moisture to move into the root zone. The
nitrogen and mineral nutrient status are all high
in amount (.4 per cent. N, 500 p.p.m., PO4, 1,000
p.p.m. K,0). Such a soil constitutes the ideal
cacao soil and will apparently support this crop
indefinitely, for trees over 100 years are still
bearing heavily. In connection with cacao trees,
it is interesting to note that thick lateral roots
are found in this soil as deep as 4 feet below the
surface instead of actually on the surface as is the
rule with most other clay soils. Lilie all friable
soils, Montserrat clay is prone to gullying when
unprotected by adequate vegetative cover.
55. Brasso clay—-Drainage imperfect
Brasso clay is the most widespread soil type of
the higher parts of the Central Range, stretching
almost without a break from the West to East
coast and covering about 36,000 acres. I t is
derived from dark grey calcareous siltstone of
Lower Miocene Age. The topsoil is a dark brown
humic clay rarely more than 4 inches deep, below
which is about 12 inches of a yellowish olive clay.
A mottled horizon then appears and extends to
about 5 feet ; the ground colour of this is light
olive brown, inconspicuously mottled shades of
yellowish brown. Free calcium carbonate, inti-
mately mixed with the clay and not normally as
concretions, is usually found at about 30 inches
from the surface and increases to about 10 per
cent, of the clay at almost 5 feet. The parent
rock is a dark grey siltstone full of well pieserved
calcareous shells. Gypsum crystals may occur in
the top 6 feet but rarely above 4 feet from the
surface in an undisturbed profile. Iron concretions
are not common except in local spots in the vicinity
of Pointe-a-Pierre.
A pale coloured phase of Brasso clay occurs to
the West and jSTorth-west of the Montserrat series
near Tortuga. This is derived from a youngei'
geologicil deposits (Upper Brasso Formation),
but apart from the general colour being a light
olive the soil profile is not fundamentally different
from the normal Brasso clay soil type.
Eroded phases are to be found over the whole
belt especially on the steeper slopes. These may
be produced by landslips or by prolonged cultiva-
tion up and down slopes. Landslips are so
frequent and extensive in the Montserrat hills
that whole cacao fields have been destroyed. The
sites of the landslips, even when replanted, are
readily distinguished by the presence of lime and/
or gypsum at, or near, the surface. The erosion
phase due to cultivation is similarly identified and
occurs in the Forres Park—Pointe-a-Pierre area.
Three small patches of a few acres each of a
deep phase of Brasso clay are located at Pointe-a-
Pierre, Cedar Hill (Tortuga) and Brigand Hill
Estate. Here the topsoil is black or dark brown
with a grey oast to about 9 inches otherwise the
profile is similar to the normal phase.
Dry phases occur in small patches of the Central
Range Reserve, usually on ridge crests. The
subsoil of these may be permanently dry (10) and
the natural vegetation of a xerophytic nature
{Myrtaceae).
Brasso clay is somewliat similar to Tarouba
clay but it differs in being usually olive brown
instead of olive green in colour, has a progressive
decrease in texture with depth as the parent rook
is a siltstone and not a elaystone : gypsum is
usually found at a lower depth and in smaller
amounts ; iron and calcium carbonate concretions
are less frequent ; mottling is less pronounced
than in the Tarouba clay.
Plant nutrient content is fairly good especially
in the Montserrat District. Cacao, which was the
dominant crop, used to be highly productive on
young estates but the trees decline severely after
about 30 years. Teak trees attain their maximum
height on this soil type. Sugar-cane, maize and
ground provisions do very well with normal care.
56. Marper silty clay and clay—Drainage imperfect
Associated with the Montserrat and Brasso
series is an intermediate series of clays derived
from contemporaneous Miocene deposits. These
were first described in the Marper-Canterbury
Estates region of the E. Central Range but were
later found to be extensive in the Montserrat
Hills. The total area of Marper series is about
2,000 acres. The topsoil in the normal phase is
about 6 inches deep of a very dark brown almost
black crumbly to nutty clay which may be as
much as 15 inches deep in the deep phase. Below
is a uniform yellowish brown to brownish orange,
more compact clay which frequently contains an
abundance of white calcium carbonate concretions
(^3 inch diameter). When there are no
concretions this orange coloured horizon may have
a reddish cast. Yellowish olive mottling may
appear below 4 feet and this merges into yellowish
brown to yellowish olive clay shale. Some
exceptional profiles are bright yellowish brown
 32

ho 10 foet. Free calcium carbonate may occur in much softer and younger marlstone. Below this
definite horizons or less frequently, not at all, is 2 to 4 feet of bright yellow to yellowish brown
but the whole profile is more than half saturated marly clay subsoil which sometimes contains
with calcium. Limestone chips or rooks may ealcite crystals, rarely contains calcium carbonate
occur at any depth especially in the more easterly concretions and never contains gypsum. One
outcrops of this soil. The deep phase is found profile which was examined showed signs of an
ohiefiy in the vicinity of San Salvador and Tortuga incipient reddish horizon at 15 to 20 inches but
Estates in the Montserrat District, where it this was exceptional. Massive parent marlstone
occupies well defined upland terraces. In this is found at about 4 feet from the surface ; this is
locality it is distinguished from the Montserrat comparatively hard and pale yellow in colour.
clay in having a darker and deeper topsoil, larger
calcareous concretions, slightly mottled, compact Drainage and mineral nutrient status are
or shaly subsoil clay instead of friable clay. similar to the Princes Town clay with perhaps
somewhat more available phosphate present
Plant nutrient status is above the average, (40 p.p.m. instead of 10-20). Most of the area
especially in the deep phase where both available covered by this soil type is under high Evergreen
potash and phosphate may be high. Excellent Seasonal Forest, Crappo-Guatacare Association,
stands of cacao are to be seen on the Marper clays fine-leaf-carat type. At Biche a small acreage is
but in the flatter spots young trees are difficult to occupied by flourishing cacao.
establish compared with the surrounding
" chocolate " soil.
59. Moruga loams—-Drainage imperfect
57. Canterbury silty day—Drainage imperfect Moruga Loams are located on the northern
Canterbury silty clay is practically confined to flank of the Central Range and to the South of the
the eastern half of the Central Range, with small most southerly red clay belt. Altogether about
outliers near Guaracara and Pointe-a-Pierre, 30,000 acres of the area with which this report
covering in all about 4,000 acres. It is derived deals are covered by these loams but a very much
from black or dark grey, hard carbonaceous shales greater area occurs further South. They are
of Eocene to Lower Cretaceous Age. The topsoil derived from very variable, fine sand-silt-clay
is a dark to light brown silty clay overlying shales of Miocene Age, which have been folded and
yellowish brown, orange mottled horizon about faulted into most complex geological structures.
12 inches thick. This grades into an unconsoli- The weathering products are shallow loams which
dated mass of brashy shale fragments dark brown on account of steepness of slope (young topography)
in general colour and stained orange brown. At do not display any striking pedologioal character-
5 to 7 feet below the surface the parent rock istic. The topsoil is yellowish brown fine sandy
appears ; this is hard, black, calcareous and very loam, loam or fine sandy clay loam merging into
micaceous shale veined with white clayey films paler yellowish loams which may be slightly
which are believed to be kaolin. Hard, crimson m.ottled with orange brown. Laminated soft
purple haematite concretions are a marked feature sand, silt, clay shale may be found at 4 to 7 feet
of this soil type, being found at any depth from from the surface, the depth depending on steepness
the surface to the parent rock and any size up to of slope. Flatfish iron concretions may occur at
1 | inches diameter. Caloite crystals and, more any depth but they are not common. The M^hole
rarely, pyrites and gypsum may be found in the profile is very micaceous but never calcareous nor
deep subsoil. Small portions of the area depicted gypseous. Plant nutrient status is medium to low
as this type on the map are intimately mixed with in every respect and this is reflected in the agri-
the non-calcareous soils of the Mitan series. culture, so much so, that they were formerly called
bad Brasso sands. Unless the site is very sheltered
or near the very fertile Montserrat clay, cacao
The nutrient status of this soil type is not trees are a failure. Citrus thrives well on these
outstanding, apart from high topsoil organic loams provided slopes are not too steep. It
matter content (6-8 per cent.) Cacao thrives should be noted here that the soils derived from
very well on sheltered hillsides but most of the the more clayey faoies of the sand-silt clay shales
area is under high forest as in the ease of Biche elay. are classed as Ecclesville series.

58. Biche clay—Drainage imperfect

This soil type occurs in several small patches on
the southern slopes of the Central Range, covering
altogether about 2,000 acres. It is derived from
semi-hard Eocene and Cretaceous marlstones.
The topsoil is a black cloddy clay not more than
6 inches deep, with little or no surface crumb. It
is more sticky when wet and harder when dry
than the Princes Town clav which is derived from
60. Mount Harris Catena—Drainage imperfect
Soils of this category are widely distributed on
the southern flank of the Central Range where
they occupy about 10,000 acres. They are
catenary because they follow a topographic
sequence and have the same parent material, viz.
gritty sand. They are derived from the weathering
products of narrow bands of gritty sandstone
 33

outcropping in red mottled clays of Eocene- 61. Mitan fine sandy loams to silty clays—
Miocene Age. The actual area of the sand out- Drainage imperfect
crops is usually small and confined to ridge crests, These soils are practically confined to the
but the loose coarse sand into which it breaks eastern half of the Central Range with three small
down is washed over a considerable area of the lenses South of the Guaracara limestone outcrop
lower clay slopes. Fragments of coarse gritty covering about 6,000 acres in all. They are
sandstone are also scattered erratically, both on derived from non-calcareous silty shales of Eocerie
the surface and within the soil profile. The net to Cretaceous Age. Profile horizons are rather
result is normally a soil similar to the Piarco ill defined but are characterized by an abundance
series but with larger sand grains, overlying a red of angular fragments of semi-hard brown or grey
mottled clay subsoil. The topsoil consists of shale. The topsoil is very variable in texture,
humus coated quartz sand, dark brown at the patches of yellowish brown fine sandy loam, to
surface and paler below. This overlies a very light silty clays being found within very short distances.
grey silty clay mottled bright orange for almost These overlie at 6-12 inches an orange or orange
20 inches then the mottling changes abruptly to red mottled horizon which at about 2 feet 6 inches
crimson mottling. Orange mottling appears again changes to brashy shale. Grit fragments and
at about 3 feet from the surface and finally replaces crimson iron concretions may occur at any depth.
the red. Below about 5 feet clay shale is found Black manganese dioxide staining and white
which may be olive green Chaudiere shale or kaolin films are often found below 2 feet.
grey and yellowish brown more massive claystone
of the Nariva formation. Owing to great
irregularities in topography deep accumulations of The mineral nutrient status is low and the
sand-wash are produced in clay hollows and form profile is acid throughout. Most of the land of
small areas of almost perennially water-logged this series is under high forest (as for Mount
soil. The topsoil in these wet patches is usually Harris Catena) and the small areas that have been
more humic and the subsoil greyer than the normal cleared for agriculture are now abandoned.
phase but they are too small to map separately Coconuts were once widely planted to the South of
as are the areas of sedentary soils derived from the Brigand Hill but nearly all died out soon after
grit. This gritty soil is similar to Arena sand with coming into bearing from lack of subsoil moisture
a shallower humus coated sand topsoil (only 3 reserves and root-room as well as mineral nutrients.
inches) bright orange-yellow sand to about 4 feet,
then solid gritty sandstone which is usually
heavily encrusted with red and orange ferric
hydroxides. 62. Chaudiere clay—Drainage imperfect
This soil was formerly included in Ecclesville
series but its morphology is so distinct that it is
The mineral nutrient status of these soils is very now elevated to separate series rank. I t is
low and they are extremely acid throughout the confined to the Mount Harris (Chaudiere River)
profile. Proneness to drought and waterlogging district of the Central Range Reserve, where it
combined with stoniness and low fertility make covers about 3,000 acres. Chaudiere clay consists
them worthless for agriculture as can be seen in of a few inches of dark yellowish brown clay
the abandoned land of the Piparo-Tabaquite topsoil overlying olive clay mottled dark red or
district. Fortunately the largest area of the reddish brown. Bright olive green flakey clay
Mount Harris Catena is in a permanent Forest appears at about 24 inches from the surface and
reserve. Attempts were made to establish teak this is a dark olive green, semi-hard clay-shale
on these soils in the Plum Road corner section of with a very greasy feel. The profile is non-
the Central Range Reserve but the result has calcareous but the parent shale may actually have
been a costly failure. It is interesting to note an alkaline reaction—the rest of the profile being
that the understorey shrubs of the poor stunted very strongly to strongly acid (pH 4.5-5.5).
teak trees are almost entirely aluminium-plant The whole area of this soil type is covered by
thickets {Miconia acinodendron and Psychotria Evergreen Seasonal Forest Formation, Crappo-
cuspidata). Guatacare Association, Fine-leaf-cocorite type.

11. SOILS AND CROPS

SUGAR-CANE
Sugar-cane is now the most important crop
produced in the Colony. The greater part of the
cane land is found in Central Trinidad but is more
or less restricted to the western quarter of this
area. The reason for growing cane here in
preference to elsewhere is that the dry season is
better defined ; it is essential that the land should
be firm and dry for the extraction of the cane from
the fields—otherwise the cane carts soon become
axle-deep in mud. Juice quality, i.e., sucrose
content is better when there is a definite dry
season and rainfall only 50-70 inches. Since the
decline of eacao, cane cultivation is extending
westwards into the wetter regions around Caparo
and Rio Claro (rainfall 80-100 inches).
 34

Prior to about 1910 the only variety of cane the trees eventually died out or were abandoned
grown in Trinidad was the noble or Bourbon cane during the period of low prices between 1933-39.
which was cultivated with ample hand labour and Only on naturally fertile soils have high yields
pen manure under estate management. The (2 to 5 bags of 165 lb. per acre) been consistent!}'
cultivation of marginal lands was left to the maintained, e.g., Montserrat, Marper and parts of
peasant farmers. Mechanisation of cultivation the Brasso series. High bearing, disease resistant
and sol) exhaustion through erosion, persistent trees might be x^rofitably grown on other soil types
mono-culture and reduction of pen manure, provided the land is not too exposed, but they
caused serious decline in yiald^ and lead to the should not be regarded as a permanent crop and
bleeding of an improved variety BH.1012 and the should form part of a long term rotation cycle. ,
use of artificial fertilizers. All went well for a
couple of decades with ever increasing artificial
fertilization and then serious froghopper damage COÏFEE
and depletion of humus and plant nutrients Coffee is rarely grown as a mono-culture but i^
(especially in non-calcareous soils) forced the inter-planted between cacao trees that are exposed
introduction of wild or hardy blood into the noble to too much sun and wind. It appears to be
varieties. Several of the hardv hybrids were so equally productive on both the calcareous and the
successful, e.g., 34104, 37161, '^37172, that with non-calcareous soil types of the cacao district
heavy dressings of sulphate of ammonia (4 to and also improves the surrounding cacao.
6 owts per acre) yields of 50 to 80 tons per acre are
now being obtained with plant canes on land that,
even with fertilizers, would not be economic if BANANAS
noble cane were grown. Bananas require similar soils to cacao for
profitable yields and do best in the Montserrat
In Central Trinidad, the principal sugar-cane and Marper series. Panama root disease and leaf
soils are derived from the alluvial deposits of the spot (Cercospora) preclude the planting of bananas
Caroni-Caparo-Couva River systems ; Tacarigua, on non-calcareous soils.
Orange Grove Pasea, Cunupia, Washington,
Waterloo, Bejucal, Frederick, Couva, McBean, GRAPEFRUIT AND OTHER CITRUS
Freeport, Caracas and Sevilla series, all except
the last two series being non-calcareous. Brasso Citrus resembles sugar-cane in that it responds
clay at the western end of the Central Range is readily to artificial fertilizers and consequently it
cultivated on the Forres Park estate. Further can be profitably grown on less fertile land than
South is the large estate of the Ste. Madeleine Sugar is needed for cacao. Highly productive stands of
Company situated on the undulating Naparima grapefruit and oranges may be seen on soils of the
Peneplain. The soils here are nearly all olays with River Estate, Cunupia, Freeport-McBean, Sangre
about equal proportions of calcareous (Tarouba Grande, MorugaandP]celesville series. Oranges will
and Princes Town series) and non-calcareons tolerate better than grapefruit, soils that are more
(Talparo series). acid in reaction and more exposed to drying
winds. Limes are practically extinct in Central
Detailed yield data are not available for Trinidad owing to an obscure die back disease.
individual soil types but from observations made
during the soil survey their order of productivity COCONUTS
with the usual fertilizer practice might be given as
follows : Tacarigua, Princes Town, Tarouba, Coconuts require a constant supply of moving
Brasso, Sevilla, Caracas, Bejiical, C o u v a , subsoil moisture for sustained bearing. Conditions
Washington, Cunupia, Waterloo, Freeport, McBean, behind the Manzanilla and Mayaro beaches appear
Talparo. By applying heavy dressings of potash to be ideal for this crop. The former has the water
to the sandy types and lime and super-phosphate from the Nariva Swamp to draw upon whilst the
to the acid rod clays yields of all the above series latter area has the drainage water from the adjacent
can be maintained at the 40 to 70 tons cane per clay hills. Coconuts were widely planted in the
acre of plant cane, provided weather and frog- Waterloo Estates about 40 years ago but they
hopper damage are not abnormal. were never high bearing and many trees died out.
The whole plantation is now being replaced with
sugar-cane.
CACAO (Cocoa)
Cacao was formerly planted over the greater
part of the alienated land, i.e., land alienated from RUBBER
the Crown, having more than 70 inches of rain Hevea rubber has been planted on the hills
per annum. Unlike sugar-cane, which responds near Sangre Grande (Talparo and Phoenix series)
readily to fertilizers, it is extremely difficult to and at Biche (Talparo, Ecclesville and Mount
maintain profitable cacao in marginal soil tjrpes by Harris series). Profitable yields were obtained
artificial fertilizing and even the best cultural during the 1939-45 war, but figures are not avail-
practices eventually fail, or prove too costly. able for comparison with rubber from the
Since very large areas are really unsuited for cacao. East Indies.
 35

RICE best in low wet land or the lower slopes of

All fresh water swamp land that is not perma- calcareous hills.
nently under water or in Crown lands is planted
with riee. Yields are generally high compared MAIZE
with Africa and Asia, 3,000 lb. paddy per acre as Good crops of maize are obtained in old cacao
against 1,500 lb. This is probably due to the land but unless the soil is of a calcareous type
high nitrogen and potash contents of the soils. yields decline seriously after a few years. Wide
Hill rice can be grown on the acid clay soil types. l^lantings have been made on the soils of the
Cunupia, Eeelesville, Brasso, Tarouba and Princes
TONGA BEANS, PINE-APPLES, CASHEW NUTS Town series.
These are all calcifuge crops ; they will thrive
TANNIAS
in any acid soil, so long as it is not water-logged.
For profitable yields good cultivation and manuring The best tannia soils are also the best cacao
with N.P.K. are necessary. Dry season mulching soils, e.g., Montserrat, Marper and Brasso series,
with vegetable trash is also an advantage. A but they can be gro-svn profitably on all calcareous
flourishing estate of these crops is the Crescent soil types.
Estate at D'Abadie on Piarco fine sand soil type.
EDDOES AND DASHEEN
TEAK These tubers do best in swamp land that is a
Teak will grow on any soil that is not prone to little too dry for rice, e.g., parts of Cacandee and
prolonged water-logging but best growth is Bejucal and Navet series.
obtained on calcareous clay hills of the Brasso
series. It is one of the few crops that can be In the table summarizing this report the various
successfully grown on recent land-slipped areas. soil series are given jiroductivity grades in respect
of the major crops. I t should be noted that soil
which is grade A for cacao is grade B or C for rice
PODDEE G E A S S E S and calcifuge crops or vice versa. The grading
The best fodder grasses that can be grown in is assessed on the normal performance of the soil
Trinidad are Uganda (Elephant), Guinea, under common estate practices of draining,
Guatemala and Para Grasses. The first three liming, fertilizing with sulphate of ammonia,
require a well drained soil with plenty of root-room pruning, &e. The inherent productivity of the
and subsoil moisture and they will tolerate soils major cane land is one or two grades lower than
with a reaction as low as pH 4.5. Para grass does the ratings given.

12. GENETIC CLASSIFICATION

The fundamental basis of a natural classification material. This order consists of three Great
of soils with a world-wide application is the mode Soil Groups.
of origin or genesis of the individual soils. The An attempt will now be made to fit the soils of
latest American system (22) divides soils into Central Trinidad into the above system. Previous
three higher categories or orders : attempts have been made by the writer (9) and
Prof. Hardy (14) to classify the soils of Trinidad
1. Zonal sot^s which are Great Soil Groups having according to the earlier (1938) (20) version as
well developed soil characteristics that reflect the used for the soils of Puerto Rico. Certain types
influence of climate and vegetation. This order fitted very well but the majority fell short of
is divided into 6 sub-orders depending on the kind much of the Great Soil Group criteria (Gleys were
of climate and/or vegetation and the sub-orders not given Great Soil Group status at that time).
are further divided into 23 Great Soil Groups. The most notable being the mottled clay types
which cover about 90 per cent, of the area. These
2. Intrazonal soils which are Great Soil Groups were placed in one or other of the colour categories
having more or less well developed soil character- of the Podsolic soils of the Zonal order, as they
istics that reflect the greater influence of some were more or less leaehed of bases and there was
local factor of relief, parent material or age over local concentration of iron in spots and pipings
the normal effect of climate and vegetation. This of the subsoils. If the criteria of a podsolic soil are
order is divided into 3 sub-orders depending on strictly adhered to, viz : the presence of a light
soil forming processes other than climate and coloured or bleached horizon (A2) below the
vegetation and these are further divided into humic surface soil a uniform red, yellow or browir
13 Great Soil Groups. horizon of accumulation (B) and free of excessive
3. Azonal soils which are Great Soil Groups internal drainage, then the mottled Trinidad clays
without well developed profile characteristics should not be included in the Podsolic Great «oil
owing to their youth, relief or condition of parent Groups.
 36
Prior to 1938 Hardy *held the opinion that these
mottled soils were gleys but the definition given
in " Soils and Men " only referred to soils with
blue-green wet horizons as gleys and so this
opinion was presumably discarded.
At the suggestion of Dr. A. Muir, mottled clays
have been reconsidered in the light of the gleying
process. Some uncertainty has existed regarding
this process especially in soils of undulating land.
The present writer confined the term solely to
those soils with almost permanently wet, reduced
horizons displaying uniform bright blue or green
colours which are only found in low-lying land.
Upland soils with grey or whitish subsoils mottled
yellow Orange or red were regarded as the result
of differential decalcification and podzolization.
Mottled effects of low-lying soils have long been
considered as being due to a variant of the gleying
process in which periods of saturation alternate
with periods of desiccation. Recent research at
Rothamsted has shown that gley soils can occur
in areas of undulating relief even in England and
as the Trinidad clays have long periods of satura-
tion and desiccation they are now regarded as
gleys. Two types of gleys of low land have
recently (22) been tentatively recognized as
having Great Soil Group status, viz : Humie gley
(Glei) and low humic gley. The soils of the flat
land of Trinidad can be fitted into these groups
satisfactorily but the mottled soils of hilly land
would be better in a separated group which might
be called perched gley soils—after their perched
water-tables.
On the basis of the foregoing a provisional
genetic classification of the soils of Central Trinidad
IS submitted below. It should be noted that
only two (3 per cent.) soil series are classed as
Zonal and that the rest are either Hydromorphic
Intrazonal (68 per cent.) Calcimorphio Intrazonal
(8 per cent.) or Immature Azonal (21 per cent.).
The reason for this is almost certainly due to the
fact that the parent rooks are of sedimentary 'type
and the topography is largely immature.
A PROVISIONAL GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OE THE
SOILS OE CENTRAL TRINIDAD
Order : ZONAL (3 per cent.)
Sub-order : Light coloured podzolized forest
soils.
Great Soil Groups.
1. Red-yelloioish podsolic soils : aeid soil having grading though light brown soil to parent material
thin organic topsoil over a light coloured (or (Tropical Forest).
bleached) (A2) horizon over a red orange or yellow
more clayey (B) horizon.
belong to the yellowish brown lateritic soil group).
Series : Las Lomas, Phoenix
Order : INTRAZONAL (76 per cent.)
Sub-order : Hydromorphic soils
Great Soil Groups
•Private communication
2. Bog soils : brown to black peat overlying
peat mixed with mineral matter.
Series : Caroni Swamp, Brazil, Macaw.
3. Half-bog soils : dark brown to black peaty
material over {a) grey, rust-mottled mineral soil
(Ö) uniform grey mineral soil.
Series : (a) Barataria, Frederick
(b) Nariva Swam.p.
4. Humic-gley soils : dark coloured organic
mineral horizon underlain by mineral gley horizons.
Series : Savaneta, Cacandee, Bejucal, Bois
Neuf, Oropuna.
5. Low humic-gley soils : thin humic surface
horizon over grey and brown gley-like mineral
horizons with a low degree of textural differenti-
ation.
Series : Washington, Caracas, Sevilla, Cunupia,
Pasea, L'Ebranche, Sangre Grande, Aranguez,
Navet, Couva, Waterloo, Freeport, Orange Grove,
Long Stretch.
6. Planosols : strongly leached surface soils over
compact clay pan.
Series : Streatham, Macoya, Piarco, Aripo
Savanna.
7. Groundwater podsol soils : thin acid humus
over whitish grey leached layer up to 3 feet thick
over brown cemented hard pan.
Series : Valencia.
8. Perched gley soils : thin humic mineral surface
soil over mottled subsoil, saturated in wet season,
desiccated in dry season. (a) Calcareous
(6) Non-calcareous.
Series : (a) Tarouba, Chickland, Canterbury,
Brasso
(&) Eeclesville, Talparo, Mount Harris,
Mitan, Chaudiere.
Sub-order : Calcimorphic soils.
9. Brown forest soils . dark brown friable soil
Series : Montserrat, Marper, Tamana (may
10. Bendzina soils : greyish brown to black
granular soil underlain by grey or yellowish soft
calcareous material.
Series : Biche, Princes Town.

Order : AZONAL (21 per cent.)
11. Regosols : consist of deep, soft mineral
deposits in which few or no clearly expressed soil
characteristics have developed.
Series : Cecal, Moruga, Piparo, Arena.
12. Lithosols : soils having no clearly expressed
soil morphology and consisting of a freshly and
imperfectly weathered mass of rook fragments.
37
Series : Non-Pareil, San Fernando, Mayaro.
13. Alluvial soils : soils developed from trans-
ported and relatively recently deposited material
(alluvium) characterized by little or no modifica-
tion of the original material by soil forming
processes.
Series : St. Joseph, Washington, Oropoucho,
River Estate, St. Augustine, Guanapo.
 38

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14. R E F E R E N C E S
1. Agricultural Policy Committee of Trinidad and Tobago, Pts. 1 and 2, 1943.
2. Bain, F . , M. RainfaU of Trinidad, Govt. Printer, 1934.
3. Beard, J . S., Natural Vegetation of Trinidad, Oxford Forestry Memoirs 20, 1945.
4. Brooks, R . L., Garib. For. 2, 164, 1941.
5. Charter, C. F . , Soil Types of Sugar Estates of Trinidad, Govt. Printer, 1939.
6. Charter, C. F . , Ann. Reports Sug. Agron. Trin. Dept. Ag. 1942.
7. Charter, C. F . , Ann. Hep. Sugar Agron. Trin. Dept. Ag. 1941.
8. Chenery, E . M., Ag. Soe. T. and T. Paper 828, 1938.
9. Chenery, E . M.,Unpublished Classification of Soils of Trin. and Tob. according to Great Soil Groups, 1945.
10. Chenery, E . M., and H a r d y , F . Trap. Ag. 22, 100, 1945.
11. Hardy, F.,Proc. Frogh. Oomm. 15, 243, 1929.
12. Hardy, F . , Trop. Ag. 7, 1930.
13. Hardy, P., Trop. Ag. 17, 183, 1940.
14. Hardy, F., Unpublished Memo, on Classification of Tropical Sous, 27th April, 1945.
15. Kellogg, C. E., Soil Survey Manual, tJ.S.D.A. Misc. P u b . No. 274, 1937.
16. Kugler, H., Summary Digest of Geology of Trinidad, 1939.
17. McDonald, J . A., Hardy, F . , and Rodriguez, G., Studies in West Indian Soils, 7, 1933.
18. Osmond, D. A., Soils Survey Notes (Unpublished) 1-4, 1949.
19. Piper, C. S., " Soils and Plant Analysis ", Adelaide, 1944.
20. " Soils and Men ", U.S.D.A., Year-book, 1938.
21. West Indian Royal Commission Recommendations, H.M.S.O., 1940.
22. Thorp, J., and Smith, G. D., SoilSci., 67, 117, 1949.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Sincere thanks are due to Drs. H. Greene, A. Muir, and D. Osmond, of Rothamsted Experimental
Station, for much good advice on the presentation of the maps and again to Dr. Greene for arranging
the printing of the maps at the Directorate of Colonial Surveys, Surbiton. Acknowledgments are
also due to Colonel D. Wiggins and his staff for their painstaking work of producing such excellent
coloured maps.