 Process in Reading :

(a) Decoding
Converting drawings or words to
intelligible words
(b) Comprehension
Translating words into meanings ; ability
to understand texts given
(c ) Studying
extracting meaning from the text
 Themes

Main Ideas

Ideas

Chunks Comprehension

Words

Sounds

Features and Letter

 (a) Underlining and highlighting
- identify important information
- physically active while reading
- metacognate to focus on the important
information ( think & evaluate)
- see the sequence and organization of ideas
in the text
- demonstrate understanding of text. Ability
to comprehend & underline
(b)
 To synthesize information
◦ Very high level critical thinking
◦ The mastery level of many of our content standards
 To distill information into a concise new
form
 To separate important information from
extraneous information
 To put information into their own words
Summarizing is “procedural knowledge.” If
students are expected to become proficient
in procedural knowledge, they need to be
able to “practice.”

Mastering a skill or process requires a fair amount of

focused practice. Practice sessions initially should be
spaced very closely together. Over time, the intervals
between sessions can be increased. Students also need
feedback on their efforts.

While practicing, students should adapt and shape

what they have learned.
 to establish background or offer an overview of a
topic
 to describe common knowledge (from several
sources) about a topic
 to determine the main ideas of a single source
 What is the purpose of note taking in my
classroom?

 What is my personal style for note taking?

 What do I do in the classroom to help

students take notes?
 Verbatim note taking is the least effective
way to take notes
 Not engaged in their learning
 Only recording not analyzing
 Notes should be considered a work in
progress
 Revise & add to notes
 Notes should be used as study guides for
tests
 The more notes taken, the better
Why Take Notes?
 If you do not write anything down,

– 42% of the information will be forgotten

after 20 minutes
– 56% after 1 hour
– 66% after 1 day
– 75% after 1 week
– 80% after 1 month
 Give students teacher-prepared notes or note
frameworks
 Teach students a variety of note-taking
formats
 Have students use technology when it’s
available
Note Taking Rules
 Use key words & phrases
 Use symbols & abbreviations
 Put only one fact on a line
 Spread notes out – fill in later
 Paraphrase where possible; use
synonyms
©
 The words around an unfamiliar word that
give you clues about the unknown word’s
meaning
◦ The couple finally secured a table at the popular,
crowded restaurant.
By using the clues around the word secured, the
reader can determine that secured means “able to
get.”
 Sometimes a writer will provide a formal definition of the unknown
word:
The settlers reached the piedmont, a gently rolling foothill area between
a plain and mountains.
 More often a writer will provide a synonym or a brief phrase that
defines the unfamiliar word:
The king’s laws were often arbitrary; in other words, he made rules
based on how he felt at the moment.
 Common signal words: which is, in other words, also known as, also
called, that is, or
 Common punctuation:
Commas –The amateur figure skater surpassed, or exceeded, the
judges’ expectations.
Dashes – The sculptor usually created a maquette – a small model –
before beginning work on the actual piece.
Parentheses – Thick layers of loess (wind-blown silt) cover regions of
the Mississippi River Valley.
These definitions or synonyms may not be found in the same
sentence but elsewhere in the text.
 The context in which a word appears may include
one or more examples that are clues to the
unknown word’s meaning.
Our science class is studying crustaceans, such as
lobsters, shrimp, and crab.

Crustaceans must be sea animals with an

exoskeleton and segmented body parts.

Words signaling Example context clues:

like ; for example ; other ; including;
for instance ; such as; these include
 The writer compares the unfamiliar word with more
familiar words. By noting the similarities between
the things described, the reader can get an idea of
the meaning of the word.
The amethyst, like other precious stones known for
hardness, cannot be cut with a knife or scratched
by glass.
An amethyst must be a valuable gem that has the
properties of a diamond.
Words Signaling a Comparison:
like ; similar to ; similarly ; resembling ;
likewise ; related ; in the same way
 The writer states how the meaning of the
unfamiliar word is different or opposite from the
clue.
Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address was concise, in sharp
contrast to the long-winded, two-hour speech that
he presented earlier.
A concise speech is opposite of a long speech, so
concise must mean brief or short.
Words Signaling a Contrast or Antonym
but ; on the other hand ; instead ;
differently ; on the contrary ; although;
however ; in contrast to ; unlike
 The cause of an action or event may be stated
using an unfamiliar word. If the effect is stated in
familiar terms, it can help the reader understand
the unknown word.
The weeds in the garden are so profuse, that I can
no longer see the flowers.
Cause-There are many weeds.
Effect-You can’t see the flowers.
Profuse must mean a large quantity.
Words Signaling Cause and Effect
because , consequently, that ; so;
since; therefore ; as a result
 Often the context clues are in the surrounding
sentences, and the reader must infer or make an
educated guess about the unknown word’s meaning. A
single piece of information several sentences away from
the unfamiliar word may be an important clue.

By the middle of the semester, Bob started to see the

fallacy in this thinking. Since he had done well in high
school without doing much reading or schoolwork, he
thought he could continue this routine in college. He now
realized he had been mistaken. He would have to work
to earn the grades.
Fallacy must mean to make an error in judgment.
 SQ3R refers to a recommended method for
effective textbook reading.
 The letters and number stand for:
 Survey
 Question
 Read
 Recite
 Review
 When you first purchase a textbook for a course, survey
the book immediately.
 Read the Table of Contents.
 Glance through the back matter, e.g., glossaries and
index.
 Look at the chapter titles and subtitles.
 This is the first step in becoming familiar with what your
are about to learn.
 If some of the material is already familiar, you will be
activating your prior knowledge on this subject, which
will make subsequent learning easier.
 When you are assigned a chapter to read in your
textbook, first survey that chapter.
 Read the title and introductory paragraph.
 Read all subtitles.
 Look at all graphs, illustrations, photos, and charts.
 Pay attention to all words in bold or italics.
 Read the summary at the end if one is included.
 Read over the questions at the end of the chapter if
they are provided.
 The next step is to create questions to guide
your reading.
 Turn all headings and subheadings into
questions.
 Record the questions in your notebook.
 As you read, answer the questions you
have created and record the answers in
your notebook.
 This will guide you in finding and
making note of the main ideas
presented in the textbook chapter.
 Once you have completed the chapter and
recording all questions and answers, it is now
time to memorize the answers to your
questions.
 Recite the answer to each question either out
loud or silently until each answer is
committed to memory
 The final step in this process is to review what
you have learned.
 Look at each question and cover up the
answer with a sheet of paper.
 Try to answer the question. If you have done
so successfully, move on to the next question.
 If you find that you have not yet memorized
a particular answer, recite the answer again
until you do so.
 Purpose:
 To provide a scaffold from which students can
interact with difficult texts at different levels.
 To stimulate an active response to meaning
at the literal, interpretive, and applied levels.
 To help students develop a good sense of the
conceptual complexity of text material.
• Three levels of comprehension
• Literal (read the lines)
• Interpretive (between the lines)
• Applied level (beyond the lines)
• Three-Level Comprehension Guides provide
the framework in which students can
interact with difficult texts at different levels
of comprehension.
 Motivation is defined as an internal
state that arouses, directs and
maintains behaviour. The source of
motivation can either be intrinsic or
extrinsic
 Motivation is the strong desire to
do something. A highly motivated
learner is one who devotes his full
energy to study, to learn and to
achieve, and to maintain those
Cognitive Approach to Motivation
Expectancy x Value Theories
Motivation is seen as the product of two main forces:
(i) the individual's expectation of reaching a goal and
(ii) the value of the goal to him or her.

Example of Application:
If Allen believes that he has a good chance of making the
badminton team (high expectations) and making the team is
very important to Allen (high value), then his motivation will be
high.
HIGH EXPECTATION
STRONG
MOTIVATION
HIGH VALUE
 Implications for teaching

Teachers should help students

see the VALUE of the task they
are doing

Teachers should give students a

reasonable EXPECTATION of
success in their task
 Extrinsic Motivation
A person will have high extrinsic motivation because of
the value attached to what he will get for what he is
doing. E.g. a person works hard because of the prospect
of promotion. He attaches high value to promotion.

 Social Motivation
A person will have high social motivation because of the
value attached to the opinions of others such as peers,
parents, teachers, etc. E.g. a student studies hard
because he gets recognition/approval/praise from his
teacher. He attaches high value to the
recognition/approval/praise.
 Achievement Motivation
Two motives are involved, i.e.
❖ Motive to achieve success (High need-
achiever)
❖ Motive to avoid failure (Low need-achiever)
A high need achiever will work hard because
he has a high motive to succeed and when
the task is challenging (i.e. not too easy or
too difficult)

 Intrinsic Motivation
A person will have high intrinsic motivation
because of the value attached to what he is
doing. E.g. a person studies hard, not because of
 Expecting Success:
Self-Efficacy Theory

Self-efficacy refers to our beliefs about our personal

competence or effectiveness in a given task

A student will be motivated to perform a task if the student

feels confident that he or she can effectively perform the task

Example of Application:
A student who believes he is competent at mathematics will
work hard at mathematics and spend more time with
mathematics than with subjects for which he has low self-
efficacy.
Self-Efficacy Its Role and Sources.
The expectation of success of a person
depends on what he thinks/believes
about his ability, i.e. self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy refers to the confidence
a person has in his ability to do well in a
particular task.
Self-efficacy can differ greatly from
task to task. A person may have high
self-efficacy in playing the piano but
low self-efficacy
High self-
in learning
Expectation of
Mathematics.
efficacy success - HIGH
 Attribution refers to a person’s beliefs about the
causes of his previous successes or failures. He
may attribute his successes or failures to:
➢ Internal-external factors
For example, if he did well in an exam, he might
attribute it to his hard work (internal factor) or easy
questions (external factor)
➢Stable-unstable factors
For example, if he did well in a Maths test, he might
attribute it to his high aptitude for Maths (stable factor)
or luck (unstable factor)
➢Controllable-uncontrollable factors
For example, if he did well in an assignment, he might
attribute it to his effort (controllable factor) or the
teacher making a mistake in grading (uncontrollable
factor).
 When a person attributes successful performance
largely to internal and controllable factors, his
expectation of success will be high and this will
likely lead to high motivation.

 When a person attributes successful performance

largely to external and uncontrollable factors, his
expectation of success will be low, leading to low
motivation. He believes that success is beyond his
control.
 Example of Application:
 If a person attributes his success in mathematics to
the hard work he puts in, then he is motivated to
repeat the hard work.

 If a person attributes his failure in mathematics to his

family's poverty, he will not be motivated to study
mathematics
 ARCS model (Keller, 1983)
❖ generating Attention
- Arouse curiosity. Present challenging issues to be
solved; use various strategies to gain attention

❖ establishing Relevance
- relate new knowledge with past or prior knowledge;
sustain interest & curiosity; relate to real life in order to
relate new materials

❖ Building Confidence
- Strategies to encourage students to have autonomy of
their own goals and learning

❖ generating Satisfaction
- Give SS chance to accomplish new skills through
meaningful activity; Rewards/ praises to enhance learning

 Six C’s of Motivation (Turner & Paris, 1995)

❖ Choice
❖ Challenge
❖ Control
❖ Collaboration
❖ Constructive meaning
❖ Consequences
 Robert Harris (1991)

❖ Explain (why it is important to learn; why this topic

etc?)
❖ Reward ( by extrinsic motivation)
❖ Care (Show care and humility to students)
❖ Have students participate
❖ Teach inductively ( teach from examples, then
conclusion/generalise)
❖ Satisfy students’ needs (Basic needs , allow them to
choose not dictate)
❖ Make learning visual ( can be seen/visualise/teaching
aids)
❖ Use positive emotions (fun. Happy, loving etc)

(Refer to Module for details)

 EXPOSITORY INQUIRY
APPROACH APPROACH

PROBLEM-
ROLE PLAY BASED
LECTURE LEARNING CREATIVE
METHOD PROBLEM
SIMULATION
SOLVING

A CONTINUUM OF TEACHING METHOD

EXPOSITORY APPROACH
Behaviourism as its
theoretical origins
Teacher-centred
Information presented
didactically
Teacher as an instructor or
lecturer
Passive learners
Deductive learning
Structured learning
environment
INQUIRY APPROACH
Constructivism as its
theoretical origins
Student-Centred
Information sought & created
through interaction
Teacher as a facilitator
Active learners
Inductive leraning
Flexible learning
environment
 Lecture Method
Role Playing Simulations

Creative Problem Solving

Stage 1 (Mess Finding) Stage 2(Data Finding)

Stage 3 (Problem Finding)

Stage 5(Solution Stage 6 (Acceptance
Stage 4(Idea Finding)
Finding) Finding)
 • Form Small Groups
1 • Present Problem

• Activate Groups
2 • Provide Feedback

• Ask for a Solution

3
 Time : 3 hours
 Consists of Part A and Part B
 Part A : 40 marks
 Part B : 60 marks
Part A :
 Answer all 5 questions
 Each question : 8 marks

Part B:
Answer 3 out of 5 questions
Each question : (a) and (b)
(a) Will be on concepts/principles/
Stages/Process/ Types
(b) Implications/ Suggestions or actions taken to
promote/ enhance or application in the
classroom.
 Research Methods – Strengths/ Advantages
and Weaknesses/ Disadvantages
 Learning Theories-
Behaviourism – Skinner Operant Conditioning,
Principles &
Reinforcement Schedules &
Applications
- Thorndike – Laws & Implications
Cognitivism - Piaget’s Basic
Concepts/Processes (Schema, Assimilation,
Accomodation and Equilibrium etc)
- Application of 4 component
processes in
the classroom
- Information Processing – Short
 Constructivism – Principles and
Implications in the classroom; Zone of
Proximal Development
 Social Cognitivism – Bandura’s
Observational Theory – 4 processes
and its application in the classroom
 Creative and Critical Thinking –
Stages of Creative Process (
Preparation; Incubation; Illumination
and Verification ) & Strategies to
enhance critical and creative thinking
in the classroom
 Learning Styles – Field Independent
and Field Dependent : Characteristics
of FD and FI
 Personality and Learning – Strategies
to help students with Internal and
External locus of control; Types of
tasks for introverts /extroverts
 Motivation & Learning- Types of
motivation; Components in the
Keller’s ARCS model ; Strategies to
enhance motivation amongst students
 PartA
Q1 : Experimental method is
one of the common methods
often employed in psychology
to study human behaviour.
Discuss four strengths of
experimental method.
 Experimental method in many
aspects is the best way of
gathering scientific information
which is empirical, reliable,
systematic and verifiable. The
experimenter plans his research
carefully and observes under
controlled conditions so to
eliminate the influence of
 Experimental method exercises
greater control over the
independent variable. The
researcher can manipulate the
independent variable as he wishes
in order to examine its effects on
the dependent variable. The
experimenter attempts to
determine the cause and effect
 Thorndike proposed that learning occurs in
very small systematic steps rather than in
huge chunks.
Explain three laws in relation to the above
statement. Give appropriate examples.

Describe each of the four types of motivation

that can be applied in the classroom
Question 1:
Skinner developed the theory of
operant conditioning and rejected the
notion that organisms were passive and
had no control over their actions.
(a) Propose reinforcement schedules
that can be applied by a teacher to
ensure sustainability of behaviour
(b) How would you be able to apply
practices of operant conditioning in
your own classroom?
 Schedules:
Fixed ratio schedule – fixed
number of
responses
Variable ratio – variable number of
responses
Fixed interval - Fixed time eg
after 5 mins
Variable Interval – No fixed
 Give feedback immediately , frequently and
specifically ; after giving a question, go
through correct answer immediately
 Have peer giving feedback to each other
 Go through exam questions and discuss all
exam papers
 Give comments for written work and return
all answer papers to students
 Use a variety of reinforcement
 Create awareness of extinction to reduce
the frequency of undesirable forms of
behaviour
(a) Describe 5 principles that should be
considered to promote the constructivist
classroom.
(b) Suggestions to teacher on the application
of the above principles
(a) Explain the 4 stages involved in a creative
process
(a) Elaborate on the common barriers to
creativity among students

(b) Suggest actions to promote creativity/

critical thinking among students in the
classroom
(b) Suggest strategies to enhance
creativity/critical thinking among your
students
(a) Describe the performance of field
independent and field dependent students
in relation to the given learning task
(b) How would you assist students with
internal/external locus of control to
complete the assigned task well
(a) How would you be able to help students
with an internal/external locus of control?

(b) What types of tasks would you provide to

students if they have been identified as
introverted/extroverted learners
(a) Explain the 4 concepts in Piaget’s theory of
learning
(b) Discuss 5 actions that you can carry out in
the classroom based on Piaget’s theory

(b) Using appropriate egs, describe 4

component processes that can be used to
explain the degree to which individuals
observe and imitate a model’s behaviour
BEST WISHES AND
GOOD LUCK
IN YOUR
EXAMINATION