SPE 133488

The Late Miocene Coalbed Methane System in the South Sumatra Basin of
Indonesia
Saikat Mazumder, SPE, Shell Exploration and Production; Imam B. Sosrowidjojo, SPE, Lemigas; Alessandro
Ficarra, SPE, Shell Exploration and Production

Copyright 2010, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 18–20 October 2010.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide a view on the South Sumatra basin CBM development potential. The basin ranks as one
of Indonesia’s most prospective coalbed methane (CBM) basins, but well testing is still in the earliest stages. In S. Sumatra
basin there are three distinct identifiable sub-basin evolution periods. First, a period of horst-graben development controlled by
major localized extensional faults that initiated the basin architecture. This episode was followed by rapid to moderate
sedimentation controlled by normal faults resulting in deposition of Oligocene Talang Akar alluvial, fluvial and deltaic
deposits. Secondly, a period of decreased fault activity along with regional subsidence coinciding with the deposition of the
post-rifting Miocene Air Benekat and Muara Enim Formations. The third period is marked by regional uplift resulting in wide
spread basin inversion over the entire region. Coal seams in the Muara Enim Formation are thickest and most numerous in the
SW half of the South Sumatra basin representing key target for CBM development. This is the axial region of the basin where
the subsidence has been most pronounced and the formation is thickest. While the coals are quite thick and laterally extensive
in the broad synclines, most of the Miocene Muara Enim Formation has been eroded out along the anticlines. The Lematang
Depression and the Central Palembang sub-basin are considered the most prospective CBM areas on the basis of coal
thickness, depth, and gas kicks on mud logs. The Muara Enim formation comprises more than 3500 ft of paralic sandstones
and mudstones, with thick intercalated coal seams. Typically some 10 to 15 individual coal seams are present.
The coals are of sub-bituminous rank and characterized by low vitrinite (huminite) reflectance (VRr = 0.35 – 0.46%). These
low rank coals are dominated by huminite (34.6 – 94.6 vol. %). Less abundant are liptinite (4.0 – 22.5 vol. %) and inertinite
(0.2 – 43.9 vol. %). Minerals are found only in small amounts (0 – 5 vol. %); mostly as iron sulfide. Kaolinite occurs as cleat
fillings at some places. The coals are characterized by high moisture content (4 – 21 %) and volatile matter content (> 40 wt.
%, daf), and less than 80 wt. % (daf) carbon cotent.
CO2 and CH4 sorption isotherms on six different coal samples were carried out at reservoir temperature. Given the uncertainty
around the gas content measurements, the coals tend to suffer from some serious under saturation. The sorption capacities of
the coals tend to decrease with increasing depth. This behavior can either be related to the increasing moisture content of the
coal with depth or with the significant variation of the vitrinite content of the deeper seams. The high CO2 adsorption capacity
and the low rank tend to make these coals ideal targets for CO2 sequestration.

South Sumatra Basin Geological Background

Geographical Settings
The South Sumatra Basin stretches from about 0°30’S in the north, to 5°00’S at its southern extremity and occupies a
latitude of about 101°30’E to 105°30’E. It is a northwest-southeast trending depression mostly located onshore and situated in
the southern part of the island of Sumatra. The basin is characterized by several major structural highs. The recently uplifted
pre-Tertiary basement of the Barisan-Garba mountain ranges extends along the western and southern basin margins.
Crystalline basement also outcrops in the Tiga Puluh Arch to the northwest, which divides the South from the Central Sumatra
Basin. To the northeast, Tertiary sedimentary cover onlaps onto the continental margin of the Sunda Shelf, and in the
southeast, the shallow Lampung Platform separates the South Sumatra basin from the Sunda-Asri sub-basins of the West Java
Basin (Figure 1). There are three main intra-basinal lows, termed the Jambi, Central Palembang and South Palembang
depressions from north to south. Target of this evaluation is primarily the South Palembang depressions (Figure 2).
2 SPE 133488

Tectonic and Stratigraphic Settings

The South Sumatra Basin is one of a series of Tertiary back-arc basins formed behind the subduction zone of the Indian
Ocean Plate beneath the Sunda Shield. The pre-Tertiary basement formed as a series of accretionary terrains and subduction
melanges of Palaeozoic-Mesozoic age, which sutured together as the Indian Oceanic Plate subducted obliquely beneath the
Sumatran portion of the Southeast Asia Plate.The Growth of the proto-Sunda margin in the south and migration of the
subduction zone to the southwest occurred simultaneously as a result of this accretion and of the emplacement of several
phases of granitoid plutons. Plate convergence and tensional shear led to the formation of north-south and northwest-southeast
trending horst and graben structures during Late Cretaceous-Middle/Late Oligocene times. Subsequent thermal sag facilitated
deposition of a broadly transgressive sequence from Late Oligocene to Early Miocene times, and return to a compressional
regime led to a broadly regressive sequence from latest Early Miocene through to Recent. Syn-rift and early post-rift
sedimentation had a strong structural control, with initial deposits being the granite wash, tuffaceous sandstones and
fanglomerates of the lower Lahat Formation (Basal Clastics Member). By Late Oligocene times, tectonic movement had
slowed considerably and the basin experienced thermal sag, with associated marine transgression and development of a steers
head geometry. The first transgressive sedimentation was still largely topographically and structurally controlled, and initially,
locally sourced alluvial and braided stream deposits of the Talang Akar Formation were laid down in depressions. As the
transgression became more widespread, delta plain deposits became dominant over large areas, evolving upwards into delta
front and pro-delta sands, and basinward into deeper marine shales. Transgressive evolution led to a reduction in the volume of
sediment available for transport into basinal areas that were stocked in more proximal areas, and deposition of initially
platformal carbonates, followed by bank and reefal build-ups of the Batu Raja Formation over platformal areas and basement
highs (Figure 3). During the late Early Miocene high stand, deep marine shales and marls of the Gumai Formation were
deposited over much of the basinal area. By the Middle Miocene, new subduction pulses caused compressional movements,
giving rise to the gradual uplift of the Barisan Mountains and to a major marine regression. The shallow marine to inner neritic
and deltaic Air Benakat Formation was deposited unconformably on the marine Gumai shales in many areas. Marine
regression continued during the Pliocene and continental clastic sediments of the Muara Enim Formation were deposited. The
thickness of the formation and percentage of coal generally decreases from south to north across the basin, reflecting a
transition from delta plain to marine dominated environments. It is in this continental context that coal developed extensively
in the South Sumatra Basin as thick seams intercalated in the Muara Enim Formation, which represents the main target for
CBM exploration and development. In the Late Pliocene and Quaternary, numerous volcanoes developed along the length of
the Barisan Mountains and tuffaceous continental sediments of the Kasai Formation replaced extensively the Muara Enim
deposits.

Structural elements
Pulunggono et al., 1992 analyzed SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) maps from the whole of South Sumatra to recognize
obvious lineament patterns from the maps which are seen as a combined surface expression of structural phenomenon induced
by several diastrophic events and to discern them into structural patterns of the same genetic origin. The conducted analysis of
the SAR maps show the existence of a structural pattern which consists of lineaments (or faults) and fold structures. A pattern
of five lineaments stretching continuously in a ESE-WNW direction is recognized. These lineaments are each traced over a
distance of hundreds of kilometers, ending abruptly at the N-S trending east coastal area of the Lampung province (Figure 4).
These five parallel aligned lineaments of major magnitudes trending ESE-WNW are named as the following: The Musi
lineament, the Lematang lineament, the Kepayang lineament, the Saka lineament and the Lampung South coastal lineament
(Figure 5). This is also known as the N300°E trend of the Lematang trend. Another obvious pattern of major extent consists of
three North-South trending lineaments (Figure 5). These lineaments are known as the following: The Benakat Gulley
lineament, the Palembang lineament and the Lampung East coast lineament.
Furthermore the produced lineament maps (Figure’s 4 and 5) shows that all N300°E trend lineaments (Lematang trend) are
at there western end truncated by the NW-SE oriented Barisan Fault zone better known as the Barisan trend or the N320°E
trend. The Barisan trend is a pronounced feature over the entire length of the Barisan Mountain Range. However, no distinct
lineaments trending N320°E or in that order are seen in the backarc basin region.
The lineaments associated with the Lematang trend (N300°E) are of Jurassic to Uppret Cretaceous age and are interpreted
as strike-slip faults (Pulunggono, 1992). Evidences suggest that the N-S trending lineaments are structural elements of the
same magnitude as the N300°E trending faults. Pulunggono (1992) sited support for the opinion of an older than Late
Paleocene age for these N-S trending lineaments. These two sets of linear and parallel aligned major faults with the one
dissecting the other in a more or less regular pattern, strongly suggest an inter-related character of the Lematang trend – North-
South lineament configuration. Pulunggono (1986, 1992) applied an ellipsoid model to the area to explain the onter-relation of
the Lematang trend and the North-South trending lineament by reasonably relating origin and age in relevance to the
geological history of the region. The ellipsoid mdel describes the following successive stages:

(i) The oblique N30°W oriented converging Indian Ocean plate acted as a driving mechanism for compression against
the margin of Sundaland with resulting simple shear. The North 300°E Musi and Lematang lineaments are induced as active
SPE 133488 3

right-lateral strike-slip faults during Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous times (Figure 6). Its first order antithetic direction is the
North-South trending lineament, which is of left-lateral character in the same period, but is not actively moving (Figure 7).
(ii) A different stress regime was recorded during Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary times, whereby the North-South
oriented lineaments were subjected to extension, thus forming grabens or depressions (Benakat Gulley). The N300°E
Lematang fault ceased to be a strike-slip fault and became a normal fault. The Lematand depression also became a
pronounced feature because of the start of the Tertiary sedimentation. The Late Miocene, coal bearing Muara Enim
formation
(iii) The N320°E trending Barisan Lineament may have been initiated already during Lower Tertiary times, but only in
Mid-Miocene time, is this structural element seen as a row of mountains with an active strike-slip fault.
(iv) A compressive strength marked the Mid Miocene until recent times, whereby at places (Lematang fault) so called
inversion took place.

Regional stress orientation

So during the Mid Miocene times and onwards, North-South directed wrench movements as well as compressive stress
regime are recognized in the back arc basinal area (Figure 8). This regional compressive stress is oriented NE-SW. The face
cleat orientation of the MEF coals are oriented along this NE-SW trending principal horizontal stress (σ1).
Wibowo et al. (2008) charecterized the principal horizontal stress orientations of the Early to Mid Miocene Baturaja
formation. The dominant orientations of breakouts and drilling induced fractures determined from FMI images combined with
caliper logs in the carbonate interval (Baturaja formation) indicate the maximum and minimum principal stresses (Figure 9).
The maximum horizontal stress generally strikes NE-SW, which correspond to the regional compressive stress direction
(Figure 10). This has also been substantiated by the orientation of the face cleats, as observed at the mine face of the Bukit
Assam coal mine during a field trip. Slight differences in these orientations can be observed due to local structural influences.
When the coals are intended for future CBM development by means of horizontal wells, they should be oriented SSW-NNE in
order to intersect maximum number of face cleats at a high angle.

Coalbed Methane Exploration Targets

Muara Enim formation
The Muara Enim Formation was first described as the “Middle Palembang Series” and divided into a lower, brownish-grey
part (MPa) and an upper, blue- green to grey part (MPb). The boundary usually coincided with the Mangus Coal or its
equivalents. The age of this Formation is generally accepted as Upper Miocene to Pilocene during the development a
widespread regression in the late tertiary. The formation consists mainly of paralic sandstones and mudstones intercalated with
thick coal seams. This is the formation, which contains the large brown coal or lignite resources of the South Sumatra region
which were the principal target of Shell Coal Mining Exploration. The thickness of the Formation varies from 200 m to over
800 and generally decreases, together with the percentage, of coal from south (South Palembang depression) to north (Jambi
area) across the basin, reflecting a transition from delta plain to marine dominated environments. The formation is present
throughout the Palembang basin and along the west coast of Sumatra where the more marine facies (Eburna Marls) are thought
to be equivalent to both the Muara Enim Coal Formation and the Kasai Tuff Formation (Steinhauser and van Delden, 1973).

Depositional environments
The only sedimentological work on Muara Enim Formation, available in public domain, is an outcrop study by Boyd and
Peacock (1986) in the central Merangin area. This thorough analysis of sediments forming the overall regressive Air Benakat-
Muara Enim Formation transition in the central Merangin Block (South Sumatra Basin) has allowed identification of a number
of sub environments within a delta system. As a result of the study, a depositional model of a fluvially dominated, with weak
wave and tidal influence, deltaic system was proposed (see Figure 11). Among the facies recognized, Facies 2 (see Figure 11)
in particular has been interpreted as Inter-channel areas, characterized by the presence of coal seams to a maximum of 8m
thick intercalated with carbonaceous mudstones and sandstones. These marginal areas are predominantly water covered by
flood plain lakes or interdistributary bays and are removed from sand input. In here mainly sequences of mudstone
accumulated. Periods of much reduced clastic supply saw accumulation of layers of plant material. Where water depths and
low clastic input permitted, peat swamps developed, leading to formation of in situ coals. These deposits are seen to be
associated to episodic crevasse splay or overbank deposition formed by thin graded pulses of coarser sediment or thicker dirty
and carbonaceous sandstone units.
According to Amijaya (2005) the development of these thick coal deposits and its extremely low content of mineral matter
is explained by the doming paleo-peat geomorphology of this deposit. By analogy to recent conditions, these morphological
conditions limited the influx of suspended sediment from river water keeping any overbank deposits thin, so that the peat
could not be enriched in mineral matter.

Coal development
The Muara Enim Formation is characterized by the wide and spread presence of numerous coal seams intercalated into the
silicoclastic component of the formation. The Muara Enim Formation may be coal-bearing over its total thickness or only
4 SPE 133488

partially coal-bearing, depending on the area, with a total coal thickness ranging between 0 and 150 m. Coal seams typically
account for 10% to 20% of the Muara Enim Formation gross thickness. In the Shell Coal literature (Steinhauser et al., 1973)
the coal layers of the MEF are typically subdivided into 3 main groups (in this case the term group does not have a pure
stratigraphic meaning):
· Upper Coal group: all coal layers above Mangus Coal
· Middle Coal group: from top Mangus to base Petai Coal
· Lower Coal group: below Petai Coal.
In general the coal seams belonging to the middle and lower groups (below the Mangus seam) seem to be laterally
continuous enough to allow a proper correlation over large areas (i.e. in the order of thousands of square km). The Mangus
coal seam itself is present throughout almost the entire Palembang basin (see Figure 12) with the exception of the eastern part
(Steinhauser and van Delden, 1973). The broad formation division can be recognized throughout most of the South Sumatran
basin, with apparent wedging out of the upper and middle coal divisions on the basin margins (Franks, 1978). On the other
hand, seams of the upper group seem to be less persistent and therefore more difficult to correlate over wide distances (see
Figure 12). The Upper Coal Division, also known as "Hanging Layers”, form approximately two thirds of the total coal
resources of the South Sumatra area but because of their younger age and the shallower position they have generally a higher
moisture content and lower rank than the coals of the other units (Franks, 1978). In general the coal seams of the middle and
lower divisions, where shallow marine influence is most likely present, are more widespread and thinner than the seams of the
upper division where as the seams of the upper group can vary in thickness rapidly over short distances due to their probable
development into a more proximal position where the fluvial influence was stronger and environmental changes occurring
more often (interdistributary bays and deltaic lake). The coal seams of the Muara Enim Formation are clearly correlatable on
seismic over long distances as they form strong reflectors. The correlation of the seams on logs is frequently aided in the lower
part of the formation by the presence of partings consisting of volcanic tuffs that provide isochronous markers. The top part of
some coal layers is sometimes reported as partly or completely silicified. This process could be due to an excess of amorphous
free silica in the original depositional environment or to partial dissolution of the volcanic tuff partings, frequently occurring in
the Middle Coal group of the Muara Enim Formation, which could have liberated a certain amount of silica that impregnated
the underlying coal seam (Franks, 1978). It is also important to report the presence of widespread sand horizons, known in
Shell Coal literature as the Dalam sand, which usually occurs 40 to 50 meters above the Mangus coal and often contains small
pockets of gas.

Talang Akar Formation

The Talang Akar formation shows the presence of coal seams but the net thickness of single seams is often below 2 meters
and total net coal thickness is usually less than 10 m. In the two areas evaluated in this study the depth of the top of the coal
sequence is deeper than the typical CBM depth window (deeper than 1300m.). For these reasons the Talang Akar Formation
prospectivity for CBM must be rated poor.

CBM potential of South Sumatran coals

Coal quality, rank and maceral composition

The rank and maceral composition of coal affects amongst other factors its gas generation potential. Some important facts
regarding this issue are listed below:
a. The sorptive capacity of coal is directly related to its maturity.
b. Liptinites being rich in H2 content, have 2-3 times higher gas generating potential than other macerals like O2 rich
vitrinites and C rich inertinites.
c. Among liptinites, gas yield of sporinite is highest and for longer period compared to cutinites, suberinites and resinites.
d. Kerogen type III macerals (mainly vitinite and inertinite) generate significantly less (5-6x) gas than those of hydrogen
rich kerogen type I (alginite) and type II (sporinite, cutinite, suberinite and resinite) at thermal maturity equivalent to
Romax=1.8%. Dominance of vitrinite (>60%) results in high internal surface area and thereby increases methane
sorption capacity in comparison to inertinite rich coals. This is because of the dominance of micro-pores (<2nm) in
vitrinite whilst inertinite, is dominated by meso (>2nm-50nm) and macro-pores (>50nm).
e. Inertinite rich coals have the highest activation energy and thus have lowest adsorbing capacity, however being meso
and macro porous they have higher free gas capacities. Contrary to this fusinites and semi-fusinites have substantially
high methane sorption capacity. (Australian coals).
Most information on the subject of rank and maceral composition has been obtained around the existing Muara Enim Coal
Mining Area near the Bukit Asam mine (Amijaya, 2005 and Brom, 1976) and from the concession area awarded to Shell
Mijnbouw N.V (Franks, 1978). The coals encountered at shallow depth (<200m) within the S.Sumatra basin are of low rank,
except for some bituminous coals and anthracites, which originate from contact metamorphism due to emplacement of an
igneous intrusion (Amijaya, 2005, Louis, 1996). The data collected during the Shell Mijnbouw exploration campaign enabled
a rough grouping of the coal deposits in various areas into a number of coalification or rank fields (Figure 13).
SPE 133488 5

Reference Franks, (1978) uses the coal quality information gathered in some 590 shallow wells (TD<200m) for which
some 16000 samples were analyzed for CV, Ash content, Volatile Matter, Fixed Carbon, Sulphur and Chlorine. Selected
samples were also petrologically examined.
The study shows a generally increasing trend in total moisture content away from the Muara Enim area (The TABA
concession is located near Muara Enim and contains the Bukit Assam mine)), which was the area of thickest sedimentation as
well as the area affected by volcanic thermal upgrading. Here an andesite intrusion has upgraded the coal from hard lignite to
anthracite (Amijaya and Littke, 2006). So far TABA remains the only area within the S-Sumatra basin where this phenomenon
has been found. Elsewhere the rank of the coal is primarily controlled by the depth of burial, the stratigraphical position of the
coal and the local variation in petrological composition especially the resin content of the coal seam. The other seam averages
of the proximate analyses varied in a direct relationship with this variation in Calorific Value. This is clearly demonstrated in
Figure 14.
Here the seam averages of Calorific Value (daf = dry ash free) have been plotted against Fixed Carbon (daf) and Fixed
Carbon (daf) against Moisture content (ad =air dried). The rank as indicated by the proximate analysis shows that away from
the centre of upgrading the rank drops to sub-bituminous/lignite. It should be noted that the average values exclude coal of Ash
Content>10%, but are representative for more than 90% of the seam thickness.
A much more detailed petrological, mineralogical and chemical study of the effect of the thermal metamorphosis of the
coal in the Muara Enim area is presented in Amijaya, (2005), including Vitrinite/Huminite reflectance, which is generally
accepted as the most accurate rank indicator.
The results of vitrinite and huminite reflectance measurements (Table 1) from the Tambang Air Laya (TAL) region show
that coals from Mangus (A1) seams have a mean random huminite reflectance values from 0.35% to 0.40%. Mean random
reflectance values of Mangus (A2) coals range from 0.39% to 0.43%. The Suban (B1) coals have mean random reflectance
values between 0.40% and 0.45% and Suban (B2) coals range between 0.41% and 0.46%. High reflectanceof vitrinite is
typical for thermally metamorphosed coal. In general there is a tendency of increasing vitrinite reflectance with increasing
depth. In the TAL region reflectance increases from an average of 0.37% (A1 seam) to 0.44% (B2 seam) in a depth interval of
about 55 m. This change in vitrinite reflectance with depth is expected to be less dominant moving further North. Huminite
reflectance values of the Banko Barat region are more representative for the sweetspot coals as the coals in this region are
predominantly unmetamorphosed. These coals are characterized by low reflectance values ranging between 0.39% and 0.44%.
According to huminite reflectance, all coals are of low rank ranging from lignite to su-bituminous B-C.
Vitrinite reflectance data have also been reported by Lemigas from the pilot well CBM-1. CBM-1 was drilled to a target
depth of 610 m. Four major seams were reported, the vitrinite reflectance and maceral composition of which is reported in
Table 2. Not much of rank improvement with increasing depth has been observed for these coals.
Relatively few coal rank data were available from deep wells in the S. Sumatra basin. As reported in the Caltex report,
hardly any data was available from wells specifically within CBM prospective zones. In most of these wells the Muara Enim
formation was not cored, as it was not an exploration target. In the Caltex report, Bungin 1 well was considered to be the most
indicative of actual coal rank conditions within the CBM prospect areas.
The Bungin 1 well shows a relatively steep increase in vitrinite reflectance with depth. This well reports a vitrinite
reflectance of 0.4% near the surface and rises to nearly 0.5% at a depth of around 900 m. Just below the 900 m, a sharp
increase in coal rank is probably related to an erosional surface. Figure 15 is a plot of all reflectance data from the S. Sumatra
basin. The CBM prospect depth has been highlighted in grey and for reference the Unita basin and San Juan basin rank
distribution have been marked as black bars. There is a clear rank dependence with depth and although the coal rank is
relatively low at the surface, it can be optimal for CBM development at prospect depth.
The gas chromatograph readings recorded in the re-entry well Kampong Minyak-1 (1974) (Table 3) can serve as an
indicator for the favourable conditions for CBM development at a depth below 500 m.
It appears from various data found in the literature that the high grading of the S.Sumatra coals can be caused by different
processes. The probable processes involved in the high gradation are (i) thermal metamorphism due to andesitic intrusion, (ii)
geothermal activity and (iii) resin content and high liptinite macerals. Thermal metamorphism and high gradation is a well
known activity near the Bukit Asam mine. The petrographic signature of the thermal metamorphism on S. Sumatra coals,
specially from the Tanjum Enim area have been discussed in details by Amijaya, (2005). The presence of active volcanic
mountains bordering the Palembang basin, could have led to an abnormally high geothermal gradient. It has been observed
that a considerable amount of vitrinite reflectance is suppressed by high liptinite content. Although low rank the S. Sumatra
coals often report a very high calorific value and volatile matter content.
Considerable work has been done by Amijaya, (2005) on S. Sumatra coals from the Tambang Air Laya (TAL) and the
Banko Barat area (BOB). The maceral analysis shows that almost all the low rank coals of TAL are dominated by huminite
(34.6-94.6 vol. %). Liptinite (4.0-61.4 vol. %) and inertinite (0.2-43.9 vol. %) are less abundant. Minerals are found only in
small amounts (0-2 vol. %); most of them are pyrite. Some clay, carbonate and quartz are observed as well. The BOB coals are
also dominated by huminite (68.8-91.7 vol. %), whereas the percentages of liptinite (5.2-23.4 vol. %) and inertinite (1.3-19.6
vol. %) are moderate to low. Minerals are dominated by pyrite but occur only in small amounts (less than 2 vol. %). Table 4
shows the maceral composition of the Mangus seam.
The huminite maceral group mainly consists of humodetrinite. In TAL coals, it comprises more than 25 vol. % of the
macerals, but some samples have lower contents (only 3.3-15.9 vol. %), because of their high contents of humotelinite.
6 SPE 133488

Compared with TAL coals, BOB coals have an even higher average content of humodetrinite. It comprises 24.7-66.3 vol. % of
the macerals. In both locations, most of the humodetrinite is attrinite. The gelified humodetrinite maceral (densinite) is less
abundant.
The gelification process has not reached an advanced stage, since the percentage of the gelified humotelinite (eu-ulminite)
ranges between 0.0-15.7 vol. %, which is less than that of ungelified humotelinite (texto-ulminite; 2.0-55.7 vol. % of the coals
from both areas). Only one sample from BOB has a relatively high content of eu-ulminite (27.6 vol. %) (Amijaya, 2005).
Humocollinite content varies between 1.0 vol. % and 64.9 vol. % (TAL) and between 2.5 vol. % and 38.5 vol. % (BOB), most
of which is corpohuminite. Gelinite is observed in small quantities.
In general, huminite is present in two forms, huminite bands and huminite groundmass. The huminite bands are not only
formed by humotelinite macerals, but in many cases they are formed by thick layers of humodetrinite or gelinite that are
interbedded with humotelinite layers. Humodetrinite is present mostly as groundmass surrounding liptinite or inertinite
particles.
Humocollinite is disseminated throughout the coals mostly as corpohuminite (phlobaphinite and pseudo-phlobaphinite) of
globular or tabular shape. Porigelinite occurs usually as thin bands, but sometimes some globular shaped porous gelinite is
observed. Most of the pores in porigelinite are filled by micrinite or pyrite.
The liptinite macerals of TAL coals normally range from 4.0 to 28.0 vol. % of the coal. Only two samples have a very high
liptinite content (50.8 vol. % and 61.4 vol. %). The liptinite macerals of the coals in BOB comprise 5.2-23.4 vol. % of the coal.
The common liptinite macerals in the coals from both locations are sporinite, cutinite, resinite, suberinite and liptodetrinite.
Bituminite, fluorinite, exsudatinite and alginite are observed rarely. Bituminite usually occurs as groundmass.
Sporinite content is usually less than 3.5 vol. %, but in the liptinite-rich coal it reaches 8.4 vol. % of the coal. No
megaspores were observed and the longest microspores have a length of about 0.2 mm. Most microspores are, however, less
than 0.1 mm long. Most of the miospores have thin walls (tenuisporinite), but trace amounts of some thickwalled miospores
(crassisporinites) are recognized as well. Cutinite (up to 5.6 vol. %) occurs both as the thin walled (tenuicutinite) and thick
walled (crassicutinite) variety.
The maximum content of resinite is 5.8 vol. %. Resinite macerals in the studied coal appear mostly as cell-filling or
isolated small globular bodies, but some small resinite layers also occur. Under fluorescence they have pale-brownish-yellow
color. Occasionally some resinite bodies appear as groups in distinct layers. Resinite macerals are commonly associated with
humotelinite and humodetrinite. Suberinite appears as cell wall tissue associated with corpohuminite (phlobaphinite) and is
characterized by dark color in reflected light and a greenish to pale yellow in fluorescent light. Suberinite constitutes 0.0-3.2
vol. % of TAL coals and up to 2.0 vol. % of BOB coals. Fluorinite (up to 2.8 vol. %) can be recognized by its strong
fluorescence (yellow color). Fluorinite is not always associated with cutinite.
Bituminite (up to 6.4 vol. % in liptinite-rich coal) is defined as liptinitic maceral without any definite shape and structure. It
fluoresces weakly, usually in brownish yellow or brown color. The observed bituminite acts as a groundmass for other
liptinitic and inertinitic materials and mainly occurs in attrinite-rich coal. Exsudatinite is a secondary maceral (Teichmüller,
1989 and Taylor et al., 1998) that can be found in almost all samples (up to 9.8 vol. %) as fillings in small cracks or empty cell
lumens (mostly in sclerotinite). Exsudatinite exhibits a strong yellow fluorescence. Botryococcus alginite was found only in
trace amounts in some samples. Liptodetrinite content usually varies between 1.4-16.2 vol %. In the liptinite-rich samples it
reaches 32.2 and 38.0 vol %. Sometimes liptodetrinite is embedded in bituminite in the bituminite-rich coal. Liptodetrinite is
often associated with humodetrinite.
Thus an interesting feature of these tertiary coals is the relative abundance of secondary liptinite, especially exsudatinite
and, to a lesser extent, fluorinite. It is suggested that (i) the association of primary liptinite with exsudatinite indicates
exsudatinite is derived from primary liptinite, particularly resinite, suberinite, and cutinite. There is some evidence, although
not convincing at this stage, that exsudatinite is also derived from vitrinite. (ii) Indonesian Tertiary coals with vitrinite
reflectance 0.30-0.35% (which is below the oil generation window of 0.5% vitrinite reflectance postulated for Australian
Tertiary terrestrial source rocks) are probably at the low end of the oil generation window.
Inertinite macerals constitute 0.2–43.9 vol. % of TAL coals and 1.3–19.6 vol. % of BOB coals. Fusinite is predominant
whereas semifusinite, inertodetrinite and funginite are found in small amounts. Micrinite and macrinite are rare. Secretinite is
only observed in one sample in trace amounts. Fusinite occurs in the form of discrete lenses and bands. The common fusinite
bands have thicknesses from 0.05 mm up to more than 1 mm. The pores are usually empty, but sometimes gelinite,
exsudatinite, or pyrites fill those pores. Inertodetrinite is disseminated throughout the coals and comprises usually 0.0–5.9 vol.
%.
Funginite, including single and multi-celled fungal spores and sclerotia, compose not more than 1.0 vol. % of studied coals.
This maceral is distributed in almost all the samples usually in the oval form funginite. The tubular form of funginite is rarely
present. Funginite occurs as single bodies or as colonies. Its pores are often filled by resinite.
The maceral composition of the Muara Enim coals encountered in CBM-1 well is reported in Table 2.

Coal Microfacies
The petrographic composition of the coal has been studied in detail, in order to obtain a microfacies classification and to
deduce paleoenvironments during peat deposition. The percentages of the three maceral groups, vitrinite, inertinite, and
SPE 133488 7

liptinite have been plotted in ternary diagrams (mineral-matter-free, mmf) for both deposits (TAL and BOB, Figure 16) in
order to provide the most basic information on coal deposition. Based on these diagrams four microfacies can be determined.
Facies I coals are those with high content of huminite and low contents of inertinite and liptinite. The percentage of
huminite is greater than 65% mmf and that of inertinite is usually less than 10% mmf. Most of the studied TAL coals fall into
this type (Figure 16). Facies II coals have huminite content lower than 75% mmf and an inertinite content between 10 and
20% mmf. Only two coal samples of TAL fall into this category. This facies is a transition type between facies I and III. The
latter describes coals with huminite contents lower than 70% mmf and more than 20% mmf inertinite (inertinite-rich coals).
Two studied TAL coals can be categorized into this type. All of those facies are usually characterized by liptinite contents of
less than 25% mmf. There are only three coals of TAL which have a liptinite content of more than 25 % mmf (facies IV). Two
of them have a very high liptinite content of more than 50% mmf. BOB coals show only I and II facies (Figure 16). BOB coals
are even more homogeneous than TAL coals and are also dominated by facies I.
The petrological composition of coal seams is a key to understand the evolution of peatforming depositional environments
(Diessel, 1986, 1992, Cohen et al., 1987, Littke, 1987, Teichmüller, 1989). However, the reconstruction and interpretation of
TAL and BOB coals cannot be solely based on coal facies change (I-IV), as most coals were grouped as facies I. A slightly
more detailed classification based on maceral composition of coal is made and used in this study to elicit more insight into
changes during the peat stage of coal formation.
The maceral assemblage’s classification is based on the composition of huminite and the variation in liptinite and inertinite
content. The coal can be grouped into (1) humotelinite-rich group, (2) humodetrinite-rich group, (3) humocollinite-rich group,
(4) inertinite-rich group and (5) humodetrinite–liptinite-rich group. The first, second and third groups correspond to the facies I
and II coal, the fourth group to facies III coal and the fifth group to the facies IV coal (see Table 5). The characteristic of each
group is described below:
Humotelinite-rich group: The humotelinite-rich group contains about 25 vol. % or more humotelinite (the highest amount
is 55.7 vol. %). The amount of unstructured huminite can vary and the total amount of liptinite and inertinite is usually less
than 20 vol. %. Textoulminite (partly gelified) is the predominant maceral of humotelinite in the studied coals. The percentage
of eu-ulminite (completely gelified) reaches usually not more than half of that of texto-ulminite.
Humodetrinite-rich group: This is the most common maceral assemblage observed in the studied coals. The coal consists
of about 35 – 70 vol. % humodetrinite, which is dominated by attrinite, and less than 25 vol. % humotelinite. The
humocollinite amount varies and the total amount of liptinite and inertinite is only about 20 vol. % or less.
Humocollinite-rich group: This group contains about 40-65 vol. % humocollinite. The total amount of liptinite and
inertinite is about 10 vol. %. Contents of humodetrinite and humotelinite are variable, but usually humotelinite is more
abundant than humodetrinite. Corpohuminite appears as structureless cell fillings (either in situ or isolated) and dominates the
humocollinite.
Inertinite-rich group: The inertinite-rich group is characterized by high contents of inertinite (more than 20 vol. %).
Humotelinite does not exeed 20 vol. % and humocollinite is at less than 10 vol. %. The liptinite content is low (the highest
content is only 8 vol. %).
Humodetrinite–liptinite-rich group: The striking characteristic of this group is its “high” content of liptinite of more than
20 vol. %. Humodetrinite content is usually between 30-55 vol. %. As in the humodetrinite group, attrinite also dominates the
humodetrinite. Most of the liptinite in this group is derived from plant organs (sporinite, cutinite, suberinite and resinite).
According to comparisons with modern tropical peats, the model for domed paleo-peat development (from bottom to top)
in this area is represented by a humodetrinite- liptinite rich coal, overlain by humotelinite-rich and humocollinite-rich coal and
finally humodetrinite-rich coal or inertinite-rich coal. This evolution also represents the change from a topogenous to an
ombrogenous peat, but does not show a dulling up sequence as typical of many Carboniferous coals which developed towards
ombrogenous peat.
As illustrated by Figure 17 and Figure 18, each seam can consist of more than one succession of paleo-peat development.
Sometimes the succession is not complete, but the pattern can still be traced. The occurrence of more than one succession in a
coal seam may be linked with rise of the general water table. However, in the seams examined in this study, mineral-rich
paleopeats typical of topogeneous deposits did not develop. Cecil et al., (1993) observed that modern upland erosion and
fluvial transport in Sumatra appear to be curtailed by the extensive vegetative cover of tropical rain forests. This fact is
supported by a very low concentration of suspended sediment and absence of fluvial-derived bed load in the rivers.
Nevertheless, some episodes of sediment deposition are indicated by the occurrence of thin carbonaceous claystones in the
coal seams.
The most ideal coal seam that shows a complete ombrogenous peat development is Suban B2 seam of TAL. In this seam,
the development from topogenous to ombrogenous peat can be recognized from the maceral assemblage evolution. The other
TAL seams show more than one succession of peat development. Suban B1 seam consists of three successions and Mangus
A1 and A2 seam consists of two successions. The BOB seams also show more than one succession of peat development. The
Suban B2 seam of BOB probably shows an incomplete ombrogenous peat development.
The recognizable indicators of stacked paleo-peat bodies in the study by Amijaya, (2005), are the coal layers which are
characterized by humodetrinite-rich coal or inertinite-rich coal. These layers may represent the organic, non-oxidized,
degradative partings and oxidized organic partings.
8 SPE 133488

RockEval properties
Results of the total organic carbon (TOC) and Rock-Eval pyrolysis measurements on selected coals are presented in Table
4 and (Amijaya, 2005). The plot of OI versus HI of the studied coals is illustrated in Figure 19. Samples from the Mangus
seams and Suban seams show a different response to Rock-Eval pyrolysis. Basically, the OI of all studied coals is low (less
than 5 mg CO2/g TOC). The distinction between both groups of coals is apparent in their respective HI values. The Mangus
coals are characterized by HI values of around 300 mg HC/g TOC, whereas the Suban seam coals possess lower HI values (<
130 mg HC/g TOC).
By plotting the Tmax against HI, two groups of coal plot in fields of different maturity (Figure 20). The Mangus coals plot
in the immature and early mature ranges since their Tmax values vary between 420 and 440°C. In contrast, Suban coals have
very high Tmax values (475 - 551°C) and plot in the postmature field.
As depicted in both diagrams, the studied Mangus and Suban coals are located at the conjugation line of the coalification
paths of kerogen type I, II and III. Humic coal is usually expected to fall into the kerogen type III. However, coal can also plot
between type II and III kerogens because coal generally does not respond in the same way as dispersed type III organic matter.
The Rock Eval pyrolysis study on coals from various basins by Katz et al., (1991) showed that most of the coals fall between
type II and III kerogens including the Muara Enim coals from South Sumatra Basin.
To assess the changes of HI and OI with maturity, both parameters were plotted against VRmax (Figure 20). In general, the
HI of the coals is decreasing with the increase of vitrinite reflectance, although there is a broad scatter of HI in the low rank
coals. The same pattern is observed in the OI – VRmax correlation, but contrary to the HI, a slightly broader scatter of OI is
visible in the high rank coals. This result seems to support the fact that loss of oxygen is characteristic for the coalification of
low rank coal, whereas loss of hydrogen becomes relatively more important for higher rank coal (Prinz et al., 2004).
In this study, a clear correlation can be recognized between those coal maturity parameters and Tmax. In summary, the
overall composition suggests humic nature of these coals. The seams have higher hydrogen content due to higher liptinite
content. With respect to the CBM potential, note that vitrinite-rich coals exhibit a greater specific surface area and, thus, a
higher gas adsorption capacity. On the other hand hydrogen rich liptinites have 2 to 3 times higher gas generation capacity
than any other macerals. Overall it is a good mix of coals with high generation capacity and higher sorption capacity. This
might be able to explain the variation in the measured gas content of the coals from CBM-1 well.

Coalbed Methane Reservoir properties

Gas Composition and methane generation in coal

Methane in coal is derived from both biogenic and thermogenic processes. The proportion of these gases present in coal
depends on the extent of coalification (rank), maceral composition, permeability, depositional environment, burial history and
basin hydrology. Hardly any information is available about the origin and the composition of the Coalbed Methane from S.
Sumatra. In the rank range of the S.Sumatra coals, it is highly likely that biogenic gas has been formed early in the burial
history of these low rank coals (lignite to sub-bituminous rank Ro values <0.5%), and its generation and preservation are
favored by rapid deposition. From the methane generation and coal rank perspective of the S. Sumatra coals, the Jurassic coals
from the Surat Basin in Australia have been used as an analogue.
With increasing coalification resulting from higher temperatures and pressures, coals become enriched in carbon as large
amounts of volatile matter rich in hydrogen and oxygen are released. At temperatures >70°C, generation of gas and liquids
primarily occurs by thermocatalyic conversion of coal. The main thermogenic products are H2O, CO2, CH4, C2H6 and higher
hydrocarbon gases and liquids. This generation of methane and associated hydrocarbons is thermal in origin and occurs at
ranks of high-volatile bituminous and higher (R0 values >0.6%). During the early stages of coalification, from brown coal
through sub-bituminous coal, CO2 and H2O are produced due to the breakdown of heteroatomic bonds and functional groups
by decarboxylation and dehydration reactions. Carboxyl groups in coal are largely eliminated by ranks of ~0.7% vitrinite
reflectance and the amount of CO2 generated at higher ranks is small. Further coalification causes the loss of mainly hydrogen
through the generation of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. The peak rate of liquid hydrocarbon and wet gas (ethane and
higher hydrocarbon gas) generation occurs at high volatile bituminous rank stages. Generation of liquid hydrocarbons and wet
gases rapidly diminishes at vitrinite reflectance values >1.2% and the generation of CH4 increases. At higher temperatures and
higher degrees of coalification, previously formed long chain and liquid hydrocarbons will be thermally cracked to CH4,
increasing the total amounts of CH4 generated. Generation of thermogenic gas ceases when temperature decreases due to basin
uplift. Thermogenic process of methane generation for the Muara Enim coals does not seem very likely. It might be possible
that at greater depths, the coals in the Talang Akar formation are in the thermogenic window.
Biogenic methane is the final product of degradation of organic material under anoxic conditions in the absence of
inorganic oxidants such as sulphate, nitrate and ferric ion. During coal formation, 'primary biogenic gas' is microbially
produced within peat and then during early stages of coalification generally at shallow depths. Methane generation can be
limited in marine influenced depositional environments, rich in sulphur, where sulphate reducing bacteria out-compete
methane producing organisms (i.e., methanogens) and produce hydrogen sulphide (H2S). In many coal basins, however, where
burial rates are low, the primary biogenic gas is expelled from the system. The process of biogenic methane formation requires
the collective actions of microbes comprising several metabolic groups: anaerobic respiring micro-organisms, fermentative
SPE 133488 9

bacteria, acetogenic bacteria and methanogens. During the initial stages of gas generation, complex organic compounds in
plant material such as cellulose and some lignin are decomposed to simpler molecules such as acetate, long chain fatty acids,
CO2, H2, NH4+ and HS- by anaerobic respiring micro-organisms and hydrolytic fermentative bacteria. These long chain fatty
acids are then converted to acetate and H2 or formate by acetogenic bacteria. These simple molecules are subsequently
converted to CH4 by methanogens belonging to the domain Archaea through a unique energy generation process involving a
number of enzymes and co-enzymes.
Primary biogenic gases generated during early coalification are generally dissolved in water and expelled during
compaction (Rice, 1993). However, carbon and hydrogen isotope and molecular composition data of gases from bituminous
coals of many basins in Australia, USA, Germany and Poland indicate a biogenic origin (Faiz et al., 2003). Biogenic gas in
these high rank coals is 'secondary' and was formed in association with meteoric water flow into permeable coals, subsequent
to basin uplift.
Thus from the above discussion the main sources of coalbed gas are,
· primary biogenic gas formed during peat and brown coal stages,
· thermogenic gas generated during coalification,
· secondary biogenic gas formed by microbial alteration of coal, pre-existing gases and liquid hydrocarbons, and
· CO2 derived from inorganic sources such as igneous intrusions and thermal decomposition of carbonates.
The source and origin of the gases can be determined by their stable isotope composition, molecular composition and
abundance of CH4 relative to higher hydrocarbons (i.e., 'gas dryness'). For accurate interpretations of gas origins it is important
to analyze these data together.
CO2 in coal is derived from multiple sources and its isotopic composition can have a wide range in values. The isotope
signature of C is indicated by the δ (delta) notation relative to a Pee Dee Belemnite (PDB) standard. The δ13C values for CO2
in coal seams worldwide range between about −28‰ and about +19‰ PDB (Rice, 1993).
Coals are generally depleted in 13C, with δ13C values of about −22‰ to −27‰ PDB. CO2 directly derived from coal due to
thermocatalytic reactions (i.e., thermogenic gas) has negative δ13C values similar to those of the coal source. CO2 derived from
oxidation of coal and CH4 may have similarly negative δ13C values. In contrast, CO2 derived from the mantle (including
igneous intrusions) generally are characterized by δ13C values between −5‰ and −10‰ PDB. Isotopically heavy CO2 (δ13C >
0‰) generally represents residual CO2 remaining after biogenic conversion of some of the CO2 to CH4. The enrichment of
13C in residual biogenic CO2 is caused by the preferential consumption of isotopically light CO2 by methanogens.
Biogenically derived gas generally lacks ethane and higher hydrocarbons whereas thermogenic gases generated at ranks up
to low volatile bituminous are 'wetter'. Thermogenic gases in Australian coal seams may contain up to 12% ethane (Faiz et al.,
2003). The 'dryness index' [CH4 / ( CH4 + higher hydrocarbons)] for biogenic gas is near 1 whereas it is generally less than
approximately 0.98 for thermogenic gas.
The general range in δ13C for thermogenic CH4 generated from coal is between −34‰ and about −50‰ PDB. At low
ranks, isotopic fractionation between parent coal and the generated thermogenic gases such as CO2 and CH4 is large but
becomes smaller with increases in temperature and coal rank (i.e., progressively becomes isotopically less negative).
Biogenic CH4 generation generally occurs at low temperatures involving lower energies than for thermogenic gas
generation. Microbes preferentially breakdown lighter isotopes of C (12C), having lower bond energies, and therefore
biogenically derived CH4 is generally isotopically light, with δ13C values less than about −55‰ PDB. However, biogenic CH4
can have a wide range in δ13C values (-40‰ to −110‰ PDB) depending on the isotopic composition of the original substrate,
partial pressure of hydrogen in the system, the methanogenic pathways and the species of methanogens. The isotopic
fractionation factor also varies according to the temperature of methanogenesis. Therefore, if δ13C values are in the range of
−40‰ to −55‰ PDB, using δ13C of CH4 alone to determine its origin and proportions of biogenic versus thermogenic gases
can be misleading. To obtain more definitive insights into the origin of these gases, δ13C values should be analysed in
conjunction with hydrogen isotope values (δD) for CH4 and gas dryness indices.
No δ13C data for the component gases from the coal of the S.Sumatra basin have been reported. A detailed analytical study
needs to be done to understand the gas composition of the origin of coalbed gas. Just as an analog it might be worth a mention
that the Bowen basin in Queensland, which is the most prolific basin Australia, contains a mixture of biogenic and
thermogenic gases with δ13C values ranging between −23‰ and −78‰ PDB. The Powder River Basin (USA) is another
example of low rank coals containing secondary biogenic gas. These coals are sub-bituminous rank and therefore would not
have generated significant amounts of thermogenic CH4. The δ13C values for CH4 of the Powder River Basin are in the range
of −57‰ and −54‰ PDB. Rice, (1993) also demonstrated that CH4 in the Powder River Basin was mainly generated during
the last 10 Ma by microbial activity associated with meteoric water flow through the thick, high permeability coals. Gas
contents of these coals are much lower than the other CBM-producing basins in the USA that contain high rank coals (e.g. San
Juan and Warrior basins). However, gas production from the Powder River Basin coals is economical due to the presence of
thick, highly porous, highly permeable coals.
The only available gas composition data from S. Sumatra was reported from the CBM-1 well drilled by Lemigas on the
Rambutan high. The data is tabulated in Table 6. It is clearly evident from the chromatograph data is the fact that there is
considerable uncertainty around these measurements. Lemigas, through a private communication mentioned that the CO2
content measured is questionable. Most of the measurements were done off site and samples were collected in sample bags and
10 SPE 133488

transported for long durations to the destination where they were analyzed. A plot of the δ13C against C1/(C2+C3) points
towards a mixed gas origin of the gas in the coal (Figure 21).

Sorption characteristics and gas saturation

Gas in coal, can be stored in coals in three states: (i) as sorbed molecules within and/or on the organic surfaces, (ii) as free
gas within the macropores and coal matrix or fractures, or (iii) as dissolved gas in pore water. Adsorption, which can be
defined as the process in which adsorptive molecules are transferred to and accumulate on the interfacial layer, is the primary
mechanism of gas storage in coal beds, because coal has a suitable pore structure in which high adsorption capacity is brought
about by the large internal surface area provided by dominant micropores (pore diameter < 2 nm). An adsorption isotherm
reflects the relationship between the amount of gas adsorbed and the adsorption pressure. All the adsorption isotherms
obtained are type I isotherms, which are typical for microporous solids indicating a monomolecular gas adsorption on the pore
walls; the isotherm plateau corresponds to the completion of the monolayer coverage.
Sorption isotherms for S. Sumatra coals were obtained from three different sources, (i) CSIRO measured sorption capacity
of coal samples from CBM-1 well using a gravimetric method (Saghafi and Sosrowidjojo, 2008 and Sosrowidjojo and Saghafi,
2009) (ii) Directorate of Mineral Resources, Bandung estimated the sorption capacity of coals of different rank range (Stevens
et al., 2004) and (iii) Aachen University measured sorption capacity of coal samples from CBM-1 well using a volumetric
method. These isotherms obtained from three different sources are shown in Figures 22, 23 and 24. The Directorate of Mineral
Resources at Bandung reported sorption isotherms for S. Sumatra coals mostly hand picked from surface mining. It presents
the variation of the sorption capacity of these coals with coal rank (Figure 22). The adsorption isotherms measured by CSIRO
(Saghafi and Sosrowidjojo, 2008) and shown in Figure 23 were conducted at a constant temperature of 33°C. These results can
thus be used to investigate the differences in the sorptive capacity.
The coals obtained from CBM-1 wells are from a depth range between 400 m and 610 m with Seam 1 being the shallower
one and Seam 4 the deepest. Since thermal maturity is expected to increase with increasing rank, the sorptive capacity of coal
is also expected to increase with increasing depth. But the sorption capacity seems to decrease with increasing depth. Although
it might be noted that there is not much of variability in terms of coal rank for these coals, whether it is an effect of the maceral
composition or the coal quality, can still be debated. Also looking into the gas content measurements (Table 7) and the
sorptive capacity of these coals, there is a clear bit of disconnect in understanding the reason behind this effect. The maceral
composition analysis of the coals from the CBM-1 well shows that the vitrinite content of the shallow coals ranges from 76 to
87% (Table 2) and that of the deepest coal seam (Seam 4) is on an average 52%. Thus, a comparison of the gas adsorption
capacity with the maceral composition shows that these properties have an important effect on the sorptive capacity. The
maceral composition also influences the adsorption characteristics of coal, which are closely related to micropore
development. Clarkson and Bustin (1996) found a general increase in the total number of micropore with increasing vitrinite
content. Sosrowidjojo and Saghafi, 2009 on the other had has solely accounted for these differences to varying ash and
moisture content of the coal samples. One possible explanation in this regard is that the accessible micropore volume in moist
coals is much less than in dry coals, due to either a reduction of pore size due to water adsorption or to swelling of the coals.
More data points are needed to substantiate either of the proposed reasons for the anomaly in the sorption capacity with
increasing depth.
Comparing the gas storage capacity (sorption isotherm) with the actual gas yields, will give an estimation of the gas
saturation of the coal seams. Measured gas content data from CBM-1 well have been reported in Table 7. The Langmuir
isotherms measured by Aachen University were conducted at reservoir temperature. The degree of under saturation for each
seam has been shown in Figure 24. Except for Seam 3, all other seams have high degree of under saturation. Although CBM-1
well was drilled on the Rambutan structural high, if the under saturation is representative, then there can be some serious
thoughts behind the economic viability of a CBM project in this region. In a private communication with Lemigas, it was
evident that the rig used to drill this well did not have wireline coring facility and the retrieval of the coal cores once drilled,
was time intensive. Time required to retrieve these cores was in excess of 24 hours in some cases. Thus it is understandable
that a considerable amount of the gas was lost in the process of retrieving the cores and thus, the gas content measurements are
not very representative of the actual in-situ saturation.

Potential target for CO2 Sequestration

In recent years there has been a lot of discussion on the possibility of sequestering CO2 in coal seams or using CO2 to
enhance the recovery of coalbed methane. The basis of these ideas is the fact that CO2 is more strongly adsorbed onto coal
surfaces than CH4. Once adsorbed if temperature and pressure conditions do not change, then CO2 will remain permanently
sequestered. There are of course two concerns, firstly pressure and temperature conditions must not change and secondly and
more importantly there are limited pressure and temperature ranges over which CO2 is a gas. At higher temperatures and
pressures conditions CO2 becomes a super critical fluid and under these conditions it is not clear whether it is adsorbed by
coal, occupies the pore spaces acting like a fluid with very low viscosity or infuses into the coal matrix.
Samples from the Rambutan pilot, which were used to conduct CH4 adsorption isotherms, were also subjected to CO2
adsorption at the same temperature and pressure conditions. The coals tend to adsorb upto 2.25 times more CO2 than CH4 at
any given pressure. The CO2 adsorption isotherms are shown in Figure 25. There is a limited pressure and temperature field in
which CO2 is a gas and therefore based on the pressure and temperature gradients, defines the depth range through which CO2
SPE 133488 11

can be sequestered by adsorption. Below the critical point, CO2 is contained in the coal by adsorption, in part by solution in the
interstitial water and as free. Krooss et al., (2001) studied the adsorption behaviour of the CO2 at high temperatures and
pressures and in part above the critical point. In general the results are not only inconsistent and difficult to interpret above the
critical point they are also inconsistent with normal adsorption.
Adsorption of methane tends to increase with increasing rank, initially rapidly and then more slowly at higher ranks,
though the relationship of adsorption to rank for medium-volatile coals is less well defined. Carbon dioxide adsorption
capacity has a weak correlation with rank, increasing at high rank but there are indications that adsorption is higher for lignite
and sub-bituminous coals than for bituminous coals. Higher adsorption for low and high rank coals than for medium-rank
coals has been hinted at in the data from Gluskoter et al., (2003). The variation of CO2 / CH4 ratio as a function of coal rank at
300 psi reference pressure has been shown in Figure 26.
The adsorption behaviour of CO2 at low rank is different from that of CH4 and this probably relates to the distribution of
micro, meso and macro porosity by rank and the stronger polarity of the CO2 molecule compared to the CH4 molecule. Total
porosity is a minimum for medium–volatile rank coals and macro porosity decreases as rank increases. At low ranks the
increased meso porosity allows CO2 to adsorb, possibly as a volume filling in meso sized pores whereas CH4 with lower
polarity forms layer adsorption in micro pores. The selectivity of CO2 over CH4 is high and the amount of CO2 adsorbed high,
despite low rank. As rank increases the amount of meso porosity decreases. As a result CO2 adsorption decreases and CH4
adsorption increases. Consequently the selectivity for CO2 decreases. At high rank the increase in micro porosity causes
increases in the adsorption of both CO2 and CH4 without a major increase in the selectivity for CO2. Determining the effective
porosity distribution in coals is difficult because experiments are often not done on moisture equilibrated coal at in-situ
pressures. Also the structure of low rank coals is less predictable than that of higher rank coals and this result in a wider
variation of porosity distribution. It is therefore hard to predict the CO2 and CH4 adsorption characteristics of low rank coals.
The selectivity of CO2 versus CH4 of coals decreases as rank increases but may increase again at high ranks.

Conclusions
The major findings of this evaluation can be summarized as follows:
• The primary occurrence of coal in the area falls within the Muara Enim Formation. Total completable coal thickness
measures up to 70 m. Five to eight main coal seams are generally developed over its total thickness, depending on the
location. Coal seams typically account for 10% to 20% of the Muara Enim Formation gross thickness.
• The Muara Enim Formation, comprised of continental deposits ranging from alluvial to deltaic, shows a thickening trend
towards the deeper part of the Lematang Depression, an intra-basinal low within the South Sumatra Basin. Structural
development has a strong impact on in situ coal distribution as in general, coal is more developed both in terms of
thickness and number of seams in structural lows where higher rates of subsidence have generated more accommodation
space.
• The rank of the coal in the South Sumatra Basin ranges between lignite and subbituminous. The only exceptions are the
thermally upgraded coals in the Bukit Asam mine area. This conclusion is based on the random vitrinite reflectance data
reported in well completion reports and also from published data from various sources.
• The maceral composition of the Muara Enim Formation coals is primarily huminite and liptinite, making its storage
capacity and hydrocarbon generation potential favourable for CBM development.
• Gas content measurements from the Rambutan pilot indicate high degree of undersaturation. It is too early to say whether
the under saturation is representative.
At this stage it must be recognized that the range of uncertainty is still large on many key parameters that ultimately
determine the economic producibility of CBM. In particular gas saturation and fracture permeability remain largely unknown.
It is therefore recommended that a corehole campaign is carried out to determine these parameters through core analysis and
leak-off-test. It is also recommended to further interpret the existing seismic dataset and well logs to better understand
thickness, stratigraphic architecture and areal distribution of the Muara Enim coals and help define of a more robust static
subsurface model. Integration of properties measured in the corehole campaign with focused seismic and wells interpretation
will allow a reduction of uncertainty in resource estimation and help determine potential economic viability of CBM
prospect(s) in the area.

Acknowledgments
At the very onset, we would like to thank Andreas Busch from Aachen University and JCOAL for conducting and sponsoring
sorption experiments on coal samples from S. Sumatra Indonesia. We would also like to thank the management and staff of
PPPTMGB LEMIGAS for providing all the necessary support and resources.
12 SPE 133488

References

Amijaya, D.H., 2005. Paleoenvironmental, paleoecological and thermal metamorphism implications on the organic petrograhy and organic
geochemistry of Tertiary Tanjung Enim coal, South Sumatra Basin, Indonesia. PhD Thesis
H. Amijaya, H., Littke, R., 2006. Properties of thermally metamorphosed coal from Tanjung Enim area, South Sumatra basin, Indonesia with
special reference to the coalification path of macerals. International Journal of Coal Geology 66. pp. 271–295.
Boyd J.D. & Peacock S.G.: “Sedimentological Analysis of a Miocene Deltaic Systems: Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations, Central
Merangin block, South Sumatra” IPA, (1986)
Brom. R., 1976. A petrophysical study of the upgraded coals encountered in the Bukit Asam Mine Area. Shell EP Report No. 2560.
Cecil, C.B., Dulong, F.T., Cobb, J.C., Supardi, 1993. Allogenic and autogenic controls on sedimentation in the Central Sumatra Basin as an
analogue for Pennsylvanian coal-bearing strata in the Appalacian basin. In: Cobb, J.C., Cecil, C.B. (Eds), Modern and ancient coal-
forming environment, Geological Society of America Special Paper 286, pp. 3-22.
Clarkson, C.R., Bustin, R.M., 1996. Variation in micropore capacity and size distribution with composition in bituminous coal of the
Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Fuel 75, 1483–1498.
Cohen, A.D., Spackman, W., Raymond, R., Jr., 1987. Interpreting the characteristics of coal seams from chemical, physical and petrographic
studies of peat deposits. In: Scott, A.C. (Ed), Coal and Coalbearing Strata: Recent Advances. Geological Society Special Publication
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Gluskoter, H., Mastalerz, M. and Stanton, R. (202) The potential for carbon dioxide sequestration in coal beds: new evidence from methane
and carbon dioxide adsorption analysis for coals from lignite to anthracite; Abstract 25, Geological Association of America, Annual
Meeting, April 2002.
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Pulunggono, A., Agus, H.S., Kosuma, C.G., 1992. Pre-tertiary and tertiary fault systems as a framework of the South Sumatra Basin, a study
of SAR maps. Proceedings of Indonesian Petroleum Association. 339 – 355.
Rice, D.D. 1993. Composition and origins of coalbed gas. In: Hydrocarbons from Coal, AAPG Studies in Geology 38. B.E. Law and D.D.
Rice (eds.). American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, p. 159-184.
Saghafi, A., Sosrowidjojo, I.B., 2008. Development of the first CBM exploration program in Indonesia: coal seam reservoir properties of the
South Sumatra Basin. Proceedings of 2008 Asia Pacific CBMSymposium, 22–24 September. CD Publication, Brisbane, Australia.
Sosrowidjojo, I.B., Saghafi, A., 2009. Development of the first coal seam gas exploration program in Indonesia: Reservoir properties of the
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conference, 18–20 October 2004, Perth, Australia. 8p.
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Gas Carbonate Reservoir at Merbau Fiels, South Palembang Basin, Sumatra, Indonesia. Adapted from oral presentation at AAPG
Annual Convention, San Antonio, TX, April 20-23.
SPE 133488 13

Tambang Air laya Banko Barat

Seams Rr (%) Mean Rr value Rr (%) Mean Rr value for
for each seam each seam
Mangus (A1) 0.35-0.40 0.37 0.39-0.42 0.40
Mangus (A2) 0.39-0.43 0.41 0.39-0.44 0.41
Suban (B1) 0.40-0.45 0.43 0.39-0.43 0.40
Suban (B2) 0.41-0.46 0.44 0.39-0.42 0.40
Petai (C) 1.99-2.06 2.02

Table 1: Vitrinite/huminite reflectance of Tambang Air Laya and Banko Barat coals. Note that the Petai (C) seam is thermally
metamorphosed (Amijaya, 2005)

Seam ID Maceral Group (%) VRo

Vitrinite Inertinite Mineral %
1 77.70 8.50 8.00 0.29
2 78.20 8.90 7.90 0.31
3 77.70 8.00 5.20 0.29
82.20 6.30 3.80 0.31
74.10 18.50 2.70 0.30
H 78.70 13.50 4.00 0.30
4 54.60 8.00 32.30 0.31
83.00 5.30 4.90 0.31
39.20 29.50 27.90 0.30

Table 2: Maceral assemblage, mineral matter content and vitrinite reflectance reported from CBM-1 well (as reported by
Lemigas)

Gas Chromatograph Reading Kampong Minyak Reentry

Coal Depth (m) C1 C2 C3 C4
~45 30
~200 2000 150 65
~305 800 200 90 20
~405 1000 200 90 20
~530 4000 700 325 20
~650 4200 600 180 20
Table 3: Gas chromatograph readings from Kampong Minyak-1

Seam TOC Tmax S1 S2 S3 Oxygen Index Hydrogen Index VRmax VRr VRmin LRmax IRmax Vitrinite Liptinite Inertinite Mineral matter
No. wt. % (°C) (mg HC/g coal) (mg HC/g coal) (mg CO2/g coal) (mg CO2/g TOC) (mg HC/g TOC) (%) (%) (%) (%) (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%)
Mangus A1 64.5 426 2.88 186.9 3.14 4.87 289.86 0.53 0.52 0.5 0.13 0.86 80.48 12.6 3.37 3.56
Mangus A1 67.7 422 4.41 197.34 2.18 3.22 291.45 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.13 0.89 83.29 12 3.96 0.75
Mangus A1 68.6 423 5 218.61 2.77 4.04 318.86 0.52 0.52 0.49 0.11 0.89 86.23 10.6 2.43 0.75
Mangus A1 67.5 426 3.33 173.54 2.91 4.31 257.29 0.55 0.52 0.5 0.11 0.84 77.25 10.8 11.77 0.18
Mangus A1 67.4 430 7.59 213.92 3.13 4.64 317.39 0.52 0.51 0.48 0.16 0.89 81.94 11.2 6.3 0.56
Mangus A2 70.4 433 5.17 223.14 2.63 3.74 317.19 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.21 0.95 78.95 13.4 7.65 0
Mangus A2 70.2 433 4.92 236.21 2.58 3.68 336.72 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.18 0.89 73.24 13.8 12.58 0.38
Mangus A2 73.1 437 4.5 218.8 3.4 4.79 308.47 0.69 0.66 0.65 0.23 0.96 82.73 9.4 7.29 0.58
Mangus A2 63.1 437 4.5 173.82 1.86 2.95 275.55 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.17 0.99 69.62 8.6 13.22 8.56

Table 4 Rock Eval pyrolysis results of samples from Mangus seam (Amijaya, 2005)
14 SPE 133488

Microfacies (a) Maceral assemblages (b)
Humotelinite rich group :25 vol. % or more humotelinite, various 
amount of unstructured huminite. Total amount of liptinite and 
Facies I : more than 65 vo. % huminite,  inertinite less than 20 vol. %                                   
less than 25 vol.% liptinite, around 10 
Humodetrinite rich group : 35 ‐ 70 vol. % humodetrinite, less tha 
vol. % or less inertinite
25 vol. % humotelinite, various amounts of humocollinite, total 
amount of liptinite and inertinite is 20 vol. % or less
Facies II : less than 75 vol. % huminite,  Humocollinite rich group :40 65 vol. % humocollinite, various 
less than 20 vol. % liptinite, 10 ‐ 20 vol.  amount of humotelinite and humodetrinite, total amount of 
% inertinite liptinite and inertinite is about 10 vol. %
Facies III : less than 70 vol. % huminite,  Inertinite rich group : more than 20 vol. % inertinite, less than 20 
less than 10 vol. % liptinite, more than  vol. % humotelinite, less than 10 vol. % humocollinite, various 
20 vol. % inertinite amount of humodetrinite, less than 10 vol. % liptinite
Facies IV :more than 25 vol. % liptinite,  Humodetrinite liptinite rich group : more than 20 vol. % liptinite, 
various amounts of huminite and  30 ‐ 55 vol. % humodetrinite, various amount of humotelinite and 
inertinite humocolinite, various amounts of inertinite
(a): calculated based on mineral matter free basis
(b): not calculated based on mineral matter free basis

Table 5 Criteria used for the classification of the low rank coal microfacies and their corresponding maceral assemblages
(Amijaya, 2005)

Seam ID Gas content (daf) Gas Composition (vol. %)

(Scf/t) CH4 CO2 N2+C2+
1 25.0 79.73 19.41 0.86
2 23.7 91.03 11.88 0.46
3 116.6 88.86 10.71 0.43
112.8 87.75 11.22 0.53
91.0 86.57 12.94 0.50
H 56.7 85.53 13.97 0.50
4 13.8 92.03 7.04 0.93
25.6 93.36 5.82 0.82
17.9 92.30 6.37 0.83

Table 6 Gas composition data reported from well CBM-1 (as reported by Lemigas)

Seam Depth Thickness Density Moisture Ash VM VL, daf PL, daf Gas Content, daf (Scf/ton)
m m g/cc % % % Scf/ton psia min max average
1 479.2 6.1 1.42 10.2 16.3 35.8 473.2 450.5 18.3 39.7 34.3
2 516.3 30 1.31 10 5.2 45.8 308.5 448.7 43.3 60.2 51.6
534.2 1.36 10.5 9 42.2 302.8 451.1 59.0 187.1 115.3
3 535.6 9.1 1.33 10.2 7.4 45.2 282.3 448.7
537.8 1.32 11.4 2.6 42.4 284.8 486.2
H 538.6 4.6 1.32 11.6 3.5 41.6 306.6 447.6 7.0 26.6 15.1
601.0 1.57 21.4 32 22.8 110.5 261.6
4 603.5 10.7 1.32 24 3.6 34.5 146.4 235.1 14.1 94.2 30.4
609.4 1.49 17.1 23.8 30.6 196.1 323.4

Table 7 Gas content data, sorption characteristics and proximate analysis data as reported from well CBM-1 (as reported by
Lemigas)
SPE 133488 15

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Figure 1 South Sumatra Geographical settings (Pulunggono, 1992)

16 SPE 133488

Top Basement

Figure 2 Top of Basement in South Sumatra Basin (Pulunggono, 1992)

CBM Muara Enim FM

Figure 3 South Sumatra Basin: Tectono-Stratigraphic chart

SPE 133488 17

Figure 4 Interpretation lineament map S.Sumatra (Pulunggono, 1992)

Figure 5 Major lineament trends – S. Sumatra (Pulunggono, 1992)

18 SPE 133488

Figure 6 Oblique subduction of the Indian Ocean plate against Sundaland in U Jurassia-recent times (Pulunggono, 1992)

Figure 7 Ellipsoid models – upper Jurassic recent times (Pulunggono, 1992)

SPE 133488 19

Figure 8 Structural regimes in back arc and magmatic arc settings (Pulunggono, 1992)

Figure 9 The dominant orientations of breakouts and drilling induced fractures determined from FMI images in the carbonate
interval (wells A-6 and A-5) indicate the maximum and minimum principal stresses (red and violet arrows, respectively)
(Wibowo et al., 2008).
20 SPE 133488

Figure 10 Direction of the regional maximum principal stress (in brown arrow) in the Merbau area based on the regional
structural elements. Maximum horizontal stress determined in both wells generally strikes NE-SW, which corresponds to the
regional NE-SW compressive stress direction. (Wibowo et al., 2008).

Figure 11 Muara Enim Formation depositional model in central Merangin block (from Boyd and Peacock 1986)
SPE 133488 21

Figure 12 Stratigraphy of the Muara Enim Formation and its coal seam nomenclature (modified from Shell Minjbouw, 1978
N.V. Shell Minjbouw, Explanatory notes to the geological map of the South Sumatran Coal Province (1978) 31 pp.Shell
Minjbouw, 1978).
22 SPE 133488

Figure 13 Correlation between Calorific value and fixed carbon over volatile matter, moving away from the Muara Enim area
(Brom, 1976)

Figure 14 Correlation between fixed carbon, moisture content and calorific value of coals from the Muara Enim formation, S.
Sumatra (Brom, 1976)
SPE 133488 23

Vitrinite Reflectance Ro (%)

0.4

0.7

1.8
0.2

0.3

0.5

0.6

0.8
0.9
1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

2.0

2.5

3.0
300 m
Formation 1

600 m Uinta Basin

Unconformity ??

900 m
San Juan Basin
CBM Prospect
Target Depth
1200 m

1500 m
Depth

1800 m
Formation 2

2100 m
Formation 3

2500 m Formation 4
Unconformity ??

2750 m
Formation 5

3000 m

Figure 15 Depth – rank correlation of S. Sumatra coals (Stevens et al., 2004)

Maceral Group Composition (mmf basis)

TAL BOB

Figure 16 Facies of TAL and BOB low rank coals based on their maceral group composition (mmf basis) (Amijaya, 2005).
24 SPE 133488

Figure 17 Profile of maceral group/subgroup composition and paleo-peat development of Tambang Air Laya (TAL) coal
(Amijaya, 2005)
SPE 133488 25

Figure 18 Profile of maceral group/subgroup composition and paleo-peat development of Banko Barat (BOB) coal (Amijaya,
2005). (for legend see Figure 17)
26 SPE 133488

1000
I
900
Hydrogen Index (mg HC/g TOC)

800

700
II
600

500

400

300

200

100 III
0
0 50 100 150 200
Oxygen Index (mg CO2/g TOC)
Figure 19 Plot of Oxygen Index versus Hydrogen Index for Mangus coal seam (Amijaya, 2005)

R0 =0.5%

II

R0 =1.35%

III

Figure 20 Plot of Tmax versus Hydrogen Index of the Mangus coal (Amijaya, 2005)
SPE 133488 27

Figure 21 δ13C vs. C1/(C2+C3) to show the possible mixed gas origin of the gas in the coal

600
Sorbed volume (daf), Scf/ton

VRomax 0.41%
VRomax 0.43%
500 VRomax 0.45%
VRomax 0.46%
400 VRomax 0.52%
VRomax 0.69%
300

200

100

0
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200

Pressure, psia

Figure 22 Variation of the sorption capacity of S. Sumatra coals with rank (Stevens et al., 2004).
28 SPE 133488

600
Sorbed volume (daf), Scf/ton Seam 1
Seam 2
500 Seam 3 (a)
Seam 3 (b)
Seam 3 (c)
400 Seam 4
Seam 5 (a)
Seam 5 (b)
Seam 5 (c)
300

200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Pressure, psia

Figure 23 CH4 adsorption isotherms for eight different coal samples representing the four laterally continuous coal seams and
one local seam (Sosrowidjojo et al., 2009 and Saghafi, 2007)

500
CBM #3, S3, 50°C, DAF Measured gas contents
CBM #3, S5, 65°C, DAF from Rambutan Pilot
450
CBM #4, S3, 50°C, DAF
Sorbed volume (daf), Scf/ton

CBM #4, S5, 65°C, DAF

400
CBM #5, S3, 50°C, DAF
CBM #5, S5, 65°C, DAF
350
Gas contents, Seam 3
Gas contents, Seam 5
300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Pressure, psia

Figure 24 CH4 adsorption isotherms on samples from the Rambutan Pilot

SPE 133488 29

Sorbed volume (daf), Scf/ton 1200

CBM #3, S3, 50°C, DAF
1000 CBM #3, S5, 65°C, DAF
CBM #4, S3, 50°C, DAF
800 CBM #4, S5, 65°C, DAF

600

400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Pressure, psia

Figure 25 CO2 adsorption isotherms

sub high volatile low volatile

bituminous A
20 high volatile medium semi
B volatile anthracite
18
volume ratio CO 2 /CH 4 at 300 psi .

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2 Rmax=0.5% Rmax=1.8%
0
70 75 80 % daf 85
carbon 90 95

Figure 26 The variation of CO2/CH4 ratio as a function of coal rank at 300 psi reference pressure from Gluskoter et al., (2003)