Chapter - II

Training Methods

Contents

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Models of training

2.1.1 Systematic model training

2.| .2 Instructional system development model

2.1.3 Transitional model

2.2 Training methods / techniques

2.3 Special aspects of training

2.3.1 Orientation training

2.3.2 Basic skill training

2.3.3 Team training

2.3.4 Diversity training

39
2.0 Introduction

Training is a sub-system of the organization because the departments such as, marketing
& sales, Human Resource, production, finance, etc depends on training for its survival.
Training is a transforming process that requires some input and in turn it produces output
in the form of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs).

The Training System: A system is a combination of things or parts that must work
together to perform a particular function. An organization is a system and training is a
sub system of the organization.

The System Approach views training as a sub system of an organization System

Approach can be used to examine broad issues like objectives, function, and aim. It
establishes a logical relationship between the sequential stages in the process of training
need analysis (TNA), formulating, delivering, and evaluating.

There are 4 necessary inputs technology, man, material, time required in every system to
produce or services, and every system must have some output from these inputs in order
to survive. The output can be tangible or intangible depending upon the organization’s
requirement. A system approach to training is planned creation of training program. This
approach use step-by-step procedures to solve the problems. Under systematic approach,
training is undertaken on planned basis. Out of this planned effort, one such basic model
of five steps is system model that is explained below.

Organization are working in open environment there are some internal and external
forces, that posses threats and opportunities. Therefore, trainers need to be aware of
these forces which may impact on the content, from, and conduct of the training efforts.
The internal forces are the various demands of the organization for a better learning
environment, need to be up to date with the latest technologies.

2.1 Models of Training: The three model of training are:

1. System Model

2. Instructional System Development Model

40
3. Transitional model

2.1.1 Systematic Model Training: The system model consists of five phases and
should be repeated on a regular basis to make further improvements. The training should
achieve the purpose of helping employee to perform their work to required standards. The
steps involved in System Model of training are as follows:

1. Analyze and identify the training needs to analyze the department, job, employees
requirement, who needs training, what do they need to learn, estimating training cost, etc.
The next step is to develop a performance measure on the basis of which actual
performance would be evaluated.

2. Design provide training to meet identified needs. This step requires developing
objectives of training, identifying the learning steps, sequencing and structuring the
contents.

3. Develop This phase requires the activities in the training program that will assist the
participants to learn, selecting delivery method, examining the training material,
validating information to be imparted to make sure it accomplishes all the goals &
objectives.

4. Implementing is the hardest part of the system because one wrong step can lead to the
failure of whole training program.

41
 FEEDBACK

Fig. - Systematic Model Training

5. Evaluating each phase so as to make sure it has achieved its aim in terms of
subsequent work performance. Making necessary amendments to any of the previous
stage in order to remedy or improve failure practices.

2.1.2 Instructional System Development Model (ISD) : Instructional System

Development model or ISD training model was made to answer the training problems.
This model is widely used now-a-days in the organization because it is concerned with
the training need on the job performance. Training objectives are defined on the basis of
job responsibilities and job description and on the basis of the defined objectives
individual progress is measured. This model also helps in determining and developing the
favorable strategies, sequencing the content, and delivering media for the types of
training objectives to be achieved.

The Instructional System Development model comprises of five stages:

42
1. Analysis- This phase consist of training need assessment, job analysis, and target
audience analysis.

2. Planning- This phase consist of setting goal of the learning outcome, instructional
objectives that measures behavior of a participant after the training, types of training
material, media selection, methods of evaluating the trainee, trainer and the training
program, strategies to impart knowledge selection of content, sequencing of content etc.

Fig. - Instructional System Development (ISD) Model

3. Development- This phase translates design decisions into training material. It consists
of developing course material for the trainee including handouts of summary.

4. Execution- This phase focuses on logistical arrangements, such as arranging speakers,

equipments, benches, podium, food facilities, cooling, lighting, parking, and other
training accessories.

5. Evaluation- The purpose of this phase is to make sure that the training program has
achieved its aim in terms of subsequent work performance. This phase consists of

43
indentifying strengths and weaknesses and making necessary amendments to any of the
previous stage in order to remedy or improve failure practices.

The ISD model is a continuous process that lasts throughout the training program. It also
highlights that feedback is an important phase throughout the entire training program. In
this model, the output of one phase is an input to the next phase.

2.1.3 Transitional Model: Transitional model focuses on the organization as a

whole, The outer loop describes the vision, mission and values of the organization on the
basis of which training model inner loop is executed.

Vision- focuses on the milestones that the organization would like to achieve after the
defined point of time. A vision statement tells that where the organization sees itself few
years down the line. A vision may include setting a role model, or bringing some internal
transformation, or may be promising to meet some other deadlines.

Mission- explain the reason of organization existence. It identifies the position in the
community. The reason of developing a mission statement is to motivate, inspire, and
inform

The employees regarding the organization. The mission statement tells about the identity
that how the organization would like to be viewed by the customers, employees, and all
other stakeholders.

Values- is the translation of vision and mission into communicable ideals. It reflects the
deeply held values of the organization and is independent of current industry
environment. For example, values may include social responsibility, excellent customer
service etc.

44
 Vision *■ Mission

Fig. - Transitional Model

The mission, vision, and values precede the objective in the inner loop. This model
considers the organization as a whole. The objective is formulated keeping these things in
mind and then the training model is further implemented.

2.2 Training Methods/ Techniques: The forms and types of employees training
methods are inter-related. It is difficult, if not impossible, to say which of the methods or
combination of methods is more useful than the other. In fact, methods are multifaceted
in scope and dimension, and each is suitable for a particular situation. The best technique
for one situation may not be best for different groups or tasks. An effective training
technique generally fulfils these objectives; provide motivation to the trainee to improve
job performance, develop a willingness to change, provide for the trainee’s active
participation in the learning process, provide a knowledge of results about attempts to
improve (i.e., feedback), and permit practice where appropriate.

45
 Classification Of Training Methods

(c) Demonstration (e) Apprenticeship

(a) On The Job (g) Other Training
(b) Vestibule And Examples
(f) Classroom Methods
(d) Simulation
Methods

Lectures Conference Associations Audiovisual

Case Study
Aids
Role-Playing

Proga rammed

Instruction

Fig. - Classification of Training Methods

(a) On The Job Training: Under this technique, an employee is placed in a new job and
is told how it may be performed. It is primarily concerned with developing in an
employee a repertoire of skills and habits consistent with the existing practices of an
organization, and with orienting him to his immediate problems. It is mostly given for
unskilled and semi-skilled jobs - clerical and sales jobs. There are a variety of On the Job
Training (OJT) methods, such as “coaching” or “understudy”, job rotation, and special
assignments. Under coaching and under study method (which is also known as
“Internship” and “apprenticeship” method) the employee is trained on the job by his
immediate superior. “Internship” is usually applied to managerial personnel and provide
wide variety of job experience, often involving job rotation, or an “assistant to” type of
position. “Apprenticeship” is generally used to impart skills requiring long periods of
practice as found in trade, crafts and other technical fields. In job rotation, a management
trainee is made to move from job to job at certain intervals. Special assignments or
committees are other methods used to provide lower-level executives with firsthand
experience in working on actual problems. On-the-job training is made more effective by

46
the use of a variety of training aids and techniques, such as procedure charts, lecture
manuals, sample problems, demonstrations, oral and written explanations, tape-recorders
and other aids.

(b) Job instruction Technique: This method is very popular in the States for preparing
supervisors to train operatives. The JIT method requires skilled trainers, extensive job
analysis, training schedules, and prior assessment of the trainee’s job knowledge. This
method is also known as “training through step-by-step learning.” It involves listing all
necessary steps in the job, each in proper sequence.

Job Instruction Technique (JIT) uses a strategy with focus on knowledge (factual and
procedural), skills and attitudes development. Job Instruction Technique consists of four
steps Plan- This step includes a written breakdown of the work to be done because the
trainer and the trainee must understand that documentation is must and important for the
familiarity of work. A trainer who is aware of the work well is likely to do many things
and in the process might miss few things. Therefore, a structured analysis and proper
documentation ensures that all the points are covered in the training program. The second
step is to find out what the trainee knows and what training should focus on. Then, the
next step is to create a comfortable atmosphere for the trainees’ proper orientation
program, availing the resources, familiarizing trainee with the training program, etc.

Present- In this step, trainer provides the synopsis of the job while presenting the
different aspects of the work. When the trainer finished, the trainee demonstrates the
procedure while emphasizing the key points and safety instructions.

47
 Fig.- Steps in Job Instruction Technique (JIT)

Trial- This step actually a kind of rehearsal step, in which trainee tries to perform the
work and the trainer is able to provide instant feedback. In this step, the focus is on
improving the method of instruction because a trainer considers that any cruor if
occurring may be a function of training not the trainee. This step allows the trainee to see
the after effects of using an incorrect method. The trainer they helps the trainee by
questioning and guiding to indentify the correct procedure.

Follow-up- In this step, the trainer checks the trainee’s job frequently after the training
program is over to prevent bad work habits from developing.

(c) Vestibule Training (or Training-Centre Training): This method attempts to

duplicate on-the-job situations in a company classroom. It is a classroom training which
is often imparted with the help of the equipment and machines which are identical with
those in use in the place of work. This technique enables the trainee to concentrate on
learning the new skill rather than on performing an actual job. Theoretical training is
given in the classroom, while the practical work is conducted on the production line.
Training is generally given in the form of lectures, conferences, case studies, role playing
and discussion.

48
(d) Demonstration and Examples (or Learning By Seeing): In the demonstration
method, the trainer describes and displays something, as when he teaches an employee
how to do something by actually performing the activity himself and by going through a
step-by-step explanation of “why” and “what” he is doing.

Demonstrations are very effective in teaching because it is much easier to show a person
how to do a job than to tell him or ask him to gather instructions from the reading
material. Demonstrations are often used in combination with lectures, pictures, text,
materials, discussions, etc. Teaching by example is effective in mechanical operations or
interpersonal relationships, for job duties and responsibilities, for informal group
standards, supervisory expectations, and the like.

(e) Simulation: Simulation is a technique which duplicates, as nearly as possible, the

actual conditions encountered on a job. The vestibule training method or the business-
game methods are examples of business simulation. Simulation techniques have been
most widely used in the aeronautical industry’s Trainee interest and employee motivation
are both high in simulation exercise because the actions of a trainee closely duplicate real
job conditions. This training is essential in cases in which actual on-the-job practice
might result in a serious inquiry, a costly error, or the destruction of valuable materials or
resources. It is for this reason that the technique is a very expensive one.

(f) Apprenticeship Training: For training in crafts, apprenticeship training is the oldest
and most commonly used method, especially when proficiency in a job is the result of a
relatively long training period of 2 years to 3 years for persons of superior ability and
from 4 years to 5 years for other. The field in which apprenticeship training is offered are
numerous and range from the job of a draughtsman, a machinist, a printer, a tool-maker, a
pattern designer, a mechanic, carpenters, weavers, fitters, jewelers, diesinkers, engravers,
and electricians. A major part of training time is spent on-the-job productive work. Each
apprentice is given a programmed of assignments according to a pre-determined
schedule, which provides for efficient training in trade skills.

(g) Class Room or Off-The- Job Methods: “Off-the-job training” simply means that
training is not a part of everyday job activity. The actual location may be in the company

49
class-rooms or in places which are owned by the company or in universities or
associations which have no connection with the company.

These methods consist of:

1. Lectures',

2. Conferences,

3. Group Discussion,

4. Case Studies,

5. Role-playing,

6. Programmed Instruction,

7. Laboratory Training.

1. Lectures (or Class- Room Instruction): Lectures are regarded as one of the most
simple ways of imparting knowledge to the training, especially when facts, concepts, or
principles, attitudes, theories and problem-solving abilities are to be taught. Lectures are
formal organized talks by the training specialist, the formal superior or other individual
specific topics.

The lecture method can be used for very large groups which are to be trainee within a
short time, thus reducing the cost per trainee. It can be organized rigorously so that ideas
and principles relate properly. Lectures are essential when it is a question of imparting
technical or special information of a complex nature. They are usually with discussions,
film shows, case studies, roll-playing and demonstration. Audio-visual aids enhance their
value, “the lecture method is not dead as some would believe. In the hands of able
lecturers, and for certain kinds of purposes and participants, It may turn out to be more
interesting and effective than any other methods.

In training, the most important uses of lectures include:

50
 1. Reducing anxiety about upcoming training programmers or organizational
changes by explaining their purposes.

2. Introducing a subject and presenting an overview of its scope.

3. Presenting basic material that will provide a common background for subsequent
activities.

4. Illustrating the application of rules, principles', reviewing, clarifying and

summarizing.

2. The Conference Method: In this method, the participating individuals ‘confer’ to

discuss points of common interest to each other. A conference is basic to most
participative group-centered methods of development. It is a formal meeting, conducted
in accordance with an organized plan, in which the leader seeks to develop knowledge
and understanding by obtaining a considerable amount of oral participation of the
trainees. It lays emphasis on small group discussions. On organized subject matter, and
on the active participation Of the members involved. Learning is facilitated by building up
on the ideas contributed by the conferees.

There are three types of conferences. In the directed discussion, the trainer guides the
discussion; in such a way that the facts, principles or concepts are explained. In the
training conference, the instructor gets the group to pool its knowledge and past
experience and brings different points of view to bear on the problem. In the seminar
conference, answer is bound to a question or a solution to a problem.

3. Seminar or Team Discussion: This is an established method for training. A seminar is

conducted in many ways.

(i) It may be based on a paper prepared by one or more training on a subject

selected in consultation with the person in charge of the seminar. It may be a part of a
study or related to theoretical studies or practical problems. The trainees read their
papers, and this is followed by a critical discussion. The chairman of the seminar
summarizes the contents of the papers and the discussion which follow their reading.

51
 (ii) It may be based on the statement made by the person in charge of the seminar
or on a document prepared by an expert, who is invited to participate in the discussion.

(iii) The person in charge of the seminar distributes in advance the material to be
analyzed in the form of required readings. The seminar compares the reactions of
trainees, encourages discussion, defines the general trends and guides the participants to
certain conclusion.

(iv) Valuable working material may be provided to the trainees by actual files.
The trainees may consult the files and bring these to the seminar where they may study in
detail the various aspects, ramification and complexities of a particular job or work or
task.

3. Case Studies (or Learning by Doing): This method was first developed in the 1800s
by Christopher Lang dell at the Harvard Law School to help students to learn for
themselves by independent thinking and by discovering in the ever-tangled skein of
human affairs, principles and ideas which have lasting validity and general applicability.
A collateral object is to help them develop skills in using their knowledge. “The case
study is based upon the belief that managerial competence can best be attained through
the study, contemplation, and discussion of concrete cases.” The ‘case’ is a set of data
(real or fictional), written or oral miniature description and summary of such data that
present issues and problem calling for solution or action on the part of the trainee. When
the trainees are given cases to analyze, they are asked to identify the problem and
recommend tentative solutions for it. This method offers to the trainees matter for
refection and bring home to them a sense of the complexity of life as opposed to
theoretical simplification of, and practices in the decision-making process. It diagnoses
and deals with real-life situation. The case study is primarily useful as a training
technique for supervisors and is specially valuable as a technique of developing decision­
making skills and for broadening the perspective of the trainee.

In case study method, the trainee is expected to: (i) master the facts, become acquainted
with the content of the case-, (ii) define the objectives sought in dealing with the issues in
the case, (iii) identify the problems in case and uncover their probable cause-, (iv) develop

52
alternative courses of action', (v) screen the alternatives using the objectives as the
criteria', (vi) define the controls needed to make the action effective, and (vii) to ‘role
play’ the action to test its effectiveness and find conditions that may limit it.

5. Role-playing: This method was developed by Moreno, a Venetian psychiatrist. He

coined the terms “role-playing,” “role-reversal,” “socio-drama,” “psychodrama,” and a
variety of specialized terms, with emphasis on learning human relation skills through
practice and insight into one’s own behavior and its effect upon other. It has been defined
as “a method of human interaction which involves realistic behavior in the imaginary
situation.” As Norman Major has pointed out, a “role-playing experience soon
demonstrates the gap between ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’. The idea of role-playing involves
action, doing and practice.

In role-playing, trainees act out a given role as they would in a stage play. Two or more
trainees are assigned parts to play before the rest of the class. These parts do not involve
ant memorization of lines or any rehearsals. The role-playing is simply informed of a
situation and of the respective roles they have to play. Sometime after the preliminary
planning, the situation is acted out by the role-playings.

Role-playing primarily involves employee-employer relationship- Hiring, firing,

discussing a grievance procedure, conducting a post-appraisal interview or disciplining a
subordinate or a salesman making a representation to a customer.

6. Programmed Instruction (or Teaching by the Machine Method): Programmed

instruction involves a sequence of steps which are often set up through the central panel
of an electronic computer as guides in the performance of a desired operation or series of
pertaining to the leering or acquisition of some specific skills or general knowledge. A
programmed instruction involves breaking information down into meaningful units and
them arranging these in a proper way to form a logical and sequential learning
programmed or package.

In such a programmed, knowledge is imparted with the use of a textbook or a teaching

machine. The programmed involves: presenting question, facts or problems to the trainee

53
to utilize the information given', and the trainee instantly receives feedback (and
sometime rewards or penalties) on the basis of the accuracy of his answers.

7. Laboratory Training: (i) Sensitivity Training - Sensitivity training is an

experimental approach to training. Sensitivity training is a group training method that
uses intensive participation and give immediate feedback for self analysis and change.

This training has two advantages-

(a) Participants remain involved and enthusiastic.

(b) The responsibility for learning experience involved and enthusiastic.

(ii) T-Group - One of the methods of sensitivity training is the T-Group. Bethel Maine
of USA was the pioneer of the T-Group. It was considered necessary that to experience
behavior imparting necessary skills is required for a change in variety of skills and
experience like self awareness, interpersonal relationship, team work, group,
organizational process and intergroup conflict resolution. T-group is process oriented and
not content oriented where people operate a feeling level of communication, observing,
revealing, listening, and unraveling messages.

8. Computer Based Training (CBT): With the worldwide expansion of companies and
changing technologies, the demands for knowledge and skilled employees have increased
more than ever, which in turn, is putting pressure on human resource department to

54
provide training at lower costs. Many organizations are now implementing CBT as an
alternative to classroom based training to accomplish those goals. Organizations are
providing training to employees through Intranet or Internet. Internet is not the method of
training, but has become the technique of delivering training. The growth of electronic
technology has created alternative training delivery systems.

Some of the benefits of Computer Based Training are:

CBT does not require face to face interaction with a human trainer. This method is so
varied in its applications that it is difficult to describe in concise terms. Training games
and simulation are now seen as an effective tool training because its key components are:

55
 Challenge

• Rules

• Interactivity

These three components are quite essential when it comes to learning.

2.3 Special Aspects of Trainings In addition to job training, organizations provide

special aspects of training like orientation training, basic skill training, team training and
diversity training.

2.3.1 Orientation Training; Orientation training is also called induction training.

Orientation training is to orient the employee to the new job, organization, superiors,
subordinates, customers and colleagues. Organizations conduct ‘New-Hire Celebrations’,
Welcome Celebrations’ etc. In order to integrate the new employee with the new social
and task group. Normally, HR departments with, the help of line managers conduct
orientation training.

2.3.2 Basic Skills Training: Even though, the employee possesses certain basic skill,
organizations supplement these skills through their training programmes. These skill
include;

• Reading and writing

• Computing

• Speaking and listening

• Problem solving

• Managing one self

• Knowing how to learn

• Working as a team member

• Leadership skill

56
In order to implement basic skills training successfully,

• Respect and consider participant’s experiences

• Use task-centered or problem centered approach

• Provide feedback

• Use experienced participants as resource persons.

2.3.3 Team Training: Organisations, today, mostly rely on team work and team
management to achieve goals. Team work is more prevalent in all kinds of activities
including production, marketing, customer relationship, supply chain and finance.
Teamwork results in synergy and produces greater efficiency for organizational success.
Team training is provided to impart process skills and behavioral skills.

The following guidelines would help the managers in providing team training:

• Overtime should be provided for team training

• Team development need not be in a linear sequence of forming, storming,

forming and performing

• Provide additional training for new members

• Use participative exercises for behavioral and process skills.

2.3.4 Diversity Training: The number of employees from varied ethnic groups as well as
diverse backgrounds has been increasing. In fact, diverse backgrounds bring varied
knowledge that helps the organization in making accurate and efficient decisions.
Organizations need to provide diversity training in order to get the advantages of
diversity. Diversity training is two types viz.

• Awareness building to enlighten the employees about the benefits of diversity.

• Skill building that provides knowledge, skill and attitudes necessary for working
with people of diverse backgrounds.

57
All the dimensions of diversity like race, gender, age, disabilities, lifestyles, culture,
education, ideas and backgrounds should be considered in designing the training
program. Training is a sub-system of the organization because the departments such as,
marketing & sales, HR, production, finance, etc depends on training for its survival.
Training is a trans forming process that requires some input and in turn it produces output
in the form of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs).

The three model of training are System Model, Instructional System Development
Model, and Transitional model. The forms and types of employees training methods are
inter-related. In fact, methods are multifaceted in scope and dimension, and each is
suitable for a particular situation. The best technique for one situation may not be best for
different groups or tasks. An effective training technique generally fulfils these
objectives; provide motivation to the trainee to improve job performance, develop a
willingness to change, provide for the trainee’s active participation in the learning
process, provide a knowledge of results about attempts to improve (i.e., feedback), and
permit practice where appropriate. Training methods used in practice are On the Job
Training, Job Instruction Technique, Vestibule Training (or Training-Centre Training),
Demonstration and Examples (or Learning By Seeing), Simulation, Apprenticeship
Training, Class Room or Off-The- Job Methods.

58