We Are Stardust

We are stardust
Mohammad Sajjad Athar
Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 1 / 67

Professor Stephen Hawking – The greatest mind of the
last 50yrs

Professor Stephen Hawking – The greatest mind of the
last 50yrs
However bad life may

seem, there is always
something you can do,
and succeed at. While
there’s life, there is
hope.
— Stephen Hawking

Outline
Mohammad 1 Introduction
Sajjad
Athar Elementary Particles
Neutrinos
Introduction
Elementary
The Sun
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
2 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Big Bang
Nucleosyn- 3 Interstellar Matter
thesis
Star Formation
Interstellar
Matter
Star
4 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Formation
Star Death
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis 5 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
Star Death
r-process
Supernova
Nucleosyn- s-process
thesis
r-process
s-process
6 Conclusion
Conclusion

The elements and their origin
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Lifetime of the main sequence stars
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Looking inside an atom: elementary particles
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Quarks and leptons
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mediating quanta
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death Force Gravitational Electromagnetic Weak Strong
Supernova Quanta Graviton Photon W ±, Z 0 Gluon
Nucleosyn-
thesis Acts on all the mas- Quarks and Quarks Quarks
r-process
s-process
sive objects charged leptons and and
Conclusion
leptons Gluons

Elementary particles in the standard model
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Mass ∼ 125
Stellar GeV
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

What are neutrinos ?
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process number density of photon = 450/cm3
s-process
number density of neutrino = 330/cm3
Conclusion

What are neutrinos ?
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process number density of photon = 450/cm3
s-process
number density of neutrino = 330/cm3
Conclusion

Importance of neutrinos
Mohammad
Without neutrinos
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Without neutrinos
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Without neutrinos
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Neutrinos around us
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Neutrinos around us
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

The Sun and its properties
Mass of the Sun M = 2 × 1030 kg, Core’s density=150gm/cm 3

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Proton burning inside the sun
A star shines due to the nuclear fusion reaction going on inside its core.
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar In the Sun, the dominant reaction that takes place is
Introduction 4p −→ 4 He + 2e + + 2νe + 24.73 MeV; 1 MeV=106 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
These two positrons annihilate with two electrons (e + (.511MeV ) +
The Sun e − (.511MeV ) → γ + γ) and releases 2.04 MeV energy.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar In the Sun, the dominant reaction that takes place is
Introduction 4p −→ 4 He + 2e + + 2νe + 24.73 MeV; 1 MeV=106 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
These two positrons annihilate with two electrons (e + (.511MeV ) +
The Sun e − (.511MeV ) → γ + γ) and releases 2.04 MeV energy.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
4 protons fuse to produce a helium nucleus.
Sajjad The mass difference of 0.044 × 10−27 kg is converted into energy
Athar
(E = mc 2 ). 24.73 MeV is released in 4p burning.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun Sun’s power emitted in the form of photons Lsun = 24 × 1038 MeV which
Big Bang is equal to 1038 nuclear reactions per second(=4 × 1038 protons/s).
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star Mass of the Sun = 2 × 1030 kg = 2 × 1033 g
Formation
Stellar
Number of protons in the Sun = 2 × 1033 × 6.023 × 1023 = 1.2 × 1057
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star Mass of the Sun = 2 × 1030 kg = 2 × 1033 g
Formation
Stellar
Number of protons in the Sun = 2 × 1033 × 6.023 × 1023 = 1.2 × 1057
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis total number of protons in the Sun
Lifetime of the Sun =
r-process
protons burning per second in the Sun
s-process
Conclusion
≈ 9 billion years

How the pp fusion starts in the Sun’s core ?
Temperature of the core of the Sun, T = 1.5 × 107 K
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star Coulomb barrier implies that in the thermal equilibrium
Formation
Stellar 3 1 q1 q2
Nucleosyn- kT =
thesis 2 4π0 r
9 × 109 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.6 × 10−19
Star Death
3
Supernova × 1.4 × 10−23 × T =
Nucleosyn- 2 10−15
thesis
r-process T = 1010 K = 10 billion K
s-process
Conclusion

Concept of tunneling
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
T = 1.5 × 107 K , Required Temperature is 1010 K
Conclusion

Among 1057 protons 1038 have to fuse
Mohammad
Sajjad
1 Million Dollar 1 Thousand Dollar
Athar
1000000 = 106 1000 = 103
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
106 - 103 103

Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter How much is left ?
Star 999000
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Formation of various elements
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Origin of the universe
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
It began almost 13.7

Introduction
Elementary
billion years ago.
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun The Big Bang theory
Big Bang states that, in the
Nucleosyn-
thesis beginning, the universe
Interstellar was all in one place.
Matter
Star
Formation
All of its matter and
Stellar
Nucleosyn- energy was compressed
thesis
into an infinitely small
Star Death
point, a singularity.
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
Then it exploded.
s-process
Conclusion

Planck time ∼ 10−43 seconds, length 10−33 cm,
temperature TP = 1.42 × 1032 K
Mohammad The Planck epoch is the time during which physics is assumed to
Sajjad
Athar have been dominated by quantum effects of gravity.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
10−43 seconds to 10−36 seconds, 10−33 cm to 10−27 cm
The Sun
Gravity got separated from the other fundamental forces and the
Big Bang
Nucleosyn- earliest elementary particles (and antiparticles) were created.
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
10−36 seconds to 10−32 seconds, 10−27 cm to 10 cm
Stellar The strong force got separated, and the universe undergone a rapid
Nucleosyn-
thesis exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation.
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
10−36 seconds to 10−32 seconds, 10−27 cm to 10 cm
Stellar The strong force got separated, and the universe undergone a rapid
Nucleosyn-
thesis exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation.
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis 10−32 seconds to 10−12 seconds:
r-process
s-process
Electroweak interactions created large numbers of exotic particles,
Conclusion
including W, Z bosons and Higgs boson.

10−12 seconds to 10−6 seconds:
Mohammad
Sajjad Quarks, antiquarks, electrons, positrons, neutrinos and
Athar
antineutrinos with masses came into existence below 1015 K.
Introduction
Quarks and antiquarks got annihilated, but a surplus of quarks
Elementary
Particles (about one for every billion pairs) survived (baryogenesis).
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

10−12 seconds to 10−6 seconds:
Mohammad
Sajjad Quarks, antiquarks, electrons, positrons, neutrinos and
Athar
antineutrinos with masses came into existence below 1015 K.
Introduction
Quarks and antiquarks got annihilated, but a surplus of quarks
Elementary
Particles (about one for every billion pairs) survived (baryogenesis).
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
10−6 seconds to 1 second
Interstellar Quarks combined to form hadrons (like protons and neutrons)
below 1013 K.
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Electrons fused with protons to form neutrons and gave off
Nucleosyn- neutrinos (e − + p → νe + n), which continues to travel freely
thesis
Star Death
through space today.
Supernova Some neutrons and neutrinos re-combined into new proton-electron
Nucleosyn-
thesis pairs (νe + n → e − + p).
r-process
s-process The density of the Universe at the end of 1 milli-sec was
Conclusion 1011 gm/cm 3 (Present density is 10−29 gm/cm 3 .)
1 second to 3 minutes:
Mohammad
Sajjad Leptons and antileptons dominated the mass of the universe.
Athar
As electrons and positrons got annihilated (e − + e + → γ + γ),
Introduction
Elementary
energy in the form of photons freed up, and colliding photons
Particles created more electron-positron pairs (γ + γ → e − + e + ).
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Nucleosynthesis, from 3 minutes to 20 minutes:
Mohammad
Sajjad The temperature of the universe fell to 109 K.
Athar
Atomic nuclei began to form through nuclear fusion.

Introduction
Elementary
Particles Simple elements like hydrogen, helium and lithium were formed.
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis After about 20 minutes, nuclear fusion ceased as the temperature
r-process
s-process
and density of the universe fell.
Conclusion

Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

20 minutes to 240,000 years
Mohammad
Sajjad The energy of the universe was dominated by photons and the
Athar
universe was filled with plasma, a hot, opaque soup of atomic nuclei
Introduction and electrons.
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

20 minutes to 240,000 years
Mohammad
Sajjad The energy of the universe was dominated by photons and the
Athar
universe was filled with plasma, a hot, opaque soup of atomic nuclei
Introduction and electrons.
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death 240,000 to 300,000 years (T < 3000 K)
Supernova
Nucleosyn- Density continued to fall, ionized hydrogen and helium atoms
thesis
r-process
captured electrons (known as “recombination”).
s-process
By the end of this period, the universe consisted of a fog of about
Conclusion
75% hydrogen and 25% helium, with just traces of lithium.
Interstellar matter
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Interstellar matter
Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Sajjad
Athar consists of (in terms of mass) 71% hydrogen, 27% helium and 2%
heavier elements by mass.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Interstellar matter

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Particles In terms of the number of atoms, the interstellar matter consists of
Neutrinos
∼ 92% of hydrogen atoms, ∼ 8% helium atoms and < 1% heavier
The Sun
atoms.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Interstellar matter

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
atoms.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis The density of interstellar matter is ten thousand times less than
Interstellar the density of vacuum that we create in our labs using the most
efficient vacuum pumps (10−20 g/cm3 ).
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Interstellar matter

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
atoms.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar The density of the interstellar gas is about 1.3 × 10−24 g/cm3
Nucleosyn-
thesis (density of air is 10−3 g/cm3 and density of water is 1 g/cm3 ).
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Interstellar matter

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
atoms.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Matter
Star
Formation
Nucleosyn-
Star Death
Supernova 1 g = 6.023 ×1023 atoms 10−3 g/cm3 = 1020 atoms/cm3

Nucleosyn-
thesis 10−20 g/cm3 = 6000 atoms/cm3 10−24 g/cm3 < 1 atom/cm3
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Interstellar matter

Sajjad
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
atoms.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Matter
Star
Formation
Nucleosyn-
Star Death
Supernova 1 g = 6.023 ×1023 atoms 10−3 g/cm3 = 1020 atoms/cm3

Nucleosyn-
thesis 10−20 g/cm3 = 6000 atoms/cm3 10−24 g/cm3 < 1 atom/cm3
r-process
s-process
However, this distribution of matter in the Universe is not uniform.
Conclusion

Nebula (interstellar cloud)
The Carina Nebula
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
The nebulae are classified into three types based on their
Athar appearance:
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar appearance:
Introduction
z Bright nebulae
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
z Dark nebulae
The Sun
z Neutral hydrogen nebulae
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar appearance:
Introduction
z Bright nebulae
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
z Dark nebulae
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
The nebulae are usually found in the galactic plane. Typical size is
Interstellar
Matter 1AU-10000AU, 1AU=1011 mt.
Star
Formation
(Diameter of the Earth = 0.000085AU).
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar appearance:
Introduction
z Bright nebulae
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
z Dark nebulae
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn- The density of these clouds is significantly higher than the
thesis
Star Death interstellar matter and vary between 10−19 − 10−21 g/cm3 .
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar appearance:
Introduction
z Bright nebulae
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
z Dark nebulae
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Star
Formation
Stellar
thesis
Supernova
Nucleosyn- The masses of these clouds vary between 104 − 106 M .
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar appearance:
Introduction
z Bright nebulae
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
z Dark nebulae
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Star
Formation
Stellar
thesis
Supernova
Nucleosyn- The masses of these clouds vary between 104 − 106 M .
thesis
r-process
s-process The temperature of these clouds is ∼ 10 − 30 K.
Conclusion

Globules
In some bright nebulae we observe some dark, round clouds called glob-
Mohammad ules. Density=10−17 − 10−19 g/cm3 .
Sajjad
Athar These globules are believed to be the progenitors of stars.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

How the stars are formed?
Star formation takes place when the interstellar clouds are subject to
Mohammad perturbations.
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

If the gas pressure fights back the perturbation

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

What triggers the collapse ?
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
The perturbations result from shock waves in the interstellar medium.
Introduction There are at least three possible sources of these shock waves:
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos The predominant trigger for the collapse of material to form stars is
The Sun
the tremendous shock waves that move around the entire galaxy.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
These waves are known as intergalactic waves and their source is
thesis not yet known.
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Very massive stars during formation undergo a period during which
Stellar they release enormous quantity of matter at great speeds. These
Nucleosyn-
thesis
supersonic bursts cause pressure waves.
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Very massive stars during formation undergo a period during which
Stellar they release enormous quantity of matter at great speeds. These
Nucleosyn-
thesis
supersonic bursts cause pressure waves.
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn- When a massive star exhausts its thermonuclear fuel, it can explode
thesis
and eject shock wave that expands at the rate of 10000 km/sec.
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

A star in the process of formation, before reaching the
main sequence is known as protostar.
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

From cloud collapse to main sequence star
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

What is a star?
Mohammad
A star can be defined as a body that satisfies two conditions:
Sajjad
Athar
F it is bound by self-gravity ⇒ the shape of star must be spherical,
Introduction
F it radiates energy supplied by an internal source.
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Stars having mass 0.08M < M < 0.4M die as a black
dwarf
After hydrogen burning, the star will contract and heat up just as massive
Mohammad stars but the mass of the star is not sufficient to have helium burning.
Sajjad
Athar
In doing so, the star will move towards the lower left portion of the H − R
Introduction diagram and becomes a white dwarf.
Elementary
Particles
Once a white dwarf shrinks to its minimum size it will no longer have an
Neutrinos
The Sun energy source but it will continue to radiate its energy, cooling gradually
Big Bang and becomes a black dwarf.
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Stars having mass 0.08M < M < 0.4M die as a black
dwarf
After hydrogen burning, the star will contract and heat up just as massive
Mohammad stars but the mass of the star is not sufficient to have helium burning.
Sajjad
Athar
In doing so, the star will move towards the lower left portion of the H − R
Introduction diagram and becomes a white dwarf.
Elementary
Particles
Once a white dwarf shrinks to its minimum size it will no longer have an
Neutrinos
The Sun energy source but it will continue to radiate its energy, cooling gradually
Big Bang and becomes a black dwarf.
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

What happens when a star having mass
0.4M < M < 4M runs low on hydrogen fuel?
Mohammad As the outer portion of the star expands, it cools and the star
Sajjad
Athar moves to the right and upward on the H − R diagram.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

When the Sun becomes a red giant, it will expand
until its surface is somewhere between Earth and Mars
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Helium burning
Mohammad
Sajjad The core of a red giant continues to contract and heat until it becomes
Athar
hot enough for helium to fuse into carbon and oxygen.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

What happens when a red giant runs low on helium
fuel?
Mohammad
§ The core begins to shrink again and heats up quickly. The energy
Sajjad released by this heating causes the outer portion of the star to be
Athar
blown outwards at a speed of 20 − 30 km/sec.
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

fuel?
Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
§ Although this material cools down, the core left behind is
Neutrinos extremely hot, i.e., around 100,000 K.
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

fuel?
Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
§ An object at a very high temperature emits large amount of
thesis ultraviolet radiation.
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

fuel?
Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Interstellar
Matter
§ The ultraviolet radiation emitted by the hot core of the star causes
Star
Formation the escaping part of the former red giant to glow as it blows away.
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
Such a glowing object is known as planetary nebulae.
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

fuel?
Mohammad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Interstellar
Matter
§ The ultraviolet radiation emitted by the hot core of the star causes
Star
Formation the escaping part of the former red giant to glow as it blows away.
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
Such a glowing object is known as planetary nebulae.
thesis
Star Death § The expelled material will continue to disperse, leaving behind a
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
hot and bright core of carbon and oxygen. The core remains at its
thesis very luminous stage for a relatively short time quickly moving down
r-process
s-process
the H − R diagram to become a white dwarf.
Conclusion

Planetary nebula
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

White dwarf
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction White dwarfs are approximately the size of the Earth yet they
Elementary
Particles
contain much of the material of the original star.
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

White dwarf
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
The density of the material of a white dwarf is extremely great, i.e,
Big Bang
Nucleosyn- about a million grams/cm3 . If such material existed on Earth,
1 cm3 of it would weigh a ton!
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

White dwarf
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
White dwarfs must have masses < 1.4M , which is known as
Stellar Chandrasekhar limit.
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

White dwarf
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
White dwarfs must have masses < 1.4M , which is known as
Stellar Chandrasekhar limit.
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death The surface temperature of a white dwarf is ∼ 15,000 K.
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Type Ia supernova
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
It occurs in binary sys-
Introduction tems (two stars orbiting
Elementary
Particles
one another) in which one
Neutrinos of the stars is a white
The Sun
dwarf.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Type Ia supernova
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
It occurs in binary sys-
Introduction tems (two stars orbiting
Elementary
Particles
one another) in which one
Neutrinos of the stars is a white
The Sun
dwarf.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
The companion lends a
Stellar
Nucleosyn- helping hand, slowly be-
thesis
Star Death
cause of the high grav-
Supernova itational field of white
Nucleosyn-
thesis
dwarf, it starts siphoning
r-process off matter from the com-
s-process
panion star.
Conclusion

The mass of white dwarf gradually increases and eventually
reaches to a limit where the whole thing goes off in one
mammoth explosion known as thermal nuclear run away.
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Life cycle of a star
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Stars having mass 4M < M < 8M become supernovae
and die as neutron stars.
In massive red giants, the temperatures and pressures are high enough
Mohammad
Sajjad to cause carbon to fuse into heavier elements like oxygen and silicon.
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Athar
At still higher temperatures, silicon may fuse to form even heavier

Introduction
Elementary
elements like iron and nickel.
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Athar
At still higher temperatures, silicon may fuse to form even heavier

Introduction
Elementary
elements like iron and nickel.
Particles
Neutrinos Now the core resembles a multilayered onion.
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mcore ≈ 1.5M , Tcore > 8 × 109 K and ρcore ≈ 3.7 × 109 gm/cm 3
The star starts collapsing due to the photodisintegration of nuclei of iron

Mohammad group via the reaction like
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles γ +56 Fe → 13 4 He + 4n − 124.4MeV
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion


Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar and electron capture by proton and heavy nuclei

Matter
Star
Formation e− + p −→ n + νe
−
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
e +A
Z X −→ A
Z−1 Y + νe
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion


Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis

Matter
Star
−
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
e +A
Z X −→ A
Z−1 Y + νe
thesis
Star Death Gradually a density inside the core reaches to 1012 gm/cm 3 in which typ-
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
ical nuclei having masses A ≈ 80-100 with ≈ 50 neutrons are produced.
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion


Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis

Matter
Star
−
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
e +A
Z X −→ A
Z−1 Y + νe
thesis
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
Then the neutrinos are unable to come out.
s-process
Conclusion


Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis

Matter
Star
−
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
e +A
Z X −→ A
Z−1 Y + νe
thesis
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
Then the neutrinos are unable to come out.
s-process
The collapsing star finally reaches to a density of 1014 gm/cm 3 , where the
Conclusion
core becomes stiff and the neutron degeneracy comes into play.
The Crab nebula associated with 1054 supernova
A tremendous explosion sends the rest of the star blasting away from the
Mohammad core at velocities up to 30,000 km/s. A supernova has occurred.
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Neutrino driven wind
1060 MeV of energy comes out and energy carriers

Mohammad
Sajjad
are neutrinos (1059 neutrinos of all flavors).
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Neutron star
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar The mass of a neutron star is ∼ 1.5M .
Introduction
Elementary The diameter of a neutron star is about 20 km (The Sun is
Particles
Neutrinos 14,00,000km)
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
The neutron star have very huge density, i.e., 1014 gm/cm 3 (The
thesis Sun’s density is 100gm/cm 3 ). A matchbox containing neutron star
Interstellar
Matter
material would weigh approximately 3 billion tonnes.
Star
The surface temperature of a neutron star is around 6 × 105 K .

Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
The magnetic fields are between 108 and 1015 times as strong as
Supernova that of the Earth.
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Black hole
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar Stars having mass > 8M become supernovae and die as a black hole.
Introduction
Elementary The stars with masses > 8M proceeds the same life as the stars
Particles
Neutrinos
with masses 4M < M < 8M . However, their fate is different from
The Sun that of the middle weight stars.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Black hole
Mohammad
Sajjad
Introduction
Particles
Neutrinos
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis As the nuclear fusion stops at iron, the core collapses and the
Interstellar collapse is very much violent that it overcomes the neutron
Matter
degeneracy and becomes a black hole.
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Black hole
Mohammad
Sajjad
Introduction
Particles
Neutrinos
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar The term “black” signifies that no light escapes from it and “hole”
Nucleosyn-
thesis means whatever matter or light falls on it can never come back.
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Black hole
Mohammad
Sajjad
Introduction
Particles
Neutrinos
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar The term “black” signifies that no light escapes from it and “hole”
Nucleosyn-
thesis means whatever matter or light falls on it can never come back.
Star Death
Supernova As no light can escape through it, there is no hope of seeing a black
Nucleosyn-
thesis hole directly.
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Formation of heavy and very heavy elements
The star starts collapsing due to the photodisintegration of nuclei of

Mohammad iron group via the reaction like
Sajjad
56
Athar
Fe → 13 4 He + 4n − 124.4MeV
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Formation of heavy and very heavy elements
The star starts collapsing due to the photodisintegration of nuclei of

Mohammad iron group via the reaction like
Sajjad
56
Athar
Fe → 13 4 He + 4n − 124.4MeV
Introduction and electron capture by proton and heavy nuclei
Elementary
e − + p −→ n + νe , e − +A A
Particles
Neutrinos Z X −→Z−1 Y + νe
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

r-process
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos § In r-process, neutron captures are rapid: they happen more quickly
The Sun
than the beta decay can occur.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

r-process
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis § The r-process dominates in environments which have a higher flux
Interstellar of free neutrons ∼ 1024 free neutrons per cm3 .
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

r-process
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis § The r-process dominates in environments which have a higher flux
Interstellar of free neutrons ∼ 1024 free neutrons per cm3 .
Matter
Star
Formation § Heavier elements and more neutron-rich isotopes are produced.
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

r-process
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Neutron stars merger
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction § When two neutron stars orbit each other closely, they spiral inward
Elementary
Particles
as time passes due to gravitational radiation. When the two
Neutrinos neutron stars meet, their merger leads to the formation of either a
The Sun
more massive neutron star, or a black hole.
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis § In 2017 when the LIGO and Virgo gravitational-wave observatories
Interstellar discovered a merger of two neutron stars, new information of the
Matter
Star
formation of high mass elements due to r-process came out.
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Elementary
Particles
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis § In 2017 when the LIGO and Virgo gravitational-wave observatories
Interstellar discovered a merger of two neutron stars, new information of the
Matter
Star
formation of high mass elements due to r-process came out.
Formation
Stellar § Significant spun off mass of highly neutralized matter, enabled

Nucleosyn-
thesis several teams to discover and found spectroscopic evidence of
Star Death
r-process material thrown off by the merging neutron stars.
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Material thrown off by the merging neutron stars
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles The bulk of this material seems to consist of two types:
Neutrinos
The Sun
(a) hot blue masses of highly radioactive r-process matter of
Big Bang
Nucleosyn- lower-mass range heavy nuclei (A < 140)
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
(b) cooler red masses of higher mass-number r-process nuclei (A > 140)
Star rich in actinides (such as uranium, thorium, californium etc).
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

s-process
F s-process is responsible for the nucleosynthesis of approximately

Mohammad
Sajjad
half the atomic nuclei heavier than iron.
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

s-process

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
F The s-process is a series of reactions in nuclear astrophysics which
Elementary occur in stars, having mass < 10M , later in their lives.
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

s-process

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun F A seed nucleus undergoes neutron capture to form an isotope with
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
one higher atomic mass.
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

s-process

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun F A seed nucleus undergoes neutron capture to form an isotope with
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
one higher atomic mass.
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
F It requires neutron density of the order of 105 to 1011 neutrons per
Star cm2 .
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis 12 13
Star Death C +p −→ N +γ
13 13
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
N −→ C + e + + νe
thesis 13 4 16
r-process
C + He −→ O +n
s-process
Conclusion

s-process
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Conclusion
Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

Mohammad
Sajjad
Athar
Introduction
Elementary
Particles
Neutrinos
The Sun
Big Bang
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Interstellar
Matter
Star
Formation
Stellar
Nucleosyn-
thesis
Star Death
Supernova
Nucleosyn-
thesis
r-process
s-process
Conclusion

We Are Stardust

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

We Are Stardust

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

We are stardust

Mohammad Sajjad Athar

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 1 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 2 / 67

However bad life may

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 2 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 3 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 4 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 5 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 6 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 7 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 8 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 9 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 10 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 11 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 11 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 12 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 12 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 12 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 13 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 13 / 67

Mass of the Sun M = 2 × 1030 kg, Core’s density=150gm/cm 3

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 14 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 15 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 15 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 15 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 16 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 17 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 17 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 17 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 17 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 18 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 19 / 67

106 - 103 103

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 20 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 21 / 67

It began almost 13.7

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 22 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 23 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 23 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 23 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 23 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 24 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 25 / 67

Atomic nuclei began to form through nuclear fusion.

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 26 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 27 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 28 / 67

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 29 / 67

Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 30 / 67

Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 30 / 67

Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 30 / 67

Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 30 / 67

Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Supernova 1 g = 6.023 ×1023 atoms 10−3 g/cm3 = 1020 atoms/cm3

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 30 / 67

Mohammad Modern observations of the interstellar matter indicate that it

Supernova 1 g = 6.023 ×1023 atoms 10−3 g/cm3 = 1020 atoms/cm3

Mohammad Sajjad Athar April 27, 2018 30 / 67