VOLUME 5 Advances in Soil Science Edited by B.A. Stewart Pe we Springer-VerlagAdvances in Soil Science Volume 5 Edited by B.A. Stewart With Contributions by S.K. De Datta, M.P.W. Farina, R. Lal, P.K. Sharma, D.E, Smika, M.E. Sumner, PW. Unger, and G. Zitong With 74 Illustrations Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris TokyoB.A Stewart USDA Conservation & Production Research Laboratory Bushland, Texas 79012 USA The Library of Congress has cataloged this serial publication as follows: ‘Advances in soil seience.— Vol. |New York: Springer-Verlag, £1985: vill, 25 em. ISSN 0176-9340 = Advances in soil science. 1, Soil scienee—Collected works. S590,A3R — 631.4'05—dcl9 85-644892 AACR2 MARC-S Library of Congress (8512) © 1986 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover Ist edition 1986 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, U.S.A. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone, ‘Typeset by Ampersand Publisher Services, Inc, Rutland, Vermont. 987654321 ISBN- 3:978-1-4613-8662-9 __e-ISBN-13:978-1-4613-8660-5 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-8660-5Contents Soil Surface Management in the Tropics for Intensive Land Use and High and Sustained Production K Lal I, Introduction... Il, Land, Rainfall, and Vegetation IIL. Soil Resources of the Tropics . IV. Traditional Farming Systems and Soil Productivity — Y. Soil Degradation and Ecological Fragility in the Tropics . VI. Basis of Improving Traditional Farming Systems .. VII. Components of Technology for Improving Traditional Agriculture VIII. An Agroecological Approach to Improving Traditional Agriculture in the Tropics ... TX. Research and Development Priorities ......... References i = Effect of Surface Residues on Soil Water Storage ............. Darryl E. Smika and Paul W. Unger I. Introduction . IL Early Studies with Surface Residues IIL. Stubble Mulch Tillage IV. Early Chemical Fallow (No Tillage) _ ‘V. Chemical Fallow with Improved Herbicides .. VI. Managing Irrigated Crop Residues VIl. Residue Effects—Subhumid and Humid Regions | VIII. Surface Residue Effects on Evaporation ..... TX. Surface Residue Effects on Water Conservation from Snow X. Summary and Conclusions . a References ML uu 112 US 116 117 124 127 128 133 135 135viii Contents Physical Properties and Processes of Puddled Rice Soils ....... Pradeep K. Sharma and Surajit K. De Datta I. Introduction Il, The Puddling Process . Ill, Puddling Indices TV. Effects of Pudding V. Regeneration of Soil Structure VL. Is Puddling Essential? VIL. Research Gaps ..... VU. Summary References Origin, Evolution, and Classification of Paddy Soils in China... Gong Zitong 1. Paddy Soils of China .... Ul, Distribution of Paddy Soils in China IIL. Genesis of Paddy Soils ........... IV. Genetic Horizons of Paddy Soil V. Classification of Paddy Soils ...... : VL. A Suggestion of Paddy Soil Classification in Soil Taxonomy References ........ Phosphorus Interactions with Other Nutrients and Lime in Field Cropping Systems ... . 5 Malcolm E, Sumner and Mart P.W. Farina I. Introduction ......... te Il. Interpretive Model .... Itl. Phosphorus X Nitrogen IV. Phosphorus X Zinc V. Phosphorus x Lime YI. Phosphorus x Silicon VII. Phosphorus X Iron. . VIII. Phosphorus x Copper IX. Phosphorus X Potassium . X. Phosphorus ™ Sulfur... XI. Phosphorus X Molybdenum XII. Phosphorus X Magnesium ‘XIII. Other Interactions XIV. A Look to the Future References . 139 139 140 142 13 164 166 167 168 168 179 179 181 184 189 193, 199 199 201 201 204 206 212 217 223 224 224 21 228 228 228 n9 229 230 237,Contributors Surant K, De Darra, International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines Magr P.W. Farina, The Grain Crops Research Institute, Department of ~ Agriculture, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa R. Lat, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria Praperr K. SHarMa, International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines Dakkr E. Smixa, USDA Agricultural Research Set vive, Akion, Colurady 80720, US.A. Matcoim E. SuMNER, University of Georgia, Department of Agronomy, Athens, Georgia 30602, U.S.A. Pau W. UNGER, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bushland, Texas 79012, U.S.A. Gonc Zrronc, The Institute of Soil Science, Academic Sinica, Nanking, People’s Republic of Chinail Surface Management in the Tropics for Intensive Land Use and High and Sustained UL vil. |. Land, Rainfall, and Vegetation Production RLal* Introduction C. Growing Season D. Vegetation. TEs as Soil Resources of the Tropics .... 10 A. Soil-Related Constraints to Intensive Arable Land Use seevne 12 B. Soil Properties ..... ‘ 2 . Traditional Farming Systems and Soil Productivity ...... 7 . Soil Degradation and Ecological Franbiy in the Tropics easaaimueay 25 A. Processes of Soil Degradation | 26 B. Factors of Soil Degradation ....... 35 Basis of Improving Traditional Farming Systems... 44 A. Inputs a4 B. Fertility and Soil Constraints 46 C. Social Considerations 46 D. Gradual Improvement vs Rapid Transformation 46 . Components of Technology for Improving Traditional Agricultui 47 A. Ecologically Compatible Land-Clearing Methods ..... 47 B. Seedbed Preparation and Aspropriat Tillage Techniques a 51 C. Time of Planting . 70 D. Mulch Farming and Planted Fallows n E, Cropping Systems and Agroforestry . 87 F. Mixed Farming .... 89 VIII. An Agroecological Approach to Improving Traditional Agriculture in the Tropics .. 5 90 TX. Research and Development Priorities 94 A. Improved Soil Management for Economically Viable Farming Systems RSET a‘ 04 “Intemational Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria © 1986 by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Advances in Soil Science, Volume 52 R Lal B. Integration of Components into Viable Farming Systems .....00.0 95 C. Resource Base .... 95 D. Soil Management 95 References ......., 7 I. Introduction The tropics cover about 40% of the earth’s surface. With few exceptions, most soils of these regions are characterized by low yields and are susceptible to a rapid decline in soil productivity. The latter is associated with degradation of soil quality by intensive land use. Because of the severe soil constraints, national yield averages in tropical Africa rarely show an upward trend despite improved cultivars and agrochemical inputs. Agricultural scientists and planners are increasingly concerned about the severe lag in food production, in view of the ever-increasing demand. Consequently the potential and capability of soils to sustain high production with intensive management and continuous cultivation are being questioned. The important issues to be resolved are: Are coils of the tropics capable of sustaining high and economical production? If yes, with what methods of soil and crop management and by which farming systems? What is the approach to be adopted in transforming inefficient, low-production, and subsistence traditional agriculture into a sustainable commercial enterprise? Can this approach provide the basic necessitics of life and meet the aspirations of modern society and yet maintain ecological stability and preserve the natural resource? The objective of this report is to describe soil resources of the tropics, assess their potential and constraints, and review state of the art knowledge concerning the improved systems of management for high production. II. Land, Rainfall, and Vegetation A. Arable Land About 64% of the 3 billion hectares of potentially cultivable land areas lies in Asia, Africa, and South America and only 37% of the land in the tropics has ever been cultivated (FAO, 1981). Estimates of potentially cultivable area in the developing tropical countries alone range from 1145 million to 1648 million hectares. Norse (1979) estimated the total cultivable land area to be 502 and 1164 million hectares in the humid and dry tropics, respectively. Out of this the presently cultivated area is merely 86 million hectares in the humid tropics and 424 million hectares in the dry tropics. There are also some sparsely inhabited regions in the tropicsSoil Surface Management in the Tropics 3 ‘Table 1a, Land and water resources in the tropics Presently Total potentially Region cultivated (X 106 ha) cultivable (X 105 ha) Wet tropics 86 502 Dry tropics 424 1164 World total 1447 3139 Reprinted with permission from Norse, in: M.R. Biswas and AK. Biswas (eds), Food, Climate and Man, p. 20. Copyright 1979 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. that can be developed for food crop production (Table 1a). For example, potentially cultivable area in the Amazon is 450 million hectares. If properly developed and managed, these regions can support a high population. Potentially cultivable land areas also exist in Central and West Africa and in Southeast Asia (Table 1b). With water being the limiting factor, genuine efforts have been made to increase the percentage of arable land that can be irrigated. The FAO (1984) estimated that in the decade ending in 1982, the irrigated land area increased from 7.4 to 8.7 million hectares in Africa, from 6.0 to 7.7 million hectares in tropical America, and from 114.1 to 134.8 million hectares in Asia (Table 2). In spite of this, however, the arable land area per agricultural worker has decreased in all regions of the tropics except Latin America. The arable land area per agricultural worker is below 1 ha in China and less than 1.5 ha in Africa (Table 3), The strategy for improving farm production must therefore address itself to the problems of small landholders with low financial resources. B. Rainfall The mean annual rainfall in tropical regions varies widely, from as low as 250 mm or less to more than 6000 mm. In some regions of West Africa and northeast India, annual rainfall sometimes exceeds even 10,000 or Table 1b. Forest area in the tropics that can be developed for agriculture Region Closed forest (X 10° ha) Open woadlands (X 10° ha) Latin America 680 33 Asia 410 15 Africa 190 6 Oceania 89 10 World total 2657 20 Adapted from Rarney, Glohal 2000 Report to the President of tho USA. Copyright 1980, Pergamon Press.4 R Lal ‘able 2. Immgated and total land area 1972 1982 Irrigated Tol Irrigated Total Region (10% ha) (X10% ha) (K 10%ha) _(X 10° ha) Africa 74 1718 87 1840 South America 60 1153 1 139.4 Asia 1141 4416 1348 4568 Europe 237 37S 336 373.0 North and Central America 218 266.7 23 233 ion by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Reprinted with permi sulture: Toward 2000. Nations, 1984, from Agri 12,000 mm. As a general rule the equatorial belt (the region about 5° north and south of the equator) receives the maximum rainfall. In West Africa, Kowal and Kassam (1978) observed a regular north-south gradient in the rainfall pattern. In this region, the rainfall decreases with increasing distance away from the equator: P (mm) = 2470 — 130.9LA — 0.6L0; r = 0.91 where P is the mean annual rainfall, and LA and LO refer to the latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, Kowal and Kassam observed that an average decrease in rainfall is 131 mm per degree latitude northward or 1.18 mm km-' inland from the ocean. Similar patterns are observed for tropical Australia (Fitzpatrick, 1965). Although the total annual rainfall received can be adequate, the problems to agriculture are posed by its variability, distribution, and Table 3. Arable land per agricultural worker Hectares Region 1967-1970 1982 Africa 1.61 148 Far East 1.00 0.94 Near East 2.67 2.40 Latin America 3.99 4.45 China 0.40 038 East Europe and USSR 535 7.66 North America 54.51 92.33 Western Europe 4.15 6.12 Oceania 74.49 103.98 Reprinted with permission by dhe Food and Agriculure Organization of dhe United Nations, 1984, from Agriculture: Toward 2000.Soil Surface Management in the Tropics 5 irregularities. Tropical rains are supposed to have high spatial and temporal variability and therefore vary markedly from place to place and year to year. Riehl (1979) observed that the highest and the lowest rainfall received at Bombay, India, during 110 years of recordings was double and half the annual means, respectively. For Honolulu, Hawaii, with a mean rainfall of 71 cm, 85 years of records indicated a maximum rainfall of 142 em and a minimum of 25 cm. The annual rainfall received from 1947 to 1983 at Maroua, Cameroon, shown in Figure 1, indicates drastic deviations from the long-term average of 784 mm year."! Tropical rains are often localized and spotty, and the variability among locations within short distances from one another can be high. Among the factors responsible for this high spatial variability are topography and relief, slope aspect, and directional storms. Nwa (1977) reported variability of 10 to 15% among four gages distributed over a watershed of about 40 ha, In Bihar, India, Sreenivasan (1971) computed spatial variability in monthly rainfall for the 32 stations and observed that the variations in space were of a much higher order than the variations in time. In general, tropical rains are less effective than temperate rains. Because of high intensity, a relatively high proportion is lost as runoff. High intensities of 150 to 200 mm hr“ have been observed for a relatively short duration of 5 to 10 minutes (Hudson, 1976; Lal, 1976). the losses from evaporation are also high because of the prevalence of high temperatures. Because of favorable day/night temperatures plant growth rates are generally high, leading w high consumptive rates. Conse~ quently, seasonal crops suffer from drought within a few days after a heavy rain. If the probability of a 5- to 7-day rainless period is high, crop yield is adversely affected. Growing Season On the basis of rainfall distribution, four moisture regimens are commonly observed in the tropics (Le Houerou and Povov, 1981): 1, No rainy scason/permanent drought 2. A single rainy season/one dry season 3. Two rainy seasons/two dry seasons 4. No dry season/permanent rains Regions with monomodal rainfall distribution are called “tropical” and those with bimodal pattern are “equatorial” (De Martone, 1926), Int the tropics, the springs or the beginnings of the monsoons are hot and dry, in contrast to the cold and wet springs in the temperate region. In regions with prolonged dry seasons, low soil moisture and high soil temperature are the critical factors that determine the success or failure of early planted crops, It is important, therefore, to clearly define the6 R Lal beginning of the growing season, which apparently coincides with the onset of “assured rains” or the “wet month.” Various definitions exist of what constitues a “wet month.” Some researchers consider percentage variability in rainfall as a diagnostic criterion (Kenworthy and Glover, 1958). Dry months generally have a variability exceeding 70%. For the semi arid tropics, Virmani (1975) defined start of the growing season as an event with 20 mm of rain falling on one or two successive days. Benoit (1977) defined the start of the growing season as the datc when accumulated rainfall exceeds and remains greater than one-half of the potential evapotranspiration for the remainder of the growing season provided that no dry spell longer than 5 days occurs immediately after this date. It has been observed that in West Africa mean start of the growing season delays with increase in distance from the equator (Kowal and Kassam, 1978). Start of rains (decade) = —1.16 + 1.34 LA + 0.70 LO; r = —0.94 YEARLY RAINFALL (nm) YEARS. (from i947) Figure 1. The annual rainfall at Maroua, Camervon, from 1947 w 1984. The climatic mean is 784 mm. (Data by courtesy Director, IRA, Cameroon.)Soil Surface Management in the Tropics 1 Figure 2. Distribution of tropical rainforest in the world (N. Myers, 1980). Reprinted with permission by the National Science Foundation. where LA and Lo refer to the latitude and longitude. Similar trends exist in the onset of monsoons in the Indian subcontinent. In Australia, Fitzpatrick er al. (1967) estimated the length of the growing scason on the basis of rainfall and soil-moisture availability. D. Vegetation ‘Two agriculturally important vegetation types are tropical forest and tropical savanna. Tropical forests occupy the equatorial green belt (Figure 2). In this ecology the rainfall often exceeds the evapotranspiration for at least 8 months in a year, with a mean annual rainfall of 1400 mm and above. ‘This vegetation zone is characterized by high species diversity. It is not Plate 1, A tropical rainforest at Okomu, Southern Nigeria. pyrialimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableSoil Surface Management in the Tropics nl ‘Table 5. Land area of the major soils of the tropics World land area Land area in the tropics Soil order x 105 ha % X 10° ha % Altisols: 1,730 3.1 300 16.2 Aridisols 2,480 188 900 184 Entisols 1,090 82 400 82 Histosols 120 09 - - Inceptisols 1,170 89 400 83 Mollisols 1,130 86 50 LO Oxisols 1,120 85 1,100 25 Spodosols 500 43 — — Ultisols 730 56 550 2 Vertisols 230 18 100 20 Mountains 2,810 213 600 122 Total 13,170 1000 4.900 1000 Reprinted with permission from Buringh, Introduction to the Study of Soils, p. 83. Copyright 1979 by the Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Soils of the rainforest and semideciduous forest regions are those ing low-activity clays. These soils are characterized by clay fractions mostly composed of kaolinite and halloysite with hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. Soil orders Alficols, Ultisols, and Oxisole of this category comprise about 50% of the land surface of the tropics and about 27% of the world land area. Soil orders containing high-activity clays occur mostly in the semiarid and arid regions and include Aridisols, Vertisols, Mollisols, Inceptisols, and Entisols. The predominant soils of the arid tropics—Aridisols and Vertisols—occupy about 20% of the tropical land area. Recently de- veloped Inceptisols and Entisols are relatively fertile soils and occupy about 16.5% of the tropical land area. Soils of volcanic origin (Andosols) are the most productive and occur in Central America, Java, and parts of tropical Africa. In general, soils of high-activity clays ase less easily dispersed than those of low-activity clays. Soils of the tropics in relation to their agricultural potential have been described by Obeng (1978) in West Africa, Sanchez and Salinas (1981) in tropical America, in the semiarid tropics by Dregne (1983), and by ACIAR (1984). In West Africa soils of the rainforest and semideciduous rainforest within the rainfall regime of 1270 to 2000 mm are generally gravelly, acidic, and of medium to low inherent fertility. About 130 million hectares of forested soils in West Africa have in situ-developed concretionary or ironpans (Obeng, 1978). These soils are cultivated to a wide variety of cash and food crops. The savanna soils of regions with 650image not availableimage not availableimage not availableSoil Surface Management in the Tropics 15 when at low moisture content. Under these conditions soils acquire an extremely hard consistency and are often compacted even in their natural state. With the exception of Vertisols and Inceptisols, soils of the semiarid savanna are also characterized by a coarse-textured surface horizon with low organic matter content. These soils are prone to developing surface seals and crust formation with low water-transmission properties (Mott et al,, 1979). An example of the formation of surface crust of an Alfisol in western Nigeria is shown in Plate 3. Structural properties of soils in the tropics are influenced by the organic matter content and the hiatic activity of soil fanna ‘The widely observed phenomenon of microaggregation, especially in subsoil hori- zons with high clay content, is related to the surface charge properties and to the amounts of oxides and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. The highest percentage of the microageregates or “pscudo-silt” generally occurs in the argillic rather than oxic horizon. Soils containing a high percentage of pseudo-silt or sand have moisture-retention properties similar to silt and sand. Most uplands with predominantly low-activity clays have low plant- available water reserves, ¢.g,, generally less than 100 mm in the root zone. The effective rooting depth for seasonal crops is shallow, due either to adverse soil physical properties (Vine et al, 1981; Babalola and Lal, 1977) or to nutrient toxicity and imbalance. Consequently seasonal crops are Plate 3, Alfisols and other soils containing predominantly law-activity clays are prone to development of slowly permeable surface seal or crust.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableSoil Surface Management in the Tropics 19 Table 9. Effects of duration of cultivation on soil properties of 0- to 10-cm layer at ‘two village sites in Senegal Village Diankancounda Village Sare Bidji (1) Oguneul (2) Soit —_———- property Syr l6yr 80yr_ Dye IS yr SO. yr Clay (%) 91 92 «60 93 8S Silt (%) SS 43-29 47 4233 Sand (%) 854 8651 86D 869 OD Available water (%) 57 450 440568850 Organic matter (%) 240 150 13S Total nitrogen (%) 073 054 «6043-067, 0.49 OAL pH (1:1 H,0) 65 64 60 66 62 56 CEC (meq per 100 g) 4735 26353223 Base saturation (%) & 9 88 §©68l 0 2 Reprinted with permission from Agron. Trap, Vol. 27, pp. 574-591, Siband. Copyright 1970 by Institut Recherche Agronomie Tropicale. yield of upland rice was accordingly affected. In Thailand, Takahashi et al. (1983) observed that traditional farming resulted in an increase in soil bulk density and soil hardness (Table 10). At International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, Lal (1984) reported that the rate of change in soil physical properties (e.g., bulk density, infiltration) was less with traditional farming and slash and burn methods than with intensive agriculture (Figure 6; Tables 11a and 11b). Soil erosion and water runoff under traditional farming also depends on the soil, land-use intensity, relief, and cultural practices adopted. Runoff and crosion are generally less if the fallow period is long enough to restore soil physical properties and build up soil organic matter content. In the Philippines, Kellman (1969) studied runoff and soil erosion during cultivation and fallow phases. He observed that water runoff increased from 1.08% in the first year after clearing to 11.64% in the 12th consecutive year. Lal (1981a) reported negligible runoff and erosion from a traditionally cultivated plot during both the cropping and the fallow phases (Table 12). In Thailand, Takahashi ef al. (1983) reported that in 1980 soil erosion under shifting cultivation was 81.9% and 56.8% of that under continuous cultivation and bare fallow treatments, respec- tively. On a sandy savanna soil near Ibadan, Nigeria, Sabel-Khoschella et al. (1984) reported that in comparison with the no-till mulch the runoff and erosion on traditionally farmed plots were more on yam planted on heaps than on cassava planted on ridges across the slope. In 1983 erosion on traditional plots was about twice as much on mounded seedbeds as onimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableSoil Surface Management in the Tropics 2 1. Decline in Soil Organic Matter Content Rapid decline in the soil organic matter content of cultivated soils is a direct effect of continuously high temperatures throughout the year. Some studies have shown that the rate of mineralization of organic matter content in topical soils may be four times greater than in temperate region soils (Jenkins and Ayanaba, 1977). Consequently cultivated soils in the tropics have lower levels of organic matter than similar soils in the temperate latitude. Lal and Kang (1982) reported large differences in organic carbon status of soils from various ecological regions of Nigeria—forest (1.3 + 0.08%) > derived savanna (U.98 + .07%) > Guinea savanna (0.7 + 0.06%). The organic matter content of a soil and its susceptibility to erosion are intimately linked. While a decrease in organic matter content increases susceptibility of the soil to erosion, water erosion also preferentially removes soil colloids, including the humified organic matter fraction (Lal, 1976). Lal (198c) reported a linear decline in soil organic matter content with accumulative soil erosion: Organic carbon (%) = 1.79 — 0.002E, r = —0.71** where £ is the annual accumulative soil erosion in tons per hectare. A decrease in organic matter content of the soil also increases its susceptibility to formation of surface crust, which further enhances the tisk of soil erosion. Soil erosion is also increased by the reduction in biotic activity of soil fauna that occurs with decrease in soil organic matter content. In addition to decreases in structural stability, reductions in organic matter content have important implications in terms of plant-available water reserves in the soil. The favorable effects of organic matter content on soil water retention have widely been reported in soils of the tropics and subtropics (Table 15). In fact, organic matter content may have more beneficial effects on the available water-holding capacity than the clay content. Rapid declines in soil organic matter content reduce the soil’s structural stability, render soils prone to crusting, increase soil erosion hazards, and decrease plant-available water reserves. Also important are the nutritional implications, eg, decreases in effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC), acidification, and plant nutrients. 2. Clay Migration Loss of clay from the surface soil horizon is an important process that leads to soil degradation. The loss of clay content may be caused by the process of eluviation or migration of the clay to subsoil horizons (Roose, 1977). Under forest cover the activity of soil fauna, ¢.g., carthworms and termites, plays an important role in bringing the fine particles to the soil surface. Nye (1955) stated that termites (Macrotermes nigeriensis) transportimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableSoil Surface Management in the Tropics sl Table 27. Effects of land-clearing methods on grain yield of maize and cowpea Maize Cowpea Relative Relative Clearing method tha! measure —_kgha™!_—_ measure Manual 444 100 390 100 Tree pusher 4.09 2 390 100 ‘Tree pusher/root rake 401 90 430 0 Shear blade 4l7 4 430 110 LSD (.05) 022 50 Modified with permission from Soil Science, Vol. 137, pp. 172-179, Hulugulle et al. Copyright 1984, by the Williams & Wilkins Co. constraints, and conserve soil and water. These objectives can be achieved by a range of techniques, ¢g, mechanical, chemical, and biological. Traditionally seedbed preparation has been used syno- nymously with mechanical soil manipulation performed at a desirable intensity to suppress weed and provide the needed seed-soil contact. A wide range of tillage implements to invert, loosen, mix, level, and pulverize the soil are developed to be human, animal, or machine powered. Tillage operations thus performed affect soil, microclimate, and floral and faunal population. Mechanical tillage operations are capital intensive, (have potentially high risks to) accelerate soil erosion, and increase soil degradation. The most relevant concern of agromomists and environmentalists has therefore been whether mechanical tillage is indispensable to achieving the desired objectives. If needed, how often, and with what equipment? The economic availability of herbicides and other growth regulators have made it possible to control weeds without mechanical tillage. Weeds can also be controlled by fallowing with aggressive quick-growing cover crops that either die naturally or are easy to control. An important concern, therefore, is under what soil and climate conditions and for which crops can the primary and secondary tillage aperations he either completely eliminated or drastically reduced? 1. Soil and Ecological Factors Favoring a No-till System A no-till or reduced-tillage system is applicable for soils with (1) a coarse- textured surface horizon, (2) good internal drainage, (3) high biological activity of soil fauna, (4) favorable initial soil structure and friable consistency over a wide range of soil moisture, and (5) an adequate quantity of crop residue mulch. These conditions are generally fulfilled for Alfisols, Oxisols, and Ultisols in the lowland humid aud subhumidimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableSoil Surface Management in the Tropics 55 reached a steady state and losses due to runoff and crosion arc contained, the fertilizer use efficiency is generally greater on untilled soil (Figure 17). Experiments conducted at ITTA showed that nitrogen-use efficiency by maize was better on no-till than on plowed soil after 6 years of no-till farming (Table 32a). On a lateritic soil in Thailand Tawonmas et al. (1984) reported equal or more yields with no-till than with con- ventional tillage treatments (Table 32a). The beneficial effects of no-till on soil and water conservation and management have also been reported for other soils by Kannegicter (1969), Ajunwon er al (1978), Ino and Lal (1978), Agboola (1981), Olaniyan (1983) in Africa, by Melville by Melville (1978), and McCown et al (1985) in northern Australia, and by Wijewardene (1981) in Sri Lanka. The beneficial effects of no-till mulch for an Ultisol in Peru have also been reported. Sanchez and Salinas (1981) reported from their trials in Yurimaguas, Peru, that for the first planting after land clearing there is little need for tillage. They observed no significant difference in upland tice yield between no-till and rototill methods of seedbed preparation. Establishment of pasture species in cleared land was also better with no- till On a Brazilian Oxisol, Sidiras et al. (1982) observed significant improvements in water-stable aggregates and soil water retention at 0.06, 0.33, and 1 bar suctions after 4 years of continuous no-till farming. Improvements in soil moisture retention in the no-till system were more pronounced in the top 20-cm layer than in the soil beneath. In addition to improvements in soil structure and infiltration rates, the presence of crop aesidue imulch un uv-till plots decieased runoff aud soil losses from au Oxisol on a 4% slope. In Rio Grande Do Sul, Machado (1976) also Table 30. Soil loss-slope relations for each season of maize-cowpeas (no-tillage) and cowpeas-maize (plowed) treatments (1973 data only) Rainfall > 25 mm Rainfall < 25 mm Treatment r Equation r Equation (a) First season Maize-cowpeas (no tillage) 0.10 £= 0,058! 0.12 E= 0,125 ‘Cowpeas-maize (plowed) 0.12 E = 0.11592 017 E=0228%7 (b) Second season Maize-cowpeas (no tillage) 025° B= 00458 = 0.11 B= 0.105% Cowpeas-maize (plowed) 074 E=0409° = 031 B= 2.115041 Adapted from Lal, 1976.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not available4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page 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that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4a You have either reached 4 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Index A Acacia, 88 Africa, 2, 4, 6, 8-12, 33, 35, 41, 46, 47, 53, 57, 64, 74, 75, 80 aggregates, 12, 42, 52, 55, 72, 139— 144, 149, 153, 164-166, 168 agroforestry, 87 Albizia, 88 Allfic soils, 64 Alfisols, 10-16, 18, 22, 30, 32, 34, 37, 39, 52, 53, 57, 59, 60, 72-74, 76, 79, 80-83, 87, 88 Alkimper, 80 Allium cepa, 215 aluminum, 11, 15, 141, 145, 186 188, 195, 196, 219, 220, 222, 223 Amazon, 3, 12, 17, 78, 80, 89 America, 8, 9, 11, 12, 16, 35, 45-47, 48 ammonium, 155, 156 ammonium nitrate, 206 ammonium sulfate, 43 Andosols, 17, 64 Aquorizems, 194 Arachis, 86 Arachis hypogea, 31 Aridisols, 10, 11, 34 Asia, 2-4, 8-10, 33, 35, 41, 46, 47,77, 139 atrazine, 117-122, 124 Australia, 4, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16, 50, 55, 89, 90, 139 available water, 19, 41, 68 Axonopus, 86 B bacteria, 158 bahia grass, banana, 87 Bangladesh, 33 barley, 218 Bayanon soil, 17 beans, 213, 215, 225 biotic activity, 15, 17, 26, 27, 30, 42, a Botswana, 32 Brachiaria, 79, 81-84 Brazil, 8, 14, 17, 33, 37, 50, 55, $8, 78, 80 bulk density, 12, 19, 21, 22, 30-32, 37, 40, 47, 48, 79, 82, 143-149, 157, 158, 161-163, 168, 190, 192, 193 Burkina Faso, 34, 65, 66 c Cajanus cajan, 24 calcium, 26, 48, 52, 82, 89, 141, 184, 187, 188, 195-198, 217-219, 230 calcium peroxide, 165 Calliandra, 88238 Calopogonium muconoides, 80 Cameroon, 5, 6, 34 Canada, 133, 134 Canchrua longispinus(Hackel)Fern, 119 carbon, 26, 27. 52, 53, 79, 80, 82 carbon dioxide, 150, 151 Caribbean. 33, cassava, 19, 31, 32, 76, 77, 84, 88, 91, 2 Cassia, 88 cation exchange capacity, 18, 19, 26, 27, 46, 48, 49, 52, 66, 79, Bi Central America, 4. U1 Centrosema, 79-82, 84, 86 chickpeas, 165 China, 3, 4, 77, 148, 158, 179-199 chloride, 184, 195, 221 chromium, 185 Cicer arietinum L., 165 citrus, 75, 76, 215, 225 Citrus sinensis, 215 clods, 140, 189 clover, 215 cobalt, 184, 185, 190, 195 coconut, 88 cocayam, 77, 87 Colorado, 117-119, 123, 128 Columbia, 33 compaction, 12, 13, 23, 40, 42, 43, 47, 50, 59, , 68, 90, 91, 96, 97, 143, 149, 162, 164, 167 copper, 224-227, 230 corn; see also maize 45, 124, 129, 134, 213 cotton, 76, 131, 132 cowpea, 31, 32, 34, 46, 49, 51, 54, 55, 76-18, 80, 84, 87, 89, 92, 215 crust, 12, 13, 17, 24, 27, 30, 59, 62, 68, 96 Cynodon, 79, 81, 82 D DDT, 42 deforestation, 23, 35, 36, 39, 42 desertification, 26, 31 Desmodium, 86 diseases, 23 Dolichos hosel, 80 Index DRIS, 229, 230 dry farming, 68 dryland, 115, 118, 124, 125, 207, 211 dust mulch, 123 E earthworms. 27, 42, 43 Eh, redox potential, 155, 157, 158, 162, 167, 190 El Salvador, 33 elephant grass, 77, 78 cluviation, 184, 186, 187, 190, 191, 194 Entisols, 10, 11, 12, 205 Entrosema pubescens, 80 Eragrostis abyssinica, 83 erosion, 13, 19, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29-31, 33-35, , 51, 53, 54, 59, 61, 64, 68, 74, 75, 87-89, 91, 93, 94, 96, 115-117, 127, 135 Ethiopia, 33 Eupatroium, 77 Europe, 4, 45, 46, 139 Eutrustox, 64 evaporation, S, 36, 64, 67, 117, 113, 114, 117, 123, 125, 127-129, 131- 133, 135, 149, 153, 168 evapotranspiration, 6, 7, 41 F Far East, 4 fauna, 15, 26, 27, 36, 41, 42-44, 52, 11, 80 Fick's law, 150 field capacity, 16, 17, 28, 41, 44, 140 flax, 215 flora, 36, 44 fragile soils, 25 France, 45 furadon, 42 G Ghana, 33 Glycine, 84 Glycine javanica, 80Index Glycine max, 16, 228 Glyricidia, 88, 89 Gossypium hirsutum, 76, 131 groundnut; see also peanut 31, 32 Guanipa soil serics, 16 Guatemala, 33, 34 Guinea grass, 77 H halloysite, 11 Han River, 181 Hawaii, 5 Helianthus annuus L., 125 hemp, 77 herbicide, 2, 4-D, 119, 124 herbicides, 118, 123, 124 Histosols, 11 Huahe River, 181 humic bog soils, 180 Hungary, 161 hydraulic conductivity, 22, 27, 47, 48, 142, 143, 153, 154, 162, 168 hydrometer, 142 illuviation, 190, 191, 194 Imperata cylindrica, \0 Inceptisols, 10-13, 15 India, 3, 5, 14, 16, 33, 45, 70, 142, 149, 160, 161 Indigofera, 86 Indigofera spictata, 80 Indonesia, 10, 33 infiltration, 17-19, 22-24, 26, 30, 37— 39, 42, 43, 47, 48, 53, 55, 59, 63, 72, 79, 80, 82, 83, 88, 112, 113, 117, 123, 125, 127, 128, 130, 133-135 infiltrometer, 18 insecticides, 42, 43 insects, 23 iron, 11, 15, 46, 141, 143-145, 155, 156, 161-163, 183-187, 190, 191, 194-196, 224, 230 irrigation, 3, 111, 124-126, 161, 184, 186-189, 191, 192, 195 Ivory Coast, 33, 35, 64 239 J Japan, 149, 155, 158, 161, 193 Java, 11, 33 K Kansas, 115 kaolinite, 11, 141, 145, 163, 164 Kenya, 70, 74 kikuyu grass, 77 Korea, 155 L lateritic soi Latin Americ Latosols, 180 Lesotho, 33 Leucaena, 88, 89 Leucaena leucocephala, 88 Liebig's law, 204 lime, 96, 196, 211, 217, 218, 220-223 Linum usitattssium, 215 lithium, 185 lovegrass, 76 Luvisols, 32 M Macrotermes nigeriensis, 27 Madagascer, 41 magnesium, 26, 48, 52, 82, 184, 187, 188, 195-198, 217, 218, 220, 228, 230 ; See also com 24, 31-34, 38, 42, 49-55, 53-55, 51-58, 64, 66, 70, 77, 78, 80, 84, 87-89, 90, 92, 149, 165, 206-212, 215, 216, 218, 220, 222, 230 Malaysia, 34 manganesc, 46, 143-145, 156, 161- 163, 183-187, 190, 191, 194-196. 230 Manihot esculenta, 31 manures, 167, 192 Melinis, 83, 84 Melinis miniriflora, 78 mai240 Mexico, 45 microorganisms, 36 millet, 34, 118, 119, 224, 225 Mimosa, 88 mineralization, 27, 38, 70, 211 Mitscherlich’s law, 204 Mollisols, 11 molybdenum, 228, 230 Montana, 115-117 montmorillonite, 164 Moong beans, 228 Mucuma utilis, 83 Mucuna, 93 mulch, 51, 53-55, 59, 60, 63, 70-72, 74, 76-78, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 91, 93, 94, 115, 117, 122, 127, 130 mung bean, 165 Mununa utilis, 80 N napier grass, 77 Near East, 4 Nebraska, 113, 114, 117 nematodes, 211, 212 New Guinea, 45 nickel, 184, 185, 190, 195 Nigeria, 7, 14-16, 18, 19, 22, 24, 27, 29, 32-34, 37, 38, 42, 49, 53, 60, 64, 10, 73, 76, 77, 81, 87, 88, 91, 161 nitrate, 156 nitrogen, 18, 19, 26, 43, 52, 53, 55, 57, 58, 70, 76, 78, 80, 82, 88-91, 96, 151, 192, 207-212, 219, 230 no-till; see also zero tillage, 58, 61, 62, 64, 63, 64, 84, 38-94, 97, 114, 123-126, 129-131 North America, 4, 45 nutrient toxicity, 15 oO oats, 218 Oceania, 3, 4 oil palm, 77 ohions, 215 organic matter, 15, 18, 19, 23, 26-30, 36, 38, 44, 46, 52, 57, 59, 67, 80, Index 97, 141, 143, 163, 164, 192, 193, 227 organic wastes, 45 Oryza sativa, 31, 179, 180 Oryza sativa L., 139 output/input, 45, 87 Oxisols, 10-14, 17, 37, 40, 49, 51, 80, 89, 205, 220 oxygen, 151, 158 oxygen diffusion rate, 60 P PH, soil, 12, 19, 26, 46, 49, 52, 66, 82, 163, 195, 197, 198, 217-224 paddy; see rice Panicum, 80, 84 Panicum maximum, 78 Parkia, 88 Paspalum, 79, 81, 82, 86 peanuts; see also groundnut 78, 222 Pearl Kiver, ISI penetrometer, 21, 22, 30, 47, 145, 162 Pennisetum, 77 Peru, 33, 49, 55, 78 pesticides, 42 Phacsolus vulgaris, 213, 215 Phaesolus aureus L., 228 Philippines, 19, 45, 88 phosphorus, 12, 26, 78, 82, 89, 96, 156, 187, 188, 197, 198, 201-230 pigeon pea, 24, 77, 84 Pithecellobiurn, 88 plant-available water, 16, 17, 27, 28,111 podzolization, 180 potassium, 26, 48, 52, 78, 82, 156, 184, 188, 195, 197, 198, 211, 221, 227, 228, 230 propazine, 119 Prosopis, 88 Psochocarpus, 79-82, 84, 86 Psochocarpus palustris, 83 Pueraria, 78-82, 84, 93 Pueraria phaseoloides, 80, 83 Puerto Rico, 16, 17 rain-fed, 31, 115, 126, 152, 153, 164, 165 Ramon, 88Index rice, 19, 31, 32, 45, 46, 77, 78, 80, 94, 139-168, 180 rock phosphate, 59 rooting depth, 13, 15, 67 runoff, 19, 23, 24, 29-31, 35, 36, 48, 34-56, 01-64, 74, 75, 83, 88, 89, 94, 96, 13-115, 125, 127, 133 s Samanea, 88 Schéningh, 80 Senegal, 19. 32, 64 Sesbania, 88 Setaria, 83, 84 silicon, 161, 162, 186-188, 195, 196, 217, 218,223 smectite, 141 socioeconomic constraints, 47 sodium, 141, 184, 187, 188, 195, 197, 198 soil constraints, 2, 12, 13, 46, 65, 68, 89, 94, 95 soil degradation, 25-27, 29, 31, 35, 46, 51, 91, 97 coil productivity, 2, 17, 93, 163 soil quality, 2, 23, 26, 46, 47, 50, 91 soil strength, 144, 145, 147, 148 soil structure, 12, 17, 26, 29, 30, 41, 42, SI, 55, 64, 67, 69, 71, 80, 96, 97, 112, 141, 143, 144, 149, 164, 165 soil taxonomy, 193 soil temperature, 5, 12, 13, 27, 30, 35, 36, 38, 41, 57, 62, 63, 65, 70, 71, 73, 80, 83, 97, 128, 149, 155, 159- 161, 168 sorghum, 31, 32, 45, 64, 89, 117, 119- 120, 124, 125, 127, 131, 132, 165, 224, 225, 227, 23 Sorghum bicolor, 31, 224 Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, 119, 165 South America, soybean, 76, 77, 230 spatial variability, 5, 17 Spodosols, I Sri Lanka, 14, 57 241 stem borer, 42 Stizolobium, 79-82 stubble mulch tillage, 112, 115, 116, 123, 135 Stylosanthes, 79, 80-82, 84 Stylosanthes gutanensis, 80, 83 Sudan, 45 sudangrass, 134 sulfur, 26, 195, 228, 230 sunflower, 125, 134 superphosphate, 206 Surinam, 28 T ‘Taiwan, 75, 76, 181 Tanzania, 33, 64, 74, 75 teff grass, 80 termites, 27,29. 42 Vexas, HID=117, 124, 129, 153 ‘Thailand, 14, 19, 20, 55, 58, 163 thermocouples, 158 tie ridges, 65, 66 tillage, 30, 35, 38, 42, 43, 50-69, 78, 84, 91, 92, 97, 112, 115, 116, 119- 121, 124, 126-131, 135, 141, 161, 163-167, 192, 193, 199 tilth, 192, 193, 199 Togo, 64 transpiration, 115, 129 Trifolium subterraneum, 215 Trinidad, 33 Triticum aestivum, (2, 144, 215 Triticum vulgare, 181 Typic Haplustox, 78 Typic Paleudults, 78 U U.S. Great Plains, 113, 115, 116, 119, 124, 133 USSR, 4 Uganda, 28 Ultisols, 10-14, 34, 45, 51, 55, 76, 77, 89. 222 United States, 45, 112, 133, 139 Ustalfs, 62 Ustropepts, 62242 v Venezuela, 14, 16, 41 Vertisols, 10-13, 15, 17, 62, 64, 70, 165 Vigna radiata L.., 163 Vigna sinensis, 215 Vigna unguiculata, 31 w water use efficiency, 74, 87, 124 water-holding capacity, 12, 17, 18, 27, 30, 41, 74, 127 weeds, 23, 40, 78, 82, 115, 119, 123, 127, 166 wheat, 45, 112, 118-126, 128, 131— 134, 144, 154, 165, 181, 215, 218, 225, 226, 228 wheatgrass, 134 wilting point, 28 Index x Xanothomonas spp., 77 Y yam, 70-72, 77, 78 Yangtze River, 180, 181 Yellow River, 180 Z Zaire, 28, 48, 76 Zambia, 64 Zanzibar, 74, 75 Zea mays, 31, 124, 165, 206, 215 zero tillage; see also no-till 165, 166 zeta potential, 145 zine, 156, 185, 212, 213, 216, 230,