M&E Notes

MECHANICAL &
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
THE IMPORTANCE OF
MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM for BUILDING
Modern Building Function:
• shelters from rain
• shelter from wind
• shelter from snow
• shelter from sun
• shelter from other harsh conditions of nature.
Modern Building System function:

Built to create better, more consistent, more
M&E
productive environments in which to work and to
live.
SYSTEM
THE IMPORTANCE OF e.g:
MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL i. Block-type Buildings Without Windows
SYSTEM IN BUILDING (such as department stores),
Building System Features: > totally dependent on electrical lighting (light
• lighting source), ventilation, and space conditioning.
• comfortable space temperature

• humidity
• air quality
• convenient power and
communication capability
• high quality sanitation
• reliable systems for the ii. High Rise Building
protection of life and property. > High rise building rely on high-speed
vertical transportation and high pressure
water for drinking and cleaning purposes and
for protection against fire.
M&E
SYSTEM
TYPES AND FEATURES OF BUILDING M&E SYSTEMS
• Consists of various
complex systems
• Varies according to; living

standards of the society,
climatic conditions,
occupancy & quality of the
building, etc
Example;
 House in a mild climate
does not need heating or
cooling,
 Bulk storage does not
need heating in winter.
 Hospital need a supply of
medical gas,
 Office building need
simple cooling device
 High-rise building needs
central cooling systems.
M&E
SYSTEM
BUILDING M&E SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION
Building Operation
Mechanical Systems Electrical Systems
Systems
• HVAC; (Heating, • Electrical power; • Transportation;

Ventilating and Air (Normal, standby, (Elevators,
Conditioning) emergency power escalators,
• Site utilities; (Water supply and walkways)
supply, storm water distribution) • Processing;
drainage, sanitary • Lighting; (Interior, (Production, food
disposal, gas supply) exterior, emergency service)
• Plumbing; (Water lighting) • Automation;
distribution, water • Auxiliary or support (Environmental
treatment, sanitary system; (Telephone, controls,
facilities) signal, data, audio managements,)
• Fire protection; video, fire alarm, • Special systems
(Water supply, stand security systems)
pipe, fire and smoke
detection, automatic
sprinklers,
annunciation)
• Special systems
M&E
SYSTEM
IMPACT OF BUILDING M&E SYSTEMS
Minor impact Space Planning Highest
Design/Construction
Contribution to
impact level
Priority During
Architectural Design
Construction Cost
Major impact Global Environments

Lowest
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Space Planning
 The M&E affects; the gross floor
area, footprint (size & shape of
ground floor), floor to floor height,
geometry, architectural expression
 Allocations are made during the
space programming phase to allow
appropriate size and strategic
location
 Example; (1) Large office buildings: Central
cooling/heating equipment needs
extra floor to floor height (22ft~),
(2) Commercial Building: Complex ductwork, HVAC

and plumbing needs ceiling cavity (2~3 ft)
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Space Planning- Con’t
* Buildings other than those used for classrooms follow the space
required for specialty buildings such as laboratories, computer centers
and residences.
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Architectural Design
 Early building design; one room, one window for ventilation and lighting
 Modern buildings develops according to the modernization of building M&E systems
(common building geometry figures)
 Building Height vs Space utilization; 7 storey (75ft ~) buildings are considered high-rise
(determined by the reach of firefighters ladder), limit the ability for human to walk up and
down stairs > transportation is needed
 Height increases = Less usable space on the floor – more floor for stairs, elevators,
structural elements, M/E shafts, etc
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Architectural Design
Building Height Classification:

Low Rise Building: less than 7 storey or lower than 75 feet from street level
High Rise Building: 7 storey – 29 storey
Super High Rise Building: 30 storey – 50 storey
Skyscrapers: 51 storey and above.
Basic Building Shapes
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Construction Cost
Building Height on Construction Cost
 Taller buildings needs more time, hoisting equipment and complicated scheduling to raise
M/E materials to upper floors
 Buildings more than 10 stories increases 5-15% of cost for the next 5 stories per floor area,
15~ stories increases 10~15%
M&E Systems Vs. Construction Cost

 Depends on; the type of building, standard of living, architectural design, the systems selected
Table 1-2: Range of M&E systems costs of buildings
Impact on Operating Cost
 Includes; energy consumption, routine maintenance,
repairs, replacements and utilities
 Building Structural components (except roof) are
usually long lasting
 M&E vs initial capital investment
* Buildings other than those used for classrooms follow

the space required for specialty buildings such as
laboratories, computer centers and residences.
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Global Environment
M&E
SYSTEM
Impact on Global Environment
Thermal Heat Island effect at urban

area
Image of Atlanta, Georgia, showing
temperature distribution, with blue
showing cool temperatures, red
warm, and hot areas appear white.
Light Pollution
SYSTEM INTEGRATION &
MANAGEMENT
Integrated Building Management System (IBMS) a complete information delivery system
that monitors and controls a variety of systems and functions at an optimal level of efficiency.
IBMS is an intelligent/smart building system and the system design consists of the following
components :
i. Building automation System
ii. Fire Detection and Alarm System
iii. Public Address System
iv. Security System
M&E
SYSTEM
SYSTEM INTEGRATION & MANAGEMENT
An Integrated Building Management
System (IBMS) is a computer-based
integrated control system.
It is installed in areas like large Residential

compounds, Office buildings, Institution
Campuses,
IBMS mainly consists of the most

crucial systems for the safe and
smooth running of a business area or
building.
Those are, Power systems, Lighting system, Electric power control system,
Ventilation and Air-conditioning System, Security system, Magnetic card and
access system, Fire alarm system, Lifts/ Elevators, Plumbing system, Burglar
alarms, CCTV, Home Automation System, etc.
M&E
SYSTEM
SYSTEM BENEFITS
Better Management
• improved plant reliability and life
• effective response to Ventilation and Air-conditioning
related complaints
• save time and money during the maintenance
• increased staff productivity
Better Control
• good control of internal comfort conditions
• possibility of individual room control
• effective monitoring and targeting of energy consumption
M&E
SYSTEM
End Of Chapter 1
M&E
SYSTEM
FUNDAMENTAL OF BUILDING
PHYSICS
CHAPTER CONTENT
 Basics of heat transfer
 Sources of heat gain in buildings
 Establishing thermal comfort
 Mechanism of regulating thermal comfort
INTRODUCTION
 BUILDING: To control the immediate environment around
people.
 BUILDING ENCLOSURE: provide shelter for the benefit of

human habitation, work or recreation.
 BUILDING SERVICES: operates and control environment

within the building by enabling occupants to live and work
comfortably.
 COMFORT: the state of being able to pursue some activity

without experiencing environmental distress.
BASIC OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat; is a form of energy, appearing as molecular motion in substances
or as radiation in space. Measured in Joule, J
 Temperature; considered as presence of heat in a substance.
 Thermodynamics; the science of the flow of heat.
 The first law of thermodynamics/energy is the principle of

conservation of energy. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
changed from one form to another.
 The second law of thermodynamics, (Clausius 1850) states that

heat (or energy), transfer can take place in one direction only. i.e.
from hotter to a cooler body.
BASIC OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transferred from hot to cold in 3 basic ways:
i) Conduction
ii) Convection
iii) radiation
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
50° C 30° C
Heat transfer by
conduction
45° C
35° C Heat transfer by
35° C convection
50° C
20,000° C
20° C
Heat transfer by
radiation
If there is a temperature difference between two systems heat

will always find a way to transfer from the higher to lower
system
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN FOR BUILDING
HEAT GAIN IN
BUILDING
Office building
Typical house
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING
 Why we study Heat?
To achieve THERMAL COMFORT.
 Thermal balance exists when the sum of all
heat flow is zero i.e.;
 When this sum is greater than 0(+),

temperature indoor will heat up.
 When less than 0(-), temperature indoor will
cooling down.
Qi= internal heat gain, heat from human bodies, lamps, appliances
Qs=solar heat gain
Qc=conduction heat gain
Qv=ventilation heat gain
Qe=evaporative cooling
Qm=mechanical cooling
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Building envelope/enclosure/shell is the
part of the building which physically
separates the exterior environment from
the interior environment/s.
• An important parts and a critical
component of any building that protects
building occupants and regulate indoor
environment.
• Prevents air, moisture, heat/cool from
freely flow in/out from a building.
• Three parts of building envelope:
interior, exterior and the system consist
of:
• Roof,
• Floor slabs
• Walls
• Windows
• Doors.
• Appreciating this difference is
fundamental to understanding
why refrigerant is used in
cooling systems.
• It also explains why the terms
'total capacity' (sensible & latent
heat) and 'sensible capacity' are
used to define a unit's cooling
capacity.
• During the cooling cycling,
condensation forms within the
unit due to the removal of latent
heat from the air.
SENSIBLE HEAT • Sensible capacity is the capacity
When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The required to lower the
increase in heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed temperature and latent capacity
from an object and its temperature falls, the heat removed is also called is the capacity to remove the
sensible heat. Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object is moisture from the air.
called sensible heat.
LATENT HEAT, or hidden heat, is the term used for the heat absorbed or LATENT HEAT &
given off by a substance while it is changing its physical state.
SENSIBLE HEAT
When this occurs, the heat given off or absorbed does NOT cause a
temperature change in the substance
Heat transmittance through the building fabric:
Conduction of heat through building fabric
Convection via air movement
Radiant transmission, typically through glass
WAYS HEAT LOSS FROM BUILDING
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 PHYSICAL & PSYCOLOGICAL COMFORT depends
on:
 Temperature Thermal
comfort
 Quality of Air
 Lighting Environment - Visual Comfort
 Acoustic Environment - Aural Comfort
 ASHRAE STANDARD 55: thermal comfort is define as the state of
mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment.
 Humans- thermal comfort is maintained when heat generated by
human metabolism allow to dissipate (maintaining the thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding).
 Ways heat gain/transfer:
 convection,
 radiation
 evaporation.
Physical
Variables (Air
Temperature,
Relative
Humidity, Air
Movement and
Ventilation)
Personal
Variables
(activity,
gender, age , Factors
clothing) Effecting
THERMAL
COMFORT
 High performance building; envelope must be able control the heat gain in summer and heat loss in
winter.
 Optimal design of the building envelop fabric provide significant reductions in heating and cooling
loads-which in turn allowing downsizing of mechanical equipment
 Good insulation reduces the flow of heat into a building when there are differences of outside and
inside air temperature
 Factors to be considered when determining the appropriate insulation solution:
1. Effect on building design- impact of external wall thickness on layouts, net
2. Sources of heat gain in buildings floor area and light penetration through window
3. Balance between heavyweight and lightweight construction, including considerations
related to exposed thermal mass.
4. Performance in use and longevity.
5. Buildability and the risk of on-site work not meeting the required design standards.
6. Sustainability implications of the production process including sourcing of raw materials,
ozone depletion, embodied energy and eventual disposal.
Thermal Conductivity (λ value or k value) and Resistivity (r)
 the measure of the rate at which heat is conducted through a particular
material under specified conditions
 property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat.
 Measured as the heat flow in watts across a thickness of 1 m of material for
a temperature difference of 1 degree K and a surface area of 1 m²
 Unit :W/m K
λ= thermal conductivity (W/moC, Btu in/hr ft2 oF)
Thermal resistivity (r)= 1/λ m.K/W
r = thermal resistivity (moC/W, hr ft2 oF/Btu)
k or 
 Happens if there exist a  Fourier’s Law for Conductive Heat Transfer:
temperature gradient.
 Conductive heat flow q  kAdT / d
occurs in direction of the
decreasing temperature q - Heat transferred per unit time
(W, Btu/hr)
(higher
temperature=higher k or - Thermal conductivity of the
material (W/m.K or W/m °C,
molecule energy) Btu/(hr °F ft2/ft))
A - Heat transfer area (m2, ft2)
dT - Temperature difference across
the material (K or °C, °F)
d - Material thickness (m,ft)
 Thermal conductivity for a material calculated using:
d
H A(1   2 ) insulation Measured
 Heat supply
Sample
material
heat flow
2
t d 1
insulation
A
 - Coefficient of thermal conductivity from the sample
material (W/m K)
H - rate of heat flow between the faces (J/s=W)
t
A - Cross sectional area of the sample (m2)
(1   2 ) - Temperature difference between the faces (°C or °K)

d - Distance between the faces (m)
 Example;
A plane wall constructed of solid with thermal conductivity 70 W/m
°C, thickness 50mm and with surface area 1m by 1m, temperature 150
°C on one side and 80 °C on the other.
Conductive heat transfer can be calculated as:
q  kAdT / d
q = (70 W/m°C)(1m)(1m)[(150°C)- (80°C)]/(0.05)
= 98,000 W
= 98 kW
  or e is the relative power of Surface coefficients for building materials
material surface to emit heat
by radiation. Surface Emissivity Absorptivity
 Rough black surfaces absorb
most heat and emit least heat. Aluminum 0.05 0.2
 Color of most building Asphalt 0.95 0.9
materials has an important Brick-dark 0.9 0.6
effect on the heat absorbed by
the building from the sun. Brick-black 0.9 0.9
Paint 0.9 0.3
Slate 0.9 0.0
 Thermal transmittance (U-value) and thermal resistance (R-value) indicate the
design thermal performance of a building material or assembly.
 R-value; resistance of heat flow through a building material (m2 K/W)
 bigger the value, better insulation (greater resistance).
 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of heat that flows through a unit
area of a building section under steady-state conditions.
Material Resistance
 Thermal resistance of each layer of material depends on the rate at which the
material conduct heat and thickness of the material;
d
R

Alternatively;
R  rd
R -thermal resistance of that component (mK/W)

d -thickness of the material (m)
 -thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)
r -resistivity of material = 1/λ (mK/W)

 Example
Find the thermal resistance of a 100mm thickness of
lightweight concrete block.
Solution:
value for given = 0.19W/m K
d for the block = 100mm @ 0.1m

0.1 2
Therefore; R m K /W
0.19
 0.526m 2 K / W
Surface Resistances Airspace Resistances
 Depends on conduction, 1. Depends on the nature of any
convection and radiation of the conduction, convection and radiation
surface. within the cavity.
2. Factors affect airspace resistances:
 Factors affect surface
• Thickness or airspace
resistance are: • Flow of air in airspace;
 Direction of heat flow; ventilated or unventilated
upward and downward • Lining of airspace; normal
 Climatic affects; sheltered
surfaces of reflective surfaces of
low emmissivity.
or exposed
 Surface properties; high or
low emmissivity
Total thermal Resistance Example of brickwall resistances;
(RT) is the sum of thermal

resistances of all the
components of the
structure elements RT
RT= Rsi +R1+R2+Rso

 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of

heat that flows through a unit area of a building section
under steady-state conditions.
 Unit: W/m2 K
1
U
RT
RT -Total thermal resistance.
 Average U-Values
 When a wall is composed of different construction
materials with different U-value.
 Overall insulation of the wall depends upon the
relative areas of constructions;
A1U1  A2U 2  ..  .. AnU n

U (average) 
A1  A2  .. An
Exercise
A portion of wall which is facing west in direction. Composition of the wall

includes 20 mm glass window (R=1.1 m2 oC/W) and 150 mm of brick wall
(λ=0.77 W/m oC) covered with 15mm thick cement plaster (λ = 0.18 W/ m
oC) finishes on both sides. Determine the average U-value for the wall.
3.0 m
1.5 m
2.5 m
4.0 m
Plaster
λ=0.18 W/ m oC
d=15mm
Window glass
Brickwall R= 1.1 m2oC/W
λ= 0.77 W/m oC d=20 mm
d=150 mm
Quiz:
The north wall of an existing construction is designed for 110 mm

thickness of brickwork inner leaf whereas the south wall of the
construction with 200 mm thick of heavyweight concrete blocks.
Given: The thermal conductivity values (λ) for brickwork is 0.62

W/mK, heavyweight concrete block is 1.63 W/m K and fibreboard is
0.06 W/mK
Calculate the,
i. thermal resistance value of the brickwork (2 marks)
ii. thickness of the south wall if the heavyweight concrete blocks is

replaced with fibre board having the same thermal resistance of
the original design. (3 marks)
Thermal Mass
 Materials that have the capacity to storage thermal
energy for extended periods.
 Absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling load)
and release heat during night (reduce heat load).
 Lower initial temperature than the surrounding
air (act as heat sink).
 Beneficial for country which had a big different
between day and night outdoor temperature. (e.g.
UAE).
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT IN
BUILDING DESIGN
 Optimal design of the building envelop fabric provide significant reductions in
heating and cooling loads-which in turn allowing downsizing of mechanical
equipment
 Materials that have the capacity to storage thermal energy for extended periods.
 Absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling load) and release heat during night
(reduce heat load).
 Lower initial temperature than the surrounding air (act as heat sink).
 Beneficial from country which had a big different between day and night
outdoor temperature.
MECHANISM OF REGULATING
THERMAL COMFORT
 Energy efficient building/Green Building
THERMAL COMFORT
Roof ;
Insulation serves to limit the conduction of heat through the building shell.
Infiltration ;
When outside air enters a building, it has to be cooled or heated to maintain
comfort. The more unconditioned air entering the building, the greater the
load on the heating and cooling system and the greater the cost.
Windows ;
Low-E windows provide excellent thermal insulation against weather
extremes and can effectively reduce solar heat gain as well. Window tints
and reflective films are efficient at reducing solar gain but can also reduce
the visual connection with the outdoors. External window screens are
excellent solar control devices for single- or two-story facilities, and
architectural features such as awnings and overhangs allow year-round solar
control without minimizing visual quality.
THERMAL COMFORT
Orientation ;
long, narrow buildings facing south with their long axis running east/west will have
lower peak cooling loads and electricity demand costs, and may be able to utilize
smaller cooling equipment.
Landscaping ;
Well designed landscaping can reduce cooling costs from summer heat gains in
building. Trees planted on the east, west and south sides of a one-or two-story
building can effectively reduce summer solar heat gains through windows which is
one of the major contributors to the cooling load on an air conditioning system. Trees
also produce a natural cooling effect in the areas surrounding a building by
evaporating water though their leaves.
Daylighting ;
Daylighting with skylights and other types of architectural glazing features can provide
natural lighting creating a pleasant working atmosphere. Daylighting strategies may
by particularly effective using skylights in large open areas such as warehouses and
manufacturing plants, and in office spaces where the electrical lighting system output
can be efficiently varied over a wide range of light levels. It is important to balance
daylighting strategies with good solar heat control in order to keep cooling loads
down.
Art School, Nanyang
Technological University,
Singapore
The glass facade provides a high performance

building envelope that reduces solar gain and heat
load while allowing the benefits of natural views
and daylight into creative spaces. The glass walls
provide a visual exchange between indoors and the
surrounding landscape or interior plaza as fluid
spaces. The diffused natural daylight is abundant
throughout studios and classrooms, thus making
them productive spaces for young creators.
The curving green roofs distinguish the building from among the other structures on campus but the line
between landscape and building is blurred. The roofs serve as informal gathering spaces. Besides that
purpose, the roofs serve as open space, insulate the building, cool the surrounding air and harvest
rainwater for the landscape irrigation.
This amazing design is surely going to be used more widely because it provides better and healthier
surrounding. In this particular example it offers a brand new experience in many perspectives, fulfilling the
intent that a school for art should inspire creativity, while solving the green surface deficiency.
END OF CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
VENTILATION
Content
1. Characteristic of IAQ
2. Natural Ventilation
a) Wind
b) Stack effect
c) Combination wind and stack effect
3. Mechanical Ventilation
a) Exhaust
b) Supply
c) Balanced
d) Plenum
4. Types of fan used for ventilation systems
Introduction: Ventilation
• Ventilation is the process of changing
air in any space to provide high indoor
air quality. (i.e. to control temperature,
replenish oxygen, remove moisture,
odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne
bacteria, and carbon dioxide).
• Allows for the exchange of air from the

outside and circulation of air within
building.
•A proportion of air within the enclosed

space should be continuously
withdrawn and replaced by fresh air to
maintaining acceptable air quality in
buildings.
Why ventilation is important?
1. Ventilation/air supply must able to maintain air purity and improved human comfort
conditions
2. Preservation of oxygen content – this should be maintained at approximately 21% of air

volume.
3. Removal of carbon dioxide
4. Control of humidity- between 30-70% RH (Relative Humidity) is acceptable for human

comfort.
5. Prevention of heat concentration from machinery, lighting and people
6. Prevention of condensation
7. Dispersal of concentrations of bacteria
8. Dilution and disposal of contaminants such as smoke, dust, gases and body odors.
9. Provision of freshness – an optimum air velocity lies between 0.15 and 0.5 m/s.
Why ventilation is important?
.
Perfect ventilation depends on:
1. Volume of air required 3. Speed of air movement 5. Purity
2. Temperature of air 4. Humidity

Characteristics of Indoor Air
Quality (IAQ)
• ASHRAE (Standard 62.1,2007) has defined accepted IAQ as
“ air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful
concentrations as determined by cognizant authorities and with
which a substantial majority (80% or more) of the people exposed
do not express dissatisfaction”.
• Providing acceptable IAQ depends upon 4 major considerations:
– Limiting pollution at the source (choosing material & equipment
carefully)
– Isolating unavoidable sources of pollution
– Providing for an adequate supply and filtering fresh air (and recirculated
air)
– Maintaining a building and its equipment in a clean condition.
6
IAQ Problems, Pollutant
Sources and Impacts
• Indoor air pollutant can be described both in
terms of the types of contaminants (gaseous,
organic, or particulate) and the types of effects
(odors, irritants, toxic substances) involved.
• Types of indoor air pollutant:
– Odors
– Irritants
– Toxic Particulate Substances
– Biological Contaminants
– Radon and Soil Gasses
7
Sources and Impacts
1. Odors
√ The most immediate IAQ indicator/problems.
√ Unpleasant smells, with physiological consequences.
√ Visitors are more likely to detect odors than are the long term
inhabitants of a space.
√ Sources: body odors, grooming products, copy machines, food
products, cleaning fluids and outgassing from materials.
√ Odors problems worsen by the present of tobacco, and smokes
√ Simple measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration is
used as a first indicator.
√ Filtering odors from indoor air is usually accomplished with
electronic or activated charcoal filters.
√ Odors problems can be reduced by increased outdoor air supply.
8
Sources and Impacts
2. Irritants
√ Symptoms: itching, burning eyes, sneezing, coughing, dry nose ad throats,
sore throats and tightness of the chest.
√ Most irritants are present in the form of particles and gas dispersoids.
√ Sources from the building itself and the equipment and occupants within.
√ New and newly renovated building are particularly prone to problems from
outgassing of paints, adhesives, sealants, office furniture, carpeting and
vinyl wall coverings.
√ Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) ~chemical containing carbon
molecules that are volatile (off-gas or evaporate from material surfaces at
room temperatures) are found frequently in new buildings.
√ Types of VOC gas:-methane, ethane, methylene chloride, trichloroethane,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrocarbons such as benzene, alcohols etc.
√ low humidity can exacerbate problems with irritants.
√ Problems can be reduced by increased outdoor air supply, using filters or
electronic air cleaners.
9
Sources and Impacts
3. Toxic Particulate Substance
√ Asbestos is widely used in buildings until its toxicity was realized in the
1970s.
√ Tightly-bound form such as asbestos cement, vinyl asbestos floor tiles; and
loosely-bound form sprayed on asbestos insulation.
√ Asbestos release toxic over the life of the material.
√ Method of increased ventilation nor filtering is acceptable; it must be either
removed under stringent isolation controls or sealed and left in place.
√ Besides asbestos, some of the respirable particles that result from
incomplete combustion are toxic.
√ Incomplete combustion can occur from tobacco smoking, in woodstove, fire
places and gas ranges.
√ For incomplete combustion isolate the source insofar as possible, exhaust
air from the immediate vicinity, increase the outdoor air supply and utilize
particle filtering.
10
Sources and Impacts
4. Biological Contaminants
 bacteria, fungi, viruses, algae, insect parts and dust within building.
 Moisture encourage both the retention and growth.
 Standing water (in HVAC system components) and moist interior
surfaces are likely trouble sites.
 Results: allergy reaction and infectious & noninfectious diseases.
 Remedies begin with good design and end with vigilant
maintenance.
 Exposure to ultraviolet radiation as control strategy and air filters as
an effective solutions.
11
Sources and Impacts
5. Radon and Soil gases
√ Radon is a radioactive gas that decays rapidly, releasing
radiation at each stage.
√ Colorless, odorless and thus undetectable by human sense and
can cause lung cancer
√ Other soil gases include methane and some pesticides.
√ Radon penetrates through floor and wall cracks and opening
around plumbing pipes.
√ Penetration of below-ground spaces (wall and floors) should be
both minimized and well sealed; providing under slab ventilation
especially in area with high radon risk.
12
BFC3072: BUILDING SERVICES 13
Air movement
Principles of air movement:
• Pressure difference between

inside and outside building allows
for the air to move from outside to
inside/inside to outside.
• Air flow rate through the building

affect by building resistance.
• Controlled natural ventilation and

infiltration are driven by pressure
difference across the building
envelope.
Air movement
The pressure difference is caused
by:
1. wind (or wind effect)
2. stack effect
3. combination of both
wind and stack effects.
15
Ventilation
• Ventilation process divided into 2 major systems:-
– Natural Ventilation
• Wind effect
• Stack effect
• Combination of wind and stack effect
– Mechanical Ventilation
• Supply System
– Mechanical Supply System
– Natural + Mechanical Supply System
• Exhaust System
– Mechanical Exhaust System
– Natural + Mechanical Exhaust System
• Balance System
• Plenum System
16
Natural Ventilation
• Process of supplying and removing air through an indoor space by
natural means using principal of air movement without mechanical
ventilation
• Three types:
1. Wind driven (wind effect) ventilation
2. Stack ventilation
3. Combination of wind and stack effect
• Most often used through

operate able windows for
small spaces.
• Complex building using

the stack effect to allows the
warm air to risen up and flow to the upper opening and forcing cold air
at the outside to be drawn into the building through openings in the
lower area.
WIND EFFECT
When air flow is due to wind,
air enters through openings
in the windward walls, and
leaves through openings in
the leeward walls.
The pressure distribution

patterns due to wind in a
number of cases are
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Air flow around a building

Wind pressures are generally high/positive on the windward side
of a building and low/negative on the leeward side.
The occurrence and change of wind pressures on building

surfaces depends on:
• wind speed and wind direction relative to the building;
• the location and surrounding environment of the
building;
• shape of the building.
(a) Ventilation through window
(b) Ventilation through wall
(c) Ventilation through roof

- Opening on roof
STACK
EFFECT
In a completely sealed
enclosure, thermal differences
between the inside and outside
will result in a pressure
difference because warm air is
less dense than cold air.
Therefore when there is an

opening air will flow across the
roof terminals boundary to
equalise the pressure.
STACK EFFECT
Benefits Limitations
• does not rely on wind • lower magnitude
• natural occurring force compared to wind
• stable air flow ventilation
• greater control in • relies on temperature
choosing areas of air differences
intake (inside/outside)
• sustainable method • Design restriction and
may incurs extra cost
• The quality of air may
be polluted.
22
STACK EFFECT
Cold/winter season (see Figure 2a), the
following stack effect occurs: Figure 2 Stack effect
indoor temperature is higher than
outdoor temperature;
the warmer air in building then
rises up;
the upward air movement
produces negative indoor pressure
at the bottom;
positive indoor pressure is
created on the top;
warmer air flows out of the
building near the top; and
the air is replaces by colder
outside air that enters the building
near its base
Hot/summer season (see Figure 2b), the

reverse occurs when indoor temperature
is lower than outdoor temperature.
23
Combination of wind and stack effect
In most buildings, natural ventilation relies on a combined wind force

and stack effects.
The Stack Effect Wind Pressure
Air movement in the attic may be
caused by the stack effect, wind
pressure or both.
Balanced ventilation also uses the

natural forces of wind pressure to
create areas of high and low
pressure areas around a house.
High-pressure areas form where

wind strikes the building and backs
up.
Low-pressure areas occur on the
downwind side.
Theoretically, air moves into the

building through openings in high-
pressure areas and exits at low-
pressure areas.
Examples for attic ventilation…
26
Natural ventilation depends on 6 factors:
1. Building orientation and shape
– opening and air movement.
2. External elements
– house surrounding/tree.
3. Cross ventilation
– allow the air movement from one opening to
one opening…window, wall….
4. Opening location
5. Opening size
– high and width of window, double door…
6. Opening control
– types of opening : sliding/ram window
- full / half opening…
Maximize Natural Ventilation
• Windows should be designed to admit natural ventilation.

The most important design issue is whether the windows provide single-
sided or cross-ventilation to interior spaces.
• The amount of air that flows through a window

(ventilation capacity) depends on the area and vertical
distribution of openings. These depend on the way the window
opens.
• Horizontal pivot windows offer the highest ventilation

capacity:
– For single-sided ventilation, place them as high as possible to exhaust
warm air at ceiling level.
– Air entering through the upper opening is directed toward ceiling, making
night-time cooling more effective.
Maximize Natural Ventilation
Discussion
When natural
Your Choice to ventilation is not
maximize natural suitable for a
ventilation? give building? Why?
your reasons
30
Discuss natural ventilation in Malay
traditional house.
Explanation on natural ventilation in Vernacular Architecture: The Malay House
MECHANICAL
VENTILATION
Natural and Mechanical Systems
Four (4) possible combinations of natural and mechanical ventilations are as
follows;
• Natural inlet and outlet (Fully Natural supply + Exhaust)
 utilizing open able windows, air bricks, louvers, door-way and
chimneys. Provide up to about three air changes per hour but
depend upon prevailing wind direction and strength, the stack effect
of rising warm air currents, and adventitious opening around doors
and windows.
• Natural inlet, mechanical outlet; (Natural Supply + Mechanical Exhaust)
 Mechanical extract fans in windows or roofs and ducted systems
where the air is to be discharged away from the occupied space
owing to its contamination with heat, fumes, smoke, water vapor and
odour. A slight reduction in air static pressure is caused within the
building, and external airs flows inwards. This system can be used in
dwellings, offices, factories or public buildings.
• Mechanical inlet, natural outlet; (Mechanical Supply + Natural Exhaust)
 Air is blown into the building through a fan convector or ducted
system to pressurize the internal atmosphere slightly with a heated
air supply. The air leaks out of the building through adventitious
openings and permanent air bricks or louvers.
• Mechanical inlet and outlet; (Fully Mechanical Supply + Exhaust)
 When natural ventilation openings unable to cope with large air flow
rates without disturbing the architecture or causing uncontrollable
draughts. Full mechanical control of air conditioning and ventilation
system are in used.
• Indoor/outdoor exchange of air to replenish
oxygen and to remove pollutants generated by
breathing, indoor activities and emissions from
Introduction building materials and furnishings.
• Poor indoor air quality causes or irritate 50% of

all illnesses and can lead to a host of health
problems for people of all ages.
• For ages, most buildings relied on openings

through the building envelope to provide
indoor/outdoor air exchange. Nowadays,
mechanical ventilation can make it safe to seal
unwanted air leaks and install as much
insulation as needed.
• Ventilation in modern buildings (enclosed space

and without natural ventilation) requires
additional equipment to create air movement.
The purposes/objectives
of mechanical
ventilation system:
1. To get enough air (quality

and quantity).
2. To control ventilation
systems (flow in and out)
3. To control indoor Four (4) basic types of
environment (air quality, air whole-house mechanical
velocity, location, way of ventilation systems:
use).
4. To remove heat and dirty
air. Exhaust System
Supply System
Balanced System
Plenum System
(a) Exhaust System
An exhaust system may consist of a single fan that is centrally located

in a hallway or at the top of the stairs, or it can be an upgraded
bathroom fan that has a motor built to run for longer periods of time
and is sized to ventilate the whole house.
Three (3) mode of operation:

1. Mechanical inlet, natural exhaust (positive/over pressure)
2. Natural inlet, mechanical exhaust (negative/under pressure)
3. Mechanical inlet and exhaust (controlled pressure)
Mechanical Air Supply with Natural Air
Exhaust
Exhaust
• Air supply is controlled mechanically and
the air exhaust takes place on a natural
System
way by ventilation openings, windows or
shafts. There will be an overpressure in the
building.
• To prevent draught, the air supply in the
room has to be placed as high as possible
and the air inlet grid must have a possibility
to be regulated.
• By preheating the incoming air, draught
problems can also be decreased.
• An air filter used to clean the incoming air.
• A ventilator (or fan) controls the air supply
and the outdoor air is transported into the
building by ducts.
• By controlling the ventilator it is possible to
control the ventilation capacity for the
system.
Exhaust System
Natural air supply with mechanical air
exhaust
• popular form of ventilation in residential and offices.
• The mechanical air exhaust system creates an
under pressure in the building, the system is less
dependent on the weather. The under pressure
creates a pressure difference over the ventilation
openings encourage the air to suck in.
• High wind pressure or temperature difference can
result in draught problems.
• To prevent draught the air supply openings have to
be placed as high as possible and the air inlet grid
must have a possibility to be regulated.
• Ventilation capacity (air out) controlled by an
exhaust ventilator.
• In residential buildings suction takes place from at
least the kitchen, the bathroom and the toilet. (need
for suction ducts)
• In non-residential buildings suction mostly takes
place from the corridor.
• For locations where the sound load is high
sometimes baffle filters are used.
Mechanical Supply and Exhaust Exhaust System
• A mechanical ventilation system can be combined
with all sorts of heating and cooling systems.
• Often the heating, cooling and ventilation of a
building are combined in the air-conditioning
system (HVAC).
• In a mechanical ventilation system the supply air
and the exhaust air are transported mechanically.
Advantages of an Exhaust Ventilation are:

• Good control of the ventilation capacity; no
dependence of the outdoor weather conditions and
despite possible noisy environment.
• The possibility of extracting heat from the exhaust
air and use it to preheat the fresh air supply (heat
recovery).
• The possibility of preheating and pre-cooling of the
air supply.
• The possibility of humidify and dehumidify of the air
supply.
• The possibility of cleaning the air by an air filter or
supplying the air from a relative clean site of the
building.
Exhaust Fresh-up
Raising exhaust air decreases room pressure to prevent the
leaking of odors or floating bacteria into other rooms
(b) Supply System
A supply system slightly pressurizes the house by drawing outdoor air into the
house. This pressurization pushes indoor air out through small openings in the
building, which helps to prevent outside moisture and pollutants from getting in
through these passages. Positive indoor pressure also protects against back
drafting.
(b) Supply System
In a supply system, a fan pulls
outside air into the house,
creating positive pressure.
Ductwork brings the air into the

living spaces that need it most
typically the bedrooms and living
room.
Spot exhaust fans are still

needed in high-pollutant areas
such as the kitchen, bathroom,
and laundry room.
Supply rich mode: Raising the air supply maintains proper room
pressure to prevent back-flow to toilet or kitchen odours or moisture inflow.
FRESH-UP operation: Both the excessive supply mode and the excessive
exhaust mode are selectable. This function allows for a more comfortable
air environment whether the occupied space is required to be pressurized
or de-pressurized.
(c) Balance System
A balanced central system uses two fans
(supply and exhaust fans working in
cooperation) and creates a neutral, or
balanced pressure.
One fan exhausts air out of the house, while

the other brings the same amount of outside
air into the house.
These systems are more complex than

supply-only or exhaust-only ventilation
systems, but provide better fresh air
distribution.
They may be two wall-mounted fans of equal

capacity--one for supply and one for exhaust-
-in two different rooms. In a balanced system, air is supplied to
some rooms and exhausted from others.
Alternatively, they may be ducted to supply An optional heat- or energy-recovery unit
air to the common living areas, such as living transfers heat or humidity from one air
rooms and bedrooms, and to exhaust air
from the rooms where pollution is high, such
stream to the other. Spot exhaust is
as the kitchen and bathroom included where necessary.
(c) Balance System (benefits)
Balanced ventilation
systems can provide
many benefits
including:
 Improved indoor
air quality
 Improved comfort
 Improved health
 Lower utility bills
 Improved resale
position
Balance System (benefits)
 Improved indoor air  Balanced ventilation systems supply fresh air to the living
quality. and sleeping areas of homes while exhausting stale air at an
equal rate from the bathrooms. This proactive approach to
ventilation can result in improved indoor air quality.
 Improved comfort.  ENERGY STAR labeled homes with tight construction and
balanced ventilation systems can have fewer drafts and a
constant supply of outdoor air resulting in improved comfort.
 Improved health.  Stale air can cause health problems. It can be responsible
for symptoms such as headaches, drowsiness, and
respiratory problems. These symptoms are more common in
homes with poor ventilation and moisture control.
Continuously providing fresh air can result in the improved
health and well being of the occupants.
 Lower utility bills.  Less energy is consumed to operate ventilation systems

than to heat and cool excessive amounts of outdoor air that
infiltrates leaky homes. Additional savings are captured
when these systems are equipped with either a sensible or
total heat exchanger. This can result in lower utility bills,
making homes less expensive to operate.
 Improved resale  ENERGY STAR labeled homes with balanced ventilation

position. systems can provide the many impressive benefits listed
including more comfortable homes with better indoor air
quality and lower utility bills. These benefits can translate
into higher resale value.
Typical Installation Configurations
SA = Supply air RA = Return air OA = Outside air EA = Exhaust air

(d) Plenum System
• Plenum is the space that can
facilitate air circulation for heating
and air conditioning systems, by
providing pathways for either
heated/ conditioned or return
airflows.
• Space between the structural
ceiling and the dropped ceiling or
under a raised floor is typically
considered plenum.
• Air pressure in plenum is higher
than outside.
• For buildings, plenum is an
enclosed space that are not for
human occupancy, but are often
used for heating, ventilating
and/or air conditioning equipment
and airflow, and are for
equipment such as cables, piping,
and luminaries
Equipment for Mechanical System
The motive power for the distribution of air

in ventilation systems is invariably provided
by electrically driven equipement.
• Fan / Blower
• Extractor
• Air Conditioning
Equipment for Mechanical System
There are three main types of fan in use for

blowing or extracting wind in or out of the
building :
1. Propeller fans
2. Centrifugal fans
3. Axial flow fans
(i) Propeller fans
Propeller fans are suitable for situations
where no great resistance to airflow has to
be overcome.
The free intake and discharge condition of

ventilation fans situated in wall openings
giving direct in/out and out/in movement
are eminently suited to this type of fan,
which under these conditions can move
large volumes of air economically and with
very low installation costs.
A typical fan Efficiency 60-65%
Short duct systems can also be served,

provided the resistance of the system is
low.
(ii) Centrifugal fans
Centrifugal fans can generate high-pressure
rises in the gas stream 760Pa. Accordingly,
they are well-suited for industrial processes
and air pollution control systems. Efficiency
80%, high cost, silence, big size and need
more space.
A centrifugal fan has a fan wheel composed of

a number of fan blades mounted around a
hub. The hub turns on a shaft that passes The centrifugal
through the fan housing. The gas enters from type generally
supplies more
the side of the fan wheel, turns 90 and cfm per
accelerates as it passes over the fan blades. horsepower at
static pressures
over 4.0-4.5
The term, centrifugal, refers to the trajectory inches of water
of the gas stream as it passes out of the fan and is often
housing. used where low
noise level is
desired
(iii) Axial flow fans
This type of fan is becoming popular.

Use in the ductwork system
Efficiency is high to 75%, simple

installation and appearance neat,
particularly in a line of ducting.
The vane-axial type has a propeller and vanes, and is best for static pressures under 4.0-4.5 inches of water
Advantages of good ventilation
1.0 REDUCTION IN HUMIDITY LEVELS
-Dust-mite levels decrease
-Mould disappears
-Fungus disappears
2.0 REMOVES THE CAUSE OF TIREDNESS AND HEADACHES

-High CO² levels are replaced with fresh air
-Moist, stuffy air is eliminated
-Poisonous particles emitted by artificial building materials are removed
3.0 ELIMINATES RADON PROBLEMS

-Radon gas will be ventilated away
4.0 REDUCES THE NEED FOR REDECORATION

-Cigarette smoke will not linger
-The amount of pollution in the air decreases
5.0 LOWERS THE HEATING COST

-A damp house is impossible to heat (try heating a wet towel)
Example : TURBINE ROOF VENTILATION
The Whirling Turbine Action:
Removes Convicted Heat

Pollution Build-Up
Tornado Turbine Roof - Improves Air Quality
Ventilation - Water and Dust Proof
- Improves Productivity
- Removes Heat, Fumes, Steam and Dust
SI UNIT FOR VENTILATION
Unit used to determine a Ventilation in a

building:
1. Air Change per Hour (ACH)

2. Volumetric flow rate (m3/sec)
3. Mass flow rate (kg/s)
Exercise
 A room 15m x 7m x 2.8m high has a ventilation rate of 11 air

changes per hour. Air enters from a duct at a velocity of 8.5 m/s.
Calculate the air volume flow rate to the room and the dimensions
of the square duct.
Exercise
 Answer
 The air flow rate is given by:


 Q = (N air changes/hour) × (Vm3/air change) × (1h/3600s)

 where room volume Vm3 = 1 air change. Hence

 Q = (NV/3600) m/s
 = (11 × 15 × 7 × 2.8) / (3600) m3/s
 = 0.9 m3/s

 Also, Q m3/s = duct cross-sectional area A m2 × air velocity V m/s

 Therefore
 A = Q/V = (0.9/8.5) m2 = 0.106 m2

 If the duct side is l m, then A = l2m2. Therefore

 l=VAm
 = √0.106 m
 = 0.325 m
Exercise
 A lecture theatre has dimensions of 25m × 22m × 6m

height with 100 occupants; 8l/s of fresh air and 25 l/s of
re-circulated air are supplied to the theatre for each
person. A single-duct ventilation system is used. If 10%
of the supply volume leaks out of the theatre, calculate
the room air change rate and the air volume flow rate in
each duct
Exercise
 Answer:
 Supply air quantity = (25 + 8) L/s x 1/1000 m3/L

 = 0.033 m3/s
 Hence
 Qs = 0.033 x (100 + 10)
 = 3.63 m3/s

 Also Q = NV/3600
 3.63 m3/s = N (25 x 22 x 6)/3600
 N = (3.63 x 3600) / (25 x 22 x 6)
 = 3.96 airchanges per hour

 Leakage fron the theatre is Ql = 10% x Q
 = 10/100 x 3.63 m3/s
 = 0.36 m3/s

 Continue...
Exercise
 The quantity of air extracted from the theatre Qe = (3.63 – 0.36) m3/s
 = 3.27 m3/s

 Quantity of fresh air Qf = (8 x 110)/1000 m3/s
 = 0.88 m3/s

 The quantity of recirculated air is Qr = Q - Qf
 = 3.63 m3/s - 0.88 m3/s
 = 2.75 m3/s

 Quantity of exaust air Qex = Qe – Qr
 = 3.27 m3/s - 2.75 m3/s
 = 0.52 m3/s
1. Why proper ventilation is required inside
a building?
2. Explain 3 factors to consider in

maximizing natural ventilation in a
building.
3. Sketch and briefly describe 4 basic

system in mechanical ventilation.
FIRE SAFETY
Junaidah Jailani
FIRE SAFETY
Principles of Fire
Passive Fire Protection

Building Utilization
Compartmentation
Means Of Escape
Active Fire Protection

Fire Detection System
Fire Extinguisher
Sprinkler System
Mechanical Compartmentation
Fire Safety Rules & Regulations

Definition of Fire
 According to NFPA
 Fire: A rapid oxidation process with evolution
of light and heat in varying intensities.
 A chemical reaction between a fuel and an
oxidant.
 Any instance of destructive and uncontrolled
burning, including explosion, of combustible
solids, liquids, or gases.
 Any instance of destructive and uncontrolled
burning, including explosion
Definition of Fire
 Fire is a combustion or burning, in which
substance combine chemically with oxygen from
the air and typically give out bright light, heat
and smoke.
Principles of Fire
 To build a fire, it helps to understand the
basic principles of a fire.
 Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not
burn directly. When heat applied to a fuel,
it produces a gas. This gas, combined with
oxygen in the air, burns.
 Understanding the concept of the fire
triangle is very important in correctly
constructing and maintaining a fire.
Principles of Fire
 The three sides of the triangle represent air,
heat, and fuel. If any of these removed, the fire
will go out.
 The correct ratio of these components is very
important for a fire to burn at its greatest
capability.
Causes of fire:
– Short circuit
– Careless and unaware attitude among users
– Dangerous activities held in building
– Overheating
– Pipe Leakage
– Intentionally burning
Factors contribute to fire

– Combustible materials used in building
– Combustible goods placed in building
– Poor fire fighting system in building
* Poor space arrangement
* Improper installation of fire fighting equipments
– Malfunction of fire fighting equipments.
– Water shortage in fire fighting system
Classes of Fire
When deciding on what fire protection is appropriate for any given situation,
it is important to assess the types of fire hazard that may be faced.
Class Type of Fire Fire Fighting Agent
Fires that involve flammable solids such as wood, cloth, Water, Dry Chemical Powder,
A
rubber, paper, and some types of plastics Foam
Fires that involve flammable liquids or liquifiable solids

such as petrol/gasoline, oil, paint, some waxes & plastics,
but not cooking fats or oils AND Fires that involve CO2, Dry Chemical Powder,
B
flammable gases, such as natural gas, hydrogen, Foam, Halon
propane, butane
Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A

and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical
CO2, Dry Chemical Powder,
C appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects
Halon
in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock
risk if a conductive agent is used to control the fire
Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium,

D Dry Chemical Powder
magnesium, and potassium
PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION
 DEFINITION :
- Passive fire protection (PFP) is defines as

protection through ignition delays, reduce rate of
burning and fire spread through use of fire-
resistant walls, floors, and doors (amongst other
examples).
- It is an integral component of the three
components of structural fire protection and fire
safety in a building.
 ASPECTS OF PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION:
- Building Utilization
- Compartmentation
- Mean of Escape
BUILDING UTILIZATION
 Building utilization mean the number of persons using an
undivided space, such as a meeting room, classroom,
auditorium, hotel room or stadium.
 As with building codes, fire-protection authorities often set a

limit on the number of people that can occupy a space.
 Reason of limitation number of person are :

To ensure occupant must be able to leave the building
through the available number of exits in a reasonable amount of
time, without tripping or trampling each other In a panicked
situation, possibly blinded by smoke.
COMPARTMENTATION
 Compartment means any part of a building which is separated from all
other parts by one or more compartment walls or compartment floors
or by both such walls and floors; and for the purpose of the Part, if any part of
the top storey of a building is within a compartment, the compartment shall
include any room space above such part of the storey. (UBBL: Part VII)
 Compartmentation is dividing spaces into small compartments which may contain

single or multiple rooms.
 The purpose of compartmentation is to limit the spread of fire, smoke and flue
gases
 Examples of compartmentation :
1. dividing office area into working place, office equipments room ( photostate
& paper shredder machine ) and storage area ( papers, files)
2. dividing hospital area into treating room, operation theater and chemical
storage area
COMPARTMENTATION
Method of compartmentation :
The construction of such compartments and all its components must focus
to achieve fire resistance rating which all components are subject to
stringent Listing and approval use and compliance in countries, where
product certification is mandatory.
Type of component :
1) Fire - resistant elements
2) Interior furnishing / ceiling
FIRE - RESISTANT ELEMENTS
Firewalls are constructed of concrete or concrete blocks

FIRE - RESISTANT ELEMENTS
Fire-resistance rated door
This I beam has a fireproofing material sprayed

onto it as a form of passive fire protection.
INTERIOR
FURNISHING /
CEILING
Spraying
fireproofing to
the ceiling using
a gypsum based
plaster
MEANS OF ESCAPE
DEFINITION :
OSHA define an escape route or an exit

route as a continuous and non-
obstructed path of exit travel from
any point within a workplace to a
place of safety.
An exit route consists of three parts:
■ Exit access
portion of an exit route that leads to an
exit.
■ Exit
portion of an exit route that is generally
separated from other areas to provide a
protected way of travel to the exit
discharge.
■ Exit discharge emergency exit in
part of the exit route that leads directly
outside or to a street, walkway, refuge Stockholm's underground
area, public way, or open space with
access to the outside.
station "Universitetet"
THE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF THE EXIT
ROUTES
 Exit routes must be permanent parts of  Side-hinged exit doors must be used to
the workplace. connect rooms to exit routes. These doors
must swing out in the direction of exit travel
 Exit discharges must lead directly if the room is to be occupied by more than
outside These exit discharge areas 50 people or if the room is a high-hazard
must be large enough to area.
accommodate the building occupants
 Exit routes must support the maximum
 Exit stairs that continue beyond the permitted occupant load for each floor
level on which the exit discharge is served, and the capacity of an exit route
located must be interrupted at that may not decrease in the direction of exit
level by doors, partitions, or other route travel to the exit discharge.
effective means that clearly indicate
the direction of travel leading to the  Ceilings of exit routes must be at least 7
exit discharge. feet,6 inches high.
 Exit route doors must be unlocked  An exit access must be at least 28 inches
from the inside. They must be free of wide at all points. Where there is only one
devices or alarms that could restrict exit access leading to an exit or exit
use of the exit route if the device or discharge, the width of the exit and exit
alarm fails. discharge must be at least equal to the
width of the exit access. Objects that project
into the exit must not reduce its width.
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR EXIT
 Exits must be separated by fire
resistant materials - that is, one-hour
fire-resistance rating if the exit
connects three or fewer stories and
two-hour fire-resistance rating if the
exit connects more than three floors.
 Exits are permitted to have only

those openings necessary to allow
access to the exit from occupied
areas of the workplace or to the exit
discharge. Openings must be
protected by a self-closing,
approved fire door that remains
closed or automatically closes in an
emergency.
MEANS OF ESCAPE
ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION
ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION
Definition :
Active fire protection (AFP) is characterized by items or system, which

require a certain amount of motion and response in order to work,
contrary to passive fire protection.
There are 2 kinds of active fire protections
1) Fire Detection
2) Fire Suppression
FIRE DETECTION
 FIRE DETECTION SYSTEM
Fire
detection system is designed to identify unwanted presence of fire by
monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion.
There are 2 types of fire detection systems :
1) manual fire detection system

2) automatic fire detection system
Fire detection system components consist of:

1) Alarm
2) Manual call point
3) Detector (smoke, thermal / heat or flame)
Manual Fire Alarm Detection
Fire Occurrence
Fire Detection Device
Manual Call Point/Break

Glass/ Phone
Alarm Trigger
Manually Call Fire

Department
Manual Fire Alarm Detection Devices
Automatic Fire Alarm Detection
Fire Occurrence
Detected Devices
(Automatic detector/Heat
Detector)
Fire Alarm Trigger
Detected on Control Panel

(Show fire location in
building)
Automatic Connected to
Fire Department
Automatic Fire Alarm Detection Devices
Smoke Detector Fire Control Panel
Heat Detector
FIRE SUPPRESSION
 Fire suppression system is used in conjunction with fire detection system to
increase public safety. This system are governed by the codes under the
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
 Types of fire suppression:
1) Fire Extinguisher
* Portable fire extinguisher
* Automatic fire extinguisher
2) Hydrants
* Hose reel
* Wet riser
* Dry riser
* Foam riser
3) Smoke Extraction & Ventilation
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHER
 Portable extinguishers are

intended as a first line of
defense to cope with fires of
limited size.
 They are needed even when
a facility is equipped with
automatic sprinklers,
standpipe and hose, or
other fixed protection
equipment.
 Fire extinguisher training is
provided by contacting the
Health and Safety Office –
Fire Safety Section.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
AUTOMATIC FIRE EXTINGUISHER
 1) Sprinkler system
 2) Gas / Foam system
Fire sprinkler system

Consisting of a water supply system, providing adequate pressure
and flow rate to a water distribution piping system, onto which fire
sprinkler are connected.
There are 2 main types of fire sprinkler system:

1) Wet pipe system
2) Dry pipe system
FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Wet Pipe System
When an automatic sprinkler is exposed for a sufficient time to a temperature at or

above the temperature rating, the heat sensitive element (glass bulb or fusible link)
releases, allowing water to flow from that sprinkler.
Dry Pipe System
 When one or more of the automatic sprinklers is exposed to for a sufficient time to a
temperature at or above the temperature rating, it opens, allowing the air in the
piping to vent from that sprinkler.
 Each sprinkler operates individually.
 As the air pressure in the piping drops, the pressure differential across the dry pipe
valve changes, allowing water to enter the piping system.
 Water flow from sprinklers needed to control the fire is delayed until the air is vented
from the sprinklers.
 For this reason, dry pipe systems are usually not as effective as wet pipe systems in
fire control during the initial stages of the fire.
FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Direct System
In-Direct System
Dry System: No Water in range pipe

Wet System: Water Ready in range pipe
Sprinkler Systems
Wet Pipe Systems
 By a wide margin, wet pipe sprinkler systems
are installed more often than all other types of
fire sprinkler systems.
 They also are the most reliable, because they
are simple, with the only operating components
being the automatic sprinklers and (commonly,
but not always) the automatic alarm check valve.
 An automatic water supply provides water under
pressure to the system piping.
Sprinkler System-Wet Pipe
Sprinkler System-Wet Pipe
Sprinkler Systems
Dry Pipe Systems
 Dry pipe systems are installed in spaces in which the ambient
temperature may be cold enough to freeze the water in a wet pipe
system, rendering the system inoperable.
 Dry pipe systems are most often used in unheated buildings, in
parking garages, in outside canopies attached to heated buildings
(in which a wet pipe system would be provided), or in refrigerated
coolers.
 Dry pipe systems are the second most common sprinkler system
type.
 In regions using NFPA regulations, dry pipe systems cannot be
installed unless the range of ambient temperatures reaches below
40F.
Sprinkler System-Dry Pipe
Operation
 Water is not present in the piping until the system operates.
 The piping is filled with air below the water supply pressure.
 To prevent the larger water supply pressure from forcing water into
the piping, the design of the dry pipe valve (a specialized type of
check valve) results in a greater force on top of the check valve
clapper by the use of a larger valve clapper area exposed to the
piping air pressure, as compared to the higher water pressure but
smaller clapper surface area.
 When one or more of the automatic sprinklers is exposed, for a
sufficient time, to a temperature at or above the temperature rating,
it opens, allowing the air in the piping to vent from that sprinkler.
Each sprinkler operates individually. As the air pressure in the piping
drops, the pressure differential across the dry pipe valve changes,
allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flow from
sprinklers, needed to control the fire, is delayed until the air is
vented from the sprinklers. In regions using NFPA 13 regulations,
the time it takes water to reach the hydraulically remote sprinkler
from the time that sprinkler is activated is limited to a maximum of 60
seconds
Disadvantages of using dry pipe fire sprinkler systems include:
 Increased complexity - Dry pipe systems require additional control
equipment and air pressure supply components which increases system
complexity.
 Higher installation and maintenance costs - The added complexity impacts
the overall dry-pipe installation cost, and increases maintenance
expenditure primarily due to added service labor costs.
 Lower design flexibility - Regulatory requirements limit the maximum
permitted size (i.e., 750 gallons) of individual dry-pipe systems, unless
additional components and design efforts are provided to limit the time from
sprinkler activation to water discharge to under one minute. These
limitations may increase the number of individual sprinkler
Other disadvantages:
 Increased fire response time - Because the piping is empty at the
time the sprinkler operates, there is an inherent time delay in
delivering water to the sprinklers which have operated while the
water travels from the riser to the sprinkler, partially filling the piping
in the process
 Increased corrosion potential - Following operation or testing, dry-
pipe sprinkler system piping is drained, but residual water collects in
piping low spots, and moisture is also retained in the atmosphere
within the piping. This moisture, coupled with the oxygen available in
the compressed air in the piping, increases pipe internal wall
corrosion rates, possibly eventually leading to leaks.
FIRE SPRINKLER
 Types sprinkler head : Glass bulb, Fusible link, Chemical, Open
GAS / FOAM SYSTEM
 Gas or foam water fire sprinkler

system is a special application
system, discharging a gas such as
CO2 or mixture of water and low
expansion foam concentrate,
resulting in a foam spray from the
sprinkler.
 These systems are usually used

with special hazards
occupancies associated with
high challenge fires, such
as flammable liquids, electrical
room, computer and database
room and airport hangars
HYDRANTS
• Fire hydrants consists of hose reel and riser.

• There are 3 types of riser which are:
1) Dry Riser
2) Wet Riser
3) Foam Riser
HYDRANTS SYSTEM
Dry riser – No water in riser pipe
Wet riser – Water ready in riser pipe

SMOKE EXTRACTION & VENTILATION
Objectives
1) to aid fire control by eliminating smoke, heat, toxic and inflammable gasses from
the source of fire
2) to retain visibility of escapers
3) to provide clear access for firefighters
Fire Safety Products/Devices
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 Explain TWO (2) types of Fire Safety
System in a building (10 Marks)
 Explain differences between automatic and

manual fire suppression (5 Marks)
FIRE SAFETY RULES & REGULATIONS
 DEFINITION OF FIRE:
A Reaction That Happened When A Combustible
Material & Oxygen Is Exposed To The Source Of
Heat Or Torch
 DEFINITION OF FIRE SAFETY:

Action Plans By Application Of Science And
Engineering Principals For Fire Prevention And
Protection In A Particular Building And Strategies To
Reduce Fire Hazards During A Fire Incident
Protection In The Aspects Of Fire Prevention,

Control & Extinguishment For A Certain
Areas Based On Availability Of Risk In That Area
(Jpbd:2007)
Fire can be extinguished by removing
any one of the
elements of the fire tetrahedron.
Example:
Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The
fire can be extinguished by any of the following:
 turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;
 covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as
the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in
the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with
CO2;
 application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster
than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame
will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel
source, to the same end), or
 application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the
flame, which DELAYS the chemical reaction itself until the rate of
combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction
Objective Of Fire Safety :
To Identify In Details All Fixed Protection System In A Building, Both :

(Passive And Active)
Two (2) Kinds Of Fire Protections:

1) Fire Prevention
2) Fire Protection (Active & Passive Fire Protection)
Measures undertake to prevent the occurrence of fire :

 Education & Training
 Enforcement
 Engineering
 Security
 Maintenance
 Good Housekeeping
LAWS & REQUIREMENT ON FIRE SAFETY
1) Uniform Building By Law (UBBL) 1984,
- Part VII-Fire Requirements
- Part VIII-Fire Alarms, Fire Detection, Fire
Extinguishment and Fire Fighting Access
2) National Fire Protection Associations

(NFNA)
3) Law by Fire Department (Akta

Perkhidmatan Bomba 1988)
LAWS & REQUIREMENT ON FIRE SAFETY
1) Uniform Building By Law (UBBL) 1984
~ UBBL, is a published document, which is used as a required

safety standard and is emphasized by government.
~ The FRDM strive to discharge its responsibilities in its

prevention & safety program, and also its enforcement in
relation to inspections of buildings & business licensing
activities according to UBBL especially Part 7 & Part 8
Part 7 : Fire Requirement

Part 8 : Fire Alarm, Fire Detection, Fire Extinguishment &
Fire Fighting Access.
 One of a crucial stage in building design
 Building plans required to be approved by the Fire Department (Jabatan Bomba &
Penyelamat Malaysia- JBPM) before the building can be constructed.
 Once the construction finished; the building itself will again required to be
inspected before approved by JBPM.
 The practice is part of the requirements by the Local Council before CF is issued.
GOOD BUILDING DESIGN WITH FIRE SAFETY MEASURE
 Provide adequate fire appliances, fire hydrants and other facilities to
assist fire and rescue personnel
 Provide adequate fixed installation where appropriate, for quick &
effective detection & extinguishment of fire
 Designing & installing building services so that they do not assist the
spread of fire, smoke or any toxic fumes.
 Designing & providing adequate & safe escape route for the occupants of
the building
 Selecting materials for the construction which will not promote the
spread of fire or generates hazardous smokes.
 Subdividing building into compartments of reasonable sizes by mean of
fire resisting floor& wall, providing fire stop to protect openings between
floor & compartments
 Designing & constructing the exterior of a building so that the fire
unlikely to spread to it from another burning building
CHAPTER 4
BUILDING TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

BUILDING TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
• System for conveying people in buildings
• The mechanical transportation of people and goods is an

energy-using service that needs the designer’s attention at
the earliest stage of building design.
• System includes:
– Elevators (lifts)
– Escalators and
– Walkalators (moving walk)
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Elevator (Lifts)
- is a vertical transport equipment that efficiently
moves people or goods between floors (levels,
decks) of a building, vessel or other structure
• Two basic types:

– Hydraulic-lifting platform is pushed
upward/downward by plunges
– Traction-Electric lifts
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
• Passenger lifts are provided for buildings of over three (3)

storey, or less if wheelchair movement is needed.
• Minimum standard is one lift for each four storey, with a

maximum walking distance of 45m between workstation
and lift lobby.
• Prestige requirement require higher standards (depends

on the rent earning potential)
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
• Peak demand for lift service is
assessed from the building size,
Table 1: Design lift car speed
shape, height and population.
• 25% of the population require Floors Car speed
transportation during a 5 min peak (m/s)
period. 4 0.75
• Congestion at peak travel times is 9 2
minimized by arranging the lifts
15 3
lobbies in a cul-de-sac of (2 lift
doors on either side of a walkway, Over 15 5-7
rather than in a line of four doors
along one wall).
• Construction specifications of lifts
are given in BS 5655: 1989 and BS
Code of Practice 407:1972
• Car speed for various travel
distance (see table 1)
Grouping of Lift in Cul-De-Sac
Arrangements
Example of
Elevator Layout
• Elevator layout has great

influences on building's
functionality.
• The elevator must be installed
in such a way that it is easy to
use without affecting the
performances.
Elevator Car Types
Standard elevator car/cabin can be classified according to the number of
entrances and their locations as follows:
1. Normal Cabin
2. Open Through Cabin
3. Diagonal Cabin
Standard Car Size
• To prevent overloading of the car by
persons, the available area of the car
shall be limited and related to the
nominal/rated load of the elevator.
• The number of passengers shall be
obtained from the formula:
Number of passengers = rated load /75
Where 75 represent the average

weight of a person in Kg.
• The value obtained for the number of

passengers shall be rounded to the
nearest whole number.
Car Dimension
• The following definitions for the car
dimenstion are very important:
Car Width (CW): The horizontal

dimensions between the inner surfaces of
the car walls measured parallel to the
front entrance and at 1m above the car
floor.
Car Height (CH): The inside vertical

distance between the entrance threshold
and the constructional roof of the car.
Light fittings and false ceilings are
accommodated within this dimension.
Car Depth (CD): The horizontal

dimensions between the inner surfaces of
the car walls measured at right angles to
the car width and at 1m above the car
floor.
Zoning the Elevator
• Office buildings of more than 20 stories
are zoned in order to decrease
transportation time and improve the
rental rates.
• Zoning refers to dividing elevator
service into several zones, and assign
group of elevators for each zone.
• Unlike office buildings, a single elevator
group is recommended for hotels 40
stories or less to give priority to the
first-time users and conveniences.
• Using a single group elevators, make
less hassle for the passengers to select
an elevator based on their destination
floor, and is also more flexible than
zoning.
World Trade Centre Building-Floor
and Elevator Arrangement
Local
elevators
ELEVATORS (LIFTS) _Hydraulic
• Lifting platform is pushed upward/downward by plunges
(ram)
• Liquid (oil/high pressure water) is forced into or
withdrawn to create movement.
• A pump is used to control the liquid.
• Suitable for moderate car speed and fairly short travel
(e.g. hospital)
• Speed range between 0.12m/s and 1m/s with maximum
height 21m.
• Machine room are usually located at the lowest level.
• Types: Direct acting (holed)
Suspended (hole less)
Hydraulic
Elevator
• Hydraulic elevators are
supported by a piston at
the bottom of the elevator
that pushes the elevator
up.
• They are used for low-rise
applications of 2-8 stories
and travel at a maximum
speed of 200 feet per
minute.
• The machine room for
hydraulic elevators is
located at the lowest level
adjacent to the elevator
shaft.
Direct Acting or Holed Type
• single cylinder that bored into the
ground with the cylinder having a
depth that reaches the height of the
plunger.
• They have a sheave that extends
below the floor of the elevator pit,
which accepts the retracting piston
as the elevator descends.
• Some configurations have a
telescoping piston that collapses and
requires a shallower hole below the
pit.
• Max travel distance is approximately
60 feet.
Direct Acting
Suspended or Hole less Type
•They have a piston on either side of the cab.
• It can be divided to 3 different types as follows:
a- Telescopic Hydraulic Elevators:

• In this configuration, the telescoping pistons are fixed
at the base of the pit and do not require a sheave or
hole below the pit and has 2 or 3 pieces of telescoping
pistons. Telescoping pistons allow up to 50 feet of
travel distance.
b- Non-telescoping (single stage) Hydraulic Elevators:
• It has one piston and only allows about 20 feet of
travel distance.
c- Roped Hydraulic Elevators:
They use a combination of ropes and a piston to move
the elevator. Maximum travel distance is about 60 Suspended type
feet.
Hydraulic Power Unit
Hydraulic Power Unit
• The power unit shall be generously rated and shall operate with
minimum noise and vibration.
• The unit shall be mounted on vibration insulators above the machine
room floor.
• A silencer unit shall be fitted in the hydraulic system to minimize the
transmission of pulsations from the pump to the car and the
elimination of airborne noise.
• The hydraulic power unit consists of the following components:
1. The Tank.
2. Motor/Pump.
3. Valve.
4. Actuator.
Method of Operation
Method of Operation
1- For Direct Acting Type
The pump forces fluid from the tank into a pipe leading to the cylinder. When the valve is
opened, the pressurized fluid will take the path of least resistance and return to the fluid
reservoir. But when the valve is closed, the pressurized fluid has nowhere to go except
into the cylinder. As the fluid collects in the cylinder, it pushes the piston up, lifting the
elevator car.
• When the car approaches the correct floor, the control system sends a signal to the
electric motor to gradually shut off the pump. With the pump off, there is no more fluid
flowing into the cylinder, but the fluid that is already in the cylinder cannot escape (it
can't flow backward through the pump, and the valve is still closed). The piston rests on
the fluid, and the car stays where it is.
• To lower the car, the elevator control system sends a signal to the valve. The valve is
operated electrically by a basic solenoid switch (Actuator). When the solenoid opens the
valve, the fluid that has collected in the cylinder can flow out into the fluid reservoir. The
weight of the car and the cargo pushes down on the piston, which drives the fluid into
the reservoir. The car gradually descends. To stop the car at a lower floor, the control
system closes the valve again.
Method of Operation
2- For Indirect Acting (Suspended) Hydraulic System Type
• Water or any hydraulic fluid at a high pressure is admitted into the
fixed cylinder of the jigger. This high pressure hydraulic fluid pushes
the sliding ram to move towards left side as shown in the figure. When
the sliding ram moves towards the left side, the distance between the
fixed and movable pulleys increases and thus the cage is lifted up.
• When the water or the hydraulic fluid under high pressure inside the
cylinder is released, then the distance between the two pulleys
decreases and thus the cage comes down. Thus the suspended-type
hydraulic lifts are more popular than direct type lifts.
Advantages
•Eliminating rooftop structure ( power pack at low level)
•Small machine room & can be located at some distance
from the shaft
•Load imposed on the shaft is far more less ----offering
structural cost economies
•No brake or gear necessary
•No pulleys of driving sheave
•No counterweight and a larger lift car can sometime be used
for a given well size
•Extremely accurate floor levelling can be achieved
•Acceleration and travel is very smooth
•Simplification of shaft’s structural design
ELEVATORS (LIFTS) _Electric
Principle
components- lifting platform, lifting machinery,
counterweight cables.
Geared Gearless
• location of gear between motor  ascend (upward movement)
& drive sheave heights for gearless are limited by
• small motor provide gear technology feasibility & cost
reduction ratio (efficient &
comfort) limitation
• employed for medium speed &  the net ascent distance will be
medium height application limited by factors of mechanical
• used in buildings with greater performance capabilities
height & greater lifting capacity
 some commercially available
gearless elevators can move up at
rates more than the speed
suggested in the table 2
Basic
Components
• The standard elevators
will include the following
basic components:
1. Car.
2. Hoist way.
3. Machine/drive system.
4. Control system.
5. Safety system.
Table 2: Electric Lift Specifications

HEIGHT OF ACENT NUMBER OF STOPS SPEED Ft/min LIFTING CAPACITY
Ft(m) (m/s) Lbs (kg)
Geared To 300 (90) 30 300-500 2000-4000

(1.5-2.5) (900-1800)
Gearless To 500-750+ 30-80 500-1200+ 2000-4000

(150-230+) (2.5-6.0+) (900-1800)
Gearless Mechine
• It used in high rise applications whereby the drive motor and drive sheave are
connected in line on a common shaft, without any mechanical speed reduction
unit located between the drive motor and drive sheave.
• Generally, Gearless machines are used for high speed lifts between 2.5 m/s to 10
m/s and they can be also used for lower speeds for special applications.
• Their sizes and shapes vary with load, speed and manufacture but the underlying
principles and components are the same.
Gearless Components
Geared Machine
• It used in low and mid rise
applications.
• This design utilizes a
mechanical speed reduction
gear set to reduce the rpm of
the drive motor (input speed) to
suit the required speed of the
drive sheave and elevator
(output speed).
• Generally, geared machines are
used for speeds between 0.1
m/s and 2.5 m/s and are
suitable for loads from 5 Kg up
to 50,000 Kg and above.
• Their sizes and shapes vary with
load, speed and manufacture
but the underlying principles
and components are the same.
Geared Machine Components
Types of geared machine drive
according to location of installation
A- The drive
machine located
directly over top
its hoistway or
shaft is
commonly
referred to as
“Overhead
traction”
B- The drive machine

located at a basement
is commonly referred
to as “basement
traction”
C- The drive machine
located at the side of the
hoistway is commonly
referred to as an “offset
traction” as in the below
image
Note: Basement and offset applications

require additional deflector sheaves to
properly lead suspension ropes off the drive
sheave and to the car top or counterweight.
Types of Electrical Traction Drive
Systems
Generally, the electrical traction drive can be grouped into several
categories based on the motor type and its control as follows:
A- Geared traction control, which includes:

• Single speed AC motor.
• Two speed AC motor.
• Variable voltage AC motor (VVAC).
• Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motor (VVVFAC).
• Variable voltage DC motor(VVDC).
B- Gearless traction drives, which include:

• Variable voltage DC motor (VVDC).
• Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motor(VVVFAC).
Principles of Operation
Single wrap traction Roping Arrangements

-geared machines or
-gearless (lower speed)
Double-wrap traction
-the use of diversion puller
increases the risk of rope
slip
-Double-wrap pulley
reduces the frictional area
of rope with the diving
sheave
-used on high speed and
heavily loaded elevators.
• Size depends on the size & speed of car,
type of door
• Pit must permits over travel & water tight
with proper drainage
• Buffer sits to the base (spring /oil) to
reduce impact
• Allowing air to escape below & above
moving car to prevent air pressure
building + smoke vent with unobstructed
openings
• No other services should accommodate
shaft
• Constructed of reinforced concrete /
brickwork ---sufficient strength to carry
load & superimposed loads
• Fire resistant ---< one hour
Lift Doors
• Two sets of doors are required at lift
entrances;
1. Car doors fitted to the lift car
2. Landing doors fitted to the lift shaft
enclosure
(open metalwork enclosures are no
longer allowed)
• Landing doors must be made of solid
incombustible materials ---reduce fire
risk & ensure safety of passengers
• Landing doors must have no means
by which an authorized person can
open them from a landing
• Door may be of the following type
1. two-leaf side opening
2. Two leaf centre opening
3. Single-leaf side opening
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Lift Design Consideration
• Location Consideration
• Number of Lift
• Population
• Round Trip Time
• Flow Rate
• Interval
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Location Considerations
• Location of building entrances ---should be located in the central
area, or if not, should be centralized
• Grouping ---better group than spread, reduces installation cost
• Staircase location ---demand of lift reduced if passengers pass
stairs first before lift
• Departmental stores ---easily seen & accessible to encourage visits
to upper floors
• Hospitals ---bed lifts required near operating theatres
• Lobbies ---desirable & large enough to allow traffic visible from
entrance hall
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Number of Lifts
The number & size of lifts must be related to following:
1. Population of the building
2. Type of building occupancy
3. The starting & finishing times of population
4. Number of floor and heights
5. Position of building in relation to public transport services.
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Population
When clear figure is unobtainable

Estimation
1.Net floor area
2. Population density per sq meter.
Example: General office building population density of one person

per 10m² of net floor volume
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Round Trip Time and Flow Rate
Round Trip Time

• The time in sec taken by a single lift to travel from the
ground floor to the top floor, including stops, and return to
the ground floor.
Flow rate
• A percentage of the total population requiring lift service
during a 5 min peak period
• Survey (10% -25%) will require lifts during 5 min peak
demand hour
• If no info available ---assume 12% for speculative buildings
& 17% for unified buildings
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Interval
Interval (s)
• Expressed in seconds & represents the round trip of one car dived by
the number of cars in a common group system
• Provides a criterion for measuring the quality of service
• Average waiting time; theory half, practice ¾
ELEVATORS (LIFTS)
Example (checking the lift performance)
A 15 storey office block has a net floor area above ground level of
8000m². Assuming 17% of the total population using the lift
during 5 min peak time, starting times ad a population density
of one person per 10m² of net floor area, calculate the flow rate
and from tables, find lift speed, number and capacity of lift.
Check the quality of service form the table.

(1) Determine the Flow rate
• Flow rate – allowing 17% of population from total building occupants
8000m2/10m2 ×17/100 =136 persons during 5 min peak demand period
From Table 1: The nearest handling capacity is 137 persons for 24 passenger car
using 4 cars with speed of 2.50m/s.
(2) Determine the Travel distance and speed

Assuming floor-to-floor height is 3.3m, the lift travel = (15-1) storey x3.3m height
=46.2m travel distance.
From table 2, the nearest travel for offices is 45m which requires speed of 2.5m/s.
(speed ok!) (Ground floor is not included)
Table 1
Table 2
137
(3) Determine the number capacity of lift, Waiting time and minimum number of
lift.
• From table 1, for 24-passenger cars may be installed having a handling
capacity of 137 and interval of 41s
Result for Quality of service
Table 3 Refer table 1 (green box) interval=41s
From table 3
- interval 41s ---satisfactory for
offices
- calculate the waiting time :
(3/4 x interval= 31s)
From table 4
15 storeys/ 4 lift = 3.75 storey/lift~
near to 4 nos required
Table 4 ---satifactory
Commercial
Dumbwaiter
ESCALATOR
• Staircases that could move
upward or downward operate
continuously during hours of
occupancy
• Mostly deployed in pairs
installed to a building to
support the lift services
• For example; basement to
ground floor where traffic is
light; to avoid the need for lift to
serve low demand
ESCALATOR
• An escalator is a moving staircase – a conveyor transport device for
carrying people between floors of a building.
• Escalators are powered by constant-speed alternating current motors
and move at approximately 1–2 feet (0.30–0.61 m) per second.
• The maximum angle of inclination of an escalator to the horizontal
floor level is 30 degrees with a standard rise up to about 60 feet (18
m).
• Modern escalators have single piece aluminum or steel steps that move
on a system of tracks in a continuous loop.
• Direction of movement (up or down) can be permanently the same, or
be controlled by personnel according to the time of day, or
automatically be controlled by whoever arrives first, whether at the
bottom or at the top (the system is programmed so that the direction is
not reversed while a passenger is on the escalator).
ESCALATOR
1. Bottom; step
return idler bottom
sprockets, step top
chain safety
switches & curves
sections of the
rack centre
2. Centre; carries
all straight track
sections which
connect the
upper & lower
curved sections
3. Top; driving
motor, driving
sprockets,
electrical
controller and
emergency breaks
ESCALATOR-basic component
The Escalator consists of the following

components:
•Landing Platforms.
•Truss.
•Tracks.
•Steps.
•Handrail.
•Escalator Exterior (Balustrade).
•Drive system.
•Auto-Lubrication System.
•Braking system.
•Safety devices.
•Electrical & Control Systems.
Landing Control Station
• A control station at both upper and lower landings is provided which includes a key-actuated directional starting
safety switch and a key actuated stop switch.
• The control station is located in the newel end skirt deck at the ends of the balustrades.
• A Code compliant emergency stop station is provided at each end of the escalator. The emergency stop is located
in accordance with governing Code requirements and is covered by a transparent cover and alarm.
• Starting of the escalator in normal continuous operation mode shall only be possible using a dedicated key switch
at upper and lower ends. (Some units have key switches at one end only.)
ESCALATOR
Escalator vs Elevators
•Travel between floors occur
much rapidly in lifts
•traveling vertically in medium /
high-rise building are more
practical in elevators
• Elevator assemblies occupy
less space
•Enable movement by
wheelchair-bound, stretcher (in
case of an emergency)
Advantages
• The benefits of escalators are many:
They have the capacity to move large numbers of people.
• They can be placed in the same physical space as one might install a
staircase.
• They have no waiting interval (except during very heavy traffic).
• They can be used to guide people toward main exits or special
exhibits ‫ز‬
• They may be weatherproofed for outdoor use.
• They can help in controlling the traffic flow of people For example, an
escalator to an exit effectively discourages most people from using it as
an entrance, and may reduce security concerns.
ESCALATOR
Capacity
• Step width between 600mm ~ 1.2m
• Carrying capacity depends on speed & width of thread
• Ex ; 1m will allow 2 people to stand side by side,1.2m for air terminals
& railway stations to allow passenger to pass easily when carrying
luggage,2m for departmental store with heavy traffic
ESCALATOR
Location
• Easily seen area to maximize
usage
• Example; in departmental
stores, escalators are located
to be possible to see over a
wide area of the floors so as to
encourage sales
Arrangement
• Many arrangements may be
used depending upon the
standard of service required
and cost
Multiple parallel
Crisscross
layout Parallel Layout
Spiral Escalator
Dimension for Escalator
ANSI A17.1 sets the following
limitations on escalator steps (Fig.
16.8):
i) Minimum depth of tread in
direction of travel :15 3⁄4 “
ii) Maximum rise between treads
:8 1⁄2 “
iii) Width of tread : 24”- 40”
iv) Maximum distance between
handrail centerlines: width
between balustrades plus 6 in
with not more than 3 in on
either side of the escalator (see
Fig. 16.8b)
ANSI : ‘‘American National Standard Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters, Escalators and Moving Walks
ESCALATOR
Guidelines for design:
1.Estimating how many escalators may be needed.
2. Placement locations for escalators.
3. Placement format for escalators
4. Sizing issues for placing escalators
WALKALATORS/MOVING WALKWAY
•A moving walkway
sometimes called
Travelator, Horizontal
Escalator
•is a slow moving
conveyor mechanism that
transports people, across
a horizontal or inclined
plane, over a short to
medium distance.
•Moving walkways can be
used by standing or
walking on them. They
are often installed in
pairs, one for each
direction.
WALKALATORS/MOVING WALKWAY
• Moving walkways, usually found in airports, are designed to move
people over long distances, usually between different terminals.
Moving walkways are similar to an escalator.
• The only difference is that the steps lay flat, like a conveyor belt.
Passengers are able to move from gate to gate or from one baggage
area to the next.
• Moving walkways, like elevators and escalators, offer a smooth and
convenient ride for people while providing outstanding energy
efficiency for commercial building operators.
Types of Moving Walkway
• Moving walkway can be classified by:
1. According To Inclination Angle
2. According To the Flat Moving Surface
3. According To the Speed
Inclination Angle
• a- Zero degrees inclination “Horizontal” Moving Walkways.
b- Up to 15 degrees inclination “Inclined” ” Moving Walkways.

• An inclined moving walkway is used in airports and supermarkets to move
people to another floor with the convenience of an elevator (namely, that
people can take along their suitcase trolley or shopping cart, or baby carriage)
and the capacity of an escalator.
Flat Moving Surface
Moving Belt Moving Walkway
These are generally built with mesh metal belts or
rubber walking surfaces over metal rollers.
The walking surface may have a solid feel or a
"bouncy" feel.
Pallet Type Moving walkways

A continuous series of flat metal plates
mesh together to form a walkway. Most
have a metal surface, though some
models have a rubber surface for extra
traction.
Speed
Moving walkways have two basic styles according to the flat moving surface:
a- Slow- speed Standard type
• The speed of these walkways is determined by the need for safety upon entry
and exit, which generally limits it to approximately half normal walking speed,
or 30–40m/min. The slow speed of the walkway causes impatience, and
passengers often walk on the walkway itself or on the adjacent floor rather use
the slower walkway.
b- High-speed walkways
• Required additional safety procedure (holding to the side rail and shopping
cart/baby carriage/suitcase is not allowed)
• allowing for a large number of passengers, (up to 10,000 per hour), whereas
the transportation zone was narrower and fast moving.
• Widely used in airports, tunnels
High Speed Walkway
• On entering, there is a 10 m acceleration zone where the "ground" is a series of metal rollers. Riders
stand still with both feet on these rollers and use one hand to hold the handrail and let it pull them
so that they glide over the rollers. The idea is to accelerate the riders so that they will be traveling
fast enough to step onto the moving walkway belt. Riders who try to walk on these rollers are at
significant risk of falling over.
At the exit, the same technique is used to decelerate the riders. Users step on to a series of rollers
which decelerate them slowly, rather than the abrupt halt which would otherwise take place.
Walkway Components
End of Chapter 4
CHAPTER 5
5.1 : ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
Important terminology
Coulomb (C): The basic unit used to measure electric charge.
Joule (J): A joule is the work done by a constant 1-N force applied
through a 1-m distance.
Ampere (A): One ampere or amp is the current that flows when 1
Coulomb of charge passes each second (1 A = 1 C/s)
Volt (V): If a charge of 1 Coulomb may be moved between two points

in space with expenditure of 1 Joule of work, 1 Volt is said
to be a potential difference existing between these points (1
V = 1 J/C)
Watt (W): The rate at which work is done or energy expended. The
watt is defined as 1 Joule per second (1 J/s).
Quantities and SI Units
SI UNITS used in electricity:
VOLTS (V): unit of potential difference, emf, or voltage
OHM (Ω): unit of resistance
AMPS (AMPERES) (A): unit of current
COULOMBS (C): unit of charge (= the charge moved when one amp of current
runs for one second).
WATTS (W): unit of power (power energy per unit time). In electrical circuits,
one watt is produced when a current of one amp flows down a
potential difference of one volt.
JOULE (J): unit of energy.

Quantities and SI Units
 Six Basic SI unit used in electrical engineering field:
Table 1: SI unit
Quantity Basic unit Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin/ Celsius K/C
temperature
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Electrical Simple Rules.
 One watt is one joule per second.
 One amp is one coulomb per second.
 If you double the voltage the current will double.
 If you halve the voltage the current will halve.
 If you double the resistance the current will halve.
 If you halve the resistance the current will double.
Charge
-Electricity is any effect resulting from the presence and/or movement
of electrical charges.
- Electrical charge is property of the atomic particles,
- measured in Coulomb (C)
Battery (source of electromotive force, emf)
 
I
+ +
 
+ Motion of charge
Conducting wire
(atoms within)
Battery
Electric Current
 An electric current is the flow of electric charges.
 Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge.
 In a simple circuit such as that illustrated, the current in the
wire is composed of electrons that flow from the negative pole
of the battery (the cathode at the bottom of the battery) and
return to the positive pole (the anode at the top of the battery,
marked by a +).
Electric Current
 Electric current is the time rate of change of
charge, measured in Amperes (A).
 Mathematically, the relationship between
current i, charge q, and time t, is
dq
i
dt
 Current is measured in amperes (A),
 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
Electric Current
Two common types of current are;
Direct Current (dc) Alternating Current (ac),

•A direct current (dc) is a current • An alternating current (ac) is a current
that remains constant with time. that varies sinusoidally with time.
•The symbol I is used to represent • A time-varying current is represented by
such a constant current. the symbol i.
Voltage
 Some work or energy transfer is required to move the electron in a
conductor in a particular direction. This work is performed by an
external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the
battery.
 The emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.
 Electric potential is the energy required to move a unit of electric

charge to a particular place in a static electric field.
 Voltage can be measured by a VOLTMETER.
 The unit of measurement is the VOLT (V).

Energy and Power
 Energy is the fundamental ability to do work and
produce action.
 Energy exists in many forms, such as mechanical,
sound, light, electrical, nuclear and chemical.
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can be
converted from one form to another.
 Energy is measured in JOULES, but in many fields other
units, such as kilowatt-hours and kilocalories.
 Electrical energy is the most convenient form of energy
that is readily to be convert to other forms. For
examples; to mechanical energy through a motor, to
lighting energy through a lamp, and to heating energy
through a resistance heater.
 Power is a measure of how fast energy is being used.
(power is the rate of consuming energy)
Energy and Power
 Power is a certain amount of energy used in a certain length of time
P = energy/time = W/t
• In direct current resistive circuits, electrical power is calculated using
P  VI
Joule's law:
where P is the electric power,

V the potential difference, and
I the electric current.
Energy and Power
Power can be delivered or absorbed as defined by the
polarity of the voltage and the direction of the current.
Power delivered or supplied

- + by voltage source
Power absorbed by resistor

+ -
V
Two polarity of the voltage and the direction of the current
Energy and Power
Ohm’s Law
 defines the relationship •Ohm's law states that the electrical
between the three fundamental current (I) flowing in a circuit is
electrical quantities: current, proportional to the voltage (V) and
voltage, and resistance . inversely proportional to the resistance
(R).
 When a voltage is applied to a
circuit containing only resistive •If the voltage is increased, the current
elements, current flows will increase provided the resistance of
according to Ohm's Law, which the circuit does not change.
is shown below; •Increasing the resistance of the circuit
will lower the current flow if the voltage
is not changed.
•The formula current , I = V/R
Energy and Power
Ohm’s Law
 The formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily
be seen for all of the three variables.
V = I R or I = V/R or R = V/I
Where: I = Electrical Current (Amperes)

V = Voltage (Volt)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
When the current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential

(v = iR). If current flows from a lower to high potential, then v = -iR.
Energy and Power
Resistor
 A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
 When a voltage (V) is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current (I) will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that
voltage.
 It is usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds.
 Resistance factor depend on cross-sectional area (A), length (l) and
resistivity (ρ) of the material used as shown in the figure.
Mathematically:
length, l
L
R ρ
A
cross - sectional area, A
material with resistivit y, 
Energy and Power
 A material with low resistivity is a good conductor; examples are
gold, copper and aluminum.
 An insulator like mica and paper has a very high resistivity.
Table 2: Resistivity of common materials at 20o C
Material Resistivity (Ω.m) Usage
Silver 1.64 x 10^-8 Conductor
Cooper 1.72x10^-8 Conductor
Aluminum 2.8x10^-8 Conductor
Gold 2.45x10^-8 Semiconductor
Carbon 4x10^-5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47x10^-2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4x10^2 Semiconductor
Paper 10^10 Insulator
Mica 5x10^11 Insulator
Glass 10^12 Insulator
Teflon 3x10^12 Insulator
Energy and Power
 Example;
 Calculate the electrical resistance per meter length at 20o C of a
cooper conductor of 2.5mm2 cross section area.
l
R 
A
1m
R  1.72 x10 8 m 
2.5mm2  1m 
2
1000 2 mm2

1m
R  1.72 x10 8 m 
2.5 x10 6 m 2
1.72 x10 8 m 2
R  0.0069
2.5 x10 6 m 2
Energy and Power
Conductance
 Reciprocal of resistance is conductance and denoted by G
1
G
R
 It measures of how well an element will conduct electric current.
 The unit for conductance is Siemens (S), and previously called
mho (Ʊ) - ohm spelled back-ward.
Circuit Design (series)
 A series circuit is a circuit which provides only one path for current to
flow between two points in a circuit so that the current is the same
through each series component. The total resistance of a series circuit
is equal to the sum of the resistances of each individual resistor.
R1 R2 R3 RN Rseries
+ V1 - + V2 - + V3 - + VN - +V-
Vs Vs units : 
VS
(a) (b) Current : I
RT
RT  Requivalent  Req  R1  R2  R3  ...  RN
Circuit Design (parallel) and Current
Division
 Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same
potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them
add.
 The conductance of the resistors then add to determine the
conductance of the network.
I I Rparallel
I1 I2 IN +V-
+ + +
Vs V1 R1 V R2 VN RN Vs
2
- - -
(a) (b)
Circuit (parallel) and Current Division
 The equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:
1 1 1 1 1 1
     ... 
R T R equivalent R 1 R 2 R 3 RN
1
 1 1 1 1 
RT      ...  
 1
R R 2 R 3 R N 
 Current:
I  I1  I 2  I 3  ...  I N
Exercise
 Calculate: R1=5 R 2 = 10  R 3 = 15 
 Total resistance RT RT  R1  R2  R3
 Total current , I  5  10  15
 30
 V1, V2 and V3 150V
 Solutions:
RT  R1  R2  R3  5  10  15  30
I
Vs 150V
  5A I
VN
V1  IxR1  5x5V  25V
RT 30 RN
V
V2  5 x10  50V
I
R V3  5 x15  75V
Circuit Design (combination)
 A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series
connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one
or the other,
Exercise 1
Determine the total resistance of the following circuit between points A and B
B
10 
5 7
4
A 12 
Answer: RT= 20 Ω
Exercise 2
 One 100W lamp and one 200W lamp are
plugged into a 120V circuit. For either DC
or AC. The two lamps are connected in
parallel. Calculate the current flow through
each lamp, the total resistance of the
circuit, the total energy consumed in a
month (30 days x 12 hours per day), and
the cost of electrical energy for the year
(based on current TNB rates).
Exercise 2: Calculate the following
 current flow through each lamp,
 the total resistance of the circuit,
 the total energy consumed in a month,
 the cost of electrical energy for month
Measurement Equipment
multimeter
ammeter
ohmmeter
megger
Watt-hour
voltmeter wattmeter meter
Assignment
 One 18 watt lamp and two 60-watt light bulb are
plugged into a 120V circuit. For either DC or AC, the
two bulbs are connected each other in parallel and in
series with the lamp in the same circuit. Calculate;
i. the current flow through each light
ii. the total resistance of the circuit,
iii. the total energy consumed in a year,
iv. the cost of electrical energy for the year (assume
365 days per year) if the lights have been used for 8
hour per day (based on $0.286/kWh).
answer
i. the current flow through each light
(0.15A,05A,0.5A)
ii. the total resistance of the circuit, (RT=920Ω)
iii. the total energy consumed in a year,
(402.96kW)
iv. the cost of electrical energy for the year
(assume 365 days per year) if the lights have
been used for 8 hour per day (based on
$0.286/kWh). ($115.25)
CHAPTER 5b
5.2 : SOURCE AND DISTRIBUTION
• Electrical Source
• Electrical Main Supply and
Distribution
• Electrical Domestic Supply and
Distribution
Electrical
 Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of
most widely used forms of energy.
 It is a secondary energy source which means it
comes from the conversion of other sources of
energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power
and other natural sources, which are called
primary sources.
 The energy sources used to make electricity can
be renewable or non-renewable.
Source and Distribution
Primary Source (Renewable Energy)
 Hydropower
 Flowing water is used to spin a turbine connected to a
generator.
 Two basic types of hydroelectric systems
 Flowing water accumulates in reservoirs created by the use
of dams. The water falls through a pipe called a penstock
and applies pressure against the turbine blades to drive the
generator to produce electricity.
 Run-of-river, the force of the river current (rather than falling
water) applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce
electricity.
Hydropower
Dam
Runoff River
 Solar power
 Power is derived from the energy of the sun.
 Photovoltaic conversion generates electric power directly
from the light of the sun in a photovoltaic (solar) cell.
 Solar-thermal electric generators use the radiant energy
from the sun to produce steam to drive turbines.
 Weaknesses:
 sun's energy is not available full-time and it is widely
scattered.
 The processes used to produce electricity using the sun's
energy have historically been more expensive than using
conventional fossil fuels.
Solar Power
 Wind power
 Wind power is derived
from the conversion of
the energy contained in
wind into electricity.
 Wind power is a rapidly
growing source of
electricity.
 A wind turbine is similar
to a typical wind mill.
Primary Source
(Non-Renewable Energy)
 Coal
 It is a black solid that is reasonably soft.
 Consists of carbon atoms that come from plant material from
ancient swamp forests.
 When coal is burns, it will produces mainly carbon dioxide,
some carbon monoxide and soot (which are unburned carbon).
 Many coals when burned produce smoky flames.
 There are different types of coal. Some contain impurities such
as sulphur that pollute the atmosphere further when they burn,
contributing to acid rain.
 The energy from coal content weight is not as great as oil
because when coal burns it produces more carbon dioxide than
oil.
Coal Power Plant
Primary Source
 Natural Gas
 In addition to being burned
to heat water for steam,
can also be burned to
produce hot combustion
gases that pass directly
through a turbine, spinning
the blades of the turbine to
generate electricity.
 Gas turbines are commonly
used when electricity utility
usage is in high demand.
Primary Source (Non-Renewable Energy)
 Petroleum (oil)
 Petroleum can be used to make steam to turn a turbine.
 Petroleum and gas are non-renewable: they will not last forever.
 When gas and oil is burnt they produce mainly carbon dioxide and
water, releasing the energy they contain.
 The oil-based fuels provide less energy per kilogram than natural gas.
 Both oil and natural gas produce carbon dioxide, which is a
greenhouse gas.
Primary Source
 Nuclear
 Nuclear power is a method
in which steam is produced
by heating water through a
process called nuclear
fission.
 In a nuclear power plant, a
reactor contains a core of
nuclear fuel, primarily
enriched uranium. When
atoms of uranium fuel are
hit by neutrons they fission
(split), releasing heat and
more neutrons.
Under controlled conditions, these other neutrons can strike more uranium
atoms, splitting more atoms, and so on. Thereby, continuous fission can take
place, forming a chain reaction releasing heat. The heat is used to turn water
into steam that, in turn, spins a turbine that generates electricity.
Power Station In Malaysia
 In Malaysia, the electricity generation capacity is  Oil and gas turbine power station:
about 82% from thermal power stations and 18% Sultan Ismail Power Station, Paka,
from hydroelectric power stations. Terengganu.
 Coal power stations:  Steam turbine power station:

 Manjung Power Station, Manjung, Perak Connaught Bridge Power Station, Klang,
 Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Power Selangor.
Station, Kapar, Selangor
 Jimah Power Station, Lukut, Negri Sembilan  Hydroelectric power stations:
 Tanjung Bin Power Station, Pontian, Johor  Sultan Mahmud Power Station, Tasik
Kenyir, Terengganu
 Oil power stations:  Sultan Ismail Petra Power Station,
 Tuanku Jaafar Power Station, Port Dickson, Pergau, Kelantan
Negeri Sembilan  Temenggor Power Station, Temenggor
 Tanjung Kling Power Station, Melaka Dam, Perak
 Kenering Power Station - Kenering
Gas turbine power stations: Dam, Perak
 Lumut Power Station, at Pantai Remis, Perak  Chenderoh Power Station - Tasik
Chenderoh, Perak
 Sultan Iskandar Power Station, Pasir Gudang,  Sultan Idris Power Station, Lata
Johor Iskandar, Perak
 Serdang Power Station, Serdang, Selangor
Distribution
Single Phase Power Supply
(240KV)
 Single-phase electric power refers to the
distribution of alternating current electric
power using a system in which all the
voltages of the supply vary in unison.
 Is in used when loads are mostly lighting
and heating, with few large electric motors.
 Widely used especially in rural areas,
where the cost of a three-phase distribution
network is high and motor loads are small
and uncommon.
 The largest supply normally available as
single phase varies according to the
standards of the electrical utility.
Three Phase Power Supply
(415KV)
 The most common method used by electric power
distribution grids.
 used to power large motors and other large loads.
 Larger consumers such as large buildings,
shopping centres, factories, office blocks, and
multiple-unit apartment blocks usually need three-
phase service.
 More economical than others because it uses less
conductor material to transmit electric power than
equivalent single-phase or two-phase systems at
the same voltage.
 The waveforms of the three supply conductors are
offset from one another in time (delayed in phase)
by one-third of their period.
 This delay between phases has the effect of giving
constant power transfer over each cycle of the
current, and also makes it possible to produce a
rotating magnetic field in an electric motor.
Three Phase Power Supply
 Three phase systems may or may not have a neutral wire.
 A neutral wire allows the three phase system to use a higher
voltage while still supporting lower voltage single phase appliances
 Three phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power
systems:
 The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in
the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to eliminate
or reduce the size of the neutral conductor; all the phase conductors
carry the same current and so can be the same size, for a balanced
load.
 Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to
reduce generator and motor vibrations.
 Three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a
specified direction, which simplifies the design of electric motors.
Power Distribution
CHAPTER 5c
5.3 : BUILDING ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
Electrical Supply for Building
 The purpose of electrical installation in
buildings is to supply and distribute power.
 Buildings that are used for different
purposes have different requirements.
 Building structure must be known before
the power supply and distribution system
can be planned and designed.
Electrical Supply in Small Building
 For residential buildings, the
public utility provides the supply
voltage for the distribution
systems via separate
transformer stations.
 Each residential building is
connected to the power supply
system via a low voltage cable.
Supply Cable to Building
Service cable to meter cupboard fixing
on the inside wall.
Service cable to meter cupboard

fixing on the outside wall.
Supply Cable to Building
External cabinet for easy meter reading

Supply Control
 The service cable usually terminates inside the building in a main cut-out,
fitted as near as possible to the service cable entry.
 A meter is fitted after the main cut-out and everything up to and including
the meter are the property and responsibility of the electrical supply
company.
 A switch or circuit breaker is fitted after the meter and a distribution board
follows the switch. Everything from the switch to furthest outlet point is the
property and responsibility of the building owner.
 The service intake and the control unit is 240 V single-phase for a domestic
or similar small building and for larger buildings is 415 V three-phase
supply may be required, depending upon the load.
 The control unit must be sited so as to fulfil the following conditions:
 It must allow the supply cable to be brought in without undue difficulty.
 It must be reasonably accessible for meter reading and general maintenance.
 It must be separated from any gas meter by a fire-resisting partition.
 It should be placed in a position where heavy condensation is unlikely.
 There should be an easy and accessible route for the outgoing cables.
Distribution Board (ELCB)
Meter Board Rewireable

fuse
Protection Against Excess Current
All circuits must be protected against
excess and three devices are available, miniature
-miniature circuit breaker circuit
-rewireable fuses breaker
-cartridge fuses
 Miniature circuit breakers are virtually

tamper-proof, their use is to be
recommend for circuit protection.
miniature circuit breakers are designed
to protect circuit conductors by opening
automatically before conductor damage.
 Cartridge fuses is used to protect the
equipment form overloaded current or Cartridge
damage. fuses
Earthing
 The basic principle of earthing is that of
limiting the difference in voltage between
live conductors and earth.
 If a person touches a live conductor that is
correctly earthed, the flow of electricity
through the earth conductor should form a
path of lower resistance than that of a
person’s body and the person should not
receive an electric shock.
An earth leakage
circuit breaker
Conductor and Cable Rating
 The amount of current which a conductor or cable can
carry is limited by the heating effect caused by the
resistance to the flow of electricity.
 The maximum permissible current under normal
conditions, must not be so high that dangerous
temperatures are attained, which could lead to fires.
 Even with cables inside metal conduits or ducts or where
mineral insulated copper, even though the cables are
completely fireproof, the transmission of heat to other
materials in proximity may still lead to fires.
 When choosing a cable for a particular job, it is necessary to take
into account not only the maximum current the conductor will have
to carry, but also the drop in voltage that will occur when the current
is carried.
 IEE Regulations stipulate that the maximum permissible drop in
voltage in a conductor shall not exceed 2.5 % of the nominal
voltage when the conductor is carrying its full-load current.
 The temperature reached by a cable is also affected by the
following operating conditions:
 Whether the cable is surrounded by the room air or is enclosed in a
conduit or duct.
 The closeness to other cables which may cause heat to build up, due
to induced currents.
 The temperature of the ambient of surrounding air.
 The British Standards provide tables of cable size
for various operating conditions.
Conductor Enclosed in conduit or trunking
Two core cable single phase a.c or d.c

Nominal cross- Number and
sectional area diameter of Voltage drop (mV)
(mm2) wires (mm) Current rating (A) per ampere, per
metre
1.0 1/1.13 13 44
1.5 1/1.38 16.5 29
2.5 1/1.78 23 18
4 7/0.85 30 11
6 7/1.04 38 7.3
10 7/1.35 52 4.4
Table 5.0: Electrical cable capacities. (Part tables of B.S. 6004 and 6346)
Example 1:
One PVC insulated two core cables with copper conductors, non armoured and
enclosed in conduit is 14 m in total length and is required to supply a 5 kW
electric heater. If the nominal voltage of the supply is 240 V, find the size of cable
required, coarse excess current protection being provided.
Solution:
(i) Current I=P/V=5000W/240V= 20.8 A
(ii) From Table 4.1; a 1/1.78 cable will allow a current of 23 A to flow with drop of 18
mV (0.018 V) per ampere, per metre run.
(iii) Voltage drop in cable = 20.8 x 0.018 x 14 = 5.242 V approx

(iv) Check percentage of nominal voltage: = 5.242/240v= 2.184 % (less than 2.5%)
(v) Maximum voltage drop allowable for the cable = 240V x 2.5% = 6V
Therefore, the cable is suitable.

Chapter 5
5.4 DOMESTIC DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
Typical House Distribution
Lighting Circuit
 Every sub-circuit which
originates from the lighting
distribution fuse board is
generally limited to a total
load of 1000 W and
requires 5 A fuses and
switches.
 In large buildings, 15 A
fuses and wiring are
sometimes used, due to
the higher total load on the
circuit.
 Wiring to lighting points
should be carried out on Loop-in method of wiring.
what is known as the loop
in method shown in figure.
Switch Control
Cable connection
•A one way light switch is connected with
wiring to control a lamp.
• If required, several lamps may be
controlled from one switch.
One-way Switch Control
Switch Control
Theoretical of one-way switch and two-way switch

Switch Control
 The two-way switch is, in principle, a single-pole changeover

switch. When connected in pairs, the switches provide control
of a lamp from two positions and may therefore be installed in
bedrooms, landings and corridors.
Switch Control
•Used in conjunction with two, two-way switches, provides control of a lamp from three
or more positions.
•Suitable for long corridors with several doors, long halls and multi-flight staircases,
require intermediate switch control for reasons of both safety and convenience.
Switch Control
Socket Outlets
•to avoid long runs of flexible
cables and multi-point adaptors, the
1 gang 13A number of socket outlets must be
adequate for the consumer’s
needs.
The location of the items of
furniture and electrical equipment
2 gang 13 A should be considered when
positioning socket outlets, lighting
points and switches.
multiple socket
3 phase socket
Socket Outlets
Travel plug adapter

Number of socket outlets for small
house
Desirable number of socket
Space / Location
outlets
Dining room 2
Living room 5
Double bedroom 3
Single bedroom 2
Kitchen (working area) 4
Hall 1
Landing 1
Garage 1
Lighting and socket outlets for a small
house.
Bath and Shower Rooms
 Special precautions are required in bathrooms and similar
rooms to avoid danger from the electrical installations.
 Lighting fittings should enclose the lamp completely and
there should be no exposed metalwork on the fittings.
 Switches inside bathrooms should be of the pull-cord type,
mounted on the ceiling or high on the wall.
 Ordinary switches or other means of control should be
situated so as to be normally inaccessible to a person using a
fixed bath or shower.
 In any room containing a fixed bath or shower, there must be
no stationary appliance with elements that can be touched by
a person in a fixed bath or shower, nor there must be any
socket outlet for connecting a portable appliance.
CURRENT RATING
 The current rating of the cable and components must never be less
than the protective device which controls it.
 A fused switch of 100 A rating can only serve a cable having a
current rating of 100 A or more and the switchgear at the opposite
end of the circuit must be of 100 A rating up to the next smaller fuse
or miniature circuit-breaker.
 It is important that fuses or miniature circuit-breaker should provide
discrimination, e.g. each subsidiary fuse or circuit-breaker should
isolate a fault in its own section before the fuse or circuit-breaker
one stage further back in the installation can operate.
 To ensure this, the ratings of two successive fuses or miniature
circuit-breakers must differ by at least 30 per cent and preferably 50
per cent. To achieve this, it may sometimes be necessary to
increase the cable and switchgear ratings so that the main fuse or
miniature circuit-breaker can not operate before the subsidiary one.
VOLTAGE DROP
 In a small electrical installation the voltage drop in
the circuit wiring is not usually significant, but in
larger installations the voltage drop in the cables
between the main intake and the subsidiary
distribution panels may be very high.
 The IEE Regulations require that the voltage drop
between the main intake point and each supply
point shall not exceed 2.5 per cent of the nominal
supply voltage.
High Rise Building / Industry
Electrical Distribution
 Type of distribution depends on the building type, dimension, the
length of supply cables, and the loads. The distribution system can
be divided in to:
 The vertical supply system (rising mains).
 The horizontal supply (distribution at each floor level).
 hospitals, factories and office blocks will require a three phase
supply due to the higher electrical load.
 The loading may be too high therefore a private transformer sub-
station is needed which fed electricity from the high voltage cables
from the nearest switching station.
 Normally HV switchgear and substation transformers are installed
at ground floor or basement
High Rise Building / Industry
Electrical Distribution
 There may be one main intake panel incorporating large fused
switches or circuit-breakers, each of which controls a feeder cable
to subsidiary distribution panels in different parts of building, or
each separate building in group.
 The subsidiary distribution panels are smaller versions of the main
intake panel and they control distribution boards for each sub-
section.
 Appliances with large power demand installed on the top floors (e.g.
converters and motors for lifts, air- conditioning equipment and
electric kitchens).
 The arrangement of the rising mains depends on the size and
shape of the building and suitable size of shafts for installing cables
and bus ducts must be provided
METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION
 Radial distribution
•The main intake normally consists
of a main switch connected to
fused switches through a bus-bar
chamber.
•Several separate feeder cables
are run from the main intake panel
to the subsidiary distribution panels
which may be situated in separate
buildings or at strategic points
inside one building.
 Ring main distribution
In the case of a large development scheme
having several buildings around the
perimeter of the site, a ring-main circuit
would be taken around the site with
supplies taken into each building.
advantages:
• Each building and individual sections of the ring
may be isolated without switching off the entire
installation.
• The current may flow in either direction which
reduces the voltage drop.
• The ring may be sized to take account of the diversity factor for all the buildings, since
a heavy load may be required for any one of the buildings, but it is unlikely that such a
load will be required for all the buildings simultaneously
 Rising main distribution
For buildings above five storeys in heights, it is
normally preferable to pass conductors vertically
through the buildings. The supply to each floor is
connected to the rising main by means of tap-off
subsidiary units.
Types in use:
• PVC or vulcanized rubber insulated cables mounted
on porcelain cleats inside brick or concrete ducts with
hardwood or metal access doors on each floor.
• Paper, mineral, PVC or vulcanized rubber insulated
cables run in sheet steel vertical ducts.
• Uninsulated copper or aluminium bars run in steel
sheet vertical ducts.
FLOOR DUCTS
 The main purpose of a floor duct system is to enable desks to be

moved to any position in the office or within building. The duct can
be used to carry both low-voltage electrical supplies for machines
and lighting and extra low-voltage supplies for private and public
telephones.
 Steel and pitch fibre ducts are materials that generally use for ducts.
 There are three types of floor duct layouts; grid, branching and
perimeter
FLOOR DUCTS-Grid
This method provides
adequate flexibility for
telephone and electrical
supplies and is used in
open-plan offices. A
suitable spacing of the
ducts is 1.5 to 2 m, but
other spacings may be
used depending upon the
degree of flexibility
required
FLOOR DUCTS-Branching
This method uses a central feeder
duct with branches to each window
bay. The branches may either
terminate just short of the wall, or
extend to wall outlets. Figure 4.26
shows a branching duct layout with
wall outlets. The layout provides
reasonable flexibility for open-plan
offices, but is also used for
partitioned offices with the central
feeder duct in the corridor.
FLOOR DUCTS-Perimeter
This is the cheapest
method but does not
provide the flexibility
obtained by the grid and
branching layouts. A main
feeder duct is located about
450 mm form the outside
wall with short branches
taken from junction boxes
to wall outlets for
telephones or both
telephones and electrical
supply.
Issues of electrical safety in
buildings
 Electric Shock: This is the shock hazard resulting from the passage
of electric current through the human body.
 Energy Hazards: Burns can be caused when metallic objects get
very hot or melt and splash when they bridge sources with high VA
potential (typically 240 VA or more).
 Fire: Fire is normally considered as a secondary effect from
overload, abnormal operating conditions, or fault in some system
component.
 Heat Related Hazards: High temperatures on accessible surfaces
or components under normal operating conditions.
 Mechanical: Injury or damage resulting from contact with sharp
edges or corners, moving parts, vibration or physical instability.
End of Chapter 5
Thank you
Chapter 6:
Water Supply
1
Presentation Outcomes
 After this presentation, students:
 will be exposed to the basic knowledge of cold and hot water

supply.
 will be able to identify the related water supply system.
 will be able to calculate and design a simple pipe size in the
system.
BFC3153 2
CONTENT
1. Concept of Water Supply System from the
authority to building
2. Water supply distribution in building
3. Features of Sanitary System
4. Water efficiency in building
BFC3153 3
Water
 Water is a major natural resource, one of the big three:
land, water, air.
 The importance of water can be put into perspective by
the fact that a significant portion of the earth's surface is
water.
 The reality is that :
 97% of the earth's water is salty, and,
 3% that is freshwater (includes water that is locked in glaciers
and polar ice caps).
BFC3153 4
Water
 Water for human consumption must be:
 Free from harmful bacteria & suspended matter
 Colourless
 Pleasant to taste
 For health reasons, moderately hard
 Water storage & treatment process to ensure good water
quality
 A basic essential for water supply is that it should be free
of harmful impurities and fit for drinking.
 Water that has been collected from above ground or
extracted from below is unlikely to be acceptable as it
may have become contaminated.
BFC3153 5
Source of Water
1. Surface water – lakes, streams, rivers,
reservoirs, run off from roofs and paved
areas.
2. Sub-surface water – shallow wells, deep
wells, etc.
BFC3153 6
Fig 6.1: Hydrological Cycle
BFC3153 7
Water distribution
Fig 6.2 (i) Gravity system (ii) Pump System
BFC3153 8
General Standard
British Standard 6700:

Design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of
Services Supply Water for Domestic Use within
Buildings.
BFC3153 9
Types of Piping
 Commonly used pipe materials, such as:

 Cast iron (BS 4622)
 Copper (BS EN 1057)
 GI with PVC-C lining (BS 1387)
 PVC, unplasticized PVC, PB, PE, PE-X
 Stainless steel (BS 4127)
BFC3153 10
Valves
 Ball valve
 Butterfly valve
 Gate valve
 Non-return valve
 Pressure reducing valve
 Pressure relief valve
 Stopcock
 Float switch
 Expansion vessel
BFC3153 11
Domestic Water Supply
BFC3153 12
Typical Domestic Supply System
 Pump System
water from the suction tank
needs a pumping system to
deliver to the storage tank at
the top of the building.
 Gravity System
Water from the storage tank

is distributed to each unit by
gravity system
BFC3153 13
kitchen
DISTRIBUTION
PIPE
SYARIKAT AIR JOHOR
Fig 6.3: Types of water supply pipe.
BFC3153 14
Water Supply Pipe
 Communication Pipe:
- is pipe from water treatment plant to the house boundary @ to the
water meter.
- responsibility by supply authority….exp: SAJ.
- minimum depth 0.75m
 Service Pipe @Supply Pipe

- is supply pipe from the house boundary into the storage tank @ from
water meter to water tank.
- serving the storage tank and kitchen sink with stopcock and drain
cocks.
- responsibility by the house owner.
 Distribution Pipe
- is pipe from storage tank to all the water taps @ fitments.
BFC3153 15
System functions
 The purpose of the domestic water system is to provide the
occupants of a facility an adequate quantity of domestic water for
drinking and for the proper operation of plumbing fixtures utilized for
personal health and hygiene.
 The domestic water system must also protect the water it conveys
from harmful substances that would damage the water quality and
make it unfit for human consumption.
 The domestic water system is comprised of

 water supply;
 water distribution system;
 auxiliary components such as water heaters, pumps, storage
equipment, and backflow prevention devices;
 and the termination point of use that are the plumbing fixtures.
BFC3153 16
Storage Cistern
 Materials: reinforced concrete, fiber glass, etc.
 Reinforced concrete is the most common material used.
 Fiberglass storage cistern for potable water shall be of an

approved type or certified, with no toxic materials and suitable
for storage of portable water.
 Storage capacities:
 Assessment of water consumption & demand
 Ratio Sump tank : roof tank = 1:3 ….refer water tank
calculation~ apply for high rise building
 Recommend to meet one-day demand
BFC3153 17
Fig 6.4: Water tank basic requirements (for a gravity supply)
BFC3153 18
Storage Cistern Components
A water storage cistern shall be fitted with: -
1. A ball float valve
2. A fullway gate valve at the inlet (a gravity supply only)
3. An automatic control switch and without any stop valve in the case of
a pumped supply.
4. A fullway gate valve at outlet pipe .
5. A drain-off pipe properly plugged or with control valve (adequate

means to prevent any unauthorized operation)
BFC3153 19
6. Overflow pipe
 to discharge overflow water to a conspicuous position easily visible and
accessible by the occupants.
 at least one commercial size larger than the inlet pipe (min. 25 mm in
diameter)
 A grating and a self-closing non-return flap at the overflow pipe outside the
storage cistern.
7. Warning pipe
 min. 25 mm in diameter
 at a level below the overflow pipe and be extended to outside of the building
periphery for roof cistern or outside the pump room for sump cistern.
8. Outlet pipe
 Outlet pipes from the storage cistern be at the opposite side to the inlet
supply pipe to prevent stagnation of water.
BFC3153 20
Water Capacity
Types of building Minimum water storage
liter gallon
Residential house (urban) 450 100
Residential house (town) 680 150
Multistory flat house 140 30
Low cost house 450 100
Hostel 180/person 40/person
School 30 6.5
Boarding school 180/person 40/person

BFC3153 21
Hot and Cold Water
Supply System for
Building
BFC3153 22
Cold Water Supply Systems
 Cold water service shall consist of a pressurized piping distribution
system incorporating a separate supply line from the tap in the
existing outside water main to the equipment area inside the
building.
 Water service shall be metered inside the building (normally at the
house boundary) by meters furnished by the water supply
department.
 Internal distribution shall consist of a piping system that will supply
domestic cold water to all necessary plumbing fixtures, water
heaters and all mechanical make-up water needs.
 There are two types of internal distribution system:

1. Direct
2. Indirect
BFC3153 23
Direct Cold Water Supply
System
BFC3153 24
Indirect Cold Water Supply
System
BFC3153 25
Internal Distribution
1. Direct supply system:
 conveys water directly from water mains to the point of usage
without any transit water storage tanks.
 the capacity (in liters ) of the feed cistern is required to be at least
equal to the capacity in liters of hot water cylinder.
 a cistern of 114 liters (minimum) capacity and is therefore small
enough to be accommodated in the top of an airing cupboard, thus
saving lagging of the cistern and pipe work.
BFC3153 26
Fig 6.5: Direct System for Hot and Cold Water Supply
The items identified in the illustration above of

a direct water supply are:
1. Water company stopcock - this is used to
cut off all the water to the property and is
the point at which the responsibility for the
water pipe changes; up to, and including,
this stopcock the water supply company is
the responsible for it; from this point to the
house, the house owner is responsible
even if the stopcock is not on their land
(it's often in the pavement).
2. Householders stopcock - normally just
one stopcock within the property will cut
off all the water into it and the
householder is responsible for it. This
stopcock is normally located where the
rising mains enters the house, often under
the kitchen sink.
BFC3153 27
3. Draincock - this allows all the pipework

within the house to be drained down at
the lowest point.
4. Stopcock - this stopcock can be used to
isolate the rising main from the cost
water taps and WC cistern etc to allow
maintenance in those areas without
having to shut off all the water in the
property.
isolate the rising main from the cost
water taps and WC cistern etc to allow
maintenance in those areas without
having to shut off all the water in the
property.
BFC3153 28
6. Gate valve which can isolate the hot water

from the multi point water heater to the taps
etc.
NOTE: Valves 5 and 6 allow for the water
heater to be isolated for maintenance, repair
or replacement.
7. Multi water heater - specifically designed to
work at mains water pressure.
8. Inline valves to isolate water feeds to washing
machine or dishwasher etc.
9. WC overflow pipe - this takes any overflow
from the WC cistern out of harms way and
deposits it outside of the building. It needs to
be positioned so that any water flow is
immediately noticed as it would indicate a
problem.
BFC3153 29
2. Indirect Water Supply
 An indirect water supply system is the most common type found in

modern houses.
 The mains water comes in via a rising main and directly feeds at least
one cold tap at the kitchen sink with ‘potable’ water (i.e. water which is
fit for drinking, cooking etc) and may also feed a washing machine, a
shower and an outside tap etc.
 The rising main also feeds a storage tank at a high point in the building
from where the water is fed to all the other taps etc using gravity.
Supplies cold water to baths, basins, shower etc. and also feeds the hot
water cylinder.
 Its capacity in liters will be approximately double that required for the
direct system. The water regulations require a cistern of 227 liters
minimum capacity.
BFC3153 30
Fig 6.6: Indirect Hot and Cold Water Supply
1. Water company stopcock - this can cut off

all the water to the premises and is the
point where the responsibility for the water
pipe changes; up to, and including, this
stopcock is the responsibility of the water
supply company (even if the stopcock is
on your land); from here to the house, is
the house owners responsibility.
2. Householders stopcock - this normally can

cut off all the water within the house but
the householder is responsible for it. It's
usually located where the rising mains
enters the house, often under the kitchen
sink.
3. Draincock - this allows the rising main
within the house to be drained down at the
lowest point.
isolate the rising main from the storage
tank to allow maintenance without having
to cut off all the water from the property.
BFC3153 31
5. Storage tank with a ballcock float valve to control the water
stored. The tank will typically hold from 230 to 360 litres (50
to 80 gallons) of water at the highest part of the building -
the higher it is, the better the gravity feed pressure at the
taps etc.
6. Gate valve which can isolate the cold water feed to the hot
water tank.
7. Gate valve which can isolate the cold water to the WC and
taps etc.
8. Hot water cylinder.
9. Gate valve which can isolate the hot water to the taps.
10. Storage tank overflow pipe - this takes any overflow of

water from the storage tank out of harms way and deposits
it outside of the building. It needs to be positioned so that
any water flow is immediately noticed as it would indicate a
problem.
11. WC overflow pipe - this takes any overflow from the WC

cistern out of harms way and deposits it outside of the
building. It needs to be positioned so that any water flow is
immediately noticed as it would indicate a problem.
12. Inline valves to isolate water feeds to washing machine or
dishwasher etc.
BFC3153 32
Advantages
of direct and indirect
water supply systems
BFC3153 33
Table 6.1:
Advantages and disadvantages of direct
and indirect systems
Direct Indirect
Advantages: Advantages:
1. Less pipe work and 1. Large capacity storage cistern,
smaller storage cistern, provides a reserve of water
making it cheaper to during the failure of the mains
install. supply.
2. Drinking water available 2. The water pressure on the taps
at wash basins. supplied from the cistern is
reduced, which minimizes noise
and wear on the taps.
3. Smaller cold-water cistern 3. Fittings supplied with water
which may be sited below from the cistern are prevented
the ceiling. from causing contamination of
the drinking water by back
siphonage.
BFC3153 34
Table 6.1:
Advantages and disadvantages of direct
and indirect systems, Cont…
Direct Indirect
Disadvantages: 4. Water storage to meet
4. No storage to satisfy peak demand.
peak demand period. 5. Less risk of adverse
5. Risk of contamination effects by water mains.
and pressure 6. Can be used in high-rise
fluctuation of mains. buildings.
6. Not feasible for high-
rise buildings due to
main pressure.
BFC3153 35
Hot Water Supply
System
BFC3153 36
Hot Water Supply
 Hot water shall be generated by heaters utilizing natural gas,

electricity, steam or solar as an energy source.
 Electricity is widely used because of the ease of supply, although
gas is often employed.
 Instantaneous hot water heaters are not permitted as a primary
source.
 Domestic hot water supply temperature shall be generated at 60°C
(140°F), and shall be tempered to 49°C (120°F) using a three-way
mixing valve, before supplying to all plumbing fixtures.
 Central systems are usually of the storage type where water in a
storage vessel is heated from the space heating boilers.
 In local systems the water heating appliances are sited near groups
of sanitary appliances.
BFC3153 37
Direct Hot Water Supply
 The hot water from the boiler mixes directly with the
water in the cylinder. If used in a ‘soft’ water area the
boiler must be rust-proofed.
 The storage cylinder and associated pipe work should be
well insulated to reduce energy losses.
BFC3153 38
Indirect Hot Water System
 The disadvantages of the direct system can be substantially
overcome by separating the primary water circulating in the boiler
and flow and return pipes from the water to be drawn off at taps.
 This is achieved by providing a separate cold-water cistern to supply

the boiler and containing the primary flow in the cylinder within a coil
of pipe work or an annular cylinder to allow heat to be transferred
from the primary flow to the water in the cylinder.
 This method is universally employed in larger installations but its

expensive for domestic use.
BFC3153 39
BFC3153 40
Water
Supply
System for
Tall
Building
BFC3153 41
For buildings higher than about
10 storeys it is necessary that
consideration be given to
pressure balancing at individual
draw-off fittings by means of
orifice plates or by arranging the
piping system in vertical zones
with reducing valves.
For very high buildings, the
provision of intermediate water
storage and further pumping
equipment may be necessary.
The drawing below shows a
typical boosted cold water
system for a high rise building
such as a block of flats or
apartments.
Fig 6.9System for Rising Water to Flats

(PRESSURISED COLD WATER SYSTEM FOR HIGH RISE BUILDING)
BFC3153 42
House
tank/storage tank
capacity (2/3 of
total volume of
water storage)
In direct water
supply system
for high rise
building
Suction tank
capacity (1/3 of
total volume of BFC3153 43
water storage)
Direct Water Supply
for Apartments
 Roof tanks are fresh water tanks, placed atop
high-rise buildings. Roof tank installations are
used in water supply applications mainly due
to unstable water mains and unstable power
supply.
 Roof tanks are fresh water tanks, placed atop
high-rise buildings. Roof tank installations are
used in water supply applications mainly due
to unstable water mains and unstable power
supply.
 Water is provided to the roof tank via a
transfer pump or directly from mains water
supply.
 Water is supplied to the majority of the
apartments through gravity. For the
apartments on the three or four uppermost
floors (directly below the tank), gravity is not
strong enough to create the proper water
pressure. A pump is installed to solve this
problem BFC3153 44
Solar Heating of Water
BFC3153 45
Solar Heating of Water
 With ‘green’ issues very tropical, it is appropriate to consider the use
of solar power to supplement conventionally fuelled hot water
supplies.
 In some countries, it is sole source of energy for hot water.
 Solar collectors should be 4-6m2 in area and fitted to roofs ideally

pitched at about 40 and facing south.
 The solar cylinder capacity of about 200 liters is heated to 60°.
BFC3153 46
 A basic system
can be very
simple:
A small feed and
expansion cistern, a
hot-water cylinder
and a solar collector
together with flow
and return pipe
work are all that is
required.
Fig 6.10: Schematic solar hot water system BFC3153 47

Solar Water Heating
 Fig 6.10 show the dual-coil water cylinder enables the
solar circuit to preheat the water and the boiler-fed coil
brings it to a final temperature.
 It is also possible to use two separate cylinders; then the

cylinder with the solar coil supplies preheated water to
the boiler-heated cylinder.
BFC3153 48
Calculation and design
BFC3153 49
1.0 Water Storage
 For larger buildings, the capacity of the storage cistern
will have to be estimated and Table 6.2 gives the storage
requirements for various types of buildings.
Table 6.2: Provision of cold water to cover 24 hours interruption of supply.
Types of buildings (per resident) Storage in

liters/person
Dwelling house and flats 91
Hostels 91
Hotels 136
Offices without canteen 37
Offices with canteen 45
Restaurant 7
Day schools 27
Boarding school 91
Nurses homes and medical quarters 114
BFC3153 50
Example 1
If a hostel is design to accommodate 100 students, determine the cold
water storage capacity.
Solution 1:
 Total supply requirements per day for 100 students x 91 liters =
9100 litres
Design for storage tank size;
 In the unlikely disruption of supply, the designer would be wise to
acknowledge that a shut down for 24 hours is usual and as the
situation is not desperate for water, it would be reasonable to allow
perhaps 10 hours reserve supply. Therefore the calculation could be
revised thus:
 9100 liters x 10/24 = 3792 litres
BFC3153 51
2.0 Pipe Sizing
 Calculate pipe sizing using Thomas Box formula:
q = flow rate (l/s)
d 5 xH d = internal diameter of pipe (mm)
q
25xLx105 H = head or pressure (m)
L = effective length of pipe (m)
 When transposed to make (d) the subject, Box’s formula

appears as follows:
2 5
q x 25 xLx10
d 5
H
BFC3153 52
Example 2
The simple installation shown in figure 6.11 below provided an
opportunity to illustrate an application of this formula:
Solution 2:
2 5
q x 25 xLx10
d 5
H
? 4m head or pressure
(1.25) 2
x 25 x ( 35  20%) x105
d 5
4
 5 410 x105  33.3mm

Actual pipe length is 35m, allow
20% for bends and other
unforseens.
Discharge of 1.25 l/s
required
BFC3153 53
Example 3: Water Storage Capacity
Determine the water storage tank capacity for seven storey
office building. All the fittings are given in table 6.3. Allow 15%
of supply for extra storage of each tank.
Given Table 6.3:
Quantity Fittings Storage/unit Total water (l)

(quantity x storage)
10 Sink 135
10 Basin 90
10 WC 180
10 Shower 135
10 Tap 135
10 Bath tub 135
Total demand storage : 8100
BFC3153 54
Solution 3:
Storage tank
1. Total water required:
= 8100 liter
2. Suction tank ( with capacity = 1/3 )
= 8100 x 1/3 = 2700 liter
add 15 % for extra storage:

Supply to sinks, baths,
= ( 2700 x 15% ) = 405 liter WC’s, Shower, etc.
Volume of suction tank = 3105 liter
3. Storage tank ( with capacity = 2/3 )

Suction tank
= 8100 x 2/3 = 5400 liter
Duplicated pump Incoming Main
add 15%:
= ( 5400 x 15% ) = 810 liter

Fig 6.18:
Volume of water storage tank = 6210 liter INDIRECT SYSTEM FROM MAIN
BFC3153 55
Water Storage Tank Size
Rectangle Tank
Total volume of a rectangular
prism shaped tank is length times
width times height. Therefore,
V(tank) = lwh
The filled volume of a rectangular
tank is just a shorter height with
the same length and width. The
new height is the fill height or
f. Therefore:
V(fill) = lwf
BFC3153 56
Water Storage Tank Size
Vertical Cylinder Tank
Total volume of a cylinder shaped tank
is the area, A, of the circular end times
the height, h. A = πr2 where r is the
radius which is equal to d/2. Therefore:
V(tank) = πr2h
The filled volume of a vertical cylinder
tank is just a shorter cylinder with the
same radius, r, and diameter, d, but
height is now the fill height or
f. Therefore:
V(fill) = πr2f
BFC3153 57
Solution 3:
Storage tank
4. Size of Storage tank ( with capacity = 2/3 )
= 8100 x 2/3 = 5400 liter
Supply to sinks, baths,

WC’s, Shower, etc.
Suction tank
Duplicated pump Incoming Main
Fig 6.18:
INDIRECT SYSTEM FROM MAIN
BFC3153 58
Exercise
 Design square shape water storage tank, suction tank, and supply
pipe for discharge of 1.25litres/sec, based on gravity supply for a
hotel. The hotel are consists of three (two) blocks of building, each
building have 100 rooms and 4 guests in each room. Determine the
total water requirement for hotel. Assume head loss is negligible
with 6m head pressure and length of pipe is 30m allow 20% for
bends and other unforeseen. Assume 180 litres per person of cold
water to cover 24 hours interruption of supply, and disruption of
supply 12 hours.
BFC3153 59
Data:
2 building blocks hotel

100 rooms in 1 block of building
4 persons can be accommodated in 1 room
180 lit/day per person per day consumption
Disruption of supply for 12 hours
Effective Length of pipe = 30 m
Discharge of supply pipe = 1.25litres/sec
Head loss = 20% of effective length of pipe
Head pressure = 6m
Calculate:
Total water requirement = ??
Size of storage tank for 24 hours + 12 hour disruption = ??
Size of suction tank for 24 hours + 12 hour disruption = ??
Size of supply pipe for discharge = ??
BFC3153 60
Solution
No of blocks = 2
No of rooms per block = 100
No persons accommodated in 1 room = 4
Total persons = 2 x 4 x 100 = 800
Water consumption per person per day = 180 lit/day
Amount of water required for 24 hours = 180 x 800 = 144000 lit
Further amount of water required for 12 hours disruption =
180 x 800 x (12/24) = 72000 lit
Total amount of water requirement = 144000 + 72000 = 216000 lit
= 216000 lit / 1000

= 216 m3
BFC3153 61
Volume of storage tank = 2/3 x total water requirement
= 2/3 x 216 m3 = 144 m3 (1 marks)
Size and number of the tank is depend upon the choice of engineer as per
practical design however it volume of tank must be greater than the
required water volume for storage.
For practical design assume 4 storage tanks for 1 block of building,

therefore total building block will have to install
4 X 2 storage tanks = 8 tanks.
Water required to store in 1 tank = 144/8 = 18 m3 (1 mark)
Assume square tank of = 2.5 m x 2.5 m x 3 m (with free board of 0.7m)
Volume of suction tank = 1/3 x total water requirement
= 1/3 x 216 m3 = 72 m3 (1 mark)
For practical design assume 3 suction tanks = 72 /3 = 24 m3
Assume square tank of = 3.5 m x 3.5 m xBFC3153

2 m (with free board of 0.5m) 62
•Diameter of supply pipe can be calculated by Thomas box formula:
•Assume Head of pressure (H) = 6m
q 2
x 25 xLx10 5
(1.25) x 25 x(30  20%) x10
2 5
d 5 d 5
H 6
d  29.78mm  30mm
BFC3153 63
The end
BFC3153 64
WATER EFFICIENCY
1
© Rahmat Muslim 2010
Presentation Outcomes
At the end of the presentation, student
should be able to :
– Identify the different between Water
Efficiency & Water Conservation
– Identify the suitable water efficiency
approach.
– Design/Calculate the selected water
efficiency approach.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 2

Content
• Introduction to WE & WC
• Water Efficiency Approach
– Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)
– Water Recycling
– Water Efficient Irrigation
– Water Efficient Fittings
– Metering and Leak Detection System
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 3

Water Efficiency
Introduction
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 4

Efficiency vs Conservation
“Water efficiency” means using improved technologies and
practices that deliver equal or better service with less water.
 For example, the use of low-flow faucet (A regulator for
controlling the flow of a liquid) aerators can be more powerful than
no aerators for washing hands.
“Water conservation” has been associated with curtailment of

water use and doing “less” with less water, typically during a
water shortage, such as a drought; for example, minimizing lawn
watering and automobile washing in order to conserve water.
 Water conservation also includes day-to-day “demand
management” to better manage how and when water is used,
 It is common to hear the words “water conservation” used
synonymously with “water efficiency.”
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 5

Water Resources
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 6

Water Use
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 7

Drinking Water & Sanitation
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 8

Benefits of
Water Efficiency Programs
I. Reduced Water Demand
– Generally faster, cheaper and easier than supply-side
programs.
II. Water and Wastewater Treatment Saving
– Reduces costs and defers plant expansion.
III. Less Environmental Impact
– Due to fewer surface and subsurface withdrawals.
IV. Sustained Water Quality
– Reduces groundwater’s contaminant intrusion and
curtails demand for new supplies that are of lower
quality.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 9
Changing Behavior vs Equipment
 Equipment changes may be viewed as a
“permanent fix” to achieve water efficiency.
 Changing employee behaviors, such as an
operating procedure, may be viewed as a quick and
inexpensive way to achieve similar savings without up-
front capital expense.
 In reality, both the technical and human side of
water management issues must be addressed.
Consistent training and awareness in combination
with proper tools and equipment will achieve more
permanent water savings.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 10

10 Steps of Water Efficiency
Planning
Modify Develop
Demand a Workplan
Forecasts & Budget
Combined Review
Estimated Demand
Savings Forecasts
Develop
Rank, Select
Water
& Package
System
Measures
Profile
Perform Evaluate
Cost/Benefit Existing
Analysis Measures
Identify Define
Feasible Efficiency
Measures Potential
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 11

Water Efficiency
Approach
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 12

Water Efficiency Approach
• Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)
• Water Recycling
• Water Efficient Irrigation
• Water Efficient Fittings
• Metering and Leak Detection System
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 13

Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)
• The two (2) main approaches to RWH are
i) collection of runoff rainwater from surrounding site and
ii) collection of rainwater from roof top.
• Both systems require separate water storage tanks and additional
pressure boosting equipment may be required.
• Gravity fed system is encouraged to avoid additional energy use for
pumping.
• Use rainwater for non-potable applications such as toilets and urinal
flushing, landscape irrigation, washing clothes etc.
• Water purifying system may be necessary depending on the
application and methodology of harvesting the rainwater.
• Where rainwater filtration/purification is required, use of ozone or
activated oxygen in lieu of chlorine or other GHG chemicals, is
preferred to obviate negative environmental impact.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 14

RWH in Malaysia – Awareness &
Potential
• Malaysia is endowed with far more rainfall than our water
demand when compared with other countries.
• RWH could be an effective tool for helping to reduce the
use of treated water and provides a convenient buffer in
times of emergency or a shortfall in the public water
supply.
• Malaysia received 990 billion cubic metre of rainwater
annually.
• Surface runoff water account for 566bcu.m evaporates
and 64bcu.m end up as ground water
(Assoc Prof Ar Zuhairuse Md Darus)
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 15

Malaysia Rainfall Amount – May
2009
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 16

The Background
• In March 2006, PM chaired and launched The National
Water Resources Council with the two main agenda on
Rainwater and Groundwater.
• For RWH, it was intended to formulate by-laws
nationwide to make it compulsory for bungalows,
factories and schools/institutions to install RWH system
• After 1998 drought, a study of alternative source of water
supply was being carried out.
• 1999, a Guideline for installing a RWH policy in Malaysia
was introduced which aimed to reduce dependence on
treated water.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 17

Rainwater Harvesting Policy
• 2004 NAHRIM (National Hydraulic Research Institute of
Malaysia) was established to conduct research on water
hydraulic and water environment.
• Done 3 pilot projects – government office, mosque and a
residential house.
• Also designing and installing RWH system for several
school.
• August 2006, Town Country Planning and Development
formulated the National Urbanization Policy (NUP) which
stress that:
– Cities need to improve water management efficiency.
– Use alternative sources and non conventional RWH.
– Water recycling.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 18

Quality of Rainwater
The first rainfall may contain higher than average
amounts of accumulated dust, industrial pollutants,
bird and animal droppings, leaves and other
debris. It is recommended that, to prevent the risk
of potential contaminants adversely affecting
rainwater quality and human health, the following
measures be implemented:
– Screened downpipe rainwater head of other suitable
leaf and debris device to be install on each downpipe.
– To improve rainwater quality, a minimum of 20 litres
per 100 sqm of the first flush of the roof catchment
needs to be diverted/discarded before entering the
rainwater tank.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 19
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 20
Rainwater Harvesting System
• Developers can build rainwater
collection systems to collect
rainwater in their premises.
This applies to premises
located within water
catchments as well as those
outside water catchments.
• Waterborne fees may be
charged as the used rainwater
that is discharged into sewers
will require proper treatment
and disposal. Computation of
waterborne fees is based on
Collecting rainwater
tank size and expected usage.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 21

Rainwater Collection Calculation
• Rainfall Data from Malaysian Meteorological Dept. Local Rainfall
Stations and responsible regulatory authorities (Refer Table 1).
• Catchments size – square metres of the specific roof catchment
area discharging to storage tank.
• Pre-treatment - devices (first flush) that divert rainwater away
from storage tank.
• Coefficient runoff percentage from catchment area (Refer Table
2).
• Formula :
Max Annual Catchment

amount Rainfall Area Percentage
Runoff
of rainfall = * * * Diverted
(mm/yr) (m2) Coefficient
collected (%)
(lit/year)
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 22
Table 1 – Rainfall Data for Cities in
Malaysia
NEGERI Jan Feb Mac Apr Mei Jun Jul Aug Sep Okt Nov Dis Annual Stat
Johor 251.3 104.5 259.0 292.5 251.1 166.9 187.1 238.2 277.1 294.5 250.8 182.3 2755.3 Med
Kedah 16.7 22.4 133.7 219.7 174.2 110.8 204.7 202.7 315.4 373.3 233.4 60.5 2067.5 Med
Kelantan 81.5 21.6 72.6 98.9 178.1 113.1 188.7 185.3 353.7 244.6 707.7 414.3 2660.1 Med
Kuala Lumpur 169.0 184.0 0.0 294.4 0.0 151.3 96.5 172.7 268.8 294.0 198.4 151.3 1980.4 Med
Melaka 89.3 99.9 259.1 309.3 196.0 127.9 134.6 135.2 221.5 238.7 247.5 104.5 2163.5 Med
Negeri Sembilan 70.1 80.4 145.6 173.5 156.3 61.9 91.3 107.1 180.0 189.2 179.3 82.6 1517.3 Med
Pahang 333.6 61.7 230.5 169.7 213.0 146.8 146.1 161.0 257.1 244.7 465.0 481.1 2910.3 Med
Perak 120.8 90.6 113.0 159.8 174.0 74.4 102.6 103.0 226.6 270.4 189.6 94.8 1719.6 Med
Pulau Pinang 31.3 86.1 186.9 316.0 272.5 196.3 238.3 273.9 335.2 252.0 302.8 62.1 2553.4 Med
Perlis 13.1 28.2 104.3 203.2 193.1 157.1 260.4 273.5 353.1 246.4 186.4 49.0 2067.8 Med
Selangor 179.0 154.6 225.4 310.2 158.5 141.7 93.5 175.8 249.8 294.8 259.9 252.4 2495.6 Med
Sabah 158.6 142.3 100.9 179.9 304.2 254.9 254.2 376.5 374.6 396.2 477.4 181.1 3200.8 Med
Sarawak 490.0 94.5 200.5 192.0 251.5 85.0 111.5 161.0 89.5 463.0 307.0 631.0 3076.5 Med
Terengganu 89.7 21.6 96.6 115.4 103.2 92.8 82.0 104.6 202.7 241.0 846.5 357.4 2353.5 Med
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 23

Table 2 – Runoff Coefficient for
Differen Roof Types
Roof Type Runoff Coefficient
Pitched Tile Roof 0.9
Steel Roof 0.8
Flat Smooth Roof 0.5
Flat Gravel or Turf Roof 0.4
Asphalt/Smooth/Dense Pavement 0.9
Block Pavement (Wide Joints) 0.7
Gravel Roadway 0.3
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 24
Diversion Factor for First Flush
Water Diverter
• Minimal Pollution – divert 0.5 litre/m2
– (Open field, no trees, no bird droppings, clean
environment)
• Substantial Pollution – divert 2 litres/m2

– (Leaves and debris, bird droppings, various
animal matter, dead insects and skinks etc.)
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 25

Example : Calc of RWH Collection -
Selangor
DP-A HP 15m
DP-B
8m
HP
12m
HP 9m HP
DP-D
LEGEND 4m
Vertical Downpipe =
DP-C
High Point = HP
Downpipe = DP 6m
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 26
Using Tangki NAHRIM Software
• This software was developed for the RWH projects.
• The main purpose of this software is for predicting the size
of the rainwater tank to be used for a RWH system.
• This software can generate the amount of rainwater
captured, total rainwater volume delivered, reliability of the
system (= delivered volume / demand volume), coefficient
of rainwater utilization, storage efficiency, percentage time
of tank empty.
• Twenty years of rainfall data for different cities/towns
throughout Malaysia are available in this software.
• This software is meant to be a guide in estimating the size
of the rainwater tank with its respective reliability.
http://www.nahrim.gov.my/my/perisian-tangki-nahrim
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 27

Water Recycling
• Water treatment systems and re-use technology options
are acceptable for treating grey water and black water.
The treated water is then recycled for use in irrigation,
toilet flushing etc. Sand filters can be a cost effective
treatment technique.
POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES & STRATEGIES

• Consider channeling grey water from sinks, showers and
other sources to wastewater treatment plant.
• Options for on-site wastewater treatment include
packaged biological nutrient removal systems and high
efficiency filtration systems.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 28

Water Recycling
• Recycling of Wastewater:
– Grey Water
– Black Water
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 29

Types of Water Recycling –
Treated & Untreated Greywater
Parameter Treated Greywater Untreated Greywater
Source Bath, Shower, Basin, Bath, Basin, Shower and
Laundry, Urinal and Kitchen Laundry
General Use Garden Irrigation, Laundry Direct sub-surface garden
Washing (cold water), Toilet irrigation or surface application
Flushing and Vehicle Washing (usually through manual
bucketing)
Storage Storage of treated greywater Storage Greywater system to
is allowed – stored water be emptied every 24 hours or
quality may need to be less depending on regulations
monitored on an ongoing
basis
Approval &
Quality
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 30
General Overview
• Greywater generated by building occupants can
be recycled to provide a reliable source of water
for activities that do not require drinking water
quality (eg irrigation, toilet flushing and general
washing).
• Product approval certification, signage and
labelling or colouring of taps/pipes to indicate
water is recycled and not suitable for drinking.
• Greywater is collected, stored and treated to the
standard specified by Local Authority.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 31

Table 3 – Volume of Wastewater Generated Per
Person in Malaysia (Usage Pattern in Selangor – SWAn)
Wastewater Source Volume Used

(Residential) l/p/d l/p/y
Greywater (Untreated)
Shower 65 23,725
Basin 40 14,600
Cooking & Drinking 10 3,650
Washing Machine 45 16,425
Leaks 5 1,825
Total Greywater 165 60,225
Blackwater (Treated)
Toilet (WC) 65 23,725
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 32
Calculation of Greywater Demand
and Availability
• Assume potable water Table 4 – Sample Fixture
calculations for sewage
conveyance for a office Types and Capacity
building with a capacity of 300 Fixtures Types Litres
occupants.
• The calculations are based on Conventional WC 6
a typical 8 hours workday.
• Take as 50% Male & 50% Low-Flow WC 4
Female.
Composting Toilet 0
• Male occupants are assumed
to use WC once and urinals
Conventional Urinal 6
twice.
• Female occupants are Low-Flow Urinal 3
assumed to use WC three
times. Waterless Urinal 0.02
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 33

Table 5 – Baseline Case
Fixture Type Daily Uses Flowrate (l) Occupants Sewage Generation (l)
WC (Male) 1 6 150 900
WC (Female) 3 6 150 2700
Urinals 2 6 150 1800
Total Daily Volume (l) 5400
Table 6 – Design Case
Fixture Type Daily Uses Flowrate (l) Occupants Sewage Generation (l)
WC (Male) 1 6 150 900
Low-Flow WC 3 4 150 1872
Urinal-Flush 2 3 150 900
W/less Urinal 2 0.02 150 0
Total Daily Volume (l) 3672
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 34

Volume of Water Storage Capacity Per
Person for Office Building (SYABAS Guidelines)
• 800 litres per 100 sq.m (GFA)
• The actual percentage of savings from
recycled water shall be compared against
the total water storage capacity required
by local water authority.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 35

Water Efficient Irrigation
• Design a water-efficient landscape by selecting
native or adaptive plants that require minimal water.
• Reduce or eliminate use of potable water for
landscape irrigation system.

• Perform soil / climate analysis to determine
appropriate plant material and design the landscape
with native or adaptive plants to reduce or eliminate
irrigation requirements. Where irrigation is required,
use high efficiency equipment and/or climate based
controllers.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 36
Water Efficient –
Irrigation/Landscaping
• Encourage the design of systems that do not
require the use of potable water supply from
local water authority.
• Reduce potable water consumption for
landscaping irrigation by ≥ 50% (e.g. through
use of native or adaptive plants to reduce or
eliminate irrigation requirement), OR
• Not use potable water at all for landscape
irrigation.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 37

WATER EFFICIENT PLANTS
Where applicable, use
drought resistant plants
or plants that fit
naturally into the
existing climatic
conditions including
rainfall and temperature
pattern and require little
irrigation. Draught resistant plants
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 38

WATER EFFICIENT PLANTS
The amount of turf area
should be limited as most
turf grasses need a lot of
water and require continual
upkeep. Group plants by
their water needs such as
plants that need high,
moderate or little to no
irrigation rather than by
appearance or functions.
Limit turf area
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 39

WATER EFFICIENT IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
• Irrigation system should be zoned so that plants with different types
of water needs are irrigated separately. For example, turf grass
should be watered separately from shrubs and flowers. Trees and
shrubs that require little irrigation may only require water during
prolonged periods of dry season when they show signs of stress.
For these plants, hand watering may be all that is required.
• Water efficient irrigation system such as drip irrigation system
should be used. Drip irrigation applies water slowly and directly to
the roots of plants through small flexible pipes and flow control
devices (called emitters). Since water is applied directly to the root,
evaporation and runoff is minimized. The irrigation system using
potable water is only permitted for system to be turned on manually
and turned off automatically.
• Automatic controller should be used to turn the irrigation system off
and to control the water flow through the various zones according to
a pre-set schedule. Rain sensors should be incorporated to
automatically turn off irrigation system during raining days.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 40

Water Efficient Irrigation System
This project uses drip irrigation that

was activated based on time
Drip irrigation uses 30% to 50% less schedule regardless of the weather.
water than sprinkler irrigation By simply incorporating rain sensor to
shut the irrigation system off during
raining days, savings of 35% of water
a year were achieved.
Turn off irrigation

system
Rain
Sensor
Drip irrigation system Rain sensor to shut the irrigation system

27/09/2016 BFC 3153 41
Calculation of Water Use for
Landscaping
Landscape Coefficient (KL) = Species Factor x Density Factor x Microclimate Factor
(Equation 1)
Project Specific Evaportranspiration Rate (ETL) = Evaportranspiration Rate (ETo) x KL
(Equation 2)
Design Case TWA (gal) = [Area (sf) x ETL/IE] x Controller Eff (CE) x 0.6233 gal/sf/in
(Equation 3)
Design Case Total Potable Water (TPWA) (gal) = TWA (gal) x Reuse Water (gal)
(Equation 4)
Baseline Case TWA (gal) = Area (sf) x ETL/IE x 0.6233 gal/sf/in
(Equation 5)
Reduction of Potable Water (%) = (1 – Design TPWA/Baseline TWA)/100
(Equation 6)
Reduction of Total Water (%) = (1 – Design TWA/Baseline TWA) x 100
(Equation 7)
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 42

Example : Calculation of Water
Efficient Landscaping
An office building with site area of 6000 sqft. The site consists of ground, mixed
vegetation and turf grass. The whole site is irrigated with a combination of
potable water and greywater harvested from the building.
Table 7 – Irrigation Types
Irrigation Type IE
Sprinkler 0.625
Drip 0.9
Table 8 – Landscape Factors
Vegetation Species Factor (Ks) Density Factor (Kd) Microclimate Factor (Kmc)
Type Low Avg High Low Avg High Low Avg High
Trees 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.5 1.0 1.3 0.5 1.0 1.4
Shrubs 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.5 1.0 1.1 0.5 1.0 1.3
Ground Cover 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.5 1.0 1.1 0.5 1.0 1.2
Turfgrass 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.6 1.0 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.2
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 43
Table 9 – Design Case
Micro
Species Density
Landscape Area climate TPWA
Factor Factor KL ETL IE
Type (sqf) Factor (gal)
(Ks) (Kd)
(Kmc)
Shrubs 1200 Low 0.2 Avg 1.0 High 1.3 0.3 2.11 Drip 2,815
Mixed 3900 Low 0.2 Avg 1.1 High 1.4 0.3 2.50 Drip 10,837
Turfgrass 900 Avg 0.7 Avg 1.0 High 1.2 0.8 6.82 Sprinkler 9,822
Total Plant Water Applied (gal) 23,474
Table 10 – Baseline Case

Micro
Species Density
Landscape Area climate TPWA
Factor Factor KL ETL IE
Type (sqf) Factor (gal)
(Ks) (Kd)
(Kmc)
Shrubs 1200 Avg 0.5 Avg 1.0 High 1.3 0.7 5.28 Sprinkler 10,134
Turfgrass 4800 Avg 0.7 Avg 1.0 High 1.2 0.8 6.82 Sprinkler 52,384
Total Plant Water Applied (gal) 62,518
Therefore, comparison of the baseline to the designed building indicates a 62% reduction in irrigation
water volume used for landscape.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 44

Water Efficient Fittings
• The use of water efficient water closets, wash
hand basins or shower heads or systems
which has the potential to reduce potable
water consumption in the building.
• Specify the use of automatic self-closing
faucets, electronic or otherwise, to eliminate
wastage through faucets left running
unnecessarily.
• Specify the use of modified waterless urinals.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 45
Water Efficient Labelled Fittings
VERY GOOD EXCELLENT
FITTINGS GOOD RATING
RATING RATING
Shower Taps, Mixers &
>7 to 9 >5 to 7 5 or less
Showerheads (L/min)
Basin Taps & Mixers
>4 to 6 >2 to 4 2 or less
(L/min)
Sink/Bib Taps (L/min) >6 to 8 >4 to 6 4 or less
Flushing Cisterns – Dual >4.0 - 4.5 (full flush) >3.5 to 4.0 (full flush) 3.5 or less (1) (full flush)
Flush Type (L/flush) > 2.5 -3.0 (low flush) > 2.5 – 3.0 (low flush) 2.5 or less (low flush)
Urinals & Urinal Flush 0.5 or less (2)

Valve > 1.0 to 1.5 > 0.5 to 1.0 Or
(L/flush) waterless urinals
(1) To pass laboratory simulation test on waste transportation efficiency in pipe. Source: PUB
(2) To pass dilution test.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 46

WATER EFFICIENT FLUSHING
SYSTEM
Dual flush low capacity flushing cisterns should be used. Each flushing should
use 4.5 litres or less of water for a full flush and less than 3 litres for a half
flush.
Urinal flush valves that use not more than 0.5 litres of water per flush should be
used. This is the recommended flush volume for standard size urinal of 300mm
width.
Urinal Flush valve – 0.5 litres

Dual Flush LCFCs flush volume
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 47
WATER EFFICIENT FIXTURES
• A study (PUB) found that a flow rate of 2 litres/min at the
wash basin taps in staff and public toilets is sufficient for
normal washing purpose. The lower flow rate will help to
reduce water consumption and save on the water bills.
• Sensor taps with a flow rate of 2 litres/min can also be
installed. These taps should also cut off water supply
when the hands are removed from under the tap, or
when the preset timing of 30 or 60 seconds is reached,
whichever is earlier.
• Self-closing taps also help to prevent running tap after
use. A combination of regulators and self-closing taps
can achieve significant savings.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 48

Examples of Water Efficient
Fixtures
Install self-closing delayed action Install self-closing delayed action
taps (timing of between 2 and 3 shower tap (timing not exceeding 15
secs) at all wash basins. The flow secs) at all showers. The flow rate
rate should be 2 litres/min. should not exceed 7 litres/min
(except for hotels).
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 49

WATER EFFICIENCY LABELS
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 50

Install constant flow regulators and Flow rate can be reduced by simple
adjust flow rate to less than 6 method such as fixing thimbles or
litres/min for all bib taps and sink/ constant flow regulators
kitchen taps.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 51

Metering and Leak Detection
System
• Specify the provisions of sub-meters for major
water consuming systems/equipment.
• Incorporate EMS monitoring system of sub-
meters.

• To incorporate provisions of analogue or digital
flow water sub-meters.
• Incorporation of EMS monitoring will enable
early detection of water leakage and contain
water wastage.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 52

METERING & ACCOUNTING
Sub-meters should be installed on all major water systems, such as cooling
tower, irrigation, hot water devices, etc. The readings taken can help to give a
better picture of water consumption in buildings and allow building owners
know how much water is consumed by the major water equipment. By
monitoring water usage, water saving opportunities can be identified. The main
and sub-meters should be linked to a building management system (BMS). By
linking the reading to BMS, water usage trends can be recorded. An alarm
could also be activated if there is a sudden increase in water consumption or a
new trend in water consumption as this will indicate the possibility of a water
leakage.
Sub-meters BMS display

27/09/2016 BFC 3153 53
COOLING TOWER WATER
CONSUMPTION
Condensate water from
AHUs or FCUs could also
be used for cooling tower
make-up water. Using
condensate water from air
side to top up cooling tower
water not only lowers its
water temperature to raise
chiller efficiency, it also
helps to reduce the amount
Collecting condensate water from AHU
of make-up water needed.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 54

BETTER CYCLES OF
CONCENTRATION
• Cooling tower water treatment should be designed to
achieve 6 or better cycles of concentration for water
based cooling system. With the quality of water supplied
by PUB or NEWater, cycles of concentration of 6 or
higher are achievable.
• Higher concentration cycles reduce make-up and blow-
down water requirements and hence reduce the cost of
operation.
• The optimum concentration cycle should be decided in
consultation with the water treatment service provider.
The potential for scale, corrosion, deposition and
biological fouling problems should also be considered.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 55

EFFICIENT DRIFT ELIMINATORS
Efficient drift eliminator
should be used. It
should restrict the drift
loss to less than 0.02%
of cooling tower
recirculating water. The
drift eliminators control
unnecessary loss of
water and help reduce
the nuisance of water
spraying near the tower.
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 56
The End…
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 57
A room with dimension 16m x 8m x 2.8m has a ventilation rate of 15 air changes per hour. Air enters from a
duct at a velocity of 8.5 m/s. Calculate the,
i. air volume flow rate to the room (2 marks)
i. dimensions of the square duct. (2 marks)
The air flow rate is given by:
Q = (N air changes/hour) × (Vm3/air change) × (1h/3600s)
where room volume Vm3 = 1 air change. Hence
Q = (NV/3600) m/s
= (15 × 16 × 8 × 2.8) / (3600) m3/s
= 1.49 m3/s (2 Marks)
Also, Q m3/s = duct cross-sectional area A m2 × air velocity V m/s
Therefore
A = Q/V = (1.49/8.5) m2 = 0.17 m2 (1 Marks)
If the duct side is l m, then A = l2m2. Therefore
l=VAm
= √0.17 m
= 0.412 m (1 Marks)
27/09/2016 BFC 3153 58

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MECHANICAL &

Modern Building System function:

• comfortable space temperature

• Varies according to; living

• HVAC; (Heating, • Electrical power; • Transportation;

Minor impact Space Planning Highest

Major impact Global Environments

(2) Commercial Building: Complex ductwork, HVAC

Building Height Classification:

Basic Building Shapes

M&E Systems Vs. Construction Cost

* Buildings other than those used for classrooms follow

Thermal Heat Island effect at urban

It is installed in areas like large Residential

IBMS mainly consists of the most

 BUILDING ENCLOSURE: provide shelter for the benefit of

 BUILDING SERVICES: operates and control environment

 COMFORT: the state of being able to pursue some activity

 Temperature; considered as presence of heat in a substance.

 Thermodynamics; the science of the flow of heat.

 The first law of thermodynamics/energy is the principle of

 The second law of thermodynamics, (Clausius 1850) states that

If there is a temperature difference between two systems heat

 When this sum is greater than 0(+),

H A(1   2 ) insulation Measured

(1   2 ) - Temperature difference between the faces (°C or °K)

Conductive heat transfer can be calculated as:

 R-value; resistance of heat flow through a building material (m2 K/W)

 bigger the value, better insulation (greater resistance).

R -thermal resistance of that component (mK/W)

r -resistivity of material = 1/λ (mK/W)

d for the block = 100mm @ 0.1m

Total thermal Resistance Example of brickwall resistances;

(RT) is the sum of thermal

RT= Rsi +R1+R2+Rso

 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of

A1U1  A2U 2  ..  .. AnU n

A portion of wall which is facing west in direction. Composition of the wall

The north wall of an existing construction is designed for 110 mm

Given: The thermal conductivity values (λ) for brickwork is 0.62

i. thermal resistance value of the brickwork (2 marks)

ii. thickness of the south wall if the heavyweight concrete blocks is

The glass facade provides a high performance

• Allows for the exchange of air from the

•A proportion of air within the enclosed

2. Preservation of oxygen content – this should be maintained at approximately 21% of air

3. Removal of carbon dioxide

4. Control of humidity- between 30-70% RH (Relative Humidity) is acceptable for human

5. Prevention of heat concentration from machinery, lighting and people

7. Dispersal of concentrations of bacteria

2. Temperature of air 4. Humidity

• Pressure difference between

• Air flow rate through the building

• Controlled natural ventilation and

• Most often used through

• Complex building using

The pressure distribution

Figure 1 Air flow around a building

The occurrence and change of wind pressures on building

(b) Ventilation through wall

(c) Ventilation through roof

Therefore when there is an

Hot/summer season (see Figure 2b), the

In most buildings, natural ventilation relies on a combined wind force

M&E Notes

M&E Notes