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An Analysis of Teachers’ Roles as

Mandatory Reporters of Child Abuse
Word Count: 4637
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Teachers Roles’ as Mandatory Reporters of Child Abuse

Introduction:

Mandatory reporting is a government created policy that requires medical professionals,

social workers, teachers, counselors, administration, and law enforcement officers to report any

suspected incidence of abuse. For the purpose of this study, the role of teachers as reporters will

be the focus of the research. The role of teachers’ creates a general understanding for how to

handle suspected child abuse through a procedural precedent. Teachers are required to report

anything that may be considered abuse to Child Protective Services (CPS) in order to mediate a

possible abuse situation. Mandatory reporting was established in attempt to provide a strategy for

detecting cases of child abuse and facilitating a safe provision of aid to children of high risk (US

Dept. of Health and Human Services). In 2004, US Department of Health and Human Services

conducted an investigation of CPS, concluding that annually, over 2 million children are

investigated for child abuse and neglect each year in the United States and roughly half are found

to have been abused. The investigation also revealed that CPS foster care is typically no better

than the environments children are originally found in (“Mandatory”). Poor conditions and

uncaring foster “parents” are found to be abusive in similar ways, ultimately, not beneficial to

children at all. As consideration of abuse is subjective, one question remains: to what extent do

teachers actually believe in and fulfill their roles as mandatory reporters?

Mandatory reporting attempts to solve the problem of child abuse, which has existed for

hundreds of years. Mandatory reporting itself came to light in the early 1870’s, when a specific

case sent shock waves through the nation. According to the United States Child Welfare
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program, Mary Ellen Wilson, an orphan, was suffering daily whippings and beatings in her foster

home. Historical perspectives provided Leonard Brown and Kevin Gallagher, employees of the

government welfare program, there was no organization that sought to help children of abuse and

the orphan reached out to attorneys at the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty of

Animals for help (Brown and Gallagher). As there was no law set in place to protect children, the

case single handedly provided reason for greater protection. Within 10 years, every state in the

US had adopted the mandatory report law. Mandatory reporting has existed in order to serve the

greater good of children in the US (Brown and Gallagher).

Literature Review

There is little investigation on the perspective of teachers regarding their roles as

mandatory reporters. For the purpose of this study, teachers and their roles’ as mandatory

reporters will be explored through a mixed method analysis. The research question serves to gain

perspective of teachers, however, there is little existing research that attempts to correlate teacher

opinion and results of mandatory reporting. There is no foundation of research that directly

addresses the question, which makes it difficult to form a basis of what research should be

collected. While there is a large body of literature that gives insight into what the role is and why

teachers should fulfill it, there is little to no information including how teachers feel about being

mandatory reporters and if they complete their legal duty. It is important to understand how

teachers feel about a role that they are legally assigned by the United States, and whether or not

that role is actually being taken seriously. If teachers do not see importance in being mandatory

reporters, it is likely that they are not completing the task, leaving children susceptible to further

abuse. Due to lack of research, it is relatively unknown whether or not mandatory reporting is
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occuring to further protection of students. Thus, a need for a qualitative survey study will work

to provide insight on the frequency at which mandatory reporting is occuring. While research is

few and far between, studies regarding teacher abilities to recognize have taken place. A study

conducted by Kerryann Walsh seeks to calculate statistics of teacher reports and likelihood of

future occurrence. In a study involving 254 teachers, possible abuse scenarios are presented on a

5 point scale and asked to be identified based on personal teaching bias (Walsh 1). Results of this

investigation revealed that reporting abuse is a complex task and requires a thorough background

of what teachers should be looking for. Walsh’s research claims that there is a distinct reason

regarding why teachers have not been included in the process of determining their job roles. In

order to further address the occurrence of which teachers’ report, further research must be done

specifically regarding teacher’ perspective.

An important understanding to the root of the question is to understand the procedural

training that teachers are required to complete before obtaining a teaching license. The required

training for teachers on detection of abuse varies from state to state. State adopted laws create

requirements. The US Department of Child Welfare has published on their website a list of

programs that seek to train teachers about what it takes to accurately and professional handle

child abuse (“Training”). The website recommends seven possible programs. The programs vary

in location and range in time, however, the maximum time required of the programs listed does

not exceed three hours (“Training”). The programs on the website are established to specifically

address the understanding of teachers and child abuse in their students. Each provided program

offers a variety of information, including possible risk factors and how teachers should identify

and handle incidence of risk factors or actual abuse in the classroom. Risk factors are important
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for a well rounded understanding of detection. John Leventhal also expands on the idea that risk

factors may contribute to the rates of abuse of children by parent and family member, as well as

how to identify them. In a case-controlled study, Leventhal compared the rates of abuse and the

appearance of abuse in a child’s life. Through an analysis of factors including maternal age,

income, and area, risk factors can increase detectability of abuse in appearance (Leventhal).

Characteristically, studies have examined that child abuse can be attributed to several different

factors. Leventhal notes that despite heavy emphasis by the public to research abuse protocol,

there is a lack of research actually being done. Another similar perspective, founded by Allison

Sinanan, claims that ecological factors are important for social workers and educational

personnel to understand in order to effectively detect and report abuse. The study itself consisted

of 8,269 reports of children who met the criteria: less than 18 years of age, significant abuse

record, and must have lived in one of the seven states included in the analysis (Sinanan).

Sinanan’s study concluded that racial factors showed significant importance in detecting abuse

with the highest percentage being caucasian (40%) and african american (12%). Both Sinanan

and Leventhal note the importance of understanding possible risk factors in order to accurately

report abuse.

Another perspective, deals with the possible result of mandatory reporting on children

who may possibly be removed from the home. Studies conducted by Children’s Bureau

Administration of the Georgia Department of Public Health reveal that teachers are leery of

reporting because of bias stating that CPS itself is abusive and only furthers the negative impact

on children in the system. In a statistical analysis conducted by Alan Guttman, early childhood

education manager at Johns Hopkins University, out of all mandatory reporters, teachers only
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make up about 17% of all abuse reports. Guttman notes that polls taken by teachers reveal that

lack of report may be because of fear of worse life conditions. Many teachers, in this perspective,

do not want to further the abuse and bad situations that children are in by turning them into Child

Protective Services. While some may argue that CPS is an important and beneficial program,

other researchers, like Katherine Kortenkamp, have conducted research to find that CPS really is

not that beneficial after all. In 2002, Kortenkamp founded a study to identify the behavior and

emotional issues of foster kids compared to their placed counterparts. Using a six item behavior

and emotional scale, Kortenkamp found that children placed in foster care have high levels of

emotional and behavioral issues. Children were found to have higher dropout rates, criminal

occurrences, and emotional stunting, also supported by the US Department of Health. Christina

Lyons has also taken an approach to this topic, highlighting the enormity of the problem. Lyons

has taken a wide array of statistics from government programs and has analyzed data to find the

negligence of CPS. Lyons reports that child protective service agencies received 3.6 million

reports of child abuse or neglect regarding 6.6 million children, and a high percent of those

children have gone on to become victims of further sexual, physical, and emotional abuse by

foster parents. Both Lyons and Kortenkamp agree that there is a huge problem with the system,

as it is only increasing the abuse of already battered children. Guttman also goes to expand on

why teachers do not fully believe in the system of reporting. In a second poll conducted by

Guttman, many teachers fail to report because of the time consumed, fear of the effects of the

report, fear of retribution for the student, and increased risk of further abuse. The provided data

gives limitations of mandatory reporting by teachers and educational personnel. This study

differs from the gap of the topic, as it explores only teachers that have not reported in the past. A
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possible expansion of research within the study of this paper may be to look at how aspects of

the policy are impacting children who are at risk for/experiencing abuse, as well as how it

directly affects teachers who report in the first place.

Methodology:

This research is a survey-based analysis. The foundation used to organize the survey

questions was Alan Guttman’s survey statistical analysis of mandatory reporting; it provides a

professional and educational justification for survey related inquiries in the educational field.

(Guttman). Guttman’s extensive research uses similar methodology using questions surrounding

why teachers are not engaging in mandatory reporting. The purpose of this survey is to

understand why or why not mandatory reporting is being used, and thus follows Guttman’s

successful methodology. The subjects of this survey are teachers, and the importance of the

research lies within the effectiveness of the role of mandatory reporting.

Licensed teachers answered questions surrounding the prevalence and opinions of their

roles through survey based analysis.. The survey was designed to remain anonymous; the data

was collected and reported on a spreadsheet. The survey is comprised of questions regarding the

general knowledge of teachers’ roles, their opinion of the role, and how often they feel that their

role is being actively used in their line of work. This method expounds on work done by

Kerryann Walsh, who also creates a foundation for statistical analysis of mandatory reporting by

educational personnel (Walsh). Walsh provides a 5 criteria scale that is beneficial in analyzing

the results of the survey. The survey is composed of both multiple choice and short response

questions. In the beginning of the survey, general knowledge questions will be asked regarding if

teachers know about their role, and how many times they have fulfilled their role in the past.
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Examples of these types of questions will be provided in the findings section found later in the

analysis of the research. While the questions serve to come up with data to be analyzed by

Walsh’s 5 point analysis scale, the questions themselves follow closely to Guttman’s survey

methodology in relation to opinions of mandatory reporters by teachers. Guttman’s work also

reveals that there are four major types of reporters that must be considered in research of the

topic: consistent reporters, discretionary reporters, consistent non reporters, and uninvolved

(Guttman). This method of classification is important for creating a complex new understanding

of the topic through understanding how many teachers fall into each category. The questions

were asked in order to understand the general perspective and understanding of the topic.

Teachers were prompted to respond towards general questions regarding what their role is, how

they fulfill it, and rank the importance of the role based on their day to day teaching lifestyle. At

the end, scenarios were proposed asking teachers to choose whether or not they feel that the

stated situation should be reported or not. A series of three scenario questions were presented to

the subject regarding different degrees of possible abuse of imaginary students. The subject was

then prompted to choose from three options regarding how the situation will be handled. In this

case, the results of the survey attempt to provide newfound insight of the role of mandatory

reporting and its prevalence within the teaching profession through using teacher opinions as a

basis of new understanding. The survey remained completely anonymous. The survey did

however ask for number of years teaching and age. Both factors were written in responses and

were categorized into distinct age groups following the research period. All results of the survey

were recorded into a spreadsheet and analyzed after the stated time frame ended. Final results

will be publicly available following the final paper so that anonymous subject participants can
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see the impact of their survey participation. A copy of the survey and all questions can be found

in the appendix preceding the works cited of this paper.

Data Analysis and Findings

A statistical analysis will be provided based off of the age of teacher respondents and the

frequency of “yes” or “no” responses regarding whether or not teachers feel mandatory reporting

is beneficial. This pilot study is hoping to create a basis for further research. As it is only a pilot

study, the sample size is fairly small with only 118 respondents and this paper assumes that

trends are accurate based on the sample size of the study.

Table 1: Ages of Participants:

Survey Question: What is your age?

Table 2: Comparison of Age/Experience to Opinion

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Survey Question: Do you feel that the role is useful in helping children of possible abuse?

The above tables represent the age range and frequency of survey respondents (Table 1)

and the number of “yes” or “no” opinions of the usefulness of mandatory reporting (Table 2).

The first column, titled “age” in Table 1 represents the age of a teacher provided through a short

answer response on the survey. Due to the a wide array of specific ages, the results have been

organized and grouped into ten year spans in order to make analysis easier. Column two, titled

“number of responses,” also found in Table 1, represents the number of teachers who took the

survey within that age group. The first column in Table 2 represents the organized age ranges of

respondents in comparison to the number of “yes” or “no” responses provided in column two of

Table 2. Ages are again organized into 10 year groups in order to make analysis easier to

understand. Column three of Table 2 represents the average number of years teaching per age

group. Averages represent all given years of teaching taken directly from the survey.

A general trend in the data shows that the number of teachers who feel that mandatory

reporting is useful, based off of table 2, is almost double that of teachers who do not feel that

mandatory reporting is useful. 66% of the respondents reported that “yes,” they do feel

mandatory reporting is useful in preventing child abuse. Only 34% of respondents answered

“no,” they do not feel that mandatory reporting is useful.

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In another perspective, the trend of responses versus the number of respondents in each

age group poses an interesting understanding: per age group, the same number of respondents on

average do not think that mandatory reporting is useful. Referring to Table 1, there are differing

numbers of respondents per the median age groups, with the 26-35 group having 33 respondents,

36-45 having 41 responses, and the 46-55 age group having 31 responses. Looking at Table 2,

the general trend in data shows that despite the difference in numbers shown in Table 1, each of

the three age groups had exactly 13 respondents that answered “no.” In each age group, the

recurrent data suggests that there is a significant number of teachers who do not think that

mandatory reporting is useful. This instance also provides support of Guttman’s understanding

that out of the 17% of mandatory reporters, teachers make reports yet remain leery of furthered

worse conditions for students and thus calls for a further personal understanding of the situation.

Guttman’s research supports the idea that a significant number of teachers do not think that

mandatory reporting is useful, and provides a number of situations that could hinder a teachers

perception of a report.

Referenced by Table 2, there also seems to be a general trend among the experience of a

teacher and the number of teachers who have reported in the past. Column three in Table 2

reveals data to show that number of years of experience increases with age. In a comparison of

experience to the number of reports, data shows that number of teachers who have reported

seems to follow a bell curve, rising until the median group of 36-45, and then decreasing in

number of reports in the latter half of the age ranges. This data suggests that there is a possible
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correlation between number of years of experience, and the number of times a teacher has

reported per age group.

The bell curve could be the result of generational culture change, or the idea that cultural

behaviors now may be different than that of an older generation (age ranges 46-55 and 56-65).

Overall, a new understanding can be developed regarding the experience of a teacher and the

frequency of a report.

Chart 1:

Overall, the data suggests that teachers do feel that mandatory reporting is useful. As

referenced by Chart 1, the data overwhelmingly supports mandatory reporting and its usefulness

with 95.8% of respondents in support, while only 4.2% of respondents had a differing opinion.

This data provides a counterclaim to Guttman’s research claiming that a majority of teachers do

feel that the mandatory reporting policy does more harm than good.

Example 1:
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An example of a survey scenario question is shown above. The scenario assumes that the

student is a positive and successful student, while she is experiencing some hardship at home.

The question assumes that no physical abuse is taking place. The question offered three possible

methods of handling the situation to the teacher taking the survey. The different perspectives

represented within the answer show the divergence of opinions that teachers may have.

Chart 2:

The chart above shows the percentages and results of the above scenario (Example 1) as

answered by teachers. The possible answer choices represented three different approaches:

extreme, mild, and no approach. Choice A was “nothing, the student should handle her issues

with her parents outside of the classroom,” Choice B was “I should personally attempt to mediate

the situation,” and Choice C was “I need to tell a higher school official regarding my concern for

the students welfare.” Out of the three choices, 70.3% of teacher respondents believe that they

should tell a higher school official about their concern. In this case, choice C represents the
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teachers choice to mandatory report a situation. The majority of teachers feel that they would

mandatory report in a situation that lacks physical abuse, but appears to have some mental and

emotional neglect going on. 25.4% of teachers in this case believe that they should personally

mediate the situation, meaning they do not believe mandatory reporting is necessary. Only 4.2%

of teachers believe that it is the students issue, and no action should be taken at all.

The data itself shows that 95.7% of teachers (70.3% & 25.4%) believe that some sort of

action should be taken for the student. Although action in this case is not always defined as

mandatory reporting, it is known that in the said situation of emotional/mental abuse, teachers do

feel it is part of their job to intervene in some way. The data identifies the need for a codifying

scale, established by Walsh’s previous research. The 5 point scale creates a method for analyzing

which situations involve a report and which are bound to other methods of intervention. Previous

works have also shown that CPS has some sort of worsened emotional impact on the student and

could provide a possible limitation to the report system (Kortenkamp); the work could provide

reason for deviation between a report and another method of intervention.

Example 2:
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An example of an alternate survey question is shown. In this case, the situation involves a

boy who is being picked on by his classmates and his recent grades are dropping. The parents

have already been contacted by the teacher and have agreed to hire at at home tutor. This survey

question also presented three possible methods of handling the problem. The results of the

survey and responses can be shown in the pie chart below.

Chart 3:

The chart above shows the results of the data provided by the second scenario (Scenario

2). The choices again represented three methods of handling the situation. Choice A was “I

should report the situation to a higher school official,” Choice B was “I should continue to work

with the parents to help the student become successful,” and Choice C was “I should stay out of

the students personal life and worry strictly about his grades. Once again, out of the three

choices, there was a distribution of results. This time, only two of the choices were selected by

teachers. 70.3% of the teachers in this question selected that they would rather continue to work

with the student and his parents without the help of higher officials. Teachers in this case, for the

majority, do not think that mandatory reporting is necessary. 29.7% of respondents, however, did

select that they feel that they should report the situation to a higher school official and ultimately

mandatory report. Teachers in this selection felt that the situation was strong enough that higher
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officials should be involved. No teachers selected that they felt they should stay out of the

students personal life. In the overall correlation of data, the results of this question show that

teachers are inclined to mediate in some way, demonstrating a positive perception of reporting.

Example 3:

An example of the last survey scenario question is shown above. In this case, it is obvious

that the child is undergoing moderate-severe abuse. The parent is not involved in teacher

communication and is participating in illegal drug activity. Bruises suggest that the child is being

hit by someone, not necessarily the mother. This question also presented three possible methods

of solution. The data revealed that 100% of teachers (118) would immediately report to a higher

official. As it is 100% the same response, a pie chart was un-needed to demonstrate the data

distribution.

Although this question (Example 3) does deal with a situation that under state standards

would require a report, limitations are presented as the question may be overly simplified and

answer choices could be bias. The answer choices are written in an obvious way and could

possibly shift the overall perspective of the results. While all questions are considered relevant to

the research, it is important to understand possible limitations of the study.

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The overall data suggests that teachers feel there are times at which mandatory reporting

should occur, as shown in Chart 2, however, the degree of severity per situation has an impact on

whether or not the teacher feels that a report is necessary. Evidenced by the results shown in

Chart 3, the degree of severity per situation can also decide whether or not the teacher handles

what is going on personally. The majority of respondents for Example 2 would have taken a

personal approach versus the data shown in Example 1, in which the majority of respondents

would report the situation to a higher school official. The data distribution shows that there is a

high correlation between severity of the situation and the decision to report.

Discussion

Through the analysis, it is evident that an appeal towards personal mediation when legal

is the central focus of teachers’ roles as mandatory reporters. As long as teachers are able to

personally mediate a situation while maintaining the dynamics of the law, the data reveals that

teachers are apt to do so. While the data does provide a new understanding, design flaws in the

study may have hindered the credibility of the analysis. The case study questions within the

survey pose some sort of inaccuracy regarding who a teacher is to report to. Pre-survey

construction research revealed that teachers were to report to a higher official, however, further

research conducted after the survey had been finalized reveals that teachers are to directly report

to CPS through a call or online forum. The answer choices per case study may be somewhat bias

as there is not 100% accuracy of information per choice. Teachers are not legally required to

report a negative relationship between a parent and a student to CPS unless physical abuse is
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detected, however, they may want to gain the help of a higher school official, which in this case

could be a counselor or principal. The answer choices in no way fully represented all possible

ways of handling certain situations and could be a source of inaccuracy within the results. Due to

limitations set by the answer choices of the question, further research should be done in order

fully understand a variety of perspectives of teachers on the topic.

Future research on the perspective of mandatory report laws should be conducted in order

to further divulge the understanding of the role by those who are required to fill it. It is important

to understand how teachers interpret their roles’ in order to improve the policy to best fit both the

teachers and the students. Expanding on the findings of this pilot study, it would be beneficial to

conduct research focusing on a wide scale of degree of severity in order to gauge which teachers

are inclined to report for which situations. Teacher interviews may provide subjective data that

adds to the overall understanding of the role and how it is conducted by its participants.

Although this paper focuses on one group of mandatory reporters, teachers, future research could

also expand on other mandatory reporters, such as counselors, doctors, or police. Further

research on a broader scale may allow for a general understanding and an adaptation to a law that

suits a variety of professions beyond teaching.

The main aim of this paper was to determine which ways teachers perceived their roles as

mandatory reporters of child abuse in a school setting. The main takeaway from this research is

that teachers would rather personally mediate, if possible by the restrictions of the law. This

research supports the findings of Guttman and expand on the ideas and evaluation put forth by

Walsh’s analysis method. The distribution of results show that a majority of teachers use the

severity of the situation in order to decide if a report is necessary, however, most would prefer to
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personally mediate a situation at home if possible or through the help of a higher school official

(i.e. principal or counselor). Previous findings did not directly research perception, however,

solely focused more on the yes or no aspect of teacher’s reporting, thus calling for an expansion

of research surrounding perception. In order to evaluate the fullest extent of the law, more

research must be conducted in order to analyze the perception of the law in all professions

necessary.
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Appendix

Teacher Inquiry: “Mandatory Reporting”

1. By completing this survey, I acknowledge that:

*I give consent for the AP Research student to use my responses freely in order to conduct and

resolve a research inquiry surrounding my role as a mandatory reporter *ALL responses are

anonymous and my name will not be recorded in any way *My responses are truthful and reflect my

reviews regarding the topic of inquiry

a. I give consent and acknowledge the conditions of this research inquiry

b. I do NOT give consent and I wish to discontinue the survey

2. What is your age?

a. Answer responses vary due to short response.

3. How many years have you been a licensed teacher?

a. Answer responses will vary due to short response.

4. Are you aware of your role as a "mandatory reporter of student abuse" as a

teacher?

a. Yes

b. No

5. Do you feel that the role is useful in helping children of possible abuse?

a. Yes

b. No

6. Have you personally ever had to fulfill your role?

a. Yes
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b. No

7. If so, how many times have you had to report an incidence of child abuse?

a. Answers will vary due to short response.

8. You are a teacher at Pear Tree High school. You teach a straight A student and a

varsity athlete. Each morning, your student tells you that her parents scream at her

for "not being good enough" and that she feels worthless. How do you feel you

should handle the situation?

a. Nothing, the student should handle her issues with her parents outside of the classroom.

b. I should personally attempt to mediate the situation.

c. I need to tell a higher school official regarding my concern for the students welfare.

9. You are a teacher at Cheesecake middle school. For one of your students, you can

tell that life seems hard and coming by friends is tough. You notice that the boy is

constantly picked on and his grades are suffering. You have contacted the students'

parents about the situation and they offer to work with you to help the student

achieve success. They also hire an at-home tutor to help the student with school.

How do you feel you should handle the situation?

a. I should report the situation to a higher school official.

b. I should continue to work with the parents to help the student become successful.

c. I should stay out of the students personal life and worry strictly about his grades.

10. You are a third grade teacher at Chesapeake elementary. One of your students, 8

years old, has virtually stopped coming to school. On days he is at school, he tells

you that his mother doesn't believe education is a priority. He tells you that he is
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constantly home alone and that his mother is a frequent drug user. The student has

bruises and appears to be extremely underweight. How do you feel you should

handle the situation?

a. I should report the incidence and information to a higher school official immediately as a

concern for the students safety.

b. I should leave the situation be because I am sure he is telling the truth.

c. I should attempt to contact the mother with my concern.

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Works Cited

Brown, Leonard, and Kevin Gallagher. “Mandatory Reporting of Abuse: A Historical

Perspective on the Evolution of States' Current Mandatory Reporting Laws with a

Review of the Laws in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.” ​Digital Commons Law​,

Villanova University​, 2014.

Guttman , Alan. “Why Staff Fail to Report Suspected Child Abuse: Strategies to Ensure

Consistent Reporting.” ​Early Childhood Webinars​, ​Johns Hopkins University ​, 15 Apr.

2015,www.earlychildhoodwebinars.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Slides-Why-Staff-

Fail-to-Report-Suspected-Child-Abuse_Alan-Guttman_4-15-2015-1.pdf.

Kortenkamp, Katherine, and Jennifer Ehrle Macomber. “The Well-Being of Children Involved

with the Child Welfare System: A National Overview.” ​Urban Institute Nonprofit Social

and Economic Policy Research​, The Urban Institute, 15 Jan. 2002,

webarchive.urban.org/publications/310413.html.

Leventhal , John. “Research Strategies and Methodologic Standards in Studies of Risk Factors

for Child Abuse.” ​Child Abuse & Neglect​, Pergamon, 21 June 2002,

www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0145213482900035.

Leventhal, John M. “Risk Factors for Child Abuse: Methodologic Standards in Case-Control

Studies.” ​Pediatrics​, American Academy of Pediatrics, 1 Nov. 1981,

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atus=401&nftoken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000&nfstatusdescription=ER

ROR%3A%2BNo%2Blocal%2Btoken.

Lyons, Christina L. "Child Welfare." ​CQ Researcher​, 26 Aug. 2016, pp. 673-96,
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library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre2016082600.

“Mandatory Reporters of Child Abuse and Neglect.” ​Mandatory Reporters of Child Abuse and

Neglect - Child Welfare Information Gateway​, Aug. 2004,

www.childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/laws-policies/statutes/manda/.

Sinanan , Allison N. “Bridging the Gap of Teacher Education about Child Abuse.” ​Educational

Foundations​, 2011, pp. 1–15. ​ERIC Institute of Education Sciences​,

files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ954988.pdf.

“Training on Identification of Child Abuse and Neglect.” ​Child Welfare Information Gateway​,

US Department of Health and Human Services, 2018,

www.childwelfare.gov/topics/can/identifying/training/.

Georgia Department of Public Health, “Guidelines for Mandatory Reporting of Suspected Child

Abuse., District 2 Public Health, 2011, pp. 2–14.

http://phdistrict2.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/child-abuse-guidelines-revised-9-2016

-adopted-11-2016.pdf

Walsh, Kerryann. “Case, Teacher and School Characteristics Influencing Teachers' Detection

and Reporting of Child Physical Abuse and Neglect: Results from an Australian

Survey.”​Child Abuse & Neglect​, Pergamon, 4 Nov. 2008,

www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213408001658