Muscles and Movement

Muscles and Movement

Skeletal muscle is a type of muscle which we use to move. Tendons attach muscle
to bones, whereas ligaments attach bones to other bones. Skeletal muscle contracts
and relaxes in order to move bones at a joint. Muscles work in antagonistic pairs
because they can only pull.

Skeletal muscles are made up of large bundles of long cells, which are called
muscle fibres. The cell membrane of the muscle fibre cells is called the
sarcolemma. Bits of the sarcolemma fold inwards across the fibre and stick into the
sacromere. These folds are called transverse tubules (T); they help the spread of
electrical impulses through a Sarcoplasm, this allows it to reach all the parts of a
muscle fibre. There is a network of internal membranes which are called the
sarcoplasmic recticulum. This stores and releases calcium ions into the
Sarcoplasm, this is needed for the muscles to contract. Muscle fibres have a lot of
mitochondria in them this is to provide the ATP for the muscle contractions.
Muscle fibre are multinucleate (contains
many nuclei).

The muscle fibres are long, cylindrical

organelles called myofibrils. They’re made
up of proteins and are highly specialised
for contraction. Each myofibrils contain
thick myosin filaments and thin actin
filaments; they move past each other to
make the muscles contract. The thick
Myofilaments are made up of myosin and
the think myofilaments are made up of
actin. If a myofibril is look at under an
electron microscope, then a pattern of
light and dark bands will be seen.

Dark bands contain the thick myosin

filaments and some overlapping thin Actin
filaments. These are called A bands.Light
bands contain think actin filaments only. These are called I bands A myofibril is
made up of many short units called sarcomeres, the ends of each sacromere is
marked with a Z line. In the middle of each sacromere is a M line, which is the
middle of the myosin filament. Around the M line is the H zone which is where
myosin is only found.

The sliding filament theory explain muscle contraction. Myosin and actin filaments
slide over one another to make the sarcomeres contract. The simultaneous
contractions of lots of sarcomeres means the myofibrils and muscle fibres contract.
Sarcomeres return to their original length as the muscle relaxes
Muscle Contractions

Myosin filaments have globular heads with binding sites on them, they are hinged
so they can move back and forth. Each myosin head has a binding site for actin
and a binding site of ATP. Actin filament have a binding site for myosin heads, this
is called actin-myosin binding sites. Two other proteins are involved, tropomyosin
and troponin; these proteins are attached to each other and they help myofilaments
move past each other.

Aerobic Respiration

Autotrophic organisms make food on their own, whereas heterotrophic organisms

eat and digest other organisms. This rules provide energy for metabolic reactions to
take place in our cells or organisms.

The energy in our food is no use to us until it is transferred to chemical bonds in

the phosphate bonds in ATP. The food usually glucose is known as the respiratory
substrate, and is usually oxidised as completely as possible.

Oxygen is used as a process and carbon dioxide and water are the waste products.

Cellular Respiration is : C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

ATP provides energy for all cellular respiration, the third phosphate bond is broken
by hydrolysis reaction catalysed by ATPase.

A serious of oxidations and reductions occur in this reaction. The most common
hydrogen accepter is NAD, with another being FAD

NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) & FAD (Flavine adenine dinucleotide) it is

a coenzyme, one of the small molecules that assist with enzyme reactions . It
becomes reduced NAD when hydrogen is attached.

Respiration is split into two sections, these include the anaerobic section, which is
called glycolysis, and the second part is aerobic and has the link reaction, Krebs
cycle and the electron transport chain.

Glycolysis is the first part of the respiratory pathway, and occurs in the cytoplasm.
The krebs cycle, and electron transport chain occurs in the mitochondria.

Glycolysis

Starting off with glucose (6C), this is split into 2x pyruvate (3C). This pyruvate is
taken into the mitochondria and enters the krebs cycle.

Glycose (6C) used 2 ATP to change into pyruvate (2X3C). This reaction is called
glycolysis. During the glycolysis 2 oxidised NAD
Phosphofructokinase is used is used and changed to reduced NAD, and Four
early in the process and is ATP is produced, creating a two extra ATP.
used as a pump priming.
High levels of ATP or citrate
inhibit this happening, where
as low levels of ATP or citrate
activates this enzyme.
If there is no O2 then it occurs in the cytoplasm, and incomplete oxidation occurs,
and lactic acid is produced. The general process is called fermentation. When there
is plently of 02 the pyruvate produced is fed into the mitochondria and enters the
link reaction.

Link Reaction

Pyruvate compound once crosses the membrane is instantly changed into to a 2

carbon molecule acetate. During this reaction a molecule of Co2 is removed
(decarboxlase), also it is dehydrogenised, this H goes and changes NAD to NADH.
No ATP Is produced at this stage. Finally the Acetate is combined with a
Coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA (2C)

The link reaction occurs twice for every glucose molecule. So 2 NADH are produced,
2 Co2 are removed, and 2 Acetyl CoA is put into the Krebs cycle.

Krebs Cycle

This complex cycle is controlled by many intracellular enzyme. This takes place in
the matrix of the mitochondria.

Acetyl CoA (2C) from the link reaction is combined with Oxaloacetate (4C) to form
Citric Acid (6C) The Coenzyme goes back and is recycled.

The Citric Acid compound then goes through a series of reactions during which the
citric acid is dehydrogenation (NAD -> NADH), and decarboxylation (Co2 is
removed) occurs, this creates a 5C molecule.

This 5C is then converted into the oxaloacetate (4C) Some dehydrogenation occurs,
( 1x FADH & 2x NADH) One Co2 is lost, and ATP is produced.

Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain)

Oxidative Phosphorylation involves two parts, Electron Transport Chain, and

Chemiosmosis. It is the process from where energy carried by electrons from
reduced Coenzymes are used to make ATP.

Hydrogen atoms are lost from the NADH and FADH, being oxidised to NAD & FAD.
These hydrogen atoms are split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-). The electrons
are moved along the electron transport chain ( made up of 3 electron carriers)
losing energy at each stage. The energy lost from the electrons is used to help
pump the protons into the intermembrane space from the mitochondrial matrix.
This creates a higher concentration of protons in the intermembrane space,
forming a electrochemical gradient. The protons move back down the
concentration gradient, via ATP synthase, this movement drive the synthesis of
ADP + Pi to ATP. The movement of protons across the membrane creating ATP is
called Chemiosmosis. In the end the Protons, Electrons and O2 combine to create
water.
Respirometers and Anaerobic respiration

A respirometer measures O2 uptake, the more O2 is created due to a faster rate of

respiration.

Lactate fermentation is a type of Anaerobic respiration; this is when no O2 is

present. It works by glucose being converted into Pryuvate, NADH from glycolysis
transfers hydrogen to Pryuvate to form lactate and NAD, this NAD can then be
reused. Since the NAD is being resynthesised this reaction can keep going for a
small while. Lactate can be converted back into Pryuvate which it then enters the
link reaction, or it can enter liver cells where it is converted back into glucose.

Experiment measurement of O2 in Woodlice.

 Each tube contains soda lime to absorb the Co2.

 A control tube is set up exactly the same way, but without Woodlice in.
 The syringe is used to fill the manometer to a known level.
 The apparatus is left for a set time.
 During this time there will be a decrease in the volume of air, due to O2
consumption by the woodlice.
 The decrease in the volume of air will reduce the pressure in the cube,
causing the coloured liquid to move towards the tube.
 The distance moved by the liquid is measured, and is calculated the volume
of O2 taken in by the woodlice per minute.
 An variables are controlled.

Exercise

Electrical activity in the heart

Cardiac muscle is myogenic, and it can contract and relax without receiving
signals from neurone.

1. The process starts in the sinoatrialo node (SAN), which is in the wall of the
right atrium.
2. The SNA is like the pacemaker of the heart, it sets the rhythm. This is done
by sending out regular waves of electrical activity into the atrial walls (a
wave of depolarisation)
3. This causes the right and lift atria to contract at the same time.
4. A band of non-conducting collagen tissue prevents the electrical activity
from passing directly from the atria to the ventricles.
5. Instead of this, the wave of electrical activity is transferred from the SAN to
the atrioventricular node (AVN).
6. The AVN is for massing the waves of electrical activity into down into the
bundle of His. But there’s a slight delay before the AVN reacts. This is to
make sure that the ventricles contract after the atria have emptied.
 7. The bundle of His is a group of muscle fibres responsible for conducting the
wave of electrical activity to the finer muscle fibres in the right and left
ventricle walls called the purkyne fibers.
8. The prukyne fibres carry the wave of electrical activity into the muscular
walls of the right and left ventricle walls, causing them to contract
simultaneously, bottom up.

An electrocardiograph records the electrical activity of the heart. A doctor can

check someone’s heart function using an electrocardiograph. This machine detects
and records the electrical activity in the heart. The heart muscle depolarises when
contracts, and repolarises when it is relaxed. It measures the electrical change

This can also be used to diagnose heart problems such as tachycardia, problems
with the AVN and fibrillation which is irregular heartbeat.

ECG can be used to detect a normal heart rate.

The P wave is caused by the contraction

(depolarisation) of the atria.

The main peak of the heartbeat, together with the

dips at either side is called the QRS complex. It is
caused by the contraction of the ventricles.

Tachycardia is when there is anTincreased

The heart
wave is due rate,
to the it is around
relaxation 120 BPM.
(repolarisation)
This is a sign of heart failure. Such
ofas
thethe heart can’t pump blood efficiently, so it
ventricles.
increases the HR to keep up with the O2 need.

Tachycardia is a sign of a heart attack.

Fibrillation – irregular heartbeat. In this ECG the ventricle has lost its rhythm,
and stopped contracting properly. This can lead to death and a heart attack

Here, the atria are contracting but the

ventricles are not. Some p waves aren’t
followed by a QRS complex. This might
mean that there’s a problem with the
AVN.

The impulses aren’t travelling from the

atria through to the ventricles.
P wave Depolarisation of the atria, leading to atria contraction
PR interval Time taken for the impulse to be conducted from the SAN across
the atria to the ventricles through the ANS
QRS complex The wave of depolarisation resulting in contraction of the
ventricles
T wave Repolarisation of the ventricles during the hearts relaxation phase
Heart rate is controlled by the cardiovascular control centre, which is located in the
medulla of the brain. There is the autonomic nervous system which leads from the
cardiovascular control centre to the heart; there is a sympathetic nerve which is the
accelerator, where as the parasympathetic nerve (vagus nerve) slows down heart
rate.

Variation in Heart rate and breathing rate

Breathing rate and hear rate both increase as you do exercise, this means they
require more energy. An increase in breathing rate and depth – to obtain more
oxygen and to get rid of more carbon dioxide. Increasing heart rate – to deliver
oxygen to the muscle faster and remove extra carbon dioxide produced by the
increasing rate of respiration in muscle cells.

The medulla has an area called the ventilation centre. There are two ventilation
centres the inspiratory and expiratory centre.

1. The inspiratory centre in the medulla sends a nerve impulse to the

intercostals and diaphragm muscles to make them contract. This increases
the volume of the lungs, which lowers the pressure in the lungs.
2. Air enters the lungs due to the pressure difference between the lungs and
the air outside.
3. As the lungs inflate, stretch receptors in the lungs are stimulated. The
stretch receptors send a nerve impulse back to the medulla. These impulses
inhibit the action of the inspiratory centre.
4. The expiratory centre then sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and
intercostals muscles to relax. This causes the lungs to deflate, expelling air.
As the lungs deflate, the stretch receptors become inactive. The inspiratory
centre is no longer inhibited and the cycle starts again.

Exercise triggers an increase in breathing rate by decreasing blood pH. During

exercise the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases. This means that there is
a decrease in the pH of the blood. There are some chemoreceptors in the medulla,
aortic bodies and carotid bodies that are sensitive to changes in blood pH. If these
chemoreceptors detect a decrease in blood pH, they send a nerve impulse to the
medulla, this sends a more frequent nerve impulse to the intercostals muscles and
diaphragm. This will increase the rate and depth of breathing. This means gaseous
exchange will increase.

Ventilation rate increases with exercise. Ventilation rate is the volume of air
breathed in or out in a period of time. It increases during exercise due to both
breathing rate and the depth of breathing both increases.
Heart rate is also controlled by the medulla. The centre within the medulla which
does this is the cardiovascular control centre.

A decrease in blood pH will cause an increase in heart rate. A decrease in blood pH

is detected by chemoreceptors. The chemoreceptors send a nerve impulse to the
medulla.

Increase in blood pressure will cause an decrease in heart rate. This is due to
pressure receptors in the aorta wall and in the carotid sinuses detect change in
blood pressure. If the pressure is too high, the pressure receptors send a nerve
impulse to the cardiovascular control centre, which sends a nerve impulse to the
SAN to slow down HR. If the pressure is too low, then pressure receptors send a
nerve impulse to the CCC, which sends nerve impulses to the SAN telling it to
speed up.

Exercise triggers an increase in heart rate by decreasing blood pH. During exercise
the level of CO2 in the body increases, this decrease the pH of the blood, which the
chemoreceptors detect. This leads to an increase in Hr.

Cardiac output also increases with exercise. Cardiac output is the total volume of
blood pumped by a ventricle every minute. The equation is hear rate times strove
volume = cardiac output (cm3/min).

At rest the most important stimulus for controlling breathing is concentration of

dissolved Carbon Dioxide in the arterial blood, this can been seen by its effect on
Ph scale.

1. Carbon dioxide dissolves in blood plasma making carbonic acid

2. Carbonic acid dissociated into hydrogen ions and hydroengcarbonates ions
which lowers the blood PH
3. Chemoreceptors sensitive to hydrogen ions are located in the ventilation
centre of the mendulla oblongata.
4. Impulses are sent to other parts of the ventilation centre
5. Impulses are sent from the ventilation centre to stimulate the muscles
involved in breathing.

Investigation ventilation

Tidal Volume The volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a natural breath.
Inspiratory reserve Is the amount of air that be taken in between tidal volume
volume and vital capacity
Expiratory reserve Is the amount of air that can be exhaled between tidal
volume volume and vital capacity
Vital capacity The total tidal volume, expiratory and Inspiratory reserves
combined
Residual volume Is the volume of air left in the lungs after the strongest
possible expiration
Total lung capacity The sum of the vital capacity and residual volume
Inspiratory capacity The volume that can be inspired from the end of a normal
expiration
 A spirometer is used to
measure tidal volume
and breathing rate. It
has an oxygen filled
chamber which has a
movable lid. A person
breathes through a
tube which is
connected to the
oxygen chamber. As
the person breathes in
and out the O2
chamber moves up
and down. These
movements are
recorded by a pen attached to a lid of the chamber, this write on a rotating drum
creating a spirometer trace. The soda lime in the tube absorbs the CO2. The total
volume of gas in the chamber decreases over time. This is due to the air that is
breathed out each time is a mixture of CO2 and O2. But this CO2 is absorbed by
the soda lime.

Exercise causes an increase in breathing rate and tidal volume. A spirometer can
be used to measure the change in breathing rate and tidal volume at rest, during
exercise and after exercise.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Your external

environment and what you’re doing will affect the internal environment; the blood
and tissue fluids that surround your cells. Homeostasis involves control system
that keep your internal environment roughly constant to deliver a dynamic
equilibrium.

Homeostatic systems detect a change and respond by negative feedback. The

homeostatic system involves receptors, communication system and effectors.
Receptors detect when a level is too high or too low, and this information is
communicated via the nervous system or the hormonal system to effectors. The
effectors respond to counteract the change – to bring level back to normal. The
mechanism that restores the level to normal is called negative feedback
mechanism. Negative feedback keeps things around the normal level eg 37oC.
Negative feedback only work within a certain limit though. With if the change is too
big, then the effectors may not be able to counteract it.

To Reduce body temperature To increase body temperature

- Sweating – more sweat is secreted
from sweat glands where the
body’s to hot. The water in sweat
evaporates from the surface of the
skin, taking heat with it.
- Shivering – when it’s cold,
muscles contract in spasms. This
makes the body shiver and more
heat is produced from increased
respiration.
 - Hair lie flat – mannals have a
layer of hair that provides
insulation by trapping air. When
it’s hot erector pili muscles relax
so the hairs lie flat.
- Vasodilation – when it’s hot,
arterioles near the surface of the
skil dilate. This allows more blood
to dlwo through the capillaries in
the surface layers of the dermis.
So heat can be lost through
radiation.
- Hormones released – the body
releases adrenaline and
thyroxine, which increases
metabolism so more heat is
produced.
- Hair stand up – erector pili
muscles contract when its cold,
making the hair stand up.
- Vasoconstriction- when its cold,
arterioles near the surface of the
skin constrict, so less bloos flows
through the capillaries there.

The hypothalamus controls body temperature in mammals. Body temperature in

mammals is maintained at a constant level by a part of the brain called the
hypothalamus. This receives information about temperature from thermoreceptors.
These receptors send impulses along sensory neurones to the hypothalamus, which
in turn sends impulses along motor neurons to effectors. The effector responds to
restore the body temperature back to normal. The control of body temperature is
called thermoregulation.

Hormones switch genes on to help regulate temperature. In a cell there are proteins
called transcription factors that control the transcription of genes. Transcription
factors bind to DNA sites near the start of genes and increase or decrease the rate
of transcription. Factors that increase the rate are called activators and those that
decrease called repressors. Hormones bind to some transcription factors to change
body temperature .

- At normal body temperature, the thyroid hormone receptor binds to DNA at

the start of a gene.
- This decreases the transcription of a gene coding for a protein that increase
metabolic rate.
- At cold temperatures thyroxine is released, which binds to the thyroid
hormone receptor, causing it to act as an activator.
- This transcription rate increases, producing more protein. The protein
increases metabolic rate causing an increase in body temperature.

Exercise and Health

Surgery can help a injured player. Some injuries can cause permanent damage to
the body. But people can recover from some injuries if they are treated correctly.
Advancements in technology can help people with an injury to recover and
participate in sports.
Key-hole surgery is a way of doing surgery without making large incisions in the
skin. Surgeons make a much smaller incision where they insert a tiny camera and
specialised medical instrument. Benefits include

- Operations don’t involve opening up the patient as much, so less blood is

lost and there is less scar tissue.
- Patients are usually in less pain after their operation and they recover
quickly.
- This makes it easier for patients to return to normal activities, and they also
stay in hospital for less time.

Prosthesis can replace damaged parts of the body. They can be used to replace
whole limbs or part of limbs. Some prosthesis include electrical devices that
operate the prosthesis by picking up information sent by the nervous system. So
the prosthesis makes it easier and more possible for people with disabilities to
participate in sport.

Some athletes used Performance enhancing drugs.

- Anabolic steroids – these drugs increase strength, speed and stamina and
also increase muscle mass allowing athletes to train harder.
- Stimulants – these drugs speed up reactions, reduce fatigue and increase
aggression
- Narcotic analgesics – these drugs reduce pain, so injuries don’t affect
performance.

Argument against PED’s Arguments for using PED’s

- Some performance enhancing - It is up to each individual
drugs are illegal. - Drug free sport isn’t really fair
- Competitions will become unfair if anyways – difference training
people take drugs, as they will facilities, coaching, equipment,
gain an advantage. - Athletes that want to compete at
- There are some serious health a higher level may only be able to
risks associated with drug use. due to PED’s
- Athletes may not be fully
informed of health risks
- To little exercise can cause obesity
- To little exercise can cause coronary heart disease
- To little exercise can cause Type 2 Diabetes.
- Too much exercise can cause wear and tear on joints.
- To much exercise can cause an increase in illness due to suppressed
immune systems.

Responding to the environment

Nervous and Hormonal Communication

Animals increase their change of survival by responding to changes in their

external environment, such as avoiding harsh environments. They also respond to
changes in their natural environment to make sure that the conditions are always
 optimal for their metabolism. Plants also increase their chance of survival by
responding to changes in the environment. Any change in the internal or external
environment is called an stimuli.

Receptors detect stimuli and effectors produce a response. Receptors detect stimuli
– they can be cells or proteins on cell surface membranes. Effectors are cells that
bring about a response to a stimuli, to produce an effect. These include muscle
cells or glands. Receptor communicates with effectors via the nervous system or the
hormonal system.

The nervous system is made up of a complex network of cells called neurones. The
three types are

- Sensory neurone – transmits electrical impulses from receptor to central

nervous system (CNS)
- Motor neurons – transmit electrical impulses from the CNS to the effectors.
- Relay neurones transmit electrical impulses between sensory neurones and
motor neurones.

A stimulus is detected by receptor cells and an electrical impulse is sent along a

sensory neurone. When an electrical impulse reaches the end of a neurone
chemicals called neurotransmitters take the information across to the next
neurone, which sends an electrical impulse. The CNS processes this information
and sends it along a motor neurone to effectors.

Stimulus Receptors CNS Effectors Response

•Dim light •Light •CNS •Radial •Radial

receptors in processes muscles in muscles
your eye the the iris are contract to
detect the information stimulated dilate youur
lack of light by the motor pupils.
neurones

Stimulus Receptors CNS Effectors Response

•Dim light •Light •CNS •Circular •Circular

receptors in processes muscles in muscles
your eye the the iris are contract to
detect the information stimulated constrict
bright of by the motor your pupils.
light neurones
 The hormonal system sends information as chemical signals. The hormonal system
is made up of glands and hormones A gland is a group of cells that are specialised
to secrete a useful substance such as a hormone. Hormones are chemical
messenger. Many hormones are proteins or peptides.

Hormones are secreted when a gland is stimulated – glands can be stimulated by a

change in concentration of a specific substance. They can also be stimulated by
electrical impulses. Hormones diffuse directly into the blood, then they’re taken
around the body by the circulatory system, they diffuse out of the blood all over the
body but each hormone will only bind to a specific receptors. This hormone will
trigger a response in the target cell.

Stimulus Receptors Hormone Effectors Respons

•Low blood •Receptors on •the pancrease •target cells in •clucose is

glucose pancreas cell releases the the liver detect released into
concentration detects the low hormone glucagon and the blood, so
blood glucose glucagon into conver glycogen the glucose
concentration the blood into glucose concentration
increases

Nervous communication Hormonal communication

Uses electrical impulses Uses chemicals
Faster response – electrical impulses Slower responses – hormones travel at
are fast the speed of the blood
Localised response – neurones carry Widespread responses – target cells all
electoral impulses to specific cells over the body
Short lived response – Long lived response – hormones aren’t
neurotransmitters are removed broken down quickly.
quickly

The Nervous system – Receptors

Receptors are specific, such as they only detect one particular stimulus. There are
many different types of receptors that each detect different types of stimulus. Some
receptors are cells ( photoreceptors) some are proteins on the cell surface
membranes (glucose receptors).

When a nervous system receptor is in its resting state there’s a difference in voltage
between the inside and outside of the cell. The membrane is said to be polarised.
The difference in voltage is generated by ion pumps and ion channels. This changes
the potential difference. If the change in the potential difference is big enough then
it will trigger an action potential.

Photoreceptors are light receptors in the eye. Light enters

the eye through the pupil. The amount of light that enters
is controlled by the muscles of the iris. Light rats are
focused by the lens onto the retina, this lines the inside of
the eye. The retina contains the photoreceptor cells. The
fovea is an areas of the retina with a lot of photoreceptors.
Nerve impulses from photoreceptors cells are carried from
the retina to the brain by the optic nerve, this is a bundle
of neurones. Where optic nerve leaves the eye it is called
the blind spot, due to no photoreceptors are there.

Light enters the eye, hits the photoreceptors and is absorbed by light sensitive
pigments. The light bleaches the pigmnets which causes a chemical change. This
then triggers a nerve impulse along a bipolar neurone. Biopolar neurones connect
photoreceptors to the optic nerve. There are two types of photoreceptors rods and
cones. Rods are mainly found in ther peripheral pharts of the retina and cones are
found packed together in the fovea.
the Outer segment is used for the
light sensitive region, where the
light energy acts as a stimulus to
the production of a generator
protential.

Constriction: a very narrow region

between the outer and inner
segments. It contains two cilia with
an unusual structure

Inner Segment: is backed with

mitochondria producing energy for
the various processes and
ribosome’s synthesising proteins for
the vesicicles

Synaptic region: the cell synapses

with the bipolar cells, several rods
synapses with one bipolar cell
increasing the sensitivity of light.

Rods only give black and white vision, whereas there are three types of cones – red
sensitive, green sensitive and blue sensitive cones. They are all stimulated in
different proportions so you see different colours.
Rod cells hyperpolarise when stimulated by light. Rods contain a light sensitive
pigment called phodopsin. Rhodopsin is made of two chemicals (Retinal and opsin)
joinged together. When it is dark, your rods arent stimulated.

In dark –

1. Sodium ions (NA+) are pumped out of the cell using active transport.
2. But sodium ions diffuse back in to the cell through open sodium channels.
3. This makes the inside of the cell slighly more negative compared to the
outside.
4. This triggers the release of neurotransmitters.
5. But the neurotransmitters inhibit the bipolar neurone – the bipolar neurone
cant fire an action potential.

In the light –

1. Light energy causes rhodopsin to break apart into retinal and opsin.
(proccess called bleaching)
2. This bleaching of rhodopsin causes the sodium ion channels to close.
3. So sodium ions are activly transported out of the cell but cant diffuse back
in.
4. This meanssodium ions build up outside the cell, making the inside of the
membrane much more negative than the outside (the cell memebrane is
hyperpolarised)
5. When the rod cell is hyperpolarised it stops releasing neurotransmitters.
This means theres no inhibition of the bipolar neurone.
6. Because the bipolar neurone is no longer inhibited, it depolarises. If the
potential differnce reaches the threshold an action potentiual is transmitted
to the brain.

The Nervous system - Neurons

All neurones have a cell body with a nucleus. The cell body has extensions that
connect to other neurones –
dendrites ( carry nerve
impulses towards the cell body)
and axons ( carry impulses
away from the cell body).

Motor neurones have many

short dendrites, and one long
axon which carries the nerve
impulse from the cell body to
the effecter cells.

One long dendrite carrying

nerve impulses from receptor
cells to the cell body, and one short axon carrying
nerve

Relay neurones have many short dendrites carrying

the nerve impulse from sensory neurones to the cell
body along with many short axons carrying nerve
impulses from the cell body to motor neurones.

Neurone cell membranes are polarised at rest. In a

neurones resting state, the outside of the membrane is positively charged compared
to the inside. This is due to there being more positive ions outside the cell. The
difference in voltage across the membrane when at rest is called the resting
potential. This is about -70mV. This resting potential is created and maintained by
sodium-potassium pumps and potassium
ion channels in the neurone membrane.

The sodium potassium pump uses active

transport to move three sodium out of the
neurone for every two potassium ion moved
in. ATP is needed to do this.

Potassium ion channels allow facilitated

diffusion of potassium ions out of the
neurone down their concentration gradient.

The sodium-potassium pumps move sodium ions out of the neurone but the
membrane isn’t permeable to sodium ions so they can’t diffuse back in. This
creates a sodium ion electrochemical gradient. Because there are more positive
sodium ions outside the cell. The sodium potassium pumps also move potassium
ions in to the neurone, but the membrane is permeable to potassium ions, so they
can diffuse back out.

Neurone cell membranes become depolarised when they’re stimulated. A stimulus

triggers other ion channels, called sodium ion channels to open. If the stimulus is
big enough it will trigger a rapid change in the potential difference.

1. Stimulus – this excites the neurone cell membrane, causing the sodium ion
channels to open. The membrane becomes more permeable to sodium, so
sodium ions diffuse into the neurone down the sodium ion electrochemical
gradient.
2. Depolarisation- If the potential difference reaches the threshold (-55mV)
more sodium ion channels open, so more sodium ions diffuse into the
neurone.
3. Repolarisation- at the potential difference of around +30mV the sodium ion
channels close and potassium ion channels open. The membrane is more
permeable to potassium so potassium ions diffuse out of the neurone down
the potassium ion concentration gradient. This starts to get the membrane
back to its resting potential.
 4. Hyperpolarisation- potassium ion channels are slow to close so there’s a
slight overshoot where to
many potassium ions diffuse
out of the neurone. The
potential difference becomes
more negative than the resting
potential.
5. Resting potential – the ions
are reset. The sodium-
potassium pump retuns the
membrane to its resting
potential and maintains it
until the membrane’s excited
by another stimulus.

The period after the neurone has been excited is called the refractory period. This is
because it can’t be re-stimulated again.

The action potential moves along the neurone as a wave of depolarisation.

1. When an action potential happens, some of the sodium ions that enter the
neurone diffuse sideways.
2. This causes sodium ion channels in the next region to open and sodium ions
to diffuse out.
3. This causes a wave of depolarisation along the neurone.
4. The wave moves away from the part of the membrane in the refractory
period.

The refractory period produces discrete impulses. During the refractory period, ion
channels are recovering and can’t be opened. So the refractory period acts as a
time delay between one action potential and the next. This makes sure they don’t
overlap. It also makes sure the action potential travels in the one direction.

Action potentials travel faster in myelinated neurones. This means they have a
myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is an electrical insulator. It is made up of a
Schwann cell. Between the Schwann cells there are tiny patches of bare membrane
called nodes of ranvier. Sodium ion channels concentrate here.In the myelinated
neurone, depolarisation only happens at the nodes of Ranvier. The neurone
cytoplasm conducts enough electrical charge to depolarise the next node so the
impulse jumps. This is called salutatory conduction and is really fast. In a non-
myelinated neurone, the impulse traeles as a wave along the whole length of the
axon membrane so it is slower.

The Nervous system – Synapses

A synapse is a gab between a neurone and a neurone, or between a neurone and a

effectors cell. Every neuron ends in a synaptic knob. A synaptic cleft separates the
presynaptic membrane of the stimulating neuron from the postsynaptic membrane.
This gap is about 20-50nm, this means a nerve impulse can’t jump across it.
The arrival of an action
potential at the presynaptic
membrane will cause the
release of neurotransmitters
into the synaptic cleft. These
neurotransmitters diffuse
across the gap, which results
in a depolarisation of the
postsynaptic membrane; which
creates the progression of the
impulse. The presynaptic
membrane require a lot of
energy to emit the
neurotransmitters, these
neurotransmitters are
packages in synaptic vesicles.

1. An action potential arrives

2. The membrane depolarise which creates calcium ions to open. Calcium ions
enter the neurone
3. These calcium ions create the stimulation for the synaptic vesicles to fuse
with the presynaptic membrane,
4. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, via exocytose
5. The neurotransmitters bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
Cation channels open, and sodium ions flow through the channels.
6. The membrane depolarises initiating an action potential
7. The neurotransmitters will arrive back at the presynaptic membrane (whole
or broken down)

There are three stages leading to the passing on of the action potential, these are:

 Neurotransmitters release
 Stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane
 Inactivation of the neurotransmitters

The first neurotransmitters discovered are Acetylcholine.

On the postsynaptic membrane there are receptor proteins which are embedded
into the membrane. They have a binding site with a complementary shape to part
of the acetylcholine molecule. The neurotransmitters binds with the receptor
changing the shape of the protein, opening cation channels and making the
membrane permeable to sodium ions. The flow of sodium ions will create a
depolarisation of the neuron. The extent of the depolarisation will depend how
many neurotransmitters reach across to the postsynaptic membrane. The number
of functioning receptors will also be a influencing factor.

Some neurotransmitters will actively taken up by the presynaptic membrane to be

used again, while others diffuse rapidly away from the synaptic cleft, or are taken
in by other neurons. In the case of acetylcholine there is a specific enzyme which
breaks it down called acetylcholinesterase. Some of the breakdown products are
absorbed by the presynaptic membrane, and are reused.

Control and coordination of synapses

Synapses have two roles these consist of:

 Control of nerve pathways, allowing flexibility to responses.

 Integration of information from different neurons, allowing a coordinated
response.

Postsynaptic membranes will usually receive stimulation from many different

presynaptic membranes at the same time; this is to make sure the postsynaptic
membrane gets enough neurotransmitters to achieve a action potential. There are
two main factors which influence postsynaptic membranes; these are the type of
synapse and the number if impulses received. So the information can be dispersed
or amplified.

Some synapses help stimulate a action potential, while other prevent it. They are
called inhibitory synapses.

Excitatory synapse makes the postsynaptic membrane more permeable to sodium

ions. A single excitatory synapse does not depolarise the membrane enough to
produce an action potential, but several impulses arriving within a short period will
produce an action potential on the postsynaptic membrane. The way each impulse
has an effect is called summation.

There are two types summation: Spatial summation where the impulses are from
different synapses, usually from different neurons. The number of different sensory
cells stimulate can be reflected I the control of the response. The other type is
Temporal summation which is when several impulses arrive at the synapse having
travelled along a single neurone one after the other. Their combination releases the
neurotransmitter generates an action potential.

Inhibitory synapses make it less likely that an action potential will happen at the
postsynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter from these synapses open channels
for chloride ions and potassium ions to move into the postsynaptic membrane,
these ions will then move through the channels down their diffusion gradient.
Through their movements of the potassium moving out and chloride in, there will
be a greater potential difference of -90mV which will make it harder for
depolarisation to occur.

Responses in plants

Plants respond to stimulus too. This is there to increase their change of survival.
They sense the direction of light and grow towards it to maximise light absorption
for photosynthesis. They can sense gravity, so their roots and shoots grow in the
right direction and climbing plants have a sense of touch, so they can find things to
climb.

A tropism is a plants growth response to an external stimulus. Plants respond to

directional stimuli by regulating their growth. A positive tropism is growth towards
the stimulus. A negative tropism is growth away from the stimulus. Phototropism is
the growth of a plant in respond to light. Shoots are positively phototropic and grow
towards light. Roots are negatively phototropic and grow away from light.
Geotropism is the growth of the plant in response to gravity. Shoots are negatively
geotropic and grow upwards. Roots are positively geotropic and grow downwards.

Responses are brought about by growth factors. Plants don’t have an nervous
system so they can’t respond using neurones, and they don’t have a circulatory
system so they can’t respond using hormones. Plants respond to stimuli using
growth factors. These are chemicals that speed up or slow down growth.

Growth factors are produced in the growing regions of the plat and they move to
where they’re needed in the other parts of the plant. Growth factors called auxins
stimulate the growth of shoots by cell elongation. High concentrations of auxins
inhibit growth in roots. There are other types

- Gibberellins – stimulate flowering and seed germination

- Cytokinins – stimulate cell division and cell differentiation
- Ethene – stimulates fruit ripening and flowering
- Abscisic acid (ABA) – involved in leaf fall.

Indoleacetic acid (IAA)is an important auxin, it produces the tips of shoots in

flowering plants. IAA is moved around the plant to control tropism – it moves by
diffusion and active transport over short distances, and via the phloem. This
results in different parts of the plant having different amounts of IAA. The uneven
distribution of IAA means there is uneven growth.

Phototropism IAA moves to the more shaded part of the shoots and roots so
there’s uneven growth. So the shoot bends towards light and the
root away
Geotropism IAA moves the underside of shoots and roots so theres uneven
growth.
Plants detect light using photoreceptors. These photoreceptors are called
phytochromes. They’re found in many parts of a plant, including leaves, seeds,
roots and stem. Phytochromes control a range of responses. Such as flowering in
difference seasons depending on the amount of sun light.

Phytochromes are molecules the absorb light. There are two states Pr which
absorbs red light and Pfr. Phytochromes are converted from one state to the other
when exposed to light.

- Pr is quickly converted into Pfr when it’s exposed to red light.

- Pfr is quickly converted into Pr when it’s exposed to red light.
- Pfr is slowly converted into Pr when in darkness.
 Daylight contains more red light and far red light, so more Pr is converted into Pfr
than Pfr converted into Pr. So the amount of Pr and Pfr is dependant on the
amount of light. The different amounts controls the responses to light, such as
flowering seasons.

The brain and behaviour

Brain structure and function

The cerebral hemispheres (Cerebrum): It has a thin outer layer called the
cerebral cortex. The cortex has a large surface area so is highly folded.it is a grey
highly folded compound, which contains many nerve cells, synapse and dendrites,
this is also known as the grey matter. This cortex occurs for about 2/3 of the
brains mass. It is positioned around and over most of the brain regions and is
divided into the right and left cerebral hemisphere. These two lobes are connected
through the Corpus Callosum which has a lot of axons; they are white do to the
white myelin sheaths they have on them. Each hemisphere is divided up into four
lobes:

Frontal lobe: is the area which is highly associated with decision making,
reasoning, planning and consciousness of emotion. It connects directly to the
spinal cord; Sending information to the body via the motor neurones to carry out
movement. There are Basal ganglia which are a collection of neurons that lie deep
within each hemisphere and are responsible for selecting and initiating stored
programmes for movement.

Parietal Lobe: Is concerned with orientation, movement, sensation, calculation and

some parts of recognition and memory.

Occipital Lobe: Is also called the visual cortex- it is concerned with processing
information from the eyes, including the vision, colour and shape recognition and
perspective.

Temporal Lobe: Is concerned with processing auditory information, such as

hearing, sound, recognition and speech.

The Thalamus is responsible for routing all the incoming sensory information to
the correct part of the brain via the axons of the white matter.

The Hypothalamus lies below the thalamus and contains the thermoregulatory
centre. This monitors the body’s core body temperature and skin temperature, it
initiates the correct response to restore the body back to the optimum temperature.
There are also other centres which control sleep, thirst and hunger. It is connected
directly to the Pituitary gland.

The Hippocampus is involved in long term memory.

The cerebellum and brain stem is the oldest part of the brain and is at the top of
the spinal column. The brain stem extends from the midbrain to the Medulla
Oblongata.
Cerebellum Is responsible for balance, and coordinates movement as it is being
carried out, receiving information from the primary motor cortex.

Midbrain Relays information to the cerebral hemispheres, including the auditory

information to the temporal lobe, and visual to the occipital lobe.
Medulla is the most primitive part of the brain. It contains reflex centre which
Oblongata controls functions such as heart rate, blood pressure and breathing
rate. So it basically regulates the bodily processes which we do not
consciously control.
Discovering the functions of each part of the brain

Neuroscientists have used animal studies to see how the brain develops, they have
done this by studying damaged to particular areas of the brain, and then seeing
what it effects. Humans with brain damage still provide valuable information in the
study of the brain.

Phineas Gage was a foreman on a railway construction company; a hard working

man, in 1848 a three and a half foot long pole went through his head. Even though
most of the frontal lobes of the left side of the brain was damaged, he could still
walk and talk; but his personality changed becoming nasty and four mouthed. He
died 12 years later. This was due to research happening by Harvard university
years later, they found out that connections between his midbrain and frontal lobes
became damaged, reducing his ability to control his emotional behaviour after the
accident.

Lincoln Holmes could never put someone’s name to a face, unable to recognise
people. This happened through a car crash, with damage to his temporal lobe.

The effects of strokes

Brain damage can be caused by strokes; this is when a lack of blood reaches the
brain. It can cause speaking and understanding speech, reading and writing very
hard. Some patients can recover after a brain damage, showing there is a change
for the neurones to change in structure and function; this is known as Neural
Plasticity.

Brain Imaging

CT Scans (computerised Axial Tomography) was developed in the 1970’s to

overcome the limitations of Xrays. It shows soft tissue damage. They shoot
thousands of narrow beam X-rays rotates around a patient to pass through the
tissue from different angles. They are reduced in strength according to the density
of tissue in its path. The give a ‘Frozen moment’ picture. Look at the structure of
the brain rather than the function; they are used to detect brain diseases. A scan
will show the extent to extended bleeding in the brain this is because blood has a
different density to brain matter. They can also see which brain vessels are
damaged.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are using magnetic fields and radio waves to
detect soft tissue. When placed into a magnetic field, the nuclei of the atoms line
up with the direction of the magnetic field. Hydrogen atoms are monitored in the
MRI scans, because there is such a high level of water in the tissue under
investigation. Different regions respond differently to the magnetic fields from the
radio waves and this produces contrasting signals and distinct regions. You can
gain a 3D image from this. It shows the difference clearly between damaged and
normal brain. Tumour cells respond differently in a magnetic field, so these can be
seen also. You can clearly see the difference between abnormal and normal tissue
in MRI scans.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) are particularly good for

neuroscientists as they provide information for the brain function, and allows the
brain to be studies while it is use; such as memory, emotion imaging and
consciousness. It can do this sue to deoxyhaemoglobin absorbing radio waves
where as oxyhaemoglobin doesn’t. The less radio signal in the area means a higher
level or activity. They can produce up to 4 images per second. They are very good at
detecting affected areas of the brain, and can pinpoint which part of the brain isn’t
working properly.

From the Eye to the Brain

The axons of the ganglion cells that

make up the optic nerve pass out of the
eye and extent several areas of the brain,
including parts of the thalamus. The
impulses are sent further along the
neurons to the primary visual cortex
where the information is processed
further. Before reaching the thalamus
some of the neurons in each optic nerve
branch off to the midbrain, where the
connect to motor neurons involved in controlling the pupil reflex and the movement
of the eye. Audio signals also arrive into the midbrain so we can quickly turn out
eye into the direction required.

Brain development and habituation

Nature Vs nurture can be investigated in brain development. Brain development is

how the brain grows and how neurones connect to each other. Measures of the
brain include the size of the brain, number of neurones it has and the level of brain
function. The brain develops the way it does due to genes and the environment.
Nature and nurture are both involved in controlling brain development but
scientists disagree about which one influences it the most. It is hard to investigate
due to genetic and environmental factors interact. There are lots of difference genes
and lost of different einvironmental factors.

Animal studies – scientists study the effects of different environments on brain

development of animals of the same species. Any differences in their brain is more
likely due to the environment. Such as

- Rats raised in a stimulating environment will have larger brains and get
better scores on problem solving tasks compared to rats being raised in
boring environments.
- Rats raised in isolation have similar brain abnormalities to those with
schizophrenia.

Scientists also study the effect of different genes on the brain development of
animals raised in similar environments. They usually do this by getting genetically
engineering mice to lack a particular gene.

New born studies – the brain of a newborn baby hasn’t really been affected by the
environment. Scientists study the newborn babies to see what functions they’re
born with and how developed different parts of the brain are.

- New born studies have shown that babies are born with a number of abilities
– cry, feed, recognise a human fact. This suggest that nature shows a key
role.
- New born babies don’t have the ability to speak, suggesting nurture has a
big role also.

Twin studies – Identical twins are genetically identical. If identical twins are raised
seperatly then they’ll have identical genes but different environments. Scientists
can compare the brain development of separated identical twins – any differences
are due to nurture not nature. Identical twins have similar IQ scores suggesting
nature has a big role in intelligence.

Scientitsts have also done experiments on identical twins raised together. These
twins are genetically identical and have similar environments, so it’s hard to tell if
there is any differences between them are due to nature or nurture. So scientitsts
compare non identical twins, they act like a control to cancel out the influence of
the environment, so any difference in brain development is due to genetics.

- Stuttering of both twins is more common in identical twins compared to non

identical, suggesting nature plays a big role in the speech part of the brain.
- There’s no difference in reading ability between pairs of identical and non
identical twins, suggesting nurture has a role.

Brain damage studies – Damage to an adult brain can lead to a loss of function. If
an adults brain is damaged it can’t repair itself so well because it is already fully
developed. But a Childs brain is still developing so scientists can study the effects
of brain damage on their development. To do this scientists compare the
development of a chosen function in children with brain damage and those without.
If characteristics still develops in children who have brain damage, then brain
development is more likely to be due to nurture than nature, if the characteristics
doesn’t develop in those with brain damage then it is likely to be genetic.

- Children aged 1-3 with damage to the area of the brain associated with
language show delay in the major language milestones.
- But by age 5 their language skills are the same with those with no brain
damage. Suggesting nurture plays a role.

Cross cultural studies- children brought up in different cultures have different

environmental influences. Scientists can study the effects of a different upbringing
on brain development by comparing large groups of children who are the same age
but from different cultures. Scientists can look for major differences in
characteristics – any difference in brain development between cultures is likely to
be due to nurture any similarities is due to nurture.

- Kenyan children who eat protein rich foods have higher IQ’s than children
who have a poor diet and limited protein.
- Te mapping abilities of young children are well developed across cultures.
Suggesting nature plays a big role.

Habituation is a type of learned behaviour. Animals (including humans) increase

their chance of survival by responding to stimuli But if the stimulus is unimportant
there’s no point in responding to it. If an unimportant stimulus is repeated overa
period of time, an animals will learn to ignore it. (E’g you learn to sleep through
traffic noises at night). This reduces response to an unimportant stimulus after
repeated exposure over time is called habituation. This basically means animals
don’t waste time and energy responding to unwanted stimuli. But animals still
remain alert.

To investigate habituation to a stimulus

1. Gently tap a tortoise on its shell – it should cause the tortoiuse to withdraw
its head, feet and tail.
2. Time how long it takes for the tortoise to reappear out of the shell after you
have tapped it.
3. Tap the tortoise shell at regular intervals and record the time it takes for it to
reappear.

If habituation has occurred it should take less time for the tortoises head to appear
each time. But the tortoise will still remain alert to unfamiliar stimulus.

Development of the visual cortex

The human nervous system starts to develop soon after conception, by the 21st day
the neural tube has been formed. The front part develops into the brain, while the
rest develops into the spinal cord. At times 250,000 neurones are added every
minute. A baby arrives into the work with about 100,000 million neurons. There is
no massive change in the amount of brain cells after birth, though there is a large
postnatal change in brain size. This is due to many factors, which include the
elongation of the axons, increase in brain size and the development of synapses.
Once the neurons have finished dividing the immature neurons migrate to their
final position and start to wire themselves. Axons lengthen and synapse with the
cell bodies of other neurones; these connections must be correct or the function of
vision won’t be correct.

The visual cortex is an area of the cerebral cortex at the back of the brain. The role
of it is to receive and process visual information. Neurones in the visual cortex
receive information from either your left or right eye. Neurones are grouped
together in columns called ocular dominance columns, if they receive information
from the right eye they are called right ocular dominance columns and if from the
left eye they are called left ocular dominance columns. These columns are the
same size, and are in alternating patterns.

Axon growth

Axons of the neurones from the retina grow to the thalamus where they form
synapses with neurons in the thalamus in a very ordered arrangement. Axons from
the thalamus neurons grow towards the visual cortex at the back of the brain.

Staining techniques and studies have shown that the visual cortex is made of
columns of cells. Axons from the thalamus synapse with these columns of cells.
Adjacent columns receive stimulation from the same area of the retina fro the right
and left eye. It used to be thought that there was a critical period for these columns
of cells for visual development after birth, the result of nurture instead of nature.
This is not the case. This was found out through studying ferrets, and also seeing
that newborn monkeys have these columns are seen so it is genetically determined.

But there are periods of time during post natal development that have been
identified when the nervous system must obtain specific experiences to develop
properly. This is known as critical windows.

Evidence for the critical period

The way in which the environment affects the wiring of the nervous system has
been extensively studied. Through looking at medical observations and studies on
animals.

A young Italian boy who as a baby had a eye infection, as a part of his treatment he
gained a bandaged eye for just two weeks, at the end of this he had permanently
impaired vision in that eye. People with cataracts have also contributed to our
understanding of the critical period in development. If this clouding in the eye is
not removed before the child is aged 10 then it can cause permanent damage. But
elderly people if have them for several years don’t record any change in vision. This
says that during a specific time in development, a full range of colour light is
required to access the eye.

Another study was when monkeys were deprived light in one eye, this is called
monocular deprivation. After six months it was seen that the deprived eye the
monkey became blind in. The retinal cells in the eye did send an impulse. But the
visual cortex did not respond to any visual stimulation.
What happens during the critical period for visual development

The columns are developed before birth, so visual development must occur after
birth. After light deprivation in an eye the axons are a lot narrower than those
from the eye receiving light. Synapses and dendrites from the light stimulated eye
take up more territory in the visual cortex, this suggested that visual stimulation is
required for the refinement of the columns and for the development of the visual
cortex. Axons compete for target cells in the visual cortex, every time a neuron is
fired onto the target cell, the synapse of another neuron sharing the target cell is
weakened, and they start to release less neurotransmitter. If this happens
consistently then the synapses with the deprived eye will eventually be lost.

Hubel and Wiesel investigated how the visual cortex develops.

The structure of the visual cortex was discovered by Hubel and Wiesel. They used
cats and monkeys to study electrical activity of neurones in the visual cortex. They
found that if the left ocular dominance columns were stimulated when an animal
used its left eye and the right ocular dominance columns were stimulated when it
used its right eye. They experimented on small kittens.

1. They stitched shut one eye of each kitten so they could only see out of one
eye. The kittens were kept like this for several months before their eyes were
unstitched. They found that the eye that was stitched up was blind. Thy also
found that ocular dominance columns for the stitched up eye were a lot
smaller. And the other a lot bigger. So the ocular dominance columns for the
open eye had expanded to taken over the other columns that weren’t
stimulated.

They did the same thing on adult cats.

1. They stitched shut one eye of the cat for several months, when they were
unstitched the cat didn’t go blind. The cats fully recovered their vision and
their ocular dominance columns remained the same.

Argument against using animals Argument for using animals

Animals are different from humans – so Animals are similar to humans, so
drugs tested on animals may have research has led to loads of medical
different effects on humans, breakthroughs
Experiments can cause pain and Animal experiments are only done when
distress absolutely necessary.
There are alternatives to using animals Using animals is currently the only way
in research to tell if a drug works.
Some people think animals have the Other people think humans have a
right to not be experimented on greater right than animals due to our
more complex brains.
In one study, a group of new born monkeys were kept in the dark for the first three
months of their life’s, and some were kept in the light but without the exposure to
patterns. After the experiment it was concluded that both groups had difficulty with
object discrimination and pattern recognition.
 Drugs

Drugs and Disease

Imbalances in neurotransmitters can contribute to disorders. Neurotransmitters

are chemicals that transmit nerve impulses across synapses. Some disorders are
linked to an imbalance of specific neurotransmitters in the brain.

Parkinson’s disease –

- Parkinson’s disease is a brain disorder that affects motor control of people.

In the disease the neurones in the part of the brain that control movement
are destroyed.
- These neurones normally produce the neurotransmitters dopamine, so
losing them causes a lack of dopamine.
- A lack of dopamine causes a decrease in the transmission of nerve impulses
involved in movement

Depression -

- Scientists think there’s a link between low levels of neurotransmitter

serotonin and depression. Serotonin transmits nerve impulses across
synapses in the part of the brain that controls mood. Scientists have
developed drugs to increase serotonin levels.

Some drugs work by affecting synaptic transmissions

L-dopa – L-dopa is a drug that used to treat the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.
It structure is similar to dopamine. When L-dopa is given it is absorbed by the
brain and converted into dopamine by the enxyme dopa-decaroxylase. This means
there is increase dopamine in the brain, so there are move nerve impulses
transmitting across synapses, giving the patient more control.

MDMA (Exstasy) – It increases serotonin levels in the brain. Usually, serotonin

taken back into a presynaptic neurone after triggering an action potential to be
used again. MDMA increases the level of serotonin by inhibiting the reuptake of
serotonin in the pre-synaptic neurones. This means that neve impulses are
consistently being triggered In post synaptic neurones. The effects of MDMA
elevates mood.

Human genome project is being used to create new drugs. It was a 13 year project
that identified all of the genes found in human DNA. The information obtained from
the HGP is stored in databases. Scientists use the database to identify genes, and
so proteins that are involved in diseases. Scientists use this information to create
new drugs that target specific proteins, such as a specific drugs has been used
which inhibit an enzyme which helps the spread of cancer cells around the body.

The HGP has also highlighted some common genetic variations between people. It’s
knowns that some of these variations make some drugs less effective. Drug
companies can use this knowledge to design new drugs that are effective.
Moral and ethical issues – creating drugs for specific genetic variation will increase
research costs for drug companies, these drugs will be more expensive, leading to a
two-tiered health service. Some people might refuse an expensive drug because
their genetic make-up indicated that it won’t be that effective. The information held
within a person’s genome could be used by others to unfairly discriminate against
them. Revealing that drug might not work for a person could be psychological
damaging to them.

Producing Drugs using GMOs

Drugs can be produced using genetically modified organisms are organisms that
have had their DNA altered.

Genetically modified microorganisms.

1. The gene for the protein is isolated using enzymes (restriction enzyme)
2. The gene is copied using PCR
3. Copies are inserted into plasmids
4. The plasmids are transferred into microorganisms
5. The modified microorganisms are grown in large containers so that they
divide and produce lots of the useful proteins.
6. The protein can be purified then used as a drug.

Lots of drugs are produced from genetically modified bacteria such as human
insulin.

Genetically modified plants

1. The gene for the protein is inserted into a bacterium

2. The bacterium infects a plant cell
3. The bacterium inserts the gene into the plant cell DNA
4. The plant cell is grown into an adult plant (the whole plant contains a copy
of the gene in every cell.
5. The protein is produced from the gene can be prufied from the plant tissue.

Genetically modified animals

1. The gene for the protein is injected into the neculus of a fertilised animals
egg cell.
2. The egg cell is then implanted into an adult animal
3. The proten produced from the gene is normally purified from the milk of the
animal.

Various animals have modified with human genes to produce drugs.

The benefits are risks with GMO’s

Benefits –

1. Agricultural crops can be modified so that they give a higher yield. So there
is less risk of famine and malnutrition
2. Crops can also be modified to have pest resistance, so fewer pesticides are
needed.
3. Industrial processes often use enzymes. These enzymes can be produced
from genetically modified organisms in large quantities for less money, this
reduces costs.
4. Some disorders can now be treated with human proteins from genetically
engineered organisms instead of with animal proteins.
5. Vaccines produced in plant tissue don’t need to be refrigerated.
6. Producing drugs using animals or plants would be cheap.

Risks –

1. Some people are concerned about the transmission of genetic material.

2. Some people are worried about the long term effects of GMO’s
3. Some people think its wrong to genetically modify animals purely for human
benefit.