Evaluation of Warm Mix Asphalt Mixtures Containing

Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement through Mechanical

Performance Tests and an Acoustic Emission Approach
Brian Hill, A.M.ASCE 1; Behzad Behnia 2; William G. Buttlar, M.ASCE 3; and Henrique Reis 4
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Abstract: Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and warm mix asphalt (WMA) have become the primary methods for enhancing sustain-
ability in the asphalt industry in recent years. To further enhance sustainability benefits, asphalt producers have begun using RAP and WMA
in combination. Research to date has focused on evaluating WMA-RAP mixtures in terms of moisture sensitivity and permanent deformation
characteristics as measured in laboratory performance tests. In the present paper, the authors investigate a set of WMA mixtures that
encompass a variety of variables, including four WMA additives (Evotherm 3G, Rediset LQ, Sasobit, and Advera) and three RAP contents
(0, 15, and 45%). A common belief among practitioners is that the reduced aging in the asphalt binder associated with lower production
temperatures in WMA mixtures leaves additional headroom for the incorporation of higher amounts of RAP, which is generally a stiffer, more
brittle material. To fully characterize the performance of WMA-RAP mixtures, the authors evaluated the low-temperature, cracking behavior
of these mixtures in conjunction with moisture and rutting resistance characterization. They achieved the low temperature testing of WMA-
RAP mixtures through the disk-shaped compact tension [DC(T)], indirect tension (IDT) creep compliance, and acoustic emission (AE) tests.
Test results showed that chemical additives improved moisture susceptibility according to the AASHTO T 283 standard test and fracture and
bulk stress relaxation characteristics using the DC(T) and IDT tests, respectively. The organic Fischer-Tropsch wax-modified WMA mixtures
performed the best among the WMA mixtures in terms of rutting resistance. The introduction of RAP led to the increased resistance to
permanent deformation and moisture damage. Conversely, RAP reduced thermal cracking resistance according to the low-temperature per-
formance tests in both HMA and WMA. The authors observed the same trend in AE test results as WMA-RAP mixtures exhibited warmer
embrittlement temperatures as compared with control mixtures and are therefore expected to be more prone to thermal cracking. On the
basis of these findings, thermal cracking resistance remains an issue to be considered in WMA mixtures containing RAP. Additionally,
performance testing has shown to be a valuable tool for the evaluation of RAP and WMA mix designs to avoid performance issues in
the field. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000757. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Asphalt pavements; Mixtures; Temperature effects; Cracking; Acoustic techniques.
Author keywords: Warm mix asphalt (WMA); Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP); Low temperature cracking; WMA chemical additives;
Fracture energy; Acoustic emissions; Embrittlement temperature.

Introduction contribute to the sustainability movement through the use of

Environmental experts define sustainability as meeting the needs of
the present without depleting the resources required by future gen-
erations (World Commission on Environment and Development
1987). Civil engineering infrastructure materials can significantly
1
Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Illinois, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 (correspond-
ing author). E-mail: bchill2@illinois.edu
2
Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Illinois, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801. E-mail:
bbehnia2@illinois.edu
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of
Illinois, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801. E-mail: buttlar@
illinois.edu
4
Professor, Dept. of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering,
Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 104 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana,
IL 61801. E-mail: h-reis@illinois.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on July 5, 2012; approved on
December 7, 2012; published online on December 10, 2012. Discussion
period open until May 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, Vol. 25, No. 12, December 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN
0899-1561/2013/12-1887-1897/$25.00.
recycled materials and more environmentally friendly production
processes. In the asphalt paving community, the most commonly
employed sustainability practices involve the addition of increas-
ingly greater amounts of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and
the use of warm mix asphalt (WMA).
RAP is the primary recycled product of asphalt concrete pave-
ments. According to Collins and Ciesielski (1994), asphalt concrete
removal leads to a production of more than 100 t of RAP per year in
the United States. The use of RAP leads to several advantages in-
cluding reduced material costs, energy savings, and increased rut-
ting resistance. Chiu et al. (2008) determined through cost analyses
that 23% of energy savings occurred with the use of RAP. In terms
of performance, RAP can improve rutting resistance through in-
creased asphalt binder stiffness. Oxidative hardening significantly
increases asphalt binder stiffness during pavement service life,
which can provide rutting resistance when RAP is incorporated into
a new asphalt paving mixture (Aurangzeb et al. 2011).
Performance issues may arise with the use of higher amounts
of RAP in the area of pavement durability. Xiao et al. (2007) de-
termined that the introduction of as little as 15% of RAP signifi-
cantly increased mixture stiffness, which opened the door for
premature development of various forms of pavement cracking.

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.

 Behnia et al. (2011) reported a reduced cracking resistance in per-
formance grade (PG) 58–28 mixtures containing up to 50% RAP
through disk-shaped compact tension [DC(T)], indirect tensile
(IDT) creep compliance, and acoustic emissions (AE) tests at
low temperatures. The increased stiffness associated with RAP
may lead to the selection of a more costly softer asphalt binder
grade and/or may limit the amount of RAP that can be used in
a given mixture. A current school of thought in the asphalt industry
is that the reduced aging in the asphalt binder associated with lower
production temperatures in WMA mixtures allows for the incorpo-
ration of higher amounts of RAP (Prowell and Hurley 2007). In
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essence, the stiffer RAP binder can be counterbalanced by virtue
of the less-aged binder, resulting from the WMA production pro-
cess, which reduces mixture production and laydown temperatures
and hence oxidative hardening and volatilization.
WMA represents a growing alternative to conventional hot-mix
asphalt (HMA). This technology is produced at temperatures of ap-
proximately 25–30°C less than HMA due to chemical composition
changes during the mixing process (D’Angelo et al. 2008). At least
20 WMA additives and processes exist on the market today, and
these include foaming additives and processes, organic additives,
and chemical additives. The foaming group uses water to foam
the asphalt binder prior to or during the mixing process. The foam-
ing processes subcategory uses water injection systems to foam the
asphalt binder, and the additives subcategory includes synthetic
zeolites such as Advera and Aspha-min. Synthetic zeolites are met-
allic aluminosilicates, which contain approximately 20% water by
weight in their microstructure (Prowell and Hurley 2007). At ap-
proximately 100°C, the zeolite degrades and releases the entrapped
water. According to Prowell and Hurley (2005a), foaming additives
may have moisture sensitivity issues on the basis of laboratory
evaluation. Organic additives generally include paraffin waxes,
montan waxes, and fatty acid amides. This group of WMA addi-
tives stiffens the asphalt binder as shown by Prowell and Hurley
(2005b), who determined that the addition of 2.5% Sasobit led
to a PG 58–28 asphalt binder behaving as a PG 64–22 asphalt
binder. Consequently, organic additives may reduce thermal crack-
ing resistance for a given binder in a given climate. The chemical
additive category includes liquid and solid chemical packages
added to the asphalt binder prior to entering the mixing drum.
Liquid chemical additives generally act as emulsifying agents
and contain amine groups that lead to improved thermal cracking
and moisture resistance, respectively.
Several environmental advantages occur with the use of WMA
such as energy savings and emissions reductions. According to the
Prowell and Hurley (2007), WMA can reduce fuel consumption by
as much as 10–35%, as fuel usage may decrease by as much as 3%
for each 6°C drop in mixing temperature. European and Canadian
researchers have determined that a 15–70% reduction in SOx , NOx ,
CO2 , and volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) emissions are gen-
erally realized with the use of WMA (D’Angelo et al. 2008).
Potential disadvantages of WMA include increased rutting,
moisture sensitivity, and a lack of long-term field performance re-
sults. In the case of the chemical and foaming groups, mixture stiff-
ness may be reduced such that rutting resistance can be problematic
according to Prowell and Hurley (2005b, 2006). In contrast, or-
ganic additives may increase stiffness such that pavement cracking
potential increases. The lack of long-term WMA performance data
in the field of practice also affects WMA use in the United States;
the technology has only been in place for approximately 8 years. As
a result, laboratory performance tests continue to fulfill a critical
role in the design and deployment of existing and emerging
WMA technologies.
1888 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / DECEMBER 2013
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.
As stated previously, WMA and RAP have the potential to per-
form well in combination and to actualize the two-pronged sustain-
ability benefits. Research to date, such as Doyle et al. (2011),
primarily focused on the moisture and rutting resistance aspects
of WMA-RAP mixture performance. Their study suggested that
moisture and rutting resistance could be improved through the com-
bination of WMA and RAP. However, the low-temperature perfor-
mance of WMA-RAP mixtures remained in question. Therefore, this
paper will introduce new findings with respect to low-temperature
characteristics of WMA-RAP mixtures, while considering rut-
ting and moisture resistance to evaluate the overall durability of
WMA-RAP mixtures.
For this paper, the authors used four WMA additives, including
one additive from each WMA group, and three different RAP levels
to evaluate WMA-RAP mixtures in comparison to control HMA
mixtures through advanced asphalt mixture tests. These tests
included the DC(T); IDT creep compliance; AE (to evaluate
cracking resistance); Hamburg wheel-tracking; and AASHTO T
283 (AASHTO 2007) (to evaluate rutting and moisture sensitivity,
respectively) tests.
Materials
The author’s primary objective was to evaluate the combined ef-
fects of WMA additives and RAP on the low-temperature proper-
ties of asphalt mixtures. An additional objective was to compare the
rutting resistance with the moisture sensitivity of WMA-RAP mix-
tures and control HMA mixtures to fully characterize WMA-RAP
mixture durability properties. The authors used at least one additive
from each of the WMA categories, namely: Sasobit (F-T wax),
Advera (Zeolite), Evotherm 3G (Chemical-1), and Rediset LQ
(Chemical-2). Sasobit is a paraffin wax product of the Fischer-
Tropsch process (Sasol International 2010). Sasobit was added
at a rate of 3.0% by weight of the asphalt binder. Advera is a foam-
ing additive synthetic zeolite, which was added at a rate of 0.25%
by weight of the mixture. Evotherm 3G and Rediset LQ are liquid
chemical additives added at a rate of 0.50 and 0.75% by weight of
the asphalt binder, respectively.
The authors used PG 64–22 as the base asphalt binder for this
paper. This neat asphalt binder is commonly used across Illinois
and much of the United States in applications with low to moderate
traffic levels. The authors sampled aggregates from a local central
Illinois hot-mix asphalt producer, Open Roads Paving, LLC in
Champaign, IL. The sampled aggregates include CM16 (9.5 mm
nominal maximum size) coarse aggregate; FM20 (manufactured)
and FM02 (natural) sand; and a limestone-based mineral filler.
The CM16 and FM20 stockpiles consisted of dolomitic limestone.
The authors fractionated the virgin aggregate prior to mixture pro-
duction to reduce the variability caused by material sampling. They
sampled RAP from a stockpile of material reclaimed through mill-
ing of the surface of I-72 in central Illinois and fractionated through
a 9.5 mm (3=8 in:) screening deck. Table 1 shows the postextrac-
tion RAP gradation with the estimated RAP asphalt content, effec-
tive and bulk specific gravity (Gse and Gsb , respectively), and
maximum theoretical specific gravity (Gmm ). The authors verified
all specific gravities, asphalt content estimations, and RAP grada-
tions with the Illinois Dept. of Transportation (IDOT), Bureau of
Materials and Physical Research Laboratory, located in Springfield,
Illinois. They used AASHTO TP 2 to extract the asphalt binder to
measure the RAP asphalt content and used the Gse to indirectly
measure Gsb .
The authors chose optimum asphalt contents based on
Superpave mixture design. To determine the HMA mixing and
 Table 1. Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Gradation and Selected Volumetric a maximum deviation between curves of 1.5%. The 15 and 45%
Properties RAP mixtures contained slightly more material passing the #200
Sieve Reclaimed asphalt Reclaimed asphalt sieve than the virgin mixture, due to the relatively high content
(mm) pavement gradation pavement properties of RAP material passing the #200 sieve.
25.0 100 Table 2 summarizes mixture volumetric properties. Similar
19.0 100 voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) and voids filled with asphalt
12.5 100 Reclaimed asphalt pavement Gsb (VFA) levels were achieved for the three mix types (i.e., three RAP
9.5 99.3 2.641 levels). The 15 and 45% RAP mixtures contained virgin asphalt
4.75 73.8 Asphalt concrete content (%) contents of 5.9 and 3.9% and asphalt binder replacement percent-
2.36 50.5 5.50 ages of 11.9 and 37.9%, respectively.
1.18 35.5 Reclaimed asphalt pavement Gmm
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0.60 25.8 2.492

0.30 18.1
0.15 13.8
0.075 11.2
compaction temperatures, which were found to be 160 and 150°C,
respectively, they followed the Asphalt Institute Superpave mix de-
sign method for selecting mixing and compacting temperatures on
the basis of asphalt binder viscosity (Roberts et al. 1996). They did
not use separate WMA mixture designs for this paper. They took
this approach to compare WMA and HMA mixtures with equiva-
lent aggregate skeletal structures. They selected the WMA mixing
and compaction temperatures to comply with manufacturer recom-
mendations. Consequently, they selected the mixing and compact-
ing temperatures of 135 and 125°C, respectively. They chose the
number of gyrations to be 70, which meets the IDOT standard
for medium-to-low volume roads receiving a 20 year traffic inten-
sity of 3 to 10 million equivalent single axle loads (ESALs). Addi-
tionally, all mixtures met the 9.5 mm nominal maximum aggregate
size (NMAS) surface mixture gradation requirements designated
by Superpave. The authors included RAP contents of 0, 15, and
45% to evaluate the interaction of WMA additives and RAP. They
chose a 15% RAP content to correspond to the maximum allowable
RAP content for Illinois surface mixtures (Illinois Dept. of Trans-
portation 2011). They selected the 45% RAP mixture to evaluate
the characteristics of a high RAP content mixture containing WMA
additives.
Fig. 1 displays gradation plots for 0% RAP (the virgin), 15%
RAP, and 45% RAP mixtures. The outer lines represent the Super-
pave control points for 9.5 mm NMAS mixtures. As shown in
Fig. 1, the gradations are approximately similar at all points, with
100
90
80
Percent passing (%)
Experimental Methods
Thermal Cracking Evaluation
To characterize the cracking behavior of WMA-RAP mixtures, the
authors performed a suite of fracture, creep, and AE tests. Gener-
ally, temperature-induced transverse (or thermal cracking) in
asphalt pavement is thought to predominantly occur in a mode
I-opening manner. This is supported by field observations, where
evidence of fracture mode-mixity (curvilinear crack trajectory) is
fairly minimal. In other words, thermal cracks are generally found
to propagate perpendicular to the direction of traffic and vertically
through the pavement depth. Because thermal cracks are easier
to handle from an experimental and theoretical standpoint as
compared with traffic-induced fatigue cracks or reflective cracks,
the authors directly addressed them with the mode I-type, low-
temperature tests selected for this paper. However, it is likely that
the mixture characteristics that promote higher resistance to thermal
cracking (e.g., higher binder content and reduced binder aging) will
also tend to reduce other forms of pavement cracking. Wagoner
et al. (2005) determined that the most viable test configuration
available for asphalt mixture mode I fracture was the DC(T) geom-
etry. This configuration, adjusted from ASTM E399 (ASTM 2012)
for metals, contains a sufficiently large fractured surface area
to reduce test variation and is easily fabricated from field cores
or laboratory-produced gyratory specimens. Furthermore, studies
such as Dave et al. (2008) demonstrated that the DC(T) test can
accurately capture the thermal cracking potential of asphalt con-
crete mixtures. In 2007, ASTM specified the DC(T) test as ASTM
D7313 (ASTM 2007).
The DC(T) test evaluates the fracture energy associated with
propagating a crack perpendicular to the applied load through
the material. Fracture energy can be calculated by measuring the
area under the load-crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD)
gauge curve, as shown in Fig. 2, and normalizing it by the fractured
surface area. The authors tested all specimens at −12°C, which
corresponded to the ASTM D7313 (ASTM 2007) recommendation
for PG 64–22 asphalt binders. Furthermore, the authors ran all tests

70

60
at a CMOD opening rate of 1.0 mm=min.

50

40 Table 2. Mixture Volumetric Properties

30 Total Effective
Virgin asphalt Air asphalt
20 concrete voids VMA VFA concrete Dust
15% RAP
10 Mix type (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) proportion
45% RAP
Virgin 6.70 4.0 15.3 73.7 4.9 1.2
0
0 0.075 1.18 4.75 9.5 12.5 19.0 15% reclaimed 6.70 4.0 15.5 74.4 5.0 1.3
Sieve opening (mm) asphalt pavement
45% reclaimed 6.30 4.0 15.3 73.3 4.9 1.4
Fig. 1. WMA-RAP mixture gradations asphalt pavement

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.

 3.5
3.0
2.5
Load (kN)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
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0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Crack mouth opening displacement (mm)
Fig. 2. Typical load-CMOD plot
The authors employed the IDT creep test to evaluate the creep
compliance characteristics of the WMA-RAP and HMA mixtures.
According to Buttlar and Roque (1994), this test can be used
to accurately predict the low-temperature behavior of asphalt
concrete. This study complied with the AASHTO T 322 procedure
of using three replicates per mixture tested for 1,000 s. In this case,
Buttlar and Roque loaded specimens by using a step-type creep
load at 0, −12, and −24°C. They measured the horizontal and ver-
tical displacements at the center of each side of a given specimen by
using highly sensitive extensometers (e.g., Epsilon model 3910).
Then, they calculated creep compliance by using Eq. (1)
ΔX × Davg × tavg
DðtÞ ¼ × Cc
Pavg × L
They produced creep compliance master curves by using the prin-
ciple of time-temperature superposition. They fit the data to the
power-law model shown in the following equation:
DðtÞ ¼ D0 þ D1 tm
They used a least-squares fitting method to determine the param-
eters D0 , D1 , and m. The m-value relates to the stress relaxation and
creep deformation rate of viscoelastic materials. Typically, larger
relative m-values correspond to more compliant and relaxant as-
phalt mixtures, which are more resistant to thermal cracking.
An acoustic emission (AE) is defined as a spontaneous release
of localized strain energy in a stressed material in the form of tran-
sient stress waves. As a recognized nondestructive testing (NDT)
method, AE has been proven to be a powerful tool for examining
the behavior of materials deforming under stress. The AE method
has application wherever the stresses in a material stimulate the
release of energy as a detectable indication of the possible failure.
Transient elastic AE waves result from sudden internal microdis-
placements in the stressed material. AE waves from a growing flaw
travel within the material and are detected by sensitive surface-
mounted piezoelectric sensors. Fig. 3 schematically illustrates
crack nucleation and propagation and corresponding AE wave
transmission and detection for material under stress. AE testing
can provide comprehensive information on the nucleation of a flaw
in a stressed component and can also provide information pertain-
ing to the initiation and propagation of a crack as a component is
subjected to stress. This technique has been extensively applied for
condition assessment and damage detection in many materials such
as steel, concrete, and wood.
1890 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / DECEMBER 2013
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.
1.0
Fig. 3. Nucleation, propagation, and detection of AE waves
The authors employed the AE technique to obtain a relative
comparison of the expected low temperature cracking threshold
of WMA mixtures containing RAP materials. They prepared mix-
ture specimens of a 150-mm-diameter semicircular shape with
50 mm thickness for AE testing. They selected this geometry to
be able to reuse specimens previously tested in the IDT and/or
DC(T) test. They positioned AE samples on a steel block in the
cooling chamber as shown in Fig. 4. They conducted AE tests
in a polystyrene box containing dry ice as the coolant. They used
wideband AE sensors (Digital Wave, Model B1025) with a nominal
frequency range of 20 kHz to 1.5 MHz to monitor and record
acoustic activities of the sample during the test. They used high-
vacuum grease to couple the AE sensors to the test sample. They
preamplified AE signals 20dB by using broad-band preamplifiers
ð1Þ to reduce extraneous noise. They further amplified the signals to
21 dB (for a total of 41 dB) and filtered the signals by using a
20 kHz high-pass, double-pole filter using the fracture wave detec-
tor (FWD) signal condition unit. Then, they digitized the signals by
using a 16-bit analog to digital converter (ICS 645B-8) using a sam-
pling frequency of 2 MHz and a length of 2,048 points per channel
ð2Þ per acquisition trigger. They stored the outputs for later processing
by using digital wave software (Wave-Explorer TM V7.2.6). They
continuously recorded the sample temperature by using a K-type
thermocouple placed on the specimen surface. Fig. 5 shows a typ-
ical temperature versus time cooling plot. The average cooling rate
was around 0.8°C=min.
Moisture Sensitivity Evaluation
The authors performed moisture sensitivity analyses by using the
AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO 2007) procedure. This test, which is
the final step of the level I Superpave Mix Design method, consists
of conditioning, freezing, thawing, and testing stages. In the
conditioning phase, the authors vacuum saturated half of all the
specimens with water to a degree of saturation between 70 and
80%, using a vacuum pressure no less than 260 mmHg. During
the freezing and thawing stages, the previously conditioned
specimens were placed in a freezer for 16 hours at −18°C and
subsequently thawed for 24 hours at 60°C. Afterwards, the condi-
tioned and unconditioned specimens were brought to 25°C prior to
measuring their indirect tensile strengths. The authors calculated
the quotient of the average indirect tensile strengths of the condi-
tioned to unconditioned specimens to determine the tensile strength
ratio, or TSR parameter. Based on AASHTO T-283 (AASHTO
2007), TSR values greater than 80% are acceptable, although other
thresholds are sometimes used by certain agencies. Finally, a visual
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(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 4. AE testing: (a) set-up; (b) testing specimen; (c) typical temperature versus time cooling plot

100% rating between 0 (not stripped) and 5 (completely stripped) is given

Control Advera Sasobit Evotherm Rediset LQ
following procedures outlined in AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO
2007). The authors conducted the required indirect tensile strength
90%
testing at a rate of 50 mm=min on six total gyratory specimens
compacted to 95.0 mm and 7.0% air voids for each WMA and
HMA mixture. Per AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO 2007), they used
Tensile strength ratio (%)

80%
curved loading heads of 19-mm width.

70%
Rutting Resistance Evaluation
The authors used the Hamburg wheel-tracking test to evaluate the
60%
permanent deformation characteristics of the HMA and WMA mix-
tures investigated. The Hamburg test, specified in AASHTO T 324
50% (AASHTO 2011), is conducted in a water immersed state at 50°C to
induce both permanent deformation and moisture damage. A steel
wheel applies a load of approximately 702.8 N (158 lbs) of force to
40% each specimen and external linear variable differential transducers
Virgin 15% RAP 45% RAP (LVDT) measure the rut depths at regular intervals during each pass
of the wheel. PG 64–22 mixtures are considered satisfactory in
Fig. 5. Tensile strength ratio results
terms of permanent deformation resistance if they can withstand

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.

 10,000 wheel passes prior to reaching a 12.5 mm rut depth to
conform with the Texas Dept. of Transportation standard AASHTO
T 324 (AASHTO 2011). The presence of stripping can be validated
by visually examining the tested material. Finally, the maximum rut
depth is defined as the rut depth present at the end of the test.
The authors cut gyratory specimens at a height of 130 mm in
half and sawed along one edge to produce a flat face to produce a
geometry suitable for the Hamburg test, using the cylindrical geom-
etry option. They adjusted the heights of the two sides of each gy-
ratory specimen to reach equal heights to avoid dynamic loading.
They conducted all Hamburg tests until they either reached 20,000
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to meet the 80% minimum set in AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO
2007), which would call for antistripping agents or hydrated lime
to be added to the mixtures. However, for this paper, the authors
chose not to add these moisture resisting additives to avoid inter-
action effects with WMA additives.
The addition of RAP into the 15 and 45% WMA-RAP and
HMA mixtures did not affect the rankings of the TSR results.
For all three RAP contents, chemical additive modified mixtures
performed the best, followed by the control HMA, F-T wax addi-
tive, and Zeolite foaming additive modified mixtures. The consis-
tency of the rankings showed that the interaction of RAP and

passes or induced a rut depth of 20.0 mm. Finally, they compacted
all specimens to approximately 7.0% air voids to comply with
AASHTO T 324 (AASHTO 2011) standards and tested four
replicates per mixture.
Results and Discussion
Moisture Resistance Results
Fig. 5 and Table 3 present the AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO 2007)
results. The virgin mixture TSR results showed that the Chemical-2
and Chemical-1 additive mixtures performed approximately 13 and
28% better than the control HMA mixture, respectively, in terms of
tensile strength ratio (TSR). The authors anticipated these results
due to the inherent antistripping capabilities of these chemical
additives. The Zeolite additive reduced TSR moisture resistance
by 23% in comparison with the control HMA mixture. This result
agreed with the foaming additive moisture resistance results found
by Prowell and Hurley (2005a) and could be due to the additional
moisture released into the asphalt concrete during mixing. This
moisture likely has the potential to disturb and subsequently
weaken the interface between the asphalt binder and aggregate.
Similar to Zeolite mixtures, F-T wax-modified virgin WMA mix-
tures reduced TSR moisture resistance. This result agreed with
those found by Kanitpong et al. (2008) in which the employment
of an organic additive and reduced production temperatures led to
reduced moisture resistance. Reduced aggregate coating by the
modified asphalt binder may have led to a reduced capability to
resist moisture damage. In all, four of the five virgin mixtures failed
WMA additives did not improve or detrimentally affect the mois-
ture resistance of mixtures characterized by using the AASHTO T
283 (AASHTO 2007) protocol.
The addition of RAP increased both conditioned and uncondi-
tioned indirect tensile strengths in all cases except for the 15% RAP
Advera WMA mixture. This finding agreed with the findings re-
ported by Li et al. (2004) and Doyle et al. (2011), where tensile
strength was found to increase with increasing RAP content. Doyle
et al.’s study (2011) suggested that the mixing of virgin and RAP
binder occurs, at least to some degree, even at reduced production
temperatures in the presence of WMA additives.
As shown in Table 3, tensile strength ratio was found to increase
with the addition of RAP. The TSR results for RAP mixtures
differed from the Li et al. report (2004) as they found the inclusion
of RAP reduced tensile strength ratios. However, similar to the
Doyle et al. study (2011), for this paper, the authors found the hard-
ened asphalt binder films coupled with the fact that the RAP ag-
gregate to be of higher quality than the virgin aggregate and likely
led to the observed increase in TSR with increasing RAP content.
Hamburg Wheel-Tracking Test Results
Figs. 6 and 7 show the permanent deformation results via the
Hamburg test. The error bars represent the high and low rut depths
found using the Hamburg test. The Sasobit WMA mixture per-
formed approximately 12% better than the control HMA mixture
in terms of total number of passes reached prior to reaching the
12.5 mm of rut depth. These results agree with those reported
by Gandhi (2008). The chemical and zeolite foaming additives re-
duced the maximum number of wheel passes to reach 12.5 mm of
rutting in the Hamburg device by 40 and 38%, respectively. These

Table 3. AASHTO T 283 Results

20000
Tensile Control
Wheel passes prior to reaching max. rut depth

Conditioned Unconditioned strength Visual 18000 Sasobit

Mix type strength (kPa) strength (kPa) ratio (%) rating Advera
16000 Evotherm
Virgin
Rediset LQ
mixtures
14000
Control 483.3 726.0 67 5
Zeolite 443.3 859.8 52 5 12000
F-T wax 519.9 857.0 61 5
Chemical-1 635.7 743.9 85 3 10000
Chemical-2 680.5 902.5 75 3
8000
15% reclaimed asphalt pavement mixtures
Control 869.4 999.1 87 3 6000
Zeolite 570.9 845.3 68 5
F-T wax 648.8 873.6 74 4 4000
Chemical-1 716.4 758.4 94 2
2000
45% reclaimed asphalt pavement mixtures
Control 1,030.1 1,354.8 76 4 0
Zeolite 812.2 1,152.1 70 4 Virgin 15% RAP 45% RAP
F-T wax 917.0 1,232.1 74 4
Chemical-1 1,052.1 1,218.3 86 3 Fig. 6. Hamburg test results

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.

 10
9
Rut depth at 10,000 wheel passes (mm)
7 350
6
5
4 250
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3
2
1 150
0
Control Advera
Fig. 7. 45% RAP mixture rut depth at 10,000 wheel passes
results agreed with the virgin mixtures evaluated in Doyle et al.
(2011) and Prowell and Hurley (2005b) and likely occurred be-
cause chemical additives potentially emulsify the asphalt binder
to soften it while foaming additives potentially reduce the adhesive
characteristics between the asphalt binder and aggregate.
In the 15% RAP mixtures, the number of wheel passes reached
prior to the 12.5 mm rut depth increased for all WMA and HMA
mixtures. Similar to the AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO 2007) results,
the authors concluded that the virgin and RAP asphalt binder
mixing occurred to a degree that led to increased rutting resistance
in the mixtures. The increased rutting resistance of 15% RAP mix-
tures as compared with the virgin mixtures agreed with the results
found by Doyle et al. (2011). In terms of rankings, the Zeolite and
Chemical-1 WMA mixtures remained the same as the virgin set,
whereas the control HMA proved to exhibit greater rutting resis-
tance than the F-T wax WMA mixture.
The 45% RAP mixtures exhibited the most rut resistance among
all three data sets. Each of the WMA and HMA mixtures in the
45% RAP group met the 10,000 pass AASHTO T-324 (AASHTO
2011) minimum requirement. Similar to the 15% RAP mixtures,
the increased rutting resistance of the 45% RAP mixtures as com-
pared with the 15% RAP mixtures seemed to indicate that at least
partial mixing of the RAP and virgin asphalt binders occurred. As
shown in Fig. 7, the control HMA mixture exhibited a lower than
average rut depth at 10,000 passes as compared with the F-T wax
WMA mixture. The rankings of the Zeolite and Chemical-1 WMA
mixtures reversed in the 45% RAP data set.
In general, increasing the RAP content improved the rutting re-
sistance in all WMA and HMA mixtures. The interaction of RAP
and WMA additives did not seem to significantly alter the rankings
of the mixtures. The chemical and foaming zeolite additive WMA
mixtures displayed the greatest potential for rutting at each of the
RAP levels. In addition, the organic F-T wax additive WMA mix-
tures performed similarly to the control HMA mixtures due to the
stiffening effect of this additive.
DC(T) Fracture Results
Fig. 8 displays the DC(T) fracture test results. The error bars
represent the high and low fracture energies produced via the
DC(T) test among the three replicates tested per set.
450 Control Advera Evotherm Sasobit Rediset LQ
400
Avg. CMOD fracture energy (J/m2)
300
200
Virgin 15% RAP 45% RAP
Sasobit Evotherm Fig. 8. Average DC(T) CMOD fracture energy
In the virgin mixtures, the chemical WMA mixtures exhibited
slightly greater fracture energy, approximately 7%, as compared
with the control HMA mixture. Higher fracture energy is desirable
from the standpoint of resisting thermal, block, and reflective
cracking. In contrast, the F-T wax and Zeolite WMA additives
had a slight adverse effect on the mixture fracture energy as these
mixtures exhibited fracture energies 11 and 12% lower than the
control HMA, respectively. Among the five WMA and HMA virgin
mixtures tested, the F-T wax WMA mixture exhibited the steepest
postpeak softening response in its load versus the CMOD curve.
Previously published simulation studies have demonstrated that
steep postpeak softening behavior leads to a more brittle fracture
with a higher propensity for crack propagation (Dave et al. 2010).
The 15% RAP mixtures decreased fracture energies as com-
pared to the virgin mixtures. This result agreed with Behnia et al.
(2011), where the DC(T) fracture energy decreased with the addi-
tion of RAP for the PG 58–28 mixtures blended with several RAP
sources obtained from Illinois HMA contractors. The 15% RAP
HMA mixture performed the best among the 15% RAP mixtures
tested. Thus, perhaps unexpectedly, fracture energy (and hence
thermal cracking resistance) was not aided by the fact that the
WMA mixtures were produced at significantly lower production
temperatures than the reference HMA mix.
The 45% RAP fracture results further demonstrated that in-
creased RAP content led to decreased fracture resistance. This
result differed from Doyle et al. (2011). The 45% RAP mixtures
exhibited significantly higher COV as compared to the 0 and
15% RAP mixtures. The authors hypothesize that this increased
variability could manifest itself in a greater likelihood for poor
field-performance in some sections and also in difficulties in
mixture production control, especially in meeting end-result or
performance-related specifications. However, they acknowledge
that the behavior of field produced mixtures with high RAP content
could vary significantly from that which is characterized in labo-
ratory prepared specimens.
The DC(T) fracture results for WMA-RAP and HMA mixtures
provided several key observations although the results were not
statistically different. First, the DC(T) test displayed that mixture
fracture resistance could be sensitive to the WMA additive used.
Thus, a case can be made for the importance of a low-temperature
performance test, such as the DC(T) fracture energy test. Secondly,
irrespective of WMA additives used or reduced production temper-
atures, increasingly greater RAP contents likely lead to increased
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / DECEMBER 2013 / 1893
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.
 thermal cracking potential. Consequently, the addition of a softer the greatest creep compliance as compared with the other virgin
virgin asphalt binder grade may remain the only option to combat mixtures. In addition, the virgin Chemical-1 WMA mixture pro-
thermal cracking in high RAP mixtures as WMA employment did duced the greatest m-value, which indicates the greatest capacity
not significantly improve the fracture resistance of RAP mixtures. for stress relaxation. The control HMA, Zeolite, and F-T wax mix-
Advances in asphalt mix plant design might also aid in the produc- tures displayed similar creep compliance master curves. The F-T
tion of WMA-RAP mixtures with improved low-temperature prop- wax WMA mixture exhibited the lowest m-value and thus the low-
erties, but again, performance tests such as the DC(T) can be used est stress relaxation potential among the virgin mixtures tested.
to assess such technologies. Among the three RAP levels investigated, the virgin mixtures dis-
played the greatest sensitivity to WMA additives in terms of creep
compliance.
IDT Creep Compliance Results In the 15% RAP data set, RAP addition at this level was found to
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Mixture low-temperature creep compliance data can be used to reduce the m-value computed from all WMA and HMA mixture
assess the ability of a mixture to resist thermal stress buildup upon master curves. These results agreed with those found by Behnia
cooling during a critical low-temperature event. Higher compliance et al. (2011) and showed that the presence of RAP led to a reduced
and higher slope at longer loading times (or m-value) are both capacity for stress relaxation in the case of a thermal event. The m-
desirable from a standpoint of minimizing stress development value rankings remained the same for HMA and WMA mixtures in
and maximizing stress relaxation upon cooling under restrained this data set, which suggests that RAP interaction with WMA ad-
conditions. Fig. 9 shows the creep compliance master curve results ditives did not improve or reduce creep behavior. The 15% RAP-
produced in the Superpave IDT test. Similar to the DC(T) fracture WMA mixtures were slightly more compliant and therefore better
test, the chemical-modified virgin WMA mixtures displayed the able to relax stress than the control HMA mixture. This result dif-
most desirable low-temperature creep performance in terms of fered from the fracture test results and likely led to the conclusion

1.0E+00 1.0E+00
HMA HMA Tref = -24º C
Tref = -24º C
Advera Advera
Evotherm Evotherm
Sasobit Sasobit
Creep compliance (1/GPa)

Rediset LQ
Creep compliance (1/GPa)

1.0E-01 1.0E-01

1.0E-02 1.0E-02
1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07
(a) Reduced time (s) (b) Reduced time (s)

1.0E+00
HMA Tref = -24º C
Advera
Evotherm
Sasobit
Creep compliance (1/GPa)

1.0E-01

1.0E-02
1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07
(c) Reduced time (s)

Fig. 9. Fitted creep compliance master curves: (a) virgin mixture; (b) 15% RAP mixture; (c) 45% RAP mixture

1894 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / DECEMBER 2013

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.

 that although the fracture energy may not be enhanced by WMA
technologies, these technologies may improve the bulk material re-
laxation capabilities during a cooling event. Modeling and field tri-
als will be needed to fully evaluate the relative cracking behavior of
these mixes, i.e., to determine if the compliance benefit would out-
weigh the fracture energy reduction for a given climate and pave-
ment structure.
The 45% RAP WMA and HMA mixtures displayed further
stress relaxation losses due to the presence of RAP. In all 45%
RAP mixtures, m-values decreased, which further agreed with
the results found by Behnia et al. (2011). The presence of a high
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RAP content narrowed the differences in the creep compliance and
m-values among the 45% RAP-WMA and HMA mixtures, which
naturally followed because of the high percentage of this common
ingredient among the mixtures. Finally, WMA mixtures continued
to display slightly better performance as compared to the control
HMA mixture. In addition, the m-value rankings remained the
same as the other two RAP data sets in this paper.
The IDT creep compliance data in this paper provided the fol-
lowing three key findings:
1. WMA technologies affected the creep compliance character-
istics of virgin asphalt mixtures; therefore, additives and pro-
cesses should be considered carefully in terms of their effect
upon stress relaxation characteristics in colder climates or
where rapid temperature changes exist;
2. the use of WMA slightly improved the stress relaxation char-
acteristics of RAP mixtures, whereas fracture energy did not
improve with the presence of WMA additives; and
3. although RAP-WMA mixtures performed slightly better than
the control HMA-RAP mixture, increased RAP contents led to
significantly reduced stress relaxation capabilities in both the
WMA and HMA mixtures.
AE Test Results
The authors evaluated AE activity of WMA mixture samples sub-
jected to thermal loading (rapid temperature decrease) by analyzing
Fig. 10. Typical plot of event count and AE energy versus temperature
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / DECEMBER 2013 / 1895
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.
recorded AE event counts, test temperatures, and computed AE en-
ergy. Fig. 10 shows a typical plot of event counts and AE energy
versus temperature. Temperatures corresponding to two character-
istic AE events were determined: (1) the embrittlement temperature
(TEMB ) and (2) the maximum energy event temperature (TMAX ).
Embrittlement temperature is the temperature corresponding to
the event when the first major energy event occurs, as shown in
Fig. 10. The authors hypothesize that the embrittlement tempera-
ture is the onset of the thermally-induced, microcracking damage in
the mixture, and it represents a fundamental material state that is
independent of material constraint, sample size (as long as a statisti-
cally representative volume or larger is used), and sample shape
(Behnia et al. 2010, 2011; Dave et al. 2011). The temperature at
which a maximum acoustic energy release occurred, TMAX , was
highly repeatable between test replicates. Similar to embrittlement
temperature, this quantity is considered to be an intrinsic fracture
property of the material.
Fig. 11 summarizes AE test results of WMA mixtures with 0,
15, and 45% RAP. The results are an average of at least four test
replicates for each material, and COV values in the range of 5 to
10% were fairly typical. Comparing TEMB of WMA mixtures
containing different RAP amounts reveals the effect of the presence
of RAP on low temperature cracking performance of the mixtures.
The authors observed that the embrittlement temperature of WMA
mixtures occurred at warmer temperatures as the RAP content in-
creased. This could be attributed to the aged-hardened binder in the
RAP, which contributed to more brittle behavior. A comparison of
AE test results of different additives indicates that among all uti-
lized additives, F-T wax exhibited the most significant increase in
TEMB as compared with others. For WMA mixtures with 45% RAP,
there was not much difference between TEMB of the control HMA
mixture, Zeolite, and Chemical-1 mixtures. As evidenced in the DC
(T) and IDT tests, this could be attributed to the fact that as the RAP
content increased, the RAP began to dominate the overall material
behavior. This would explain the lack of significant distinction be-
tween the TEMB of mixtures with 45% RAP amounts. AE results
of WMA mixtures showed that the TMAX values for control
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Fig. 11. TEMB and TMAX of WMA mixtures, determined using AE technique: (a) virgin; (b) 15% RAP; (c) 45% RAP
mixtures were close to their virgin binder low-temperature PG
grades. Behnia et al. (2011) previously reported this in their study
on low-temperature performance of RAP mixtures. The authors of
this paper also observed that unlike TEMB , the TMAX of mixtures
was not significantly affected by RAP content or type of additive.
More work is needed, including numerical simulation of the AE
test, to obtain a more fundamental understanding of the damage/
cracking behavior leading to AE events, especially at the thresholds
of TMAX and TEMB .
Conclusions
This paper investigated the low-temperature durability of the
WMA-and HMA-RAP mixtures through the use of advanced as-
phalt mixture performance tests. The research presented in this pa-
per focused on the low-temperature performance of these mixtures
using the DC(T), IDT creep compliance, and AE tests. In addition,
the authors addressed durability concerns, such as moisture and
permanent deformation sensitivity, through the AASHTO T 283
(AASHTO 2007) and Hamburg tests, respectively.
On the basis of the results obtained through this experimental
investigation, the authors conclude the following in regards to the
behavior of the WMA-RAP mixtures investigated:
• Increased RAP contents led to increased resistance to moisture
based on the AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO 2007) test results.
Therefore, the use of quality RAP material may be advanta-
geous to avoid moisture damage with the assumption that the
1896 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / DECEMBER 2013
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1887-1897.
AASHTO T 283 (AASHTO 2007) results mirror trends in
the field. In addition, the chemical additive modified WMA
mixtures performed best among the WMA mixtures in terms
of moisture resistance because of the inherent antistripping cap-
abilities of these chemical additives.
• Rutting resistance increased with increasing RAP contents in
all mixtures. The F-T wax-modified WMA mixtures performed
the best among the WMA mixtures with regard to rutting resis-
tance due to the stiffening characteristics of this particular
organic additive.
• DC(T) fracture energy results for the virgin mixtures displayed a
sensitivity to the WMA additives. The chemical additives im-
proved the fracture resistance of WMA mixtures as compared
with the control HMA mixture. Therefore, careful consideration
of WMA additive options should be made prior to use in the
field to avoid thermal cracking.
• The inclusion of RAP led to reduced DC(T) fracture energy
and IDT creep compliance. These results showed that the pre-
sence of RAP at low temperatures may lead to increased thermal
cracking potential irrespective of the WMA additive employed.
• Acoustic emission results were sensitive to RAP content and to
the additive type used in the WMA mixtures tested. The higher
the RAP content, the higher (i.e., the warmer) the TEMB of the
mixture. In addition, TMAX of control mixtures were close to
their virgin binder low-temperature PG grades.
• The overall trends of TEMB of WMA mixtures were consistent
with the results observed for fracture energy and creep
 compliance. This provides more confidence in the use of the
TEMB quantity as a screening tool to quickly assess the cracking
resistance of asphalt mixtures, including those containing RAP
and/or WMA.
• Advanced mechanical and AE tests such as those presented in
this paper may be useful in validating WMA-RAP mixture de-
signs for important paving projects, particularly until more long-
term field-performance test results are available. In fact, even
when long-term field-performance tests are available, these tests
may continue to serve the asphalt industry for high-profile pro-
jects, because a near infinite combination of WMA additives,
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RAP sources, climates, pavement structures, and production/
construction variables potentially make each paving project
unique.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the
sponsor, O’Hare Modernization Program (OMP), throughout the
course of this paper, and for the guidance provided by Mr. Ross
Anderson of Bowman, Barrett, and Associates. In addition, the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program – Ideas Deser-
ving Exploratory Analysis (NCHRP-IDEA) program supported
this paper under project #144, “An Acoustic Emission Based Test
to Determine Asphalt Binder and Mixture Embrittlement Tempera-
ture.” The authors would also like to acknowledge the assistance
of Mr. Nathan Kebede and Mr. Salman Hakimzadeh of the Univ.
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The views and opinions ex-
pressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views and opinions of the sponsor.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
Cc = correction factor to account for 3D stress and strain fields
as a function of specimen aspect ratio (t=D) and Poisson’s
ratio (Buttlar and Roque 1994);
DðtÞ = creep compliance at time t;
Davg = average diameter of all replicates;
L = gauge length;
Pavg = average applied creep load;
tavg = average thickness of all replicates; and
ΔX = trimmed mean of the normalized horizontal deflections at
time t.
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