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Acrylamide in coffee: Review of progress in analysis,
formation and level reduction
Helmut Guenther a; Elke Anklam b; Thomas Wenzl c; Richard H. Stadler d
a
Kraft Foods, Bremen, Germany
b
European Commission Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Institute for
Health and Consumer Protection, I-21020 Ispra, Italy
c
European Commission Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Institute for
Reference Materials and Measurements, B-2440 Geel, Belgium
d
Nestlé Product Technology Centre, CH-1350 Orbe, Switzerland

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and level reduction', Food Additives & Contaminants, 24:1, 60 - 70
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Food Additives and Contaminants, Supplement 1, 2007; 24(S1): 60–70

Acrylamide in coffee: Review of progress in analysis, formation

and level reduction

HELMUT GUENTHER1, ELKE ANKLAM2, THOMAS WENZL3, &

RICHARD H. STADLER4
1
Kraft Foods, Bremen, Germany, 2European Commission Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Institute for
Health and Consumer Protection, TP 202, Via E. Fermi, I-21020 Ispra, Italy, 3European Commission Directorate
General Joint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, Retieseweg 111, B-2440 Geel,
Belgium, and 4Nestlé Product Technology Centre, CH-1350 Orbe, Switzerland

(Received 5 December 2006; revised 23 January 2007; accepted 23 January 2007)

This paper summarizes the progress made in understanding the formation of acrylamide in coffee, as well as potential
reduction strategies, as presented during the joint CIAA/EC workshop on acrylamide, held in Brussels in March 2006.
Currently, there are no concrete measures to reduce acrylamide concentrations in roast and ground coffee without
appreciably changing the organoleptic properties of the product. Certain approaches, such as steam roasting, have been
tried on a laboratory scale, albeit without affording a significant reduction. More work on the mechanisms governing the
‘‘loss’’ of acrylamide during storage of roast and ground coffee is warranted, and studies in this direction have been initiated.
Finally, risk/benefit analysis must be addressed in a complex food such as coffee, known to harbour numerous health
beneficial/chemoprotective compounds with antioxidant and antimutagenic properties.

Keywords: Acrylamide, coffee, mitigation, formation, analysis, exposure

Introduction practice for all stakeholders, i.e. consumers, manu-

After the first announcement in April 2002 of the
presence of acrylamide in cooked foods (Swedish
National Food Administration 2002), a number of
research projects were launched to investigate the
formation and presence of acrylamide in roasted
coffee and coffee products. Compared to potato-
based products, only a few studies have been
published to date on the formation and reduction
strategies of acrylamide in coffee. The CIAA
(Confederation of the European Food and Drink
Industry) has contributed significantly to knowledge
on acrylamide formation in the coffee product
category, reflected in two peer-reviewed articles
(Taeymans et al. 2004, 2005) and in a CIAA
Acrylamide Status Report (CIAA 2004). In fact,
the CIAA has since established a Technical Expert
Group, which, in 2005, presented a ‘‘Toolbox’’
approach to identify common interventions and
measures throughout the food supply chain (CIAA
2006). An important component of the ‘‘Toolbox’’
is a collection of key guiding principles of good
facturers, retailers, caterers, etc.
In March 2006, the CIAA, jointly with the
European Commission, convened an ‘‘Acrylamide
Workshop’’ in Brussels to bring risk managers,
academics, stakeholders and concerned food manu-
facturers together to review the status and progress
of the acrylamide programs with regard to (1)
analytical aspects, (2) acrylamide formation path-
ways, (3) academic research on reduction, (4)
industry efforts on reduction, (5) aspects surround
home cooking and catering and (6) risk assessment
considerations.
Within this context, specific working groups were
established and charged to discuss key information
and achievements to date, encompassing results
of completed and ongoing projects with a specific
focus on future opportunities, gaps, as well as
constraints. The ‘‘Coffee’’ working group here
reports on the outcome of these discussions and
provides a review of the latest research results
regarding acrylamide.

Correspondence: Richard H. Stadler. E-mail: richard.stadler@rdor.nestle.com

ISSN 0265–203X print/ISSN 1464–5122 online ß 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02652030701243119
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 08:59 17 September 2007
Analytical methods and method performance
Many food analysis laboratories initially experienced
major problems with the determination of acryla-
mide in ‘‘difficult’’ matrices, such as coffee (Roach
et al. 2003, Riediker and Stadler 2003), leading to
a potential overestimation. It is important to note
that even today there is no agreed methodology
to determine acrylamide in food, particularly with
regard to clean-up procedures, which may result in
limited comparability of data.
Several laboratories have in the past 2 years
presented methods of adequate precision and
accuracy to quantify acrylamide in coffee brew
(Andrzejewski et al. 2004; Delatour et al. 2004;
Granby and Fagt 2004; Senyuva and Gökmen 2005;
Aguas et al. 2006). These have shown that additional
clean-up steps are required to obtain an extract
that provides a mass spectral chromatogram free of
interferences in all pertinent mass transitions.
Moreover, it is highly recommended that labora-
tories (commercial, food control, industry) demon-
strate their performance by participating in suitable
ring-tests and provide validation data to support
their proficiency in analysis.
The first proficiency test on the determination
of acrylamide in coffee was organised in summer
2003 by FAPASÕ . A total of 41 laboratories from
17 countries participated in the study. The assigned
acrylamide content was 329 mg kg
1, which is close
to the median value from 300 monitoring results
for roast-coffee samples in the EU database on
acrylamide levels in food. A satisfactory performance
in the study was reported for 27 of 31 laboratories
that returned analysis results.
Another proficiency test was organised at the end
of 2004 by the European Commission’s Directorate
General Joint Research Centre (DG-JRC) together
with partners from the German Federal Institute
for Risk Assessment (BfR) (Wenzl et al. 2005). This
proficiency test aimed at studying primarily the
analytical performance of official food control
laboratories within the EU. Forty-three laboratories
subscribed for participation in the trial and were
supplied with one commercial roast-coffee sample,
one commercial instant-coffee sample and also with
a coffee surrogate and a cocoa-powder sample.
The roasted coffee sample contained acrylamide at
a level of 258 mg kg
1. The target standard devia-
tion was set, according to the Horwitz equation,
at 51 mg kg
1. Twenty percent of the participants
that submitted results did not perform satisfactorily
for the roasted coffee sample. The range of reported
results was between 130 and 661 mg kg
1. The
percentage of unsatisfactorily performing labora-
tories was similar for the instant-coffee sample.
The assigned acrylamide content of that sample
Acrylamide in coffee 61
was 858 mg kg
1 and the range of reported results
was between 448 and 1481 mg kg
1. Noticeably,
about 25% of the participants supplied with samples
did not report any results. This percentage is similar
to that of the FAPASÕ study. However, the outcome
of these two proficiency tests was, in general, quite
similar. Although the majority of participants
seem to apply adequate analysis procedures, a
considerable number of laboratories that returned
results reported problems with this type of matrix.
The question as to why one-quarter of the partici-
pants did not report any analysis results is still
unsolved.
Exposure
Acrylamide is a polar molecule and efficiently
extracted with hot water. Hence, the brewing
process most probably allows full extraction of the
acrylamide present in ground coffee powder into the
brew. A limited survey of roast and ground coffees
and instant coffees in the USA revealed levels
ranging 45–374 mg kg
1 (n ¼ 31, powder basis) and
169–539 mg kg
1 (n ¼ 12, powder basis), respectively
(Andrzejewski et al. 2004). These figures compare
well with other published data (Friedman 2003;
Delatour et al. 2004; Murkovic 2004; Senyuva and
Gökmen 2005).
Roast and ground coffee is not consumed as such,
but prepared as a beverage. Coffee is prepared by
the addition of hot water and subsequent filtration.
Thus, calculation of the acrylamide content per
cup is an important term of exposure level. For
example, assuming an average acrylamide content
of 250 mg kg
1 in the powder and a brew strength
of 50 g l
1 (5% in brewed coffee), then 1 l coffee
(6–8 cups) will result in an acrylamide uptake of
12.5 mg (considering total extraction of the acryla-
mide from the powder).
Coffee has, in some cases, been reported to
contribute substantially to the total dietary intake
of acrylamide, especially in Nordic countries.
In Sweden, an early study showed that the mean
intake from coffee was estimated at 12 mg day
1,
which is roughly 39% of the total dietary intake
(Svensson et al. 2003). These results are, however,
based only on two ready-to-drink coffee samples
(medium roast) containing 25 mg l
1, which the
authors concluded is in the upper range compared
to other data. In the meantime, the calculations
have been revised based on more reliable data of
acrylamide in coffee, now at an average of 12 mg l
1
and, consequently, lowering the contribution of
coffee to 25% of the total acrylamide dietary
intake. Comparative figures have been reported for
the Swiss population, where the intake of acrylamide
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 08:59 17 September 2007
62 H. Guenther et al.
Triacylglycerol
Monoacylglycerol
∆T
O 3-APA
H /NH ion
acrolein
Oxidation
O
OH
∆T acrylic acid
β-Alanine
∆T
Aspartic acid
Figure 1. Possible reaction pathways in acrylamide formation.
from coffee was estimated to be about one third of
the total daily intake (Swiss Federal Office of Public
Health 2002; http://www.bag.admin.ch/). Similarly,
in Norway coffee was found to contribute to 28%
of the total acrylamide dietary exposure (Dybing and
Sanner, 2003). Granby and Fagt (2004) provided a
first estimation of the contribution of coffee to the
total dietary acrylamide uptake in Denmark, show-
ing that the mean exposure of acrylamide from
coffee is 20%. They also compared different
brewing types (filter and French Press), with no
significant differences in the two. Brewed coffees
were also segregated into medium and dark roasted,
showing mean levels of 9.1 mg l
1 (n ¼ 21) and
3.8 mg l
1 (n ¼ 4), respectively. The maximum
amount recorded for medium roast series was
15 mg l
1 and lowest concentration at 6 mg l
1.
An important factor to consider when comparing
data is the mode of preparation of the brew, i.e. how
much ground coffee per liter of water is used for
brewing. In the USA study, 20 g was used, in the
Danish study 40 g and in the Swedish and Norwegian
studies 50 and 60 g, respectively, were used.
However, reports on the concentration of acryla-
mide in roast and ground coffee must be made with
caution, as independent studies have shown that
acrylamide is not stable in coffee, i.e. the concentra-
tion decreases over prolonged storage time
(Andrzejewski et al. 2004; Hönicke and
Gatermann 2005; Lantz et al. 2006). This aspect
has not been adequately considered in exposure
assessments and is elaborated further in the ‘‘Storage
time and conditions’’ section.
Mechanisms of formation
It is generally accepted that the main route for the
formation of acrylamide in coffee – as in most other
Asparagine Asparagine/carbonyl
−CO2 Maillard
Oxi
dat
−NH3
3
O
∆T Wheat
NH2
Gluten
acrylamide
NH 3
∆T
Serine
Lactic acid
Cysteine
concerned foods – is the early Maillard reaction,
initiated by the condensation of asparagine and
reducing carbohydrates, such as fructose or glucose,
or, alternatively, reactive carbonyls (including
-dicarbonyls, n-aldehydes, 2-oxo acids). However,
coffee beans are subject to relatively higher tempera-
tures than other foods in that they are roasted in the
range 220–250 C. Under such conditions, more
than one pathway, beyond the commonly accepted
asparagine/sugar (or carbonyl) condensation, may be
expected to furnish acrylamide via the Maillard
reaction; an overview of possible routes is depicted
in Figure 1.
Following this scheme, several thermally driven
reactions are feasible and the salient intermediates
are acrolein, acrylic acid and 3-aminopropionamide
(3-APA). Acrolein can be formed by different
pathways, including the oxidative degradation of
lipids, and could react further via acrylic acid to form
acrylamide. A recent report (Yasuhara et al. 2003)
also illustrates that, under certain conditions, acro-
lein together with asparagine may generate appreci-
able amounts of acrylamide. Acrylic acid can react
with ammonia – released during the thermolysis
of amino acids – to furnish acrylamide by amino-
dehydroxylation, which is a well-known reaction
of acids leading to amides (Yaylayan and Stadler
2005). An alternative route to acrylic acid is via the
Maillard reaction, analogous to that described for
acrylamide In this case, aspartic acid would provide
the backbone of the vinyl acid (Stadler et al. 2003).
Aspartic acid can also release acrylic acid without the
involvement of sugars or a carbonyl source following
a concerted decarboxylation/deamination pathway
(Yaylayan et al. 2005). In addition to asparagine,
other amino acids, such as L-alanine and L-arginine
are also capable of releasing acrylic acid
at temperatures above 180 C, with yields within
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 08:59 17 September 2007

Acrylamide in coffee 63

the same order of magnitude as aspartic acid Interestingly, 3-APA could not be detected in any
(Yaylayan and Stadler 2005). Carnosine in meat of the roasted samples nor in the green coffee. This
products can release -alanine through hydrolysis
(Yaylayan et al. 2005) and form acrylic acid and,
eventually, acrylamide or its derivatives.
Even though several potential indirect routes
to acrylamide have been identified, the acrylic acid
pathway seems only of marginal importance in
foods, probably due to the limitation of free
ammonia and need of relatively high temperatures
for the reaction to proceed efficiently.
Pyrolytic reactions involving serine and cysteine
can also be envisaged, through conversion via
pyruvic acid to lactic acid. In the presence of
ammonia, lactamide and acrylamide (subsequent
dehydration of lactamide) can be generated
(Yaylayan et al. 2005). The importance of pyrolytic
reactions of macromolecules in the formation
of acrylamide has recently been demonstrated in
bread (Claus et al. 2006). In this study, the addition
of wheat gluten to a bread roll product led to a
20% increase of acrylamide. The authors could
show that acrylamide is released thermally by
suggests that biochemical pathways (decarboxylase)
are not relevant in coffee and that other reaction
pathways, not involving 3-APA, may be dominant
during the roasting of coffee. Further work is needed
to elucidate the major reaction mechanism(s) that
contribute to acrylamide formation in coffee.
Measurement and quantification of the individual
contributions of the various pathways, elaborated
above, to acrylamide formation in coffee will be
difficult to conduct. To determine the contribution
of asparagine, a possible approach is to extract
the constituents at the green bean stage (similar to
decaffeination), subsequent treatment of the extract
with asparaginase under favourable conditions
for near complete removal of asparagine and then
reconstitute the extract back into the beans. Roasting
the ‘‘reconstituted’’ beans and subsequent measure-
ment of acrylamide versus a control would provide
some idea of the importance of the asparagine route.
-elimination from a defined amino acid sequence
in the peptide. Theoretically, similar reaction
mechanisms may also be feasible in coffee where
temperatures are sufficiently high.
Another important intermediate suggested to play
a role in the formation of acrylamide is 3-APA,
initially proposed by Zyzak et al. (2003). Shortly
thereafter, the group of Professor Schieberle
(Granvogl et al. 2004; Granvogl and Schieberle
2006) suggested the possibility of enzymatic
decarboxylation of asparagine in vivo (potatoes,
cocoa) and its conversion into 3-APA prior to
thermal processing. During processing of the
potato, 3-APA can be converted into acrylamide by
deamination, a reaction which gives excellent yields
in model test-tube systems (60 mol%) and can be
carried out in aqueous or low moisture environ-
ments. In fact, the same research group recently
provided the first evidence that 3-APA is a key
transient intermediate in the formation of acryla-
mide, using a cheese model. After administration of
stable isotope-labeled asparagine [13C4 15N2] and
subsequent baking, they quantified the amounts of
the labeled and non-labeled reaction products and,
essentially, found comparable ratios, unequivocally
demonstrating a possible pathway to acrylamide via
3-APA (Granvogl and Schieberle 2006).
Recently, Bagdonaite et al. (2006) addressed the
importance of 3-APA as a tentative intermediate
in the formation of acrylamide in coffee. First, they
established an analytical method to measure 3-APA
in coffee. Arabica and Robusta coffees were then
roasted under laboratory conditions at temperatures
ranging from 150 to 240 C for 5–15 min.
Green coffee
The two coffee species of commercial importance
are Coffea arabica (Arabica) and Coffea canephora
(Robusta). Arabica accounts for 64%, while
Robusta accounts for 35% of the world’s coffee
production. Both species are chemically distinct
and characterized by different levels of minerals,
volatile substances, chlorogenic acids and caffeine
(Rubayiza and Meurens 2005).
The key reactants that lead to acrylamide in the
Maillard reaction are sugars and asparagine
(Mottram et al. 2002; Stadler et al. 2002a). The
free asparagine concentrations in green coffee beans
lies within a very narrow range, typically 0.2–1,
0 g kg
1, with, on average, slightly higher levels in
Robusta beans (Stadler and Scholtz 2004; Lantz et al.
2006; Murkovic and Derler 2006). An analysis of the
amount of asparagine in green coffees and corre-
sponding acrylamide concentration after roasting
showed only a weak positive correlation (r2 ¼ 0.56
for n ¼ 20, Robusta and Arabica coffees; Figure 2). In
fact, a plot of the five Robusta samples alone showed
no correlation. This finding is not surprising since the
rate of loss of acrylamide far surpasses the formation
reaction(s), especially toward the end of the roasting
cycle (approx. 95% loss); thus, a relationship to a
natural reactant, such as asparagine, is practically
impossible to establish (Lantz et al. 2006; CIAA
2006).
Levels of reducing sugars in green coffees showed
no correlation with acrylamide levels after roasting
(CIAA 2006). A recent study by Lantz et al. (2006)
reported the impact of moisture content of the green
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 08:59 17 September 2007
64 H. Guenther et al.
500
450
Acrylamide / roasted coffee [mg/kg]
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 200
Figure 2. Asparagine levels in green coffee versus acrylamide levels in corresponding roasted coffees (Lantz et al. 2006).
beans. Modification of this parameter (high and low
moisture, 14% versus 7%, respectively) showed no
impact on the formation of acrylamide.
A factor that could contribute to relatively higher
acrylamide levels is the number of defective beans
used in production. Defective coffee beans, in
particular immature beans, are characterized by
significantly higher amounts of free asparagine
(42-fold) versus mature beans (Mazzafera 1999).
However, this parameter is a central component of
quality control and, in most cases, the green beans
are classified accordingly.
It should be noted that Robusta and Arabica
coffees are botanically different species. Their
different chemical composition leads to distinctively
different flavour profiles after roasting. Any blend
change made with the intention to reduce the
acrylamide concentration will significantly impact
on the sensorial properties and, consequently,
consumer acceptance of the product.
Use of asparaginase
Asparaginase is an enzyme that converts asparagine
into aspartic acid and, in certain food processes
(bakery products), this enzyme may be an effective
future tool to substantially lower acrylamide levels
(CIAA 2006). Some companies, e.g. Novozymes
and DSM, are intensively working on the production
of a commercial enzyme to be employed as a food
processing aid. Currently, asparaginase is not
approved for food use.
Several patents have been filed since the
announcement of acrylamide in foods and a few
encompass the application of asparaginase as a
reduction measure. A patent for the use of the
R2= 0.5602
400 600 800 1000 1200
Asparagine / green coffee [mg/kg]
Robusta Arabica
enzyme in coffee has also been filed (USA patent
application 200040081724) but a major obstacle
is delivery of the intact and active enzyme to the
substrate. Some options are described in the patent;
for example, pre-drying the green beans to facilitate
uptake of an aqueous enzyme solution, opening the
pores of the beans by steam treatment or treatment
under vacuum, chopping up the beans prior to
treatment leading to an increased surface area, etc.
However, it is difficult to assess the degree
of reduction that these measures may provide
and are dependent on incubation temperature/time
and enzyme activity. Estimates are in the region of
a 10–30% reduction, but water addition or roasting
of pieces of beans will have a significant impact
on the organoleptic properties of the roasted coffee.
In this context, the effect of the removal of a
Maillard reactant, which contributes to the forma-
tion of flavour/aroma compounds, also needs to
be assessed. Furthermore, coffee is usually described
as a pure product without any additives. As a
consequence of enzyme addition, coffee would
loose this important status.
Roasting
Acrylamide levels in roast coffee are determined
by concomitant formation and reduction reactions
during the roasting process; the profile of acrylamide
formation reflects this effect very clearly (Taeymans
et al. 2004). Acrylamide formation reactions are
dominant at the beginning of the roasting cycle,
leading to increased levels at this stage, 47 mg kg
1,
and then declining steeply toward the end of the
roasting cycle due to higher rates of elimination
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 08:59 17 September 2007
(physical and chemical loss). In the commercial
roasting (colour) range, the acrylamide level was
reduced by a factor of 10 compared to the highest
level recorded during the complete roasting cycle
(Taeymans et al. 2004).
Kinetic models and spiking experiments with
isotope-labeled acrylamide have revealed that
495% of acrylamide is degraded during roasting.
Therefore, light roasted coffees may contain rela-
tively higher amounts of acrylamide than very dark
roasted beans. The temperature per se, however,
did not show a significant effect in the formation
of acrylamide.
According to the EU Commission database, roast
coffee finished products have a median acrylamide
level of 265–290 mg kg
1. Even when considering
that the final roast coffee levels are only 10% of the
maximum acrylamide level, it has to be concluded
that only a minor portion of the asparagine in the
green coffee (0.2–1 g kg
1) contribute to acrylamide.
Both the low yield of the asparagine/acrylamide
reaction and the significant reduction (loss) of
acrylamide during roasting may be the reason that
the correlation between asparagine and acrylamide
in coffee is less prominent than in other foods.
Reports for commercial market samples of roasted
coffee confirm lower levels of acrylamide for darker
roasted in comparison to lighter roasted coffees
(Granby and Fagt 2004; Senyuva and Gökmen
2005). Several research groups have studied the
impact of roasting degree on the formation of
acrylamide (Senyuva and Gökmen 2005; Gökmen
and Senyuva 2006; Bagdonaite and Murkovic 2004;
Lantz et al. 2006). Senyuva and Gökmen (2006)
used fundamental test-tube conditions, heating
a headspace vial with a small quantity of ground
green beans (3 g) in a laboratory convection oven.
The experiments were conducted at three different
temperatures (150, 200, 225 C) and sampled at
different time intervals (5–30 min) for measuring
acrylamide level and bean colour (Commission
Internationale de l’Eclairage, CIE, L*a*b). Such
conditions clearly do not represent pilot- or indus-
trial-scale conditions but provide a first indication
of the impact of thermal treatment on acrylamide.
Interestingly, they reported a good correlation
between acrylamide and CIE a* in the laboratory
samples (non-linear function, correlation expressed
as r2 ¼ 0.9286) but showed a rather large discre-
pancy when employed to predict acrylamide in
commercial samples (up to 59% difference to
predicted value). In contrast, hitherto unpublished
work by Summa et al. (2006b) showed a linear
correlation of L* and acrylamide in both Arabica
and Robusta coffees, albeit with a different rate
of ‘‘loss’’ of acrylamide upon darker roasting for the
two species.
Acrylamide in coffee 65
Bagdonaite and Murkovic (2004), using a labora-
tory-scale roaster (batch size 80 g), observed that
Robusta produced higher amounts of acrylamide
during roasting than Arabica coffee. In a second
series of experiments, they employed pre-heated
glass dishes in a laboratory oven and showed that
longer roasting resulted in lower acrylamide levels.
For both series, there were no measurements of the
degree of roast reported. The lack of information
on the degree of roast makes it impossible to
compare the data with that of commercial coffee
products and to draw conclusions for actual coffee
consumption.
In a detailed study by Lantz et al. (2006), the
combined effects of degree of roast and roast time
on acrylamide formation were studied. The roasting
degree, measured by light reflectance and expressed
in light reflectance units (LRU), spanned from
the dark (41 LRU) to the light roasted coffees
(116 LRU). Their study showed that, except for very
short roast times, a prolongation of the roasting
time (for example, in the range from 290–320 to
460–525 s) yielded no significant difference
(e.g. change from 200 to 196 mg kg
1, respectively,
at a roasting degree LRU 75–85), in that the
standard deviation observed within the ranges was
20%. In practice, roasted coffees in Europe
range in their roast degree from 55 to 105 LRU,
with a gradient from north Europe with typically
lighter roasted coffees to south Europe characterised
by darker coffees. The colour bandwidth of roasting
in a specific country is usually about 10 LRU,
whereas the sensorial bandwidth of an individual
brand of roasted coffee is not more than 5 LRU.
Differences larger than that reflect products with
clearly different sensorial characteristics. Therefore,
the very narrow LRU window does not allow
scope for potential improvement based on lowering
roasting time.
Moreover, darker roasting as a potential option to
reduce acrylamide could potentially generate other
undesirable compounds and will definitively impact
the taste/aroma of the product. Consequently, no
practical solutions are available that would reduce
acrylamide levels and concomitantly retain the
quality characteristics of coffee, since the roasting
step cannot be fundamentally changed.
Steam roasting
Roasting green coffee under a steam/pressure atmo-
sphere is an alternative roasting process – albeit not
ready for commercial application – that has recently
been assessed in a collaborative study between
Nestlé and TNO as a potential measure to reduce
acrylamide (WO 2004/066751; Theurillat et al.
2006). Coffee beans were roasted in a rotating
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66 H. Guenther et al.
roaster equipped with steam injection over a
temperature range of 200–240 C and water activity
between 0.04 and 0.16. For all the roasting trials,
the time was adapted to reach a CTN value of 90
(Colour Test Neuhaus, arbitrary colour units to
determine the endpoint of roast). Acrylamide con-
centration was determined versus conventional
roasting (same endpoint) and sensory evaluation
was performed by comparative profiling using
conventionally roasted coffee as a reference.
The results showed that steam-roasted samples
required a longer roasting time to reach a compar-
able colour endpoint and, thus, contained less
acrylamide. At fixed colour and roasting time,
conventional roasting lead to similar acrylamide
levels. The explanation is that longer roasting
favours the degradation of acrylamide but has a
significant effect on the sensorial properties of the
product. Consequently, the steam roasted products
show more acid and less ‘‘roasty’’ notes. When
comparing products similar in flavour profile, the
steam-roasting process offers only a minor reduction
potential of <10% (Theurillat et al. 2006).
Storage time and conditions
Acrylamide seems stable in coffee after brewing over
a time-period of 5 h (Andrzejewski et al. 2004).
However, several research groups have reported
consistent data showing that acrylamide is not
stable in commercial roast and ground coffee
stored in its original container (Andrzejewski et al.
2004; Delatour et al. 2004; Hoenicke and Gaterman
2005; Lantz et al. 2006). Losses of 40–60% have
been recorded in roast and ground coffees stored
at room temperature over a period of 6–12 months.
(Delatour et al. 2004). Hoenicke and Gaterman
(2005) reported a reduction of 30% after a 3-month
storage period at 10–12 C). In a recent study
published by the coffee industries (Lantz et al.
2006), the acrylamide reduction in a vacuum-packed
roast and ground coffee was measured over a
12-months period at four different temperatures
(
18, þ4, ambient and þ37 C). The rate of loss of
acrylamide was clearly correlated to the incubation
temperature, i.e. the highest rates of reduction were
recorded at 37 C (47-fold reduction in acrylamide
level after 6 months storage time versus initial
concentration).
The reaction mechanism(s) responsible for the
loss of acrylamide during storage has not yet been
elucidated. Acrylamide is comprised of an ,
the double bond of acrylamide. The fate of
acrylamide in stored roast and ground coffee is
currently under study by Professor Eisenbrand’s
team in Kaiserslautern and first results were pre-
sented at the 21st ASIC Conference (Böhm et al.
2006). The researchers administered radiolabelled
[14C]acrylamide to the coffee and measured the
amount of label at intervals in the brew, spent
grounds (filter) and in volatiles.
Results so far indicate that, at brewing, none of the
reaction products responsible for the reduction of
acrylamide during storage are actually extracted into
the brew under typical drip-filter brewing condi-
tions. The radioactivity was shown to be bound
to the spent grounds, building up over time and in a
temperature-dependent manner (Böhm et al. 2006).
Further work is ongoing to identify the components
involved in this scavenging reaction.
The reduction options and parameters that may
impact on the formation of acrylamide in coffee,
studied at the laboratory, pilot or industrial scale,
are summarized in Table I.
Risk/benefit considerations
Coffee is a food plant with a long history of safe use
and, in contrast to most other traditional foods,
has been subject of extensive scientific research on
its potential impact on human health (Debry 1994;
Schilter et al. 2001, Higdon and Frei 2006). This
information indicates that evidence supporting a
direct link between coffee intake and adverse health
effects is very limited and inconsistent. In fact,
epidemiological studies strongly suggest that coffee
consumption may help prevent several chronic
diseases, including type 2 diabetes (van Dam and
Feskens 2002; van Dam 2006), Parkinson’s disease
(Ascherio et al. 2001) and liver disease (Tverdal and
Skurtveit 2003). Coffee consumption has also been
associated with reduced incidences of several types
of cancer (Tavani and La Vecchia 2000; Leitzmann
et al. 2002).
Table II provides a non-exhaustive list of reviews
and studies on the possible health benefits of coffee
and coffee constituents. It is beyond the scope of this
review to elaborate on this important aspect but
it clearly warrants mention. In this context, several
studies demonstrate that coffee is a rich source of
compounds with potent antioxidant activity, attrib-
uted mainly to the abundance of natural polyphenols
and melanoidins (Yen et al. 2005, Anese and Nicoli
-unsaturated carbonyl function that can react with 2003; Delgado-Andrade and Morales 2005; Borrelli
nucleophiles to form a Michael adduct. Coffee is rich et al. 2002. An in vitro model study on the
in compounds that harbor amino and sulfhydryl relative antioxidant capacity of commonly consumed
groups, and that may react via direct addition to phenolic-rich beverages, estimated on a cup-serving
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Table I. Parameters studied at a laboratory, pilot or industrial level that may impact on acrylamide formation in coffee.

Study Scale Major finding Reference

Raw material
Asparagine (green beans) Pilot Weak correlation to acrylamide Lantz et al. (2006)
Carbohydrate (green beans) Pilot No correlation (glucose, sucrose) Lantz et al. (2006)
Decaffeination Pilot Done at the green bean stage, no impact on acrylamide levels CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox (www.ciaa.be)
Processing
Roast degree Industrial Darker roasting of comparable blends leads to products with Taeymans et al. (2005); CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox
relatively lower acrylamide. Very narrow LRU window due (www.ciaa.be) Stadler and Scholtz (2004)
to impact on flavour profile does not allow scope for
potential improvement
Laboratory Linear relationship L* and acrylamide Lantz et al. (2006); Summa et al (2006b)
Laboratory Non linear relationship a* and acrylamide (r2 ¼ 0.929) Senyuva and Gökmen (2005)
Roasting time Pilot Longer roast times using lower temperatures tend to result in Lantz et al. (2006)
lower acrylamide levels compared to products with similar
degree of roast but roasted for shorter times. Impact on
flavour profile
Steam roasting Laboratory Main consequence is longer roasting time and, thus, com- Theurillat (2006)
parably less acrylamide due to enhanced degradation.
Impact on sensory properties
Asparaginase Laboratory Difficult to assess degree of reduction that can be achieved. USA patent application 200040081724
Major issues with (1) penetration of the enzyme into the
bean, (2) loss of definition as ‘‘pure" coffee, (3) approval
status of the enzyme
Storage
Storage of roast and ground coffee Industrial Losses of 40–60% have been recorded in roast and ground Delatour et al. (2004); Böhm (2006); Taeymans et al. (2005);
coffees stored at room temperature over a period of 6–12 CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox (www.ciaa.be)
months. Fate of acrylamide under study and seems that it
binds to the spent grounds
Storage of soluble coffee Industrial No impact of storage time and temperature on acrylamide CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox (www.ciaa.be)
levels
Acrylamide in coffee
67
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68 H. Guenther et al.

Table II. Selected references pertaining to the health properties attributed to the consumption of coffee.

Reference Subject

General overview (health and safety of coffee, epidemiological studies)

Schilter et al. (2001) Review of human health effects including chemoprotective properties
Tavani and La Vecchia (2000) Review of epidemiological studies
Higdon and Frei (2006) Review of coffee and health
Antioxidant capacity and chemoprotective properties of coffee constituents
Somoza et al. (2003) Methylpyridinium identified as the key antioxidant in coffee
Borrelli et al. (2002) Antioxidant properties of coffee melanoidins
Mattila et al. (2006) Concentration of phenolic acids (comparison with fruits and beverages)
Delgado-Andrade and Morales (2005) Contribution of melanoidins to the antioxidant activity
Yen et al. (2005) Antioxidant properties of roasted coffee residues
Huber et al. (2003) Chemoprotective action of the diterpenes kahweol and cafestol
Antioxidant capacity and chemoprotective properties of coffee brew
Svilaas et al. (2004) Contribution of coffee to total dietary antioxidants (Norway)
Richelle et al. (2001) Antioxidant capacity of coffee versus cocoa and tea (on a cup basis)
Anese and Nicoli (2003) Antioxidant properties of ready-to-drink coffee brews
Summa et al. (2006b) Antioxidant capacity of coffee at different degrees of roast and comparison to
acrylamide formation
Pellegrini et al. (2003) Total antioxidant capacity of foods, including coffee
Somoza et al. (2003) Increase in plasma total antioxidants

basis, revealed that soluble coffee was more potent
than cocoa or tea (Richelle et al. 2001).
In a survey of the dietary contribution of
antioxidants in Norway, coffee accounted for 64%
of total intakes, followed by fruits, berries, tea,
wine, cereals and vegetables (Svilaas et al. 2004).
Pellegrini et al. (2003) reported similar results from
a study in Italy that compared total antioxidant
capacity of plant foods, beverages and oils. Mattila
et al. (2006), in Finland, measured the content
of phenolic acids in the most common fruits and
beverages and a wide range of berries. Coffee was
the best source among the beverages with 97 mg
per 100 g, while tea contained less than half that
amount (30–36 mg per 100 g). A recent cohort
study concluded that the consumption of coffee
may inhibit inflammation and, thereby, the risk
of cardiovascular and other inflammatory diseases
in postmenopausal women, attributed to antioxi-
dants present in the brew (Frost Andersen et al.
2006).
In an in-vivo study performed with rats, it was
observed that feeding rats with coffee brew resulted
in an increase of the total antioxidant capacity
of plasma (Somoza et al. 2003). A major contributor
to the antioxidant activity was identified as
N-methylpyridinium, a recently discovered alkaloid
that is present in roasted coffee at concentrations
of up to 0.25% on a dry weight basis (Stadler et al.
2002b). Other non-phenolic compounds that may
exert chemoprotective effects are the diterpenes,
kahweol and cafestol, acting through modification
of the activity of phase II enzymes and expression
level of DNA repair proteins, thereby enhancing
the detoxification mechanisms of the cell (Huber
et al. 2003).
Acrylamide and melanoidins are both MRPs,
formed during the roasting of coffee, typically
conducted at temperatures between 220 and
250 C. Theoretically, any attempt to inhibit the
Maillard reaction as a possible measure to minimize
the formation of acrylamide would lead to a
reduction of the antioxidant capacity of coffee
(Summa et al. 2006b), as has been already observed
in cookies (Summa et al. 2006a).
Outlook
Based on data presented at FDA/CFSAN
(Workshop on Acrylamide in Food, 2004; http://
www.jifsan.umd.edu/acrylamdie2004.htm), the
complete removal of acrylamide in coffee would,
in theory, reduce the average exposure from 0.43 to
0.40 mg kg
1 bw day
1, i.e. a 7% reduction. In the
90th percentile group, this reduction equates to
4.3%. This illustrates that any meaningful reduction
of dietary exposure can only be achieved by
concerted efforts in all relevant food categories.
Studies so far have shown that there are only
limited options to reduce acrylamide in coffee
(Table I), and none of the measures so far identified
can be implemented without significantly impacting
on the organoleptic properties of the product.
Preliminary work indicates that the food matrix
(i.e. insoluble coffee grounds) may play a role in
irreversibly binding acrylamide, thereby leading
to a reduction in the stored product over time.
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Thus, the food matrix adds to the complexity of
elucidating reaction pathways in food and confirms
earlier observations that each food category needs
careful and individual study. Due to the importance
of the Maillard reaction in the overall quality of
manufactured foods, the process of decoupling
aromagenesis from reactions leading to the forma-
tion of undesirable chemicals becomes one of the
main challenges faced today. However, if such
a control were at all possible, it could only be
achieved through an in-depth understanding of
the mechanistic pathways underlying thermal
interactions that occur in food.
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