title: Chemical

Treatment for Cooling Water

author: Mathie, Alton J.
publisher: The Fairmont Press
isbn10 | asin: 0881732532
print isbn13: 9780881732535
ebook isbn13: 9780585100012
language: English
subject Cooling towers, Water—Purification.
publication date: 1998
lcc: TJ563.M18 1998eb
ddc: 621.1/97
subject: Cooling towers, Water—Purification.
 Page iii

Chemical Treatment for Cooling Water

by Alton J. Mathie

Published by
THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC.
700 Indian Trail
Lilburn, GA 30047

 Page iv
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mathie, Alton J., 1929
Chemical treatment for cooling water/ by Alton J. Mathie.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-88173-253-2
1. Cooling towers. 2. WaterPurification. I. Title.
TJ563.M18 1998 621.1‘97dc21 98-5957
CIP
Chemical treatment for cooling water by Alton J. Mathie.
© 1998 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc.
700 Indian Trail
Lilburn, GA 30247
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 0-88173-253-2 FP
ISBN 0-13-975186-6 PH
While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher,
authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
Distributed by Prentice Hall PTR
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Simon & Schuster Company
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London
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Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto
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Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro

 Page v

Contents
Introduction xi
Acknowlegements xiii
Chapter 1: A Little Information About Water 1
The Goal of Water Conservation 1
How Much Does Water Cost? 1
Elements of A Pricing Policy 2
Evaporation or Change of State: The Water Cooling
2
Process
The Water Cycle 3
Terms Needing Explanation:
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 4
Hardness 5
Chlorides 5
pH 6
Alkalinity 6
Principles of Ion Exchange Softening 6
Legionnaire’s Disease 7
The Source 8
Method of Transmission 8
Prevention 8
Chapter 2: Water Treatment: A Look to the Past 11
The Control Industry 11
Early Attempts At Automation 11
 Metering Pumps 13
Metered Makeup Based Control 13
On Line Monitors And ControllersConductivity 13
On-Line pH Control 14
Microprocessor Based Control 15
Future Developments 15
The Chemical Industry 16
Scale Deposition 17
Preventative Measures To Control Scale 18
Fouling Deposits 18
Biological Fouling 19

 Page vi

Corrosion Control Limitations 20

Monitoring Treatment 20
Options Traditional Water Treatment Have Looked At 20
The Last Ten Years 22
Chapter 3: Water Treatment:A Look to the Future 23
Understanding This Advanced Technology 23
Scale Control: 25
Temperature Sensitivity 28
Reduce Bleed: 28
Corrosion Control 28
Control of Biological Fouling 29
Testing For Control 30
Chapter 4: The Future Use of Langlier Type Scaling
33
Indexes will be Limited
Chapter 5: Corrosion (Metal Loss) in Cooling Systems 37
Erosion Corrosion 37
Low pH 37
Pump Cavitation 37
CorrosionElectron Flow Caused by Oxygen 38
Controlling Corrosion Without Adding Inhibitors 40
Controlling “White Rust” on Galvanized Towers 45
Summary of Corrosion Discussion 45
Chapter 6: Monitoring Corrosion in Cooling Systems 47
Corrosion Control Coupons 48
Linear Polarization Resistance 50
 Corrosion Monitoring with the Advanced Technology 50
Chapter 7: Evaluating CorrosionHow Deep is the Pitting? 53
Nondestructive Ultrasonic Testing 53
How Ultrasonic Thickness Gauges Work 53
Locating And Measuring Pits 55

 Page vii

Chapter 8: Chemical and Water Usage Should be

59
Optimized
How Cooling Towers Work 60
Understanding the Heat Source 60
How Much Water Is Saved By A Cooling Tower? 60
Cycles of Concentration 60
Bleed-off 61
A Different Approach to Water Treatment 63
Calculating Water Savings When Bleed is Reduced 64
Calculate Chemical Savings When Bleed Rate Is
65
Reduced
Drift As The Only Source Of Bleed 66
Three Common Options in Water Treatment 69
The Economics of Zero Bleed/100 Tons of Cooling Load 70
Chapter 9: Applying Treatment in Cooling Towers:
73
Equipment and Calculations
Questions And Answers About The Advanced
73
Technology
The Deposition Indicator 76
Contrasting Traditional and Advanced Technology
77
Applications
There Are Two Big Variables in Water Treatment 77
A Conductivity Controller Applied To A Cooling
77
Tower
Effect of Variable TDS in Source Water When Using
78
the Advanced Technology
Effect of Variable TDS in Source Water When Using
Conductivity Controllers Along With Traditional 78
 Treatment
How the Advanced Technology Works When There is
78
A Variable System Load and Variable Water Quality
How Conductivity Controllers Work to Treat and
Bleed When Variable System Load and Variable Water78
Quality are Part of Traditional Treatment
How Scale is Formed 79
Sizing Tower Loads 80
Application Information 81
Selecting A Water Meter and/or Water Meter Timer 81

 Page viii

Selecting Pumps 83
Chemical Application Information 85
Determing Chemical Requirements 86
Applying Treatment with Peristalic Pumps 87
Calculations For Timer Setting 87
Chapter 10: Servicing Cooling Towers 89
Pressure And Temperature Differences 89
The Heat Source 89
Dissipation of Heat 90
Splash Deposits 90
Recognizing the Difference Between Low Chemical
91
Feed And Splash Deposits
Splash Deposits In Evaporative Condensers 91
Capillary Leaks In Cooling Towers 92
Shell & Tube Condensers Not Generally Effected By
92
Splash Deposits
Dealing With Suspended Solids In A Cooling Tower 93
Condenser FoulingSource and Effects 95
Cleaning Internally Enhanced Tubes 96
Mechanical Cleaning Of Internally Enhanced Tubes 97
Expense Accounting And Water Treatment 99
A Cooling Tower on a Plate & Frame Heat Exchanger 99
“Free Cooling” Without a Heat Exchanger 102
Multiple Heat Pumps On A Single Cooling Tower 103
Ammonia Presence In Cooling Water 104
Changing Out The Fill On A Cooling Tower 104
 Electronic Cooling Tower Water Level Control 105
Thin Film MediaCapacity and Fouling 106
Legionnaires’ Disease In Cooling Towers 108
Chapter 11: Descaling Cooling Systems at a Higher pH 111
How The Advanced Technology Works 111
When a System is Removed From Service 114
The Clean-Up ProcessA Case Study 114
Chapter 12: Treating Evaporative CoolersIncluding
119
Direct/Indirect
Indirect Cooling 119
Applying Treatment to Residential-Sized Evaporative
125
Coolers
Applying Treatment to Larger-Sized Evaporative
125
Coolers

 Page ix

Estimating Water Usage For Chemical Treatment

127
Purposes
Equipment RecommendationsPeristaltic Pump with
127
Timer
Equipment RecommendationsWater Meter, Pump And
128
Timer
Legionnaires’ Disease In Evaporative Coolers 128
Treating Air Wash Systems 129
Corrosion ControlLarge Rigid Media Evaporative
130
Coolers
Chapter 13: Achieving Cost Effective Zero Forced Sewer
131
Discharge in Cooling Towers
How Drift Limits Cycles of Concentration 132
Create a Different Metal Image 132
New Technology Improves Tower Basin Cleaning 133
Chapter 14: Case Studies 145
Chapter 15: Understanding Infrared Temperature
151
Scanning
Measuring Temperatures 151
Heat Radiation 152
What Is Emissivity? 153
Automatic Emissivity Compensation 154
Checking For Unknown Emissivity 155
Glossary of Terms 157
Appendix 163
Index 165

 Page xi

Introduction
What was “impossible” in the water treatment business only a few years ago,
today can be common place. Who in the traditional water treatment business
could easily respond to the challenge of a ethanol plant to reduce the amount
of water going to the sewer? Plant production was limited by the EPA imposed
waste discharge limit. In this ethanol plant some heat exchange processes
exceed 200 degrees F. The make-up water to the tower had 160 ppm total
hardness and 77 ppm silica. This book is about a conservation technology that
allowed the plant to stop all water discharge from the cooling tower to the
sewer, reduce maintenance costs, and improve plant performance.
Actually this book is about the learning curve the author experienced during a
ten year period that took him from a background dealing with traditional water
treatment to doing the “impossible” with an Advanced Technology in
chemical water treatment.
Much of what took him over ten year to acquire can be yours with the reading
of this book. This book is written for people who want to know but want what
they read in a simple, direct, understandable format. That the author has
sought to accomplish.
Anyone operating a cooling tower or evaporative cooler who must meet strict
discharge standards to the sewer or conserve water for any reason will find this
book most useful. This Advanced Technology brings the hope that water
treatment may soon be more of an exact science. Worldwide the problems are
the same. Plant Engineers, Plant Operating Personnel, Building Managers,
HVAC Mechanical Contractors, Water Treatment Salesmen, Universities,
School Districts, Military Bases, to name a few, all struggle with the need to
keep cooling towers clean and at the same time conserve water, a precious
natural resource.
A major deterrent to the acceptance of an advanced technology in water
treatment is that for year there has been no real alternative to the traditional
approach and few of those involved really understand why things are done the
way they are. Some knowledge of chemistry makes learning the water
treatment tradition easier, but most enter the business because of the available
profit potential. Water treatment sales people are recruited from diverse
backgrounds. Selling water treatment is generally not something planned
during years of training. The “what to do” develops income faster than
knowing “why to do it”.
The story is told of a young bride who had learned to cook by following the
example of her mother. One day she cut off both ends of the roast before
placing it in the bake pan. Her husband observed and asked why.

 Page xii
An inquiry revealed that the bride’s mother had learned to cook from her
mother. She cut off the ends of the roast because that is what she observed her
mother doing. The end product tasted as good as was experienced at the table
where she grew up.
The grandmother was still alive and was able to solve the mystery. She cut off
the ends because her husband always bought a roast that would not fit in the
available pan.
Many of today’s users and sellers of water treatment are much like the young
bride. They use the water treatment they’ve always usednot knowing enough
about the theory behind the treatment to explore new and better methods.
One purpose of this book is to educate in as much of a non-technical way as
possible, about “Water Treatment” so as more advanced products are
developed and introduced, acceptance or rejection will be based on an
understanding of basics.
If those who operate cooling towers and evaporative coolers ever plan to
become part of the world wide movement to conserve water, the past cannot
continue and become the future. Most significant changes of the past have
been driven by education and desire.

 Page xiii

Acknowlegements
First, I would like to acknowledge the patience of my wife HELEN, for the
hours she had to work alone while I was involved with this project.
Second, I would like to thank Al Thomas, the person responsible for
developing the technology that forms the basis of this book. There were many
questions that had to be answered as application adjustments were made. In all
cases Al was forthright in discussing what was going on. Without that open
dialog, this book could not have been written.
Upon retirement, Al sold the manufacturing and marketing rights of this
advanced technology to TERLYN INDUSTRIES, INC.
TERLYN INDUSTRIES and others engaged in water treatment have shared
valuable information on jobs where this advanced technology has been
applied. It takes many people using a product to establish credibility.
Thanks is given to manufacturers of other related products who responded to
the invitation to allow me to publish some of their application information.
Users now have a single source of valuable reference data that can be relied
on.
Thanks again to my wife Helen along with good friends and business
associates for the time spent proof reading this text. They also offered many
valuable suggestions.
Thanks also to my son Kevin and his wife Narlene for the many hours they
spent at the computer helping prepare this manuscript for publication.

 Page 1

Chapter 1
A Little Information About Water
Water, as a pure substance, is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen
having a formula of H2O. Pure water as H2O is more theory than reality.
Water is such an excellent solvent it readily combines with gases and other
elements. Water is the most widely distributed and essential substance on
earth.
Water is essential in animal and plant nutrition. It finds extensive use in
science and industry as a solvent, a catalyst, a standard for concrete
representation of certain physical units (e.g., liter, calorie), a standard of
comparison for certain physical properties (e.g., specific gravity, relative
viscosity), a conveying medium for the transport of materials and disposal of
wastes, a dilute or dispersive medium, a cooling agent, and a cleansing
medium, and in the production and distribution of heat in the generation of
electrical power. Industrial hydrogen is obtained from water by electrolysis or
by passing steam through a bed of hot coal. The list goes on.
The Goal of Water Conservation
The term ”Water Conservation” will have a meaning to match the problems
needing to be dealt with. In some areas there may physically not be enough
water to go around. In that case the emphasis will be different from the area
that must reduce peak loads so the distribution system will not have to be
enlarged. In our industrialized society, water conservation increases in
importance as peak water delivery strains the capacity of the distribution
system. It usually happens in the summer.
This book describes advanced chemical technology and the associated
maintenance that will allow water conservation to become an important part of
cooling tower operation.
How Much Does Water Cost?
Water is “free” as it falls as rain or snow but that “free” commodity is not
readily available for use. In most cases a local government unit uses tax
money and invests in infrastructure to collect treat, distribute, and dispose of
water waste. In most areas water supply and sewer charges are billed as
separate items. The government agencies sell the water and usually consider
water sales an important revenue source. The more sales the more revenue is
generated.
For reasons of economics, water sales and distribution follow what is common
in the electric power and natural gas industry. There the goal is to sell the
maximum but trim peak use so the distribution and/or generating capacity can
handle the load. The price of water is often more than the minimum necessary
to cover utility overhead. Consider the following from “Water Conservation
Recommendations” Utah Water Conservation Advisory Board, Utah
Department of Natural Resources, Utah Division of Water Resources October
30, 1995.

 Page 2

Elements of A Pricing Policy

A water conservation pricing policy could address the following:
A. All accounts should be metered and customers should be billed monthly. A
correlation between price and consumption cannot be made without accurate
measures of use. This information should be presented to customers in a way
that they can see the penalty paid for wasting and rewards of conservation
efforts.
B. Eliminate water and sewer rate structures that provide no opportunity for
customers to reduce their water and sewer bills by reducing their water
consumption; i.e., phase out flat fees and rates that include minimum charges
covering large amounts of water.
C. Include in the rate making process a reserve fund for replacing expanding
water system facilities as they become worn out or undersized.
D. When setting prices for water sources, incorporate the cost of developing
the next source.
E. When minimum fees are charged, the quantity of water provided under the
minimum block should be a reasonable amount which encourages
conservation.
Evaporation or Change of State: The Water Cooling Process
Water is very useful as a medium for transferring heat from one location to
another. Water can exist as a solid, a liquid, or as a vapor. This text is mostly
concerned with the vapor and liquid phase, but it is interesting to follow the
change from solid to liquid. The term BTU refers to British Thermal Unit and
is the amount of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1° F.
 Fig. 1.1:
The Heat In Water

From the drawing, please note there are two places where heat is added
without a change in temperature. At 32° F, it requires the addition of 144
BTU’s/lb. to change ice at 32° F to water at 32° F. At 212° F, it requires the
addition of 970 BTU’s to change water at 212° F to steam at 212° F. The
changes where heat flows but no change of temperature takes place is referred
to as latent heat. Where heat flows and there is a measurable change of
temperature, it is referred to as sensible heat.
To understand how evaporative cooling works, it is important to understand
about latent and sensible heat, it is also important to know about wet bulb and
dry bulb temperatures. In evaporative cooling, heat from the incoming air is
transferred to the water where evaporation takes

 Page 3
place. It is sensible heat from the air that is transferred to the water. It is latent
heat as the water evaporates because heat flows without a change in
temperature. The water vapor becomes part of the air and carries the latent
heat with it. The air dry-bulb temperature is decreased because it gives up
sensible heat.
The air wet-bulb temperature is not effected by the absorption of latent heat in
the water vapor because the water vapor enters the air at the air wet-bulb
temperature. The 970 BTUs of latent heat is also given up as water evaporates
in the change of state from a liquid to a vapor in cooling towers and
evaporative coolers.
Temperature is measured with two thermometers, one is dry when exposed to
the air and measures “dry bulb temperature”, or the temperature we feel. The
other thermometer has a wet sock and is swung in the air to increase water
evaporation to the maximum. The lowest temperature that thermometer will
achieve is a function of the amount of moisture in the air. That is “wet bulb
temperature”. Understanding wet bulb temperature is important when working
with equipment designed to remove heat by evaporation.
Any heating of water, any freezing of water, or any change of state in water by
evaporation, has the potential to cause the hardness mineral to be less soluble
and fall outcausing. Preventing scale is usually the first consideration of water
treatment. Important advances have been made in the technology of scale
control.
The Water Cycle
The earth, we are told, has a fixed amount of water that cycles constantly. It
goes up as vapor where it condenses and falls back to earth as rain or snow.
Part of the water is collected on the earth surface in lakes or streams, while
part of it soaks into the earth.
 Fig. 1.2:
The Water Cycle

As the moisture falls, it combines with carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the
abundant gases in the atmosphere, and forms a mild carbonic acid.

As the slightly acidic water passes through the earth’s strata it dissolves rocks
and other minerals.

As might be expected, water drawn from deep wells often contains more
calcium bicarbonate and other dissolved solids than water drawn from shallow
wells or lakes or rivers.

 Page 4

When water containing calcium bicarbonate is heated there is a reverse action

that takes place.

Cold water can hold about 2000 ppm calcium bicarbonate in solution. When
water is heated, CO2 is driven off and the calcium bicarbonate changes to
become calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate will only stay in solution to
about 10 ppm.
Inverse solubility is the term used to describe a condition that is backward
from what is considered normal. Most minerals will stay in solution at a higher
level when heated. Controlling the minerals that come out of solution when
water is heated and/or evaporated is almost always the first consideration of
water treatment.
Water deposit problems associated with inverse solubility has spawned an
industry dedicated to solving water related problems in cooling towers and
boilers. Over the years the water treatment industry has become quite complex
and so are some of the solutions they recommend.
It has been about 10 years since a technology was developed that will totally
keep calcium and other hardness minerals in solution when water is heated.
Ten years of field use is long enough to demonstrate a broad range of
application. The water treatment industry now has another option to pursue in
solving water problems.
Terms Needing Explanation
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total dissolved solids is a measure of the electric current carrying capacity of
the ions dissolved in water. Each ion in water has some ability to conduct an
electric current. When electrical conductivity of water is measured it shows
the sum of the conductivity of all the ions. Meters are available to measure the
electrical conductivity of water. Some meters apply a factor and the results are
given as “Total Dissolved Solids” or TDS. Other meters measure the actual
current conductance of the water and give results in “micromhos” and are
often reported as ”umho/cm”. For field use, either meter can be used with
equal accuracy as long as it is the only one on the job. Calculations attempted
with mixed units will not be accurate.
It is interesting to note that over 90% of all solids dissolved in water are
present as six different ions.

 Page 5

The Different Charges of Common Disolved Solids

All dissolved minerals in water are present in the form of electrically charged
particles called “ions”. Ions can be either positively or negatively charged and
can best be compared to the positive and negative poles on a magnet. Positive
charged ions are called “cations”, and negatively charged ions are called
“anions”. Ions combine in the same way magnets work”like” poles (or
charges) repel, and “unlike” poles (or charges) attract. It is impossible for a
dissolved mineral to form a deposit. Before a deposit can form, the mineral
must first come out of solution and become suspended. To the extent water
treatment can keep minerals in solution as “dissolved solids”, it can prevent
scaling deposits.
Hardness
Hardness in water is both expensive and annoying. Hardness results in mineral
deposits in hot water heaters and a soft curd when soap is added to the laundry.
Two of the common “cations”, Calcium and Magnesium, are associated with
“hard” water, while the “cation” Sodium is associated with “soft” water.
In cooling water applications, hard water calcium and magnesium form
combinations that come out of solution easily and form unwanted deposits.
Calcium combines with carbonates to form the most plentiful of the common
deposits. Magnesium combines with silica to form one of the most difficult to
remove deposits encountered in water using equipment. Calcium will also
combine. with sulfate to form deposits.
Water is referred to as being “soft” when Sodium is the predominate metallic
ion available to combine with the available anions. Sodium in the absence of
calcium and magnesium, keeps carbonate, sulfate and silica combinations
soluble in the water to very high levels.
Hardness is measured with a hardness test kit When testing water in cooling
towers, hardness and chlorides, or TDS, are about the only significant tests
that track mineral solubility during evaporation. When using traditional water
treatment, hardness is the least soluble of the elements dissolved in water,
chlorides are the most soluble.
When evaporation takes place, and both the hardness and chlorides, or TDS,
concentrate at the same rate, it is proof that no scale is forming in the
condenser. All the scale forming minerals are being held in solution. If tests
show hardness does not concentrate in the same ratio as TDS, it will be
necessary to check temperature as discussed in chapter (10). SERVICING
COOLING TOWERS, to be sure deposits are not forming to restrict heat
transfer.
Chlorides
Chlorides am the most soluble of the elements in water. The chloride test can
be used to show how much water has concentrated from evaporation. The
chloride ion has the highest electrical conductivity of the elements commonly
found in water. It is this fact that allows a TDS test to be used in place, of the
chloride test for many routine tests.

 Page 6
pH
pH measures the relative concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in
water. The formula for water can be written as either H2O or as HOH.
Hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) are the ion elements in water. If hydrogen
and hydroxyl are equal in concentrations, the pH is 7 by definition. The pH
scale is logarithmic. For example, a pH of 6 has 10 times more excess
hydrogen ion concentration than a pH of 7, a pH of 5 has 10 times more than a
of 6 and 100 times more than a pH of 7. The same holds true on the upper
range of the pH scale. It is important to know that the pH scale is logarithmic
when considering the chemicals it may take to adjust pH.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the carbonates in water. A discussion of alkalinity
can get rather involved, but it is sufficient in this book to note that when acid
is used in cooling tower water treatment it is to adjust alkalinity. Acid alters
alkalinity so hardness will not combine to form scale, it is a form of scale
control. Acid in cooling towers should only be used where there is constant
monitoring to avoid the damaging effects of low pH on the metal in the
system. The use of acid shifts water treatment emphasis from controlling scale
deposits, which can be removed fairly easy, to controlling corrosion, which
could lead to the total loss of equipment. Acid has traditionally been used for
cooling tower treatment when conserving water was an objective.
Principles of Ion Exchange Softening
Softening of water by the ion exchange process involves the exchange or
substitution of the hardness minerals, chiefly calcium and magnesium for
sodium. The exchange is made possible because the minerals are ionic in
nature (often called ionized impurities) which means they have an electrical
charge. The ion exchange process is based on the fact that like charges repel
one another, and unlike charges attract.
Calcium and magnesium ions in water are actually dissolved rock. They were
dissolved by water, the “universal solvent”, trickling down through strata of
rock and soil dissolving the calcium and magnesium deposits on the way. This
dissolved rock eventually finds its way into an underground aquifer, and when
water from the aquifer is pumped to the surface, it contains the dissolved
hardness minerals of calcium and magnesium, it is hard water.
An ion exchange softener exchanges the hardness minerals calcium and
magnesium, dissolved in water, for the soft mineral sodium, contained on the
softener resin. The sodium in the water does far less damage to objects it
contacts, principally because it does not build up on surfaces as scale deposits.
All three minerals, calcium, magnesium, and sodium, are positively charged
ions called cations. The exchange takes place by passing water containing
hardness minerals over a manmade exchange resin in a suitable pressure
vessel (tank). The resin, polystyene divinyl benzene in most modern softeners,
consists of millions of tiny plastic balls (beads), all of which contain many
negatively charged exchange sites attracting positive cations. The exchange
sites are not all on the surface of the resin bead. The bead looks solid to the
naked eye but under magnifica-

 Page 7
tion it is a maze of fractures. When the resin is in the regenerated state, these
negatively charged exchange sites hold positively charged sodium cations.
As the calcium and magnesium contact the resin beads in their travel through
the resin tank, they displace the sodium ions from the exchange sites. During
the ion exchange process, relatively small amounts of other strongly charged
cations such as iron and manganese are also removed along with the calcium
and magnesium
Ion exchange is possible for two reasons:
1. All cations do not have the same strength of positive charges, and;
2. the resin prefers the more strongly charged cations calcium and magnesium
over the weaker sodium cations.
The displaced sodium cations then pass downward through the resin bed and
out the softener outlet, thus, the softener delivers “soft” water. Eventually, all
the resin exchange sites are occupied by calcium and magnesium, and no
further exchange can take place. The resin is said to be exhausted and must be
regenerated.
The resin of the softener is regenerated with a dilute solution of sodium
chloride (common salt) and water-brine. During regeneration, the flow of
service water from the softener is first stopped. Brine is drawn from the brine
tank mixing with a separate stream of water. The brine solution flows
downward through the resin contacting the resin beads loaded with calcium
and magnesium ions. Even though the calcium and magnesium are more
strongly charged than the sodium, the concentrated brine solution contains
literally billions of more weakly charged sodium ions which have the power to
displace the smaller number of calcium and magnesium ions. When the
calcium and magnesium ions are displaced (exchanged), the positive sodium
ions are attracted to the negative sites. Eventually, all sites are taken up by
sodium ions and the resin is regenerated and ready for the next softening
cycle.
Legionnaire’s Disease
In August 1976 a pneumonia epidemic struck at an American Legion
Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that resulted in the death of 29
people and affected many more. In an attempt to determine the source of the
infection, a previously unidentified bacterium was identified and given the
name Legionella pneumophila. Identification of the bacterium was an
important step in the control and prevention of the disease.
Much has been written about Legionnaires Disease. This is an attempt to
summarize some that is known about the source of contamination, the method
of transmission, and suggest some practical steps that may help control the
spread of the disease.
Three bits of information might be useful as we try to apply what has been
learned:
1. The organism was hard to identify because laboratory evaluations indicated
it could only grow under exact conditions of temperature as well as very
narrow pH limits.
2. Organisms do not grow on the ordinary laboratory media but require special
media supplement with L-cysteine, soluble iron and a pH adjusted to 6.9.
3. Systems that were corroded or contained debris or had evidence of organic
fouling were more likely to harbor the organism.

 Page 8
The Source
The organism, Legionella pneumophila, occurs in most soil, in ponds, streams,
and air. It is hard to find a sample of any of the above without this organism
being present in it. It will grow in water at temperatures between 68° F and
115° F. This is the operating temperature range of cooling towers and
evaporative condensers, but the operating temperature range of evaporative
coolers is generally below 65° F. The suspected infectious levels of the source
contamination must exceed the level of the normal bacteria population density
in raw water by over 100 times. This 100 times multiplication is not likely to
happen in a properly maintained system, or in a system operating below
normal growth temperatures.
Method of Transmission
The only known way the disease can be transmitted is by inhalation of
airborne water droplets containing the live organism, Legionella pneumophila.
Legionnaires’ disease is not known to be transmitted by washing, by drinking,
or by any other method of contact except breathing a contaminated airborne
droplet. The droplet must be one so small that it floats on its own through the
air, but it must be large enough to carry the bacteria. The size of the bacteria (it
is the shape of a rod or log) is 0.3 to 0.9 microns in diameter and 1.0 to 10.0
microns in length. Since the only method of transmission is by a floating
droplet of water it is natural that the outbreaks of this disease is linked with
water handling equipment associated with evaporation such as cooling towers.
Prevention
Where Legionnaires’ disease has occurred it has generally been associated
with water evaporating equipment contaminated with moderate to severe
biofouling. When the bacteria leaves the contaminated equipment, it must find
a host with a weakened immune system, then find its way to the bottom of the
lungs and remain there without opposition while the infection develops.
Immune systems weakened by excess alcohol and tobacco seem most
susceptible.
Health service officials generally recommend that cooling towers and
evaporative coolers be treated regularly with chemicals tested and shown to be
effective in controlling slime and bacterial populations. Because
accumulations of dirt, scale, corrosion by-products, slime, algae, and foreign
matter can harbor bacteria and reduce the effectiveness of the microbiocide
treatment, a complete clean-up is very important. After the system is cleaned,
a maintenance treatment program is recommended.
The mechanics of the synergism between the Advanced Technology that ties
up hardness with an extremely strong bond and the elevated pH and alkalinity
resulting from reduced bleed may not be fully understood, but it is hard to
argue with the results. Systems operating with the Advanced Technology
properly applied do not develop scale, exhibit better corrosion control than is
possible with traditional treatments, and it is a very rare thing to have any
biological fouling.
The chances of an occurrence of epidemic Legionnaires’ disease can be greatly
reduced by keeping the cooling water system free of any deposits with proper
treatment and maintenance.
Further reading on Legionnaires Disease
“Control of Legionella in Cooling Towers”, Wisconsin Division of Health,
August 1987.
“Legionellosis Position Statement”, ASHRAE, February 2, 1989.
“Legionnaires Disease Bacteria”, Cooling Tower Institute, July 1989.

 Page 9
“Minimising The Risk Of Legionnaires’ Disease”, TM 13:1991, The Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers, Delta House, 222 Balham High
Road, London SW 129BS
“Maintaining Industrial Cooling Systems ‘Free’ Of Legionella Pneumophilia”,
C.B. Fliermans, Ph.D., J.A. Nygren, ASHRAE Transactions 1987, v.93,Pt.2.

 Page 11

Chapter 2
Water Treatment: A Look to the Past
What is often referred to as “The Water Treatment Industry” is a group of
independent service organizations who utilize the resources of:
1. Manufacturers of chemicals needed for scale corrosion and biological
fouling control.
2. Manufacturers of testing equipment and reagents.
3. Manufacturers of control equipment.
Those who conduct business selling and servicing chemicals used for cooling
water are limited in their speed and direction of progress by what is available
from their suppliers.
A look to the past is not to focus on a single industry but rather to seek
understanding of how each of the basic suppliers have contributed to the
progress of the group as a whole. There are many parallels between the control
industry and the testing and reagent industry, they both were aggressive to take
advantage of every new technology that could give them an advantage. In this
chapter we focus our attention on the control industry and the basic chemicals
used as cooling water treatments.
The Control Industry
The information in this section is an edited version of “A History of the
Control Industry”, Advantage Controls, Inc., Muskogee, Ok. It is published
with their permission.
Controls are the focal point of the industry because they are designed to
maintain conditions favorable to the chemical or chemicals being used.
Treatment results are generally consistent with how well the chemical and
controller is matched and the consistency of testing.
Today the world is faced with an ever growing need to conserve water. It has
been estimated that slightly over 0.3% of the earths total water supply is
available for drinking and all other industrial processes. It is a lot of water that
is true, but there is a reasonable demand that with industrial and population
growth, it is not wasted. The water treatment industry can have an impact on
how a significant amount of that water is used if it will. From trade magazines
and other current literature printed by those in the business, it is obvious there
is a need for better chemical treatment technology. A look back is needed so
the present can be understood.
Early Attempts At Automation
Hand in hand with the development of the art and science of water treatment
came a desire to automate various treatment functions. Effective treatment
programs are dependent upon actions at prescribed times. This naturally made
successful water treatment a “hands on” deal.
Someone had to physically add chemicals to water systems, adjust bleed rates
by hand and the like. If the person charged with this responsibility was less
than consciences, the treatment program was doomed to failure as a result.
Program success then was more a product of

 Page 12
proper application than the actual chemical program.
To the person responsible for the actual condition of the water and the systems
where it was being used, this became an intolerable situation. The obvious
answer then, became automation.
From the beginning, the goal of a water treatment program for a cooling
system has always been the same, scale prevention, corrosion protection,
fouling prevention, and water conservation. The past methods for achieving
these goals in their most basic form have always been: bleed off control and
chemical addition. Automation efforts therefore became focused in these
areas.
The earliest solutions were crude but effective. Drain lines were fitted with
metering type valves. This allowed systems to have constant bleed off so as to
prevent scale formation. This was a vast improvement compared to running
the system until they became severely scaled, then they were simply drained,
cleaned, and refilled.

Fig. 2.1:
Manual Valve for Bleed
Early attempts at chemical feed automation involved several approaches. One
popular choice was a dissolving chemical “briquette”. These were placed in
plastic baskets in the basin or sump of a cooling tower, and dissolved over
time. This provided a “time release” chemical feed. This same basic technique
is in use today as a very popular method of treating small swimming pools.
 Fig. 2.2:
Basket as Briquette Feeder

Another widely used approach was the drip feed method. This involved
running a small capillary tube to a container of liquid chemical treatment. The
liquid container would be at a higher level, and would produce a gravity feed
of chemical through the tube and into the water system.

Fig. 2.3:
Drip Feeder

These early methods provided for a means of controlling scale formation and
chemical addition. They did insure that these activities took

 Page 13
place, whether or not they took place at the right time is debatable. As cooling
tower use expanded, the need for more precise chemical dosage and bleed off
control became apparent.
Metering Pumps
This need lead to the development of the chemical metering pump. These
devices provided a metered output so the operator could know how much
chemical was being injected over a given period. This meant that a cooling
tower operator could set up a metering pump on a constant feed, and he could
calculate how much chemical needed to be fed over the course of a day. If load
conditions changed during the day, the operator could adjust the output of the
pump accordingly.
The advent of the metering pump allowed for an adjustable and predictable
feed of chemical, but was still very much based on operator involvement.
Chemical feed could be reasonably maintained provided the operator
remembered to adjust the feed rates. Scale prevention could be accomplished
as well, as long as the operator kept up with the bleed off setting. This
dependency led to the next level of automation which was based on make up
rates.
Metered Makeup Based Control
The first commercially available device used to fully automate a cooling tower
were time based bleed and feed systems. This involved the installation of a
contacting head water meter in the cooling tower make-up line. This meter
would measure the volume of make-up water brought in to a cooling tower.
Each time a fixed number of gallons would pass through the meter a signal
(usually a contact closure) is transmitted via a wire to a timer. The timer would
activate a relay which would be used to run a chemical metering pump, and a
solenoid type valve in the bleed line. Therefore, each time a given amount of
water entered the system, a fixed amount of chemical would be added, and a
fixed amount of water would be discharged from the system as bleed off.
The water meter timer approach allowed for proportional control of cooling
towers based on make-up. The water meter timer approach was a vast
improvement in control over previous systems. Chemical feed is very accurate
and solids (bleed off) control can be reasonably maintained.
Even though the metered makeup method has been used for a long time, it is
still a popular method of controlling cooling towers. It is fairly low in cost and
maintenance requirements are minimal. In fact, for areas with particularly low
conductivity waters a metered makeup for both chemical feed and bleed off
control is still the state of the art.
On Line Monitors And ControllersConductivity

Fig. 2.4:
Conductivity Controller with Contact
Head Water Meter on Make-up
Courtesy Advantage Controls, Inc.

The metered makeup approach provided excellent control of chemical feed.

The only variable being the flow rate, it is relatively easy to maintain a
proportional amount of chemical in a cooling tower. Bleed off controls based
on makeup volumes is not as easy. Other system

 Page 14
variables such as leaks in the system, and windage losses, leads to inaccurate
bleed off control.
The adaptation of conductivity measurement to cooling tower operation
provided a method of scale control which was based on actual levels of total
dissolved solids (TDS). The earliest application of conductivity based control
used a spot check as opposed to an on-line monitor. An operator would test a
grab sample for conductivity and adjust a metering valve on the bleed line.
This practice could keep the average TDS levels adequately, but resulted in
water overuse in low load conditions and scaling potential during high load
situations.
Conductivity sampling devices evolved to on-line conductivity controllers
which automatically maintain a preset conductivity level. When system
conductivity exceeds the preset level a solenoid valve in the bleed line is
opened. High conductivity water is discharged to drain, and fresh makeup
water is brought in. The process can maintain very precise TDS levels.
Since bleed off initiates makeup, it is also possible to control chemical feed
based on conductivity. The conductivity based feed and bleed method is the
most common way of controlling a cooling tower in use today.
Some manufacturers offer conductivity controllers for bleed off and water
meter actuated timers for chemical feed. For traditional water treatment these
systems offer the best of both worlds and provide the most accurate means of
both TDS control and chemical feed.
Conductivity control for cooling towers were first applied in the 1960’s, but
did not begin to gain wide spread popularity until the 70’s and 80’s. Now
virtually all cooling towers have some type conductivity based bleed off
control. This method of TDS control has been used for over 30 years and
remains the preeminent means of control.
Conductivity measurements are easy to make, inexpensive, low maintenance,
and very reliable. This coupled with a lack of replacement technologies, will
mean that conductivity based bleed off control will remain as the heart of
traditional cooling tower control systems for years to come.
On-Line pH Control
 Fig. 2.5:
Conductivity and pH Controller with
Electrical Contact Head Water Meter
on Make-up
Courtesy Advantage Controls, Inc.

Almost in tandem with the adaptation of conductivity control to cooling

towers, came the application of pH control. In the past many systems used
chromate based treatment programs which required precise pH control.
Controlling pH meant that higher TDS levels could be maintained, making
systems even more efficient. Manufacturers began offering controllers which
incorporate pH measurement, conductivity measurement and feed timer
functions in a single package.
The demise of chromate and the risk of handling acids have led to a much
lower frequency of cooling tower pH control in the 1990’s. The

 Page 15
cost savings which can still be achieved are now more limited to the large
industrial users. Those type of users are usually better able to handle the
increased risks of a pH control program. Many engineering firms still specify
pH controls on almost all cooling systems. In practice, many of the water
treatment firms that service the accounts never use the pH control capability of
the controller.
As more and more functions were automated, the controllers became more
complex and expensive. One manufacturer offered a system which had
conductivity and pH control, an electronic corrosion alarm and a colorimeter
control of chromate feed. In the early 1970’s, these systems cost many
thousands of dollars. Aside from the expense, the controllers’ operation was so
complex that the only portion that got sustained use was the conductivity
controller.
Microprocessor Based Control
Cooling tower controls had evolved from simple feed and bleed controls to
complex multifunction systems. The construction of these controllers involved
large enclosures with complex wiring to integrate both electronic and
electromechanical devices. They were in fact individual devices brought
together as a system. Due to the complexity of these devices they are hard to
operate and maintain. The number of physical elements tended to make these
“hybrid” systems less than reliable.
Microprocessor technology has now allowed manufacturers to build complex
control systems which provide many advantages over the previous generation
of controllers. Powerful electronics allow for much lower costs, smaller
packages, and easier operation. In fact the benefits of microprocessor based
controllers has lead most manufacturers to use microprocessor based systems
almost exclusively.
This advancement has resulted in even more functions being brought in as a
part of a complete control system. Systems now are offered with features such
as conductivity reading from both make up and recirculating water. pH
control, ORP (Redox) control, on line corrosion monitoring, flow rate
monitoring, both makeup and bleed, chemical tank levels, selectable methods
of chemical feed, multiple biocide programming with prebleed and bleed
lockout features.
Additionally some systems can take signals from other analyzers and process
these signals as a part of the overall control scheme. These systems allow for a
totally integrated approach to cooling tower control.
As can be observed, the adaptation of the microprocessor to cooling tower
controls has led to significant enhancements in features and costs. What
microprocessors have not done for cooling tower control is upgrade the
chemistry and the basic premise on which traditional systems operate. That is
conductivity control of bleed off (TDS), and time based feed of chemical
treatment products. These two activities must remain as the basic elements
around which control schemes are established until there are basic chemistry
changes.
Future Developments
One of the most significant capabilities of microprocessor based systems is the
ability to communicate with remote locations. This gives the water treatment
professional the chance to constantly monitor systems under his responsibility.
Currently available are systems which can notify someone if an out of spec
condition occurs. This notification is done via a phone connection from the
controller in the field to the host computer.

 Page 16
As the reliability of the information transmitted increases, and the cost of the
equipment and communication technology decreases, a proliferation of these
devices will take place. The idea that all out of spec conditions are
immediately detected and dealt with has tremendous appeal to cooling tower
operators. Cooling systems will operate at peak efficiency with maximum
assurance of reliability.
The future will bring many breakthroughs in measurement and control
technology. Eventually specific ion measurement may replace conductivity as
the basis for solids and cycle control. Chemical addition may be controlled a
variety of ways, all aimed at tightly controlled feed rates for maximum
efficiency. These methods will include electronic and electromechanical
monitoring means such as colorimetric or florescence monitoring. Other
methods will measure pump outputs and calculate feed rates based on actual
system conditions.
Many advancements will be made. All aimed at the original goals of scale and
fouling prevention, corrosion control and system efficiency.
The Chemical Industry
Every step forward an industry takes, even a small step, merits a look back for
a historical perspective to make sure the change is significant and the
developer is moving in the right direction. The goal of water treatment is, and
has always been to:
1. Reduce the effects of deposits, corrosion, and biological attack on the most
important part of the cooling system: the heat exchanger. All cooling towers
are involved in heat exchange. For efficient operation, heat surfaces must be
clean.
2. Reduce the frequency of product leaks and minimize maintenance down
time by protecting the balance of the distribution lines.
3. Protect the remaining part of the system components.
Water treatment as we know it today grew from the technology that became
popular during the 1920’s. Research had demonstrated that polyphosphates
could be used in water treatment for both scale and corrosion control.
Phosphates have the potential to be either ”good”or “bad” in the cooling water
treatment business. When they are”good”, there are “poly” or “many”
phosphates bonded in a long chain that acts to control scale and corrosion.
They are bad” (reverted) after the heat associated with the operation of a
cooling tower breaks the bonding of the phosphates in a way similar to the
breakdown of the calcium bicarbonate. When both calcium carbonate and
reverted phosphate, the “bad” kind, are present in large quantities, they
combine to form a very sticky sludge that is hard to remove from heat
exchange surfaces. It became the common recommendation when using
phosphates for scale control to increase the rate of bleed according to the
hardness of the make-up water. That is still the current recommendation made
by most companies selling water treatment chemicals.
An important part of the reason for high bleed is the efficiency of the chemical
being used for scale control. If the chemical is efficient in its reaction with
high levels of hardness, the bleed rate can and will be low for economic
reasons. The rate of bleed recommended for a chemical is a good indication of
the efficiency of the treatment. It is interesting to speculate whether the water
treatment industry would have developed as it did if water costs and pollution
control needs were as great then as they are now.

 Page 17
In the early days of water treatment the two leading technologies available to
handle calcium and carbonates without excessive bleed were:
1. Water SofteningOne common form of softening passes water through a
resin bed that exchanges calcium ions for sodium ions. The resulting sodium
carbonate is very soluble in water.
2. AcidChanged the level and kind of alkalinity so the hardness would stay in
solution.
For a time both technologies were popular. In the battle of economics the low
first cost of applying acid prevailed and treatment emphasis changed from
controlling scale to stopping corrosion caused by the use of acid. The early
winner in the battle for an effective corrosion inhibitor contained chromate as
a base. Chromates have since been banned for ecological reasons.
With the loss of chromate as the base for corrosion inhibition, the competitive
battle returned to see what the new generation of chemicals will be. Acid is
still used for scale control but the control of corrosion is much more difficult.
Chromate cleaned deposits from the pipe as well as providing a corrosion
protecting film. The replacement for chromate does not have the ability to
clean the pipe surface.
With the ever increasing cost of water it is desirable to operate with as little
bleed as possible. The use of acid when low bleed is the goal is dangerous, if
for no other reason, because of the equipment available to apply it. Acid
adjusts alkalinity down but the pumps used to feed it are not precise. If there is
a little too much acid in the system there is a need for the acid buffering effect
of the alkalinity in the make-up water to help control corrosion. Very low
bleed may not always be a good idea when acid is used for alkalinity
adjustment.
Scale Deposition
Scale on a heat exchange surface generally produces a higher resistance to
heat transfer. Traditionally scale control is given first consideration when
setting up a treatment program. Scale is most often composed of calcium
and/or magnesium (hardness) with other elements in the water. Calcium
readily combines with carbonates, but it also combines with sulfate and
phosphate.
The rate of scale deposition that traditional water treatment has to work with is
a factor of:
1. temperature,
2. alkalinity or acidity,
3. the amount of scale-forming minerals present.
Calcium is the most common scale component found in cooling water
systems. Most scale results from the breakdown of calcium bicarbonate as
water is heated, but there are other sources. Several factors determine the rate
that calcium combines to form deposits.
The rate of calcium bicarbonate breakdown to form calcium carbonate
increases with pH and temperature.
Calcium sulfate becomes less soluble with decreasing pH and increasing
temperature.
Calcium phosphate, like calcium carbonate, becomes less soluble at higher pH
and temperature.
The application of traditional water treatment is handled by “experts” because
they get more technical about what they do each time research demonstrates
how the elements interact.

 Page 18
Magnesium combines with silica to form scale. Silica, however, does not
follow the normal combining pattern of either an anode or a cathode. There is
much about silica that is still not well understood. The traditional water
treatment industry has developed chemicals that can help decrease the amount
of calcium based scale that will adhere to heat exchange surfaces, but they still
have little other than control of the bleed to control the deposition of silica
scale. Somewhere in the range of 150 ppm is generally considered by
traditional water treatment as the upper limit for silica in cooling water. Divide
150 by the ppm silica in the make-up water and that is the maximum cycles of
concentration they allow. Actual bleed may be controlled by silica, hardness or
other factors, whatever would come out of solution first.
Calcium carbonate scale usually forms when temperature is highest and
solubility is lowest, but the solubility of silica increases with an increase in
temperature so silica will generally be more prone to form scale in the cooler
parts of the system.
Preventative Measures To Control Scale
Economics dictate that every available technology be applied to the degree it
is feasible in the control of scale. In general, the most used processes are:
1. Remove the calcium hardness or scale forming mineral from the water prior
to use. This is accomplished primarily with lime-soda, ion exchange, or
reverse osmosis. Details of the process are adequately covered in trade
literature and will not be a part of this text.
2. Keep the scale forming elements in solution. Traditional chemical water
treatment still relies on acid as the primary tool to increase solubility of
forming minerals so bleed can be reduced. Acid is used to reduce alkalinity to
a design level and the alkalinity of makeup water from evaporation and bleed
is used to buffer the acidity up to help control corrosion. Many treatment
programs keep the bleed as heavy as economics will allow. The final decision
on “how much bleed” takes into account both safety from acid over-feed and
economics.
3. Allow the impurities to precipitate as a soft non-adhering sludge rather than
form as a hard deposit. The use of acid for alkalinity control does not keep all
scale forming minerals in solution. The following discussion on precipitation
of sludge applies to acid treated systems also. The most common scale control
agents are listed below. The list is based on the historical order of introduction.
 Control Action
Crystal Agent Solubilization Dispersion Modification
Lignin/tannin xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxx
Starch/alginates xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxx
Acids xxxxxxxxxx
Polyphosphates xxxxxxxxxxx
Phosphonates xxxxxxxxxxx
Phosphate esters xxxxxxxxxxx
Low molecular-wt polymers xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Source: Power June 1984
Excerpted from POWER, June 1984, with permission. Copyright, The McGraw-
Hill Companies Inc, 1984

It is not the intent of this history to outline all the various uses of products. It is
valuable to note however, that the market now tends to favor the use of crystal
modifying chemicals.
Fouling Deposits
Crystal modifying chemicals are designed to act on scale-forming salts that
come out of solution as water is heated. Their goal is to produce a non-
adhering sludge that will stay free flowing in

 Page 19
the system. It is hoped all the sludge will settle out in an accessible region
such as the cooling tower basin. Minerals coming out of solution are not the
only source for sludge. The following lists common sludge potential:
1. The sludge created from the scale forming products that come out of
solution as system water is heated.
2. The dirt and other contaminants from the atmosphere such as microscopic
organisms that multiply.
3. The mass of floating debris as biocides kill and release organic matter into
the water.
4. Products that might enter the system from process leaks.
5. Contamination from less than clean water entering the cooling tower as
make-up. Make-up to a cooling tower is often waste water from other plant
processes.
From the above list, the amount of sludge entering the system as fall-out from
calcium hardness in the make-up water is the only factor that can be
quantified, even as a reasonable guess.
A cooling tower evaporates 1.8 gallons of water for each 15,000 BTU’s of heat
rejected to the atmosphere. If the bleed is set to maintain 3 cycles of
concentration, another .9 gallons of water will go to bleed for each 15,000
BTU’s of heat rejection. 15,000 BTU’s/hr evaporation equals 1 ton of capacity.
One ton also equals 3 gpm across the tower at 10 degree delta T.
Assume a 1000 ton load with 10 degree delta T across the tower. 10 grain (171
ppm) calcium hardness.
1000 × 2.7 gal/hr make-up × 24 × 30 × 10 grains = 19,440,000 grains.
Not all calcium hardness will come out as sludge, water conditions will make
some difference, but this system will generate well over 2,000 lbs. of sludge
per month from just the make-up water. That sludge must be removed so the
heat exchange surfaces can be kept clean. Over the years helpful solutions
have been found to help control fouling, some mechanical and some chemical.
Solutions include:
1. Various types of filters to mechanically remove suspended material from the
water.
2. On line systems using coated foam balls and/ or brushes that flow through
condenser tubes to provide mechanical cleaning.
3. Sludge fluidizers, surfactants, and wetting agents constitute accepted foulant
control chemicals.
Service by knowledgeable people, especially in the traditional approach to
water treatment, is important because of the potential problems associated with
improper feed rates or feeding chemicals that are not compatible. Much of the
water treatment business is a technical service business because wrong choices
from the vast array of products available can be very expensive.
Biological Fouling
The presence and growth of organic matter can lead to restricted water
passages, metal deterioration caused by under deposit corrosion, and
destruction of materials such as cooling tower lumber. Microbiological
contaminants enter a cooling system either in the makeup water or by being
washed from the air passing through a cooling tower. Air that is washed as it
passes through a tower also introduces airborne silt, dust, leaves, wood
fragments, and dissolved gases. Together with chemicals, oils, and greases that
leak into a circulating systemand

 Page 20
possibly treatment chemicalsthey provide an abundant source of nutrients.
A description of the problems caused and the solutions available would fill
many volumes but in the biological fouling control agenda it must be
recognized that each type of organism will settle in the area they can survive
and grow. Some seek sunlight on the tower deck where they interfere with
water flow, while other organisms will flourish down in the heat exchangers
where they foul and restrict heat flow. The same chemical treatment may not
be equally effective on all types of growth.
The control of biological fouling in the traditional approach to water treatment
consists of adding biocides based on organism identification and
contamination levels. The two general classes of biocides are:
1. Oxidizing chemicals that kill by physically destroying the cell of the
organism.
2. Non-oxidizing chemicals are industrial poisons that are added to interfere
with the organism life cycle.
Since bio-fouling is so closely tied to corrosion, both programs must be
considered as one if they are to be successful.
Corrosion Control Limitations
In the traditional approach to water treatment, while high alkalinity may be
viewed as a desirable adjunct to corrosion protection, it is a natural enemy to
the goal of scale control. Scale control is the first priority of traditional
treatment, therefore, other means must be employed to control the corrosion.
Since controlling corrosion is not generally the first priority of traditional
water treatment, they cannot take full advantage of high pH and alkalinity that
basic theory says could help in a very positive way. Corrosion control to them
becomes a process of selecting one or more film forming inhibitor and feeding
it in harmony with whatever is being used for scale control and control of
biological fouling. All three segments of the program must be properly
blended to have any hope of real success. It is not an easy goal to achieve
especially when pollution control is becoming a major environmental
consideration. Film forming chemicals are not friendly. The use of chromate
was banned by EPA. The level of allowed molybdate is currently being
evaluated. Perhaps it is now time to control corrosion without pollution
concerns. The technology is available.
Monitoring Treatment
Whether new or old technology is in use, it is important to monitor what is
taking place in a cooling tower. A float in the tower may fail, a chemical feed
pump may not function properly, spray nozzles may plug, or something may
be introduced into the tower system that needs to be removed. In some manner
it is necessary to be assured there is adequate chemical used and the
mechanical part is right so uninterrupted cooling tower service may be
assured. Testing and monitoring can be simple or it can be complex, but
monitoring is needed. There is no evidence that a complicated testing program
is any better than a simple testing program if they are both based on correct
principles.
Options Traditional Water Treatment Have Examined
Zero Blowdown Is Sought: Strauss, S. and Puckorius, P., “Cooling Water
Treatment”, Power, June 1984
“Recycling of cooling tower blowdown is a part of the operating philosophy at “zero
discharge” plants. Its implementation involves maximizing the cycles of
concentration of the cooling system, based on water

 Page 21
chemistry and treatment chemicals. Characteristically, the tower blowdown goes
through a lime softening process, although reverse osmosis or ion exchange may be
appropriate. This is done to reduce hardness, silica, and dissolved and suspended
solids. The treated blowdown is then returned to the tower.
Using the hottest water available, lime softening can remove calcium, magnesium
and. Theoretically, a lime softener using caustic or limepossibly magnesium and/or
soda ashcan produce and effluent with 35 ppm calcium hardness; in practical
systems, 50 ppm is excellent and 75 ppm very good. Similarly, silica can be reduced
to 50 ppm quite easily. Treated water is returned to the tower, and sludge from the
clarifier may be passed along to vacuum filters.
Recycling of lime-treated blowdown returns those soluble salts not removed in the
softener to the cooling water system; chlorides and sulfates are the most notable.
Since continued recycling necessarily raises their concentration, higher corrosion
and scaling tendency are a possible consequence. The same can be said for inorganic
and organic fouling, since lime softeners can also remove deposit inhibitors.
At the same time, bear in mind that a considerable amount of treatment chemicals
also pass through the softener and are recycled with the water. These include
chromates, molybdate, nitrate, nitrite, and copper-corrosion inhibitors, which
provide much of the needed protection. Because blowdown recycling thus reduces
the need for makeup and the associated treatment requirements, the overall effect is
to reduce teatmentchemical costs considerably.
Today, many cooling-water systems are operating at 25-50 cycles of concentration,
with some running as high as 100 cycles or more. Water reuse with zero blowdown
thus represents a mature technology, and is being viewed with increasing interest for
new as well as existing plants.”
Exerpted from POWER, June 1984, with permission. Copyright, The Mcgraw-Hill
Companies Inc, 1984.
In every established technology where millions of dollars flow annually there
is and will always be those who want to tap into it by finding a better way to
solve the problem. Ozone as a complete cooling tower treatment received
government grants for study during the 1970’s. It was popular during the time
of subsidy, but did not find a place in the mainstream of water treatment at that
time.
An article in the May 1996 ASHRAE Journal “Ozone Application for Cooling
Tower Water”, by Richard J. Strittmatter, Bo Yang, and Donald A. Johnson,
discussed their research on the subject.
Their introduction to the article:
Users of ozone in cooling water treatment can generally be grouped into two
categories: (1) those that perceive ozone as a “total” cooling water treatment
program, and (2) those that use ozone as an alternative to halogenated
biocides. The former view was promoted primarily in California during the
severe drought of the early 1990’s’. The latter view has received a great deal
of attention in Europe, especially Germany and Austria, where users are
forced to find alternatives to halogenated biocides due to increasing
restrictions on AOX discharge.

 Page 22
Their conclusion:
In summary, ozone is not a “total” package for cooling tower treatment, but
does represent an alternative for a limited number of users. It is only useful as
a stand-alone treatment in cooling water systems which require no
supplemental corrosion or scale control. Ozone, when properly applied, does
provide excellent protection against microbiological activity, and represents an
alternative for users facing severely restricted discharge requirements of
halogenated species.
The Last Ten Years
Considering the past and present status of water treatment, what they can and
what they cannot do, the future has never looked so bright. In a day of water
shortages and increasing government controls, a technology is available to
solve the technical problems of scale, corrosion, and deposits, and to do it at a
cost that is very competitive.
The technology discussed in the balance of this book brings a new dimension
to the water treatment industry. Consider the advantage of a single chemical
formulation that will:
1. Control the deposition of all hardness minerals regardless of tower water
temperature.
2. Eliminate all sludge in the tower that comes from hardness fallout.
3. Give better corrosion control than the traditional approach to water
treatment without adding film forming corrosion inhibitors.
4. Operate a cooling tower with very little need to add toxic biocides as a
regular part of the treatment routine.
5. Apply the treatment with simple, reliable, state of the art equipment such as
contact head water meters, timers, and chemical feed pumps.
Present computer control programs written to monitor process loads provide a
means to control chemical feed based on the difference between cooling water
supply and return temperatures. The temperature split across a tower is a
measure of the heat that will be removed by evaporation. This evaporation in
an otherwise leak free system is a measure of water loss and can be used in a
formula to control chemical feed.
Let the control industry now look to the future and couple that type of control
with the ability to adjust the upper level of chemical feed based on corrosion
rates in real time, and the ability to continuously monitor turbidity. Add the
capabilities of remote monitoring and specialized competitive service will be
redirected, not lost.
The industry presently has the chemicals, the controls, the testing equipment
and procedures to get results and conserve water.
One lesson a free society teaches is that when one door of opportunity closes,
another door generally opens.
Bibliography:
(1) Power, June 1984, Copyright, The McGraw-Hilll Companies Inc, 1984

 Page 23

Chapter 3
Water Treatment: A Look to the Future
Chemical Treatment in the future must include water conservation. Water
Conservation in cooling towers and evaporative coolers, that has been talked
about so much, can now become a reality.
This book contrasts a very important innovation in the water treatment
industry with the technology that has become a tradition. The barrier limiting
the traditional water treatment industry from serious involvement in water
conservation is the lack of a really good chemical to control scale. Poor scale
inhibitors are the reason for a heavy bleed. A bleed generally describes a
controlled waste of circulating tower water to the sewer. Purposeto limit
mineral concentration resulting from evaporation.
Every industrialized nation in the world should be interested in water
conservation because:
1. Usable water continues to be in short supply.
2. Money to cover the cost of adding infrastructure to deliver increasing
amounts of water to accommodate growth, generally is in a battle for other
uses.
3. There is a constant escalation of the limitations imposed on disposal to the
sewer.
Now, due to this innovation in chemical treatment, users of cooling towers and
evaporative coolers can join the global movement to conserve water.
This book is written to help the reader evaluate traditional water treatment by
contrasting it with the Advanced Technology. With the use of general
references to establish common understanding, the primary focus of the author
will be to help the reader understand the experience of nearly 10 years of field
application of an advanced technology. By contrasting the old with the new, a
serious student of water treatment will gain a greater understanding of where
the industry has been and where it is going. There are still many questions
needing to be answered. This book will focus on some of them. The water
treatment industry has an opportunity to take a quantum leap forward as they
learn to apply this advanced technology.
Understanding This Advanced Technology
“Advanced” is a better descriptive word than “new” because it describes what
has been accomplished. The advanced technology moves scale control to a
new level, but it does what water treatment has always sought to do, IE,
increase the solubility of scale forming minerals so they will stay in solution.
As noted in chapter 1, six minerals make up about 90% of what is dissolved in
water. Four of the six are common components found in scale deposits.
a. Calcium
b. Magnesium
c. Carbonate
d. Sulfate
There is no more mystery involved in what is happening with this advanced
technology than is

 Page 24
involved in the use of a zeolite water softener. The zeolite resin has a strong
affinity to calcium and magnesium and attracts those positive charged ions.
When loaded, the resin must be regenerated.
This “advanced” cooling tower treatment chemical attracts and develops a
very strong bond with positive charged metallic ions such as calcium,
magnesium and iron. A slow continuous feed keeps fresh active chemicals in
the system and no regeneration is needed.
Here’s why the application of this advanced technology in scale control is so
different.
First a review of The Water Cycle:
The Water Cycle
Water vapor condenses in the atmosphere.

As water filters through the earth, Calcium Carbonate is dissolved.

Heat reverses the water cycle.

Note: Traditional treatment seeks to modify any soft sludge after it comes out
of solution so it will not become an adhering deposit. The advanced
technology combines with calcium, magnesium and iron so they cannot
combining with carbonate, sulfate, silica and oxygen, and everything then
stays in solution. No deposit can form until something comes out of solution.
There are five areas where the Advanced Technology excells.

 Page 25
Scale Control:
How The Advanced Technology Works
Hardness in Water

Fig. 3.1:
Positive and Negative Charged Ions Typical of Hardness in Water

Deposit forming hardness in water consists of positive charged metallic ions

such as calcium, magnesium and iron in combination with negative charged
ions such as sulfate, silica and oxygen.
Treatment Nuclei Attraction to Cations

Fig. 3.2:
Treatment nuclei has Attraction to Cations

This advanced technology in water treatment consists of adding chemicals

with an extremely strong nuclei to attract cations.

 Page 26
Treatment Nuclei Attraction

Fig. 3.3:
Nuclei Attracts positive charged Ions

The treatment nuclei attracts positive metallic ions and holds them as if
bonded with a super strength glue. The negative ions remain as free radicals
with nothing to combine with.
Attraction & Rejection of the Nuclei

Fig. 3.4:
Iron and Magnesium Ions yield space to Calcium Ions

There is a natural order in the attraction of the positive ions to the nuclei. The
nuclei has the greatest attraction to the calcium ion, next the magnesium and
then the ferric (iron). If there is a surplus of calcium ions over the loading
capacity of the nuclei (about 3000 calcium to one nuclei), and there had been
either magnesium or ferric ions previously attracted, the nuclei will unload the
magnesium and ferric in favor of the calcium. This is observed mostly when a
system is cleaning up and there is not enough chemical in use.

 Page 27
Achieving Equilibrium between Nuclei

Fig. 3.5:
Loaded Nuclei share Ions

Achieving equilibrium between nuclei is not complicated. Where there is a

surplus of positive ions causing the nuclei to load up, some of those positive
ions may be shared and the system water will appear cloudy or turbid. If this
cloudy condition does not clear up in a short time it is generally a symptom of
not enough treatment in the water for the level of positive ions available. This
is common during system clean-up.
Equilibrium between Nuclei when
Treatment Level is sufficient

Fig. 3.6:
Treatment goal is having all Nuclei Loaded less that 100%
Equilibrium between nuclei is the desired goal in treatment and is achieved
after clean-up. The closer nuclei loading is to 100 per cent without being fully
loaded, the more economical treatment will be. (Fig. 3.6) The most
economical treatment use can be achieved with chemical testing and the use of

 Page 28
corrosion control monitoring. It is always best to slightly over than under treat.
(See Chapter 6)
Temperature Sensitivity
The bond between this Advanced Technology and the hardness ion, unlike
traditional treatment, is a function of mineral to chemical ratio, not
temperature. The most rapid mineral to chemical ratio alteration in cooling
water is during evaporation. In a condenser, a temperature increase does not
alter the chemical bond because the chemical bond is not temperature
sensitive.
If, for example, high evaporation rates caused water to concentrate minerals to
the point that some fallout occurred in a tower due to slightly low treatment,
the fallout would be isolated to the cooling tower and no further fallout would
occur in the heat exchanger. However, if fallout continued to occur over a
period of time, and the problem was not corrected with an increase in chemical
feed, the hardness fallout would be added to the hardness in the make-up and
treatment levels would get progressively worse. Mineral fallout in the tower
indicates low chemical feed. Increasing the level of the Advanced Technology
reverses the problems associated with mineral fall-out. Any treatment can fail
if it is not properly applied.
Reduce Bleed:
Water is lost from a cooling tower as:
Evaporation
The change of state necessary to dissipate heat from the water. One pound of
water evaporated removes about 1000 BTU’s. Remaining water returns to the
cooling tower sump.
Drift
Water lost from the cooling tower as droplets entrained in the exhaust air. This
is water that is not returned to the sump. Drift is independent of water lost by
evaporation. Eliminators help control this loss in cooling towers.
Bleed-off
All other water loss. It may be controlled or uncontrolled.
Though any water lost from a cooling tower is a form of bleed, the normal
usage of the term is referring to a controlled stream that is forced from the
system to control the cycles of concentration. If there were no forced bleed a
system would cycle to the level controlled by drift. With the Advanced
Technology, drift usually is adequate and becomes the only source of bleed.
As long as there is a demand for a controlled bleed, water conservation will
remain a subject of conversation, it will not be achievable.
Corrosion Control
Chapter 5 will cover the subject of corrosion in greater detail. In this overview
it is sufficient to note that corrosion protection with this advanced technology
is less complicated because it allows natural forces to be utilized to their
maximum potential.
There are basically two kinds of corrosion commonly found in cooling water
systems. They are:
1. General Corrosion caused by low pH.
2. Corrosion at higher pH influenced by dissolved oxygen.
Corrosion Caused By Low pH
The solubility of iron in water increases as the pH of the water decreases
below about 4.0. Above a pH of about 4.3 oxygen becomes the major driving
force of corrosion. The attack on steel by water with an acid pH is, of a
general nature, over the entire surface with little tendency toward localized
pitting. This is the kind of corrosion experienced when acid is used for
cleaning mineral deposits. Corrosion from low

 Page 29
pH is also common under the waste excretions of certain biological fouling
found in cooling water. Books on water treatment in the past have suggested
that operating engineers might be able to prevent corrosion by maintaining a
thin layer of scale in the system. This proved to be impractical because it did
not address the basic problem. The most expensive corrosion experienced in
cooling water systems is pitting influenced by oxygen.
CorrosionInfluenced By Oxygen
This Advanced Technology works in two ways to stop corrosion influenced by
oxygen:
a. It removes existing deposits to stop the negative electron flow.
b. While cleaning takes place, it ties up the positive charged Fe++ ion so it
cannot complex with the negative charged OH- ion. When that cycle is broken,
products of corrosion do not develop.
When the system has been cleaned of deposits and the potential for pitting
stops, the development of a natural protective film becomes the issue. General
metal loss type corrosion happens when there is no protective coating between
the metal and the water. If the pH is elevated and there is sufficient hardness
and alkalinity present, a clean metal surface will develop a natural protective
coating. The elevated alkalinity, hardness and pH result from reduced bleed to
the sewer. The reduced bleed allows the metal to build a passivating film. This
film gives protection from the corrosive attack of the water.
Understanding the difference between what traditional water treatment does to
prevent corrosion and what is practiced by the Advanced Technology is not
that complicated when basic concepts are reviewed. There are three general
ranges where pH influences what is needed for corrosion control:
1. Below a pH of 4.0 the hydrogen ion concentration is high enough to create a
condition of general corrosion with iron.
2. Between a pH of about 4.3 and 8.0 there are sufficient hydroxyl ions present
in the water to suppress rapid corrosion due to high levels of hydrogen ions,
but the pH is not high enough to allow a natural protective film to develop.
Traditional treatment applies a chemical film to coat metal surfaces to control
corrosion. Nearly half of traditional treatment costs are for controlling
corrosion.
3. Reduced bleed associated with the Advanced Technology allows for a pH
above 8.3. Hardness and alkalinity also increase so a natural passivating film
will develop. In addition, the chemical ties up the available Fe++ ion so it
cannot combine with oxygen and the corrosion cycle is broken. It is expected
that when long term testing of corrosion rates with the advanced technology
are available, the corrosion rates will be equal to or better than what was
available with the best chromate blends of inhibitors. What has been observed
in the field to date gives that expectation.
Some metal loss in a water system is desirable in order to maintain clean pipes
with a good economical corrosion barrier. The treatment goal should not be to
stop corrosion, but rather to control it within acceptable economic limits.
Determining desirable economic limits requires looking at material thickness
and the projected life of the equipment to be maintained. (See chapter 5)
Control of Biological Fouling
Controlling biological fouling is necessary for good heat transfer on
condensing surfaces and for controlling corrosion. Biological growths can stop
up a system when not controlled. Small

 Page 30
amounts act as a binder to attract and hold suspended material as it builds into
a heat flow resistant deposit. Biological growths add to corrosion in two ways:
A. They attract oxygen and become a differential oxygen corrosion cell.
B. Some growths lower on the metal surface.
In addition to being able to control scale, this advanced technology provides
the means, in most cases, for control of biological fouling. In that way it stops
a major cause of corrosion.
The human body is made up of microscopic cells that require a regular intake
of metallic ions such as calcium, magnesium, and iron to grow. The
microscopic cells that cause fouling in a cooling tower also need those same
elements. When the new chemical forms a complex, those metallic ions are
strongly held and do not seem to be available as food. Whatever the cause,
cells that cause biological fouling seldom grow. As a result, field experience is
that biological fouling does not cause the same level of problems experienced
with traditional treatments.
In traditional treatment, a biocide is used to kill a growth but the deposit
remains until mechanically removed. With the Advanced Technology, not only
is biological fouling materially reduced, but existing deposits are removed.
Since all organisms ingest metallic ions as food, all organisms contain traces
of the metallic ions. As the treatment seeks calcium and magnesium, the cell
structure of the micro-organism is broken apart and dispersed in the water. It is
common experience to see heavy organic fouling deposits cleaned from the
metal surface along with scale and corrosion. The new chemical does not
display an ability to kill living cells, but after they are dead, they will be
removed with the treatment. If during clean-up, trapped spores are releases
that need to be killed, use only non-oxidizing biocides.
Testing For Control
The bond between the chemical and the hardness ion is so great the hardness
test is not a reliable indicator of cycles of concentration. TDS can not be used
with the same degree of accuracy enjoyed when testing traditional treatment.
Some ions are bonded in larger masses and current flow is altered.
The testing concepts that were developed to analyze what is happening in the
water might best be understood by considering what many do during an
eclipse of the sun. Since the sun is so bright that looking directly at it would
do damage to the eye, one must either use a very dark lens or put a small hole
in a box and observe the eclipse by watching shadows.
Testing with the Advanced Technology is not directly for hardness, it is for
that which the hardness would normally combine with. It is much like looking
at shadows. For example:
1. Calcium combines with sulfate. When calcium is drawn to the chemical, the
sulfate is left as a free radical. Sulfate is easy to test for and is used as a test.
2. Magnesium combines with silica. When magnesium is drawn to the
chemical, the silica is left as a free radical. Silica is easy to test for and is used
as a test. As a free radical, silica can concentrate to any level and still stay in
solution.
It seems very difficult for some trained in traditional water treatment to accept
the fact that there is no longer an upper limit of 150 ppm silica that needs to be
controlled by bleed. When there is enough treatment in the system to react
with all the magnesium, silica has nothing to combine with to form a deposit.

 Page 31
Regular testing checks cycles of concentration for both sulfate and silica. In a
clean system the sulfate and silica cycles will be about the same. It is easy to
see the stage of clean-up by which of the two cycles the highest. (See chapter
11 for an expanded discussion of cleaning)
1. If sulfate cycles highest, calcium is being taken out by the chemical.
Calcium will be taken out first.
2. If silica cycles highest, magnesium is being taken out of the system by the
chemical. When the cycles are about equal, the system is clean.
A Water Testing Sequence
1. Check TDS of make-up and tower water to verify the cycles of
concentration are 10 or above. Cycles less than 10 generally indicate there are
leaks that need to be fixed.
2. Test both tower and make-up water for sulfate, silica and chlorides and
calculate cycles of concentration for each. Very accurate testing procedures
must be used. Tests using colorimeter, spectrophotometer or digital titration,
where applicable, are recommended. The cycles of sulfate, silica and chlorides
are used to evaluate the stage of clean-up and the treatment effect on the
system.
3. Periodically check pH of tower water to verify it remains below 9.5 for
maximum copper protection.
4. Check turbidity with an accurate meter. Turbidity during clean-up is
generally high, but will be in single digits when system is clean and treatment
is in proper balance.
5. Some operators periodically check hardness, pH and alkalinity of the make-
up water just to monitor that water quality remains constant. Treatment rate is
based on total hardness and silica without regard to alkalinity.
Phosphonate tests based on Persulfate UV Oxidation are useful. The
phosphonate test is not as meaningful during clean-up because relying on a
phosphonate test alone during cleanup would not adequately show the
cleaning process.

 Page 33

Chapter 4
The Future Use of Langlier Type Scaling Indexes will be
Limited
As an industry matures and advanced technology is introduced, tools of the
past become obsolete. One such obsoleted tool is the scaling indexes used by
consultants and specialist in water treatment to offer advise on how to resolve
scale and corrosion problems is cooling water systems.
A new generation of chemical cooling water treatment is available. In order to
illustrate the differences between the new and the old, the following is quoted
from the Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Treatment, Sixth Edition 1962.
pages 230-232. Quoted by permission.
”In 1936, the work of Prof. Langelier was published dealing with the
conditions at which a given water is in equilibrium with calcium carbonate.
The use of the equation developed by Langelier made it possible to predict the
tendency of natural or conditioned water to either deposit calcium carbonate
from solution or to dissolve calcium carbonate with which the water is brought
in contact. The equation takes into consideration readily obtained analytical
values such as pH, calcium, total alkalinity, dissolved solids and temperature.
In simplified form, and for waters in the pH range of 6.5-9.5, Langelier’s
equation for the pH at which the water is in equilibrium with calcium
carbonate (pHs) may be written as follows:

The two latter terms of the above equation are negative logarithms of the
molal and equivalent concentrations of calcium and titratable base
respectively. The terms pK21 and pKs1 are respectively the negative logarithms
of the second dissociation constant for carbonic acid and the activity product
of calcium carbonate. The difference (pK21- pKs1) varies with ionic strength
and temperature. The term pHs represents the pH at equilibrium assuming no
change has taken place in the water bringing it to equilibrium.
The Saturation Index is defined as the algebraic difference between the actual
measured pH of the water and the calculated pHs at saturation with calcium
carbonate.
This index shows qualitatively the tendency for deposition of solution of
calcium carbonate. A positive Saturation Index will indicate a tendency to
deposit calcium carbonate. A negative Saturation Index will indicate an
undersaturation condition with respect to calcium carbonate and hence a
tendency to dissolve any existing calcium carbonate. A ”zero” Saturation
Index denotes that the water is exactly at equilibrium with respect to calcium
carbonate.
Langelier’s Equation has been slightly modified by other investigators.
Various nomographs have been prepared to simplify the calculation of the

 Page 34

Langelier Saturation Index Chart

pHs. A nomograph suitable for this purpose is shown. It should be emphasized

that the Saturation Index is only a measure of the directional tendency or
driving force of a water. It is in no way intended to be a measure of capacity.
While a high hardness water, with a positive Saturation Index will definitely
lead to calcium carbonate scale formation, a low hardness water, with the same
positive Saturation Index, may not form any appreciable calcium carbonate
scale. In an attempt to secure a quantitative index, Ryznar has proposed the
Stability Index. This index is empirical, bases on a study of actual operating
results with waters of various saturation indexes.

With waters having a Stability Index of 6.0 or less, scaling increases and the
tendency to corrosion decreases. When the Stability Index is above 7.0, a
protective coating of calcium carbonate scale may be developed. Corrosion
would become an increasingly greater problem as the Stability Index increases
above 7.5 or 8.0. In some cases, the use of the Stability Index along with the
Saturation Index will help in predicting more accurately the scaling or
corrosive tendencies of a water.
Another index, Puckorius (Practical Scaling) index was developed to address
certain flaws in the other indexes and make predicting the scaling tendency of
water easier and perhaps more accurate. Any of these indexes only find
application in cooling water when traditional chemistry is to be applied. When
the advanced technol-

 Page 35
ogy of water treatment is applied, none of the indexes discussed have a
meaningful application.
Predicting the tendency toward scale formation or corrosion in a cooling tower
is only as accurate as the figures plugged into the formula. Almost all
traditional water treatment is applied using pH, calcium hardness, total
alkalinity, dissolved solids and temperature as guides for adding chemicals or
controlling bleed. Treating for scale and corrosion in a cooling tower system is
difficult because zones for all of the variables differ. Consider:
1. Should the temperature of water used in the calculation be that leaving the
tower, the surface water in the heat exchanger, or the water returning to the
tower? Should a calculation be made for each temperature and the worst
possible condition be used as a guide for treatment?
2. Should pH, calcium, total alkalinity or dissolved solids be limited according
to the conditions of the water just as it enters the tower sump following
evaporation, after being heated to the maximum in the heat exchanger, or some
other place in the system?
3. Should overall conditions be considered or should, for example, the
condition just under a cell of existing scale or corrosion be used to adjust
treatment.
When using chemicals that can only give slightly better results than calculated
using the Langelier or other indexes, there is little room for calculation errors.
If water was plentiful and free there would be no reason to challenge the value
of the tool that forms the foundation of todays consulting business. Water is
not free and it is not plentiful in most areas. It is time for consultants to
become conversant with more advanced ways to solve problems.
The Advanced Technology discussed in this book will allow cooling tower
operators to:
1. Achieve total control of scale by adding chemicals in direct proportion to
the total hardness and silica of the make-up water.
2. Remove all existing deposits.
3. Control both corrosion and organic fouling and operate with reduced bleed
to conserve water. Zero bleed to the sewer is common.
As long as traditional water treatment companies continue to use the
technology for cooling water they have been using for many years, they will
have to rely on indexes that were first presented over 60 years ago. Traditional
water treatment companies stress service. It takes a lot of service to apply
chemistry that has a very narrow range of application. Using the latest in
chemical testing and control technology is a great help but there is no
substitute for chemistry that has a broad application range.
Users of the Advanced Technology have a broad range chemical to work with.
The only guide they need for determining chemical feed rate is a measure of
the total hardness and silica in the source water. The chemical is not
temperature sensitive, the level of alkalinity in the water is not a factor, the pH
is not an issue, and neither is TDS.
This treatment can be applied without the level of training often deemed
necessary by the traditional water treatment sales organizations. The skill level
needed with the Advanced Technology has a lot to do with understanding the
mechanics and logging heat flow in the system. Applying this Advanced
Technology is greatly assisted by a person who understands there is a reason
for

 Page 36
everything that appears wrong and is willing to put forth some effort to
identify it.
Chemical testing is important during both cleanup and during routine
operation. Service is still a factor, but the chemical does most of the work. It is
always nice to open an absolutely clean condenser.

 Page 37

Chapter 5
Corrosion (Metal Loss) in Cooling Systems
The term “corrosion” is often used to denote a chemical change in which
metal passes from the elementary to the combined condition; examples include
the formation of scale (oxide) on steel heated in air and of rust (hydrous oxide)
on iron exposed to water or damp air.
In a cooling water system the damage caused by corrosion is enhanced
whenever attack is concentrated on small areas. Intense localized attack
(“pitting”) often occurs under conditions intermediate between those that
produce general corrosion and those that confer complete immunity. Thus,
inadequate protective measures may actually accelerate penetration, leading
to rapid perforation of some pipe or containing vessel. Good maintenance
decisions can only be made as the subject of corrosion is understood.
There are at least three types of metal loss common to cooling systems.
Sometimes they appear to be mostly chemical but there are elements of
electrical and mechanical forces also at work.
1. Erosion Corrosion including metal loss caused by low pH.
2. Pump impeller deterioration due to cavitation.
3. CorrosionElectron flow caused by oxygen.
Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion describes a number of conditions that may cause a rather
uniform metal loss over an area be it large or small. Examples include thinning
return bends on a heat exchanger due to high velocity or water containing
abrasives. Water velocity is an important design consideration. Circulating
water should be clean, moving at the right velocity, and free from air bubbles.
Low pH of system water introduces a second kind of general metal loss.
Low pH
A large surplus of hydrogen ions in the water encourages the flow of electrons
that bring iron back into solution, while hydroxyl ions tend to supress the flow
of electrons that cause metal loss. pH is a measure of the relative
concentrations of the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in water. At a pH of 4.0 and
below the hydrogen ions are sufficient to cause metal loss in iron systems. At a
pH of 4.3 and above, the hydroxyl ions supress the electrical currents that
allow free electron flow. Corrosion in water with a pH above 4.3 can generally
be traced to the effects of oxygen.
Pump Cavitation
Centrifugal pumps are designed to move liquids. The lowest pressure in the
system will occur in the impeller cavity of the pump. That low pressure causes
water to flow but it also is the

 Page 38
SOLUBILITY OF AIR IN WATER
Expressed As A Fraction of Water Volume, at STP

Fig. 5.1:
Solubility of Air in Water

point where water will hold the least air in solution.

If there is more air dissolved than can be held in the water at the pressure and
temperature involved, the air will come out as tiny bubbles. As pressure starts
to build at the discharge of the pump the air will return into solution. It may
seem like a very small thing but there is a tremendous force present as the air
bubbles collapse in that process. The force of the implosion is to the surface
supporting the bubble which includes the impeller and the surrounding pump
and piping. The high velocity of water flow as that implosion takes place is the
source of metal loss and may be thought of as erosion corrosion that can only
be corrected by stopping cavitation. The solution is mechanical. Chemical
treatment is not used to reduce metal loss from cavitation.
CorrosionElectron Flow Caused by Oxygen
This section will only deal with electron flow caused by the self generated
energy of oxygen in the system. Very similar metal loss results will occur
when there is electron flow due to improperly grounded electrical systems or
improperly joined dissimilar metals such as iron and brass. Corrosion can be
thought of as nature’s way of trying to revert refined metals to their natural
state. Iron is an example. When iron corrodes it forms rust. Analyze rust and
you’ll find it is iron oxide. Iron ore, too, is iron oxide.
Pitting Corrosion basically is an electrochemical action much like that in an
electric dry cell. Electricity (electrons) flow between metal areas through a
solution. Deterioration (corrosion)

 Page 39
takes place where the current leaves the metal and enters the solution. This
area is called “anode”.
Electrolytewater in the system becomes a conducting solution.
Cathode is the area at which current returns to the metal. The electrodes
(anode and cathode) may be two different metals or different areas of the same
metal. In both cases there is a difference of potential (voltage) between the two
electrodes, causing current to flow between them, just as a dry cell causes flow
in the common electric circuit.
Electron path. Besides the electrodes and electrolyte there is need for a path to
complete the electric circuit. In actual corrosion the pipe or the metal structure
itself may provide the path. The circuit may also be completed by physical
contact between two metals.

Fig. 5.2:
Electron and Current Flow During
Corrosion

Electron flow results from a difference in potential between two points in a

circuit. When corrosion occurs, electrons (negative charges, e-) leave the
anode and flow to the cathode along the path between the two. The electrons
are released by metal atoms at the anode surface. When an electron leaves an
atom, the atom becomes positively charged because it has a deficiency of
negatively charged electrons. The atom is then a positively charged ion. The
electrolyte also contains ions. Pure water, at a pH of 7, contains equal numbers
of positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged hydroxyl
ions (OH-). These ions play an important role in corrosion. Here is how:
During corrosion of iron in water, each iron atom releases two electrons as it
become ionized. The electrons flow in the current path to the cathode. Iron
ions (Fe++) form at the anode, are attracted by negatively charged hydroxyl
ions (OH-) in the electrolyte and pass into solution. Electrons arriving at the
cathode neutralize some of the hydrogen ions that have collected there. As the
process continues, hydroxyl ions left behind attract more iron ions into
solution, forming the unstable compound ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2.
Final step in corrosion of iron is the oxidation of unstable ferrous hydroxide. It
combines with oxygen in the electrolyte to form ferric hydroxide,
Fe(OH)3common rust. It is important to remember that anode and cathode
processes cannot occur separately. One supports the other. If any part of the
circle is interrupted, corrosion cannot occur. All corrosion (metal loss) takes
place at the anodic area.
The corrosion process shown with chemical formulas looks like this
Oxidation:

 Page 40

Reduction:

It can be seen from the above reactions that oxygen is involved in metal loss in
the oxidation reaction. “Rust deposits” form in the third step. To stop
corrosion, the new generation chemicals with a high affinity for Fe++ reacts
with the Fe++ in the second step, before the Fe++ can combine with the OH-,
and the reaction goes no further. There are no corrosion products formed
because the cycle has been broken.
The other thing oxygen is involved with is an oxygen concentration cell that
causes the electric current to flow, causing local corrosion. High oxygen
concentration areas form cathodes, while the oxygen starved portion under the
dirt forms an anode. Since the Advanced Technology cleans metal surfaces of
biological, iron oxide and, at higher treatment levels, even oil based deposits,
it in effect neutralizes the effect oxygen has to develop corrosion cells. This is
true in all water circulating systems. If there is no difference in concentration
potential, there is no current flow and no pitting from oxygen from caused
corrosion.
All pitting corrosion is caused by electrolysis and all electrolysis is a form of
pitting corrosion. The main difference between what is generally referred to as
“electrolysis” and “pitting corrosion” is the source of the current. The electron
flow may stem from a differential oxygen potential of system deposit or from
an external source. Recognizing the source of the problem is important as
solutions are developed. Pitting caused by differential oxygen potential can be
corrected with chemical treatment. Pitting caused by an external source of
electron flow such as electrical grounds or dissimilar metal requires a
mechanical solution.
Controlling Corrosion Without Adding Inhibitors
Traditional water treatment companies have promoted the same approach to
corrosion control for many years. The chemicals have changed due to polution
restrictions, but they still have nothing better than adding film forming
corrosion inhibitors. Till now there has been no alternative approach that
seemed logical.
Sales figures get projected for years to come because it is such a well accepted
way to do things. According to J. Goins, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
(Dec 1994), Traditional Water Treatment Sales of Specialty Chemicals Used
In Cooling & Boiler Applications were projected as follows:

% Change
1994 1995 199597
Biocides $122 $126 3%/yr
Corrosion Inhibitors $730 $775 5%/yr
Scale Inhibitors $483 $500 2%/yr
Dollar Figures in Millions of Dollars Spent

In 1995 there were 1.4 billion dollars spent for chemicals and one can only
assume that at least that much was spent for water that went to the sewer as
bleed. The chemical companies sold 1.4 billion in chemicals but the
businesses had to come up with 2.8 billion for water and chemicals.

 Page 41
It would be very good economics if scale inhibitor sales increased to be equal
to the total of all present chemical sales. With the Advanced Technology the
business owner would be able to save enough water to pay for the entire
chemical bill. Traditional water treatment programs require businesses to pay
for both chemicals and water.
The introduction of an advanced technology will cause some adjustments in
the market to take place. The demand for certain chemicals would increase
while the demand for others would decrease. Cities would not sell as much
water, but they claim they want to conserve. The chemical sales organizations
would have the same sales volume while the customers would have cleaner
equipment and lower operating costs. This is not “pie in the sky” wishful
thinking. This is a look at results water treatment service companies are
presently seeing.
Some equipment manufacturers expend a great deal of time and money
understanding how the products they sell can be applied with greater
efficiency. It is good business as well as a compliment to the industry that they
seek to share with users what they learn.
It is difficult to explain why the information developed by one part of the
industry is so slow to be accepted and applied by others in the same or related
industries. The following is an example.
An excerpt from TECHNICAL REPORT H/N-005A, Revised Feb 1990, The
Marley Company: Corrosion Protection for Cooling Towers. Used with
Permission.
“The forces of corrosion (as the term is being used in this paper) are those elements
or compounds whose natural tendency is to chemically or electrolytically react with
a metal, given the opportunity and a proper set of circumstances. Principal among
these is oxygen, which happens to be the most prevalent element on earth.
“Oxidation” refers to its interaction with other elements or compounds, and “rust”
relates to its particular reaction with iron -which is the primary ingredient of the
carbon steel typically utilized for various cooling tower components.
“In varying degrees, corrosion has always been a primary concern in the use of
carbon steel. Where atmospheres tend to be dry and cool, the concern can be
relatively minor. Where atmospheres are warm and humid, however, the potential
for corrosion increases dramatically, and must be addressed at the outset.
“Similarly, the constituents of that atmosphere have their effect upon
corrosiontrending toward its acceleration, rather then its reduction. Years ago, when
 the air was relatively “fresh”, coatings which would be considered rudimentary by
current standards proved adequate. Today, the asymptotic increase in
industrialization, and the gaseous by-products thereby generated, has created a
changed (and ever changing) typical corrosive atmosphere. Obviously, this
evolutionary acceleration of the potential for corrosion requires ongoing research
and development on the part of coating manufacturers, and evidence would indicate
that they have kept up with the problem of atmospheric corrosion admirably.
“However, add to this an oxygen-containing vehicle (such as water), in which
atmospheric gases can be absorbed and concentrated; cause it to come into intimate
contact with the steel; provide continuous aeration-along with heatand you will have
increased

 Page 42
the opportunity for corrosion markedly. You will also have begun to simulate the
environment in which steel components of a cooling tower are required to operate.
“To complete the simulation, the aspects of flow and evaporation must be
introduced. In stagnant water, steel usually has the opportunity to form a somewhat
self-protecting surface film of oxidation which tends to reduce the rate of corrosion.
Under flow conditions, however, this protective film can erode away as quickly as it
forms, continuously exposing new material to deterioration. With evaporation (as
usually occurs in a cooling tower), pure water leaves the systemconcentrating the
remainder into a highly aggressive bath which tends to accelerate the corrosion
within an already susceptible system.
“Obviously, if one were to seek a torture chamber in which to assess the effects of
corrosion, one would need to look no further than a cooling tower. It should come as
no surprise, therefore, that reputable cooling tower manufacturers are considered
among the most knowledgeable on the subject of prevention or control of carbon
steel corrosion under conditions of flow and evaporation. What is surprising is that,
given equal circumstances under which to test, apparently conflicting conclusions
are reached by different manufacturers. Depending upon whose standard
specifications one reads, various coating systems are described in rather glowing
terms-sometimes to the point of confusion on the part of the reader.
“In some cases, however, the determined and insightful reader can search out a
common denominator. That common denominator is galvanization, in support of
which this paper is written.

Barrier Coatings
“As applied to cooling towers, protective coatings can be categorized into two basic
types; namely, barrier type and sacrificial type. Both are used extensively throughout
the cooling tower industry, occasionally in concert.
“Barrier type paint coatings, as the designation implies, are intended to form a
protective barrier between steel and the agent of corrosion. Most are applied in
liquid form by brush, roller, or spray. Some are applied in powder form, by
electrostatic deposition, with subsequent application of heat to promote bonding.
“Although the materials used for barrier type coatings in the cooling tower industry
are normally unaffected by the environment typically encountered, the reader must
understand that all protective coatings are permeable (porous) to a greater or lesser
degree. Some have greater porosity than others, and permeability can be decreased
by increasing the applied thickness. Nevertheless, in no commercial formulation or
applied thickness can barrier coatings be classified as impervious to the intrusion of
moisture and/or atmospheric gases.
“Accordingly, it is but a matter of time before the barrier layer is penetrated,
 exposing the substrate metal to elemental corrosion. At that time, the integrity of the
bond between coating and substrate metal becomes decisive, and this bond is only as
good as vigilant quality control can make it. Precise preparation of the substrate is
required, as is the controlled application of the coating. Being familiar with the
precautions necessary for liquid-applied coatings, typical users will find nothing
new in this statement. However, being hopeful of new technology, they may

 Page 43
find it disconcerting to discover that some of the newer ”miracle” coatings are
among the most sensitive in this regard.
“Powedered epoxy coatings (electrostatically applied), for example, achieve a
proper bond only under the most stringent quality assurance procedures. Not only is
the metal preparation super critical as regards the temperature, concentration, and
application time of the cleaner; but repelling electrical charges, which naturally form
in corners and angles, virtually preclude the application of a uniform coating
thickness. Hangers, normally reused in successive coating applications, provide
progressively reduced grounding capability, and ultimately, bonding of the applied
coating depends upon the curing which takes place within a period of time in an
oven at a specific temperature. Obviously, multi-step processes such as this, in
which each step is subject to precise control, introduce considerable margin for
error.
“Questioning the probability of achieving suitable coverage, however is academic.
Even if it were possible to achieve consistently uniform film thicknessalong with an
ideal bondthe problem of permeability would remain unresolved. Corrosion, fed by
oxygen entering through the coating’s natural porosity, gradually undermines the
coating and gains increasing access to the metal. Unfortunately, such corrosion often
goes undetected until too late to make proper repairs. Although telltale “blisters”
usually tend to give this condition away, the apparent integrity of the coating
sometimes disguises it, permitting concentrated corrosion to proceed unchecked.
“Consequently, barrier type coatings alone are considered inadequate for proper
corrosion protection in cooling towers.

Sacrificial Coatings (Galvanized)

“In recognition of the above, concerned cooling tower manufacturers make use of a
sacrificial type coating, such as galvanizing. In the galvanizing process, steel is
submerged in a bath of molten zinc at approximately 850°F. It emerges from this
bath with several layers of iron/zinc alloy, topped by a coating of pure zinc; with the
effective thickness of the coating being governed by the time in the bath. In a
physical sense, therefore, galvanizing results in what would appear to be a barrier
type coating. As regards its ability to protect steel against corrosion, however, there
is no similarity.
“Although oxygen will combine with virtually all known elements, it has a distinct
order of preference. Given an equal opportunity to react with either iron (carbon
steel) or zinc, for example, it will avoid the iron in favor of the zinc. Therefore, as
regards corrosion, zinc is considered sacrificial with respect to carbon steel. It does
not have to form an impenetrable barrierit merely has to be nearby! Barrier type
coatings may permit steel corrosion to begin shortly after contact with
watergalvanizing, by nature, will not. As long as zinc exists in proximity to steel, and
 is allowed to freely contact the water, the steel is protected against progressive
corrosion… (Emphasis added)
“Since galvanizing protects steel sacrificially, it follows that protection longevity is
directly related to the thickness of zinc applied in the galvanizing process. The
greater the amount of zinc applied, the more years will be required for it to totally
react with the elements of corrosion. But thickness is not the only determinant of
galvanizing’s ability to retard corrosion. Galvanizing also offers the unique property
of protecting substrate metal by sacrificial reaction which radiates in all

 Page 44
directions from the point of initial corrosive attack. Any agent that impedes this
effort, such as the imposition of a barrier coating on top of the galvanizing, may
actually reduce the time necessary for corrosive activity to fully penetrate through
the zinc to the substrate metal.” (Emphasis added)

The idea of using the sacrificial properties of metals for corrosion control is
certainly not a new concept, there is a magnesium rod in virtually every hot
water heater sold, it is put there to control corrosion. In cooling towers it has
been a different thing because until now there has never been a technology for
scale control that would allow a full range of sacrificial anode technology to
work.
In order for a sacrificial anode to be effective in corrosion control, the anode
must freely contact the water. Any agent that impedes this effect (dirt, scale,
biological fouling, film forming chemicals, etc.) may actually increase
elements of corrosion rather than prevent it. What is happening in the
traditional water treatment industry with the use of film forming chemicals
might be compared to putting a plastic coating on a magnesium rod and
expecting it to control iron corrosion in a hot water tank. As noted earlier, the
annual cost for corrosion control in cooling water and boilers amounts to over
700 million dollars each year.
A typical corrosion specification for traditional treatment would call for mild
steel to have a corrosion rate of <3 mills/year with no pitting and copper to
have a corrosion rate of <.2 mills/year with no pitting.
Corrosion Protection Example
Assume a system with 8” mild steel pipes (0.50” wall thickness) and a chiller
with copper tubes 0.035” wall thickness. Corrosion rates are generally
reported in mils/year. 1 mil = 0.001” metal loss per year.
At a corrosion rate of 1 mil/year, an 8” mild steel pipe would have a half life
of 250 years and the copper tube would have a half life of 17.5 years. Copper
corrosion rates of .1 mil/yr and .2 mil/yr respectively would have a half life of
175 years and 87.5 years.
Decisions made regarding corrosion control have a long term economic
impact. Please note the chartSome Standard Electrode Potentials.

Some Standard Electrode Potentials

Lithium -2.959
Rubidium -2.925
Potassium -2.924
CALCIUM -2.763
MAGNESIUM -2.370
Beryllium -1.850
Aluminum -1.690
Titanium -1.630
ZINC -0.761
Chromium -0.710
IRON -0.440
Cadmium -0.420
Nickle -0.230
Tin -0.140
Lead -0.130
Hydrogen 0.000
COPPER +0.337
Oxygen +0.401
Silver +0.797
Mercury +0.798
Platinum +1.200
Gold +1.500

In a system where pitting is under control and general corrosion is allowed to

progress without being artificially controlled by film forming chemicals, mild
steel (iron) will be sacrificial to protect copper. If 1 mil of corrosion on an 8”
steel pipe will result in a half life of 250 years for

 Page 45
the pipe, the pipe will likely outlast the building many times. This advanced
technology shows promise that corrosion rates will be better than specified by
those supplying traditional water treatment. Since cooling tower
manufacturers apply sacrificial technology to control corrosion, is there
anything wrong with following that technology to a logical conclusion by
allowing a mild steel pipe that is thick, to provide natural corrosion protection
to the thinner copper pipe? The Advanced Technology allows water conditions
to develop so the sacrificial technology of Corrosion Control can work to its
maximum potential.
Controlling “White Rust” on Galvanized Towers
Galvanizing is used on a cooling tower surface to provide sacrificial corrosion
protection. For galvanizing to provide maximum utility, it must be allowed to
develop its own natural protective coating (passivation). White rust is the
accumulation of appreciable volumes of a soft, white, fluffy, non-protective
zinc corrosion on galvanized surfaces. It is a condition that cannot be allowed
to continue without danger of a premature failure of the galvanized coating.
White rust is not a symptom of improper galvanizing, but rather, it seems to be
caused by the application of chemicals used to prevent it.
Galvanizing on a cooling tower requires time after initial installation for
pacification to take place. Control TDS in a lower range for the first 8 weeks.
The type of treatment used is important. As was noted earlier, a barrier type
coating can actually interfere with the active life of galvanizing.
Since there are no protective coatings associated with the Advanced
Technology it seems like a natural solution to the problem. To date we have
seen no adverse effect on any galvanized cooling towers treated. It may be
worth noting that field observations indicate that zinc galvanized surfaces are
protected from the effects of oxygen corrosion in much the same way iron
surfaces are, the oxidation rate is very slow
Summary of Corrosion Discussion
CORROSION is metal loss from a water cooling system that takes place in
two major ways that treatment must address.
1. It results from pitting corrosion, and
2. It results from general metal loss where the water and metal interface.
Pitting Corrosion in its most common form starts when oxygen concentrates
on deposit surfaces and creates differential oxygen potential cells. As a
negative electron flows away, the Fe++ ions have a positive unbalanced charge
and seek to combine with negative OH- ions. Oxygen gets involved in the next
step and forms common rust. This advanced chemical works in two ways to
stop that sequence:
A. It removes existing deposits. and,
B. While cleaning takes place, it ties up the positive charged Fe++ ion so it
cannot complex with the OH- ion. When that cycle is broken further products
of corrosion do not develop. When the system has been cleaned of deposits
and the potential for pitting is greatly reduced, general corrosion becomes the
issue.
General metal loss corrosion happens when there is no protective coating
between the metal and the water. When the oxygen in pure distilled water
contacts metal, corrosion will occur because there are no to form a passive
coating on the metal. When deposits that cause pitting are removed, and there
is a surplus of reactive solids present, the clean metal surface will develop a
natural protective coating. The higher

 Page 46
reduced bleed to the sewer provides metal passivation and allows a strong
protective film to develop. This film protects the metal from the corrosive
attack of the water.
Some metal loss in a water system is desirable in order to maintain clean pipes
with a good economical corrosion barrier. The treatment goal should not be to
stop corrosion, but rather to control it within acceptable economic limits.
Determining desirable economic limits requires looking at material thickness
and the projected life of the equipment to be maintained.
There is now a choice between natural corrosion protection offered by an
advanced technology that also conserves water, and the traditional approach of
heavy bleed and film forming chemicals. Available is:
1. The prospect of paying, or almost paying the entire water treatment cost by
the amount of water saved.
2. The prospect of reducing corrosion to less than what is common with
traditional technologies.
3. The prospect of decreasing operating cost by eliminating the chemical film
traditional treatments coat on heat exchange surfaces.
In a cooling water system, one of the best copper protections available is to
eliminate the need for destructive chemicals such as oxidizing biocides. When
clean surfaces are maintained, a protective film will develop and the loss of
copper and/or other soft metals will be extremely slow.
In the Jan/Feb 1995 issue of Industrial Water Treatment page 43 appears an
observation after corrosion data in a Redox operated system was analyzed.
“This is far from conclusive, yet it would lead one to presume that at higher cycles
of concentration the corrosion protection on milder metals would be better. This is
contrary to what one would normally expect to see in a situation of this nature.”

This advanced technology demonstrates what the rest of the water treatment
industry only speculate about, IE, corrosion control is better at high cycles of
concentration.
Monitoring corrosion with coupons while relying on sacrificial anode
corrosion protection is practical along with the use of the Advanced
Technology. It is an excellent option instead of relying on a constant feed of
corrosion inhibitors that increase fouling.
Half life corrosion rates should be low enough to assure projected equipment
life is realized. More testing will confirm that the Advanced Technology,
properly applied, is the best chemical value available for corrosion protection.

 Page 47

Chapter 6
Monitoring Corrosion in Cooling Systems
Monitoring corrosion by visual observation is for many a simple choice of
economics. It may not meet the latest scientific standards of the service
oriented water treatment industry, but considering the total number of cooling
towers, it is probably the most common tool in use. As this Advanced
Technology entered the market place, the visual observations were hard to
believe as products of corrosion disappeared and clean surfaces, pits and all,
made their appearance.
Prior to the emergence of this advanced technology, the water treatment
industry had not been able to rely on just the sacrificial nature of the elements
to control corrosion. This advanced technology charted a new course to be
explored. By studying the Standard Electrode Potentials of different elements
it was clear that calcium and magnesium would react with the Advanced
Technology before zinc, iron or copper would. It was obvious that as long as
scale remained in direct contact with system water, general corrosion in the
system would be limited. The chemical would first remove the calcium, then
the magnesium, and then the oxidized iron.
After all deposits had been cleaned from the system and hardness, alkalinity
and pH is allowed to concentrate for the natural pacification of the metals, the
question to be answered is: “How much surplus chemical can be allowed in
the water without deteriorating the natural protective film being developed on
the metal”. The Advanced Technology is successful at controlling corrosion
because of two opposing forces at work in the cooling system. The passivating
film coating develops on the clean metal surfaces in some proportion to the
level of solids held in solution from reduced bleed. The nature of the chemical
is to remove the film but the removal can only happen when excess treatment
is present. The rate of protective film removal is the rate of corrosion. The
goal of water treatment is not to completely stop corrosion, but rather to
control it at acceptable levels.
Since over half of all traditional water treatment sales are to control corrosion,
it was natural the competitive emphasis would center on how good of a job
they were doing. The earliest and perhaps most used technology developed to
measure and monitor corrosion in cooling water was corrosion coupons. The
proper use of corrosion coupons requires duplication of common system
metals and flow conditions in a small by-pass where metal samples can be
inserted and removed without down time. The coupons needed to be removed
for measurement and observation at regular intervals. It soon became obvious
that the data collected from a corrosion coupon monitoring program is only as
useful as the care used in collecting it.

 Page 48
“Proving corrosion rates” became, and is still the competitive battle ground of
the traditional water treatment industry. Corrosion rates however, are only
meaningful when full disclosure is made concerning how the tests were run.
Corrosion Control Coupons
Corrosion control coupons are small pieces of metal cut so they can be
inserted in a water circulating system to measure losses due to corrosion.
There are several companies who have developed considerable expertise in
helping those in the water treatment industry select the “right” coupons for the
job.
Selecting the Right Coupon
1. The metallurgy of the coupon must match that of the system for the results
to be accurate. A copper coupon when the tubes of the chiller are actually
admiralty would not give the information sought. The same is true of other
metals, they must match.
2. The coupon finish should be the same throughout the entire test for the data
to be most meaningful. The coupons may be finished with a 120 grit sander or
blasted with glass beads, there may be technical reasons why either may be
recommended. Coupon testing requires a consistent approach for most
accurate results.
3. Select the coupon size to match the holders that will be used. Ideally each
coupon will be weighed and sealed in a properly treated container. The coupon
should not be cut or marred in any way.
Applying Corrosion Coupons
1. It is common in low pressure systems such as cooling towers to install a by-
pass where a series of coupons can be installed. Please note that the holders
are located so the water flow is exactly the same across each coupon.
 Fig. 6.1:
A corrosion Coupon Tree for Two
Coupons
Courtesy of Advantage Controlls, Inc.

2. The by-pass allows coupons to be removed for analysis on say a 30, 60, 90
day schedule without shutting down the system.
3. The by-pass with holders allow coupons to be installed so they are not
subject to stray electrical currents that could influence their corrosion rate.
4. Coupons should always be handled with surgical gloves or equal so the oils
of the skin will not alter corrosion rates. This is important during initial
installation as well as when removing and cleaning prior to final weighing.

 Page 49

Possible Locations for Corrosion Test Coupons

Fig. 6.2:
Locations to Consider for Corrosion Test Coupons

 Page 50
5. Maintain a log and keep good records.
6. Install so coupons are always submerged in water. Coupon holders should
be long enough to place coupon in full water flow.
7. Flow control is typically 5 GPM in by-pass.
8. Metals like copper normally develop better corrosion protection over time.
Tests that run 60 or 90 days may show better corrosion rates than a 30 day test
would. Weight loss is calculated as a straight line happening for the full length
of the test. On metals where corrosion is higher until a film develops, the
longer the test period the lower the corrosion rate will be. The corrosion level
of a 30 day test cannot be compared to a corrosion rate of a 90 day test.
9. Be sure air bubbles in the by-pass line are typical of those found in the rest
of the system. Allow adequate distance between discharge of pump or other
line restriction for flow to stabilize.
Linear Polarization Resistance
There are times when it is desirable to be able to have an immediate reading of
the corrosion that is taking place. In water treatment it makes it easier to
evaluate the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors without the delays associated
with coupon testing.
Data is collected by an instrument and specially designed probes. The
instrument measures the instantaneous corrosion rate and electrochemical
current noise between electrodes in the short-circuit condition.
Corrosion rate measurements are made using the linear polarization technique.
The instrument applies a low voltage amplitude voltage across the electrode
and then measures the resulting current flow. The instrument calculates
corrosion rates in mils per year for a base metal such as carbon steel. Other
materials have multipliers.
 Fig. 6.3:
Electric Corrosion Meter with Typical
Probe
Courtesy Metal Samples Co. Used by permission

Probes are generally installed in a by-pass loop similar to what would be used
for coupon testing. Probes have appropriate electrical connectors for quick
connection where portable meters are employed.
When using the Advanced Technology, linear polarization technology could
be an effective tool to let corrosion rates join with chemical testing to
determine optimum chemical feed rates.
Corrosion Monitoring with the Advanced Technology
The procedures of corrosion testing have been developed and quite well
defined. One goal of corrosion testing is to provide an estimate of the service
life of process equipment. What has been observed to date is that if there is a
substantial over feed of the Advanced Technology the corrosion rate will go
up to about the best traditional water treatment can achieve with their present
film forming technology.
Where chemical feed is controlled with the use of corrosion monitoring and
regular chemical

 Page 51
testing, initial observations indicate corrosion rates will be much less than
available from traditional water treatment.
Applying the full range of sacrificial technology holds promise of a new day
where pollution concerns from discharge of cooling towers will be a thing of
the past.
When deciding which corrosion program to use in your plant, keep in mind the
fundamental rule promoted by knowledgeable water treatment salesmen. ”If
film forming corrosion protection is not enough to stop corrosion, it may end
up accelerating corrosion.” High levels of corrosion chemicals needed to
assure corrosion protection will not only result in high treatment costs but may
also foul the heat exchanger and result in reduced plant operating efficiency.
This has not been a detailed discussion on many aspects of corrosion
monitoring necessary to satisfy the needs of the corrosion engineer. Following
is a list of references that may serve as a useful introduction to the subject.
1. Ailor, W.H.Ed. Handbook of Corrosion Testing and Evaluation J.Wiley,
1971
2. ASTM G1-81, “Preparing, Cleaning, and Evaluating Corrosion Test
Specimens,” American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
3. ASTM G4-84, “Conducting Corrosion Coupon Tests in Plant Equipment,”
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
4. ASTM G-30
5. ASTM G31-72, “Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of Metals,”
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
6. ASTM G46-76, “Examination and Evaluation of Pitting Corrosion,”
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
7. ASTM G-58
8. ASTM G78-83, “Crevice Corrosion Testing of Iron-Base and Nickel-Base
Stainless Alloys in Seawater and Other Chloride Containing Aqueous
Environments,” American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.

 Page 53

Chapter 7
Evaluating CorrosionHow Deep is the Pitting?
Pitting is probably the most costly form of corrosion in any water using
system. Pitting is a somewhat random occurance but can eat a small hole
through a thick pipe and leave the rest of the metal relatively untouched.
General corrosion is also a problem but it can be monitored. If pitting was not
taking place it would be less complicated to predict how long a system would
last. Nondestructive tests employ indirect measurements that do not damage
test objects to detect flaws. They can detect service damage prior to failure,
and are often cheaper and faster than dismantling pipes and equipment for
direct inspection. Knowing the condition of operating equipment is important
to budget for replacement and many other reasons.
Nondestructive Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic is a term used to describe the frequency of mechanical vibrations
above the range audible to the human ear, i.e., above 20,000 vibrations per
second.
Ultrasonics is the science dealing with the ultrasonic phenomena. In industry
there are a multitude of applications using ultrasonics, but understanding one
does not assure understanding the others because the technology is so diverse.
The medical profession uses ultrasound in many medical applications,
ultrasound is listened to by others as they monitor vibrations in equipment to
predict bearing failures or to find leaks. Ultrasonic technology is used in
precision cutting of metal and it is also used to vaporize water in humidifiers.
It is used to measure the thickness of many types of metal.
How Ultrasonic Thickness Gauges Work
Sound waves (or mechanical vibrations) at high frequencies (200,000 to
25,000,000 cycles per second) are used as the probing media for ultrasonic
nondestructive tests. Vibrations are created in piezoelectric or some other type
of transducer and transmitted into solid test materials through films or layers
of couplants such as oil or water. Ultrasonic beams can be directed or focused
like beams of light. They are partially reflected at interfaces where there are
changes in material density or elasticity, and are refracted at interfaces
between materials in which sound travels at different velocities.
In pulse-reflection testing, a brief burst of sound waves travel from transducer
through the test object, reflecting from the opposite surfaces or from
intervening discontinuities. The initial pulse and return are converted to an
electric circuit for display on a screen so flaw depth or part thickness can be
measured. This type of technology lends itself to evaluating pitting damage in
pipes or tanks.

 Page 54
Following are three approaches to measuring thickness:
1. The S-B Mode
A dual-type probe is used in the S-B mode. A pulse generated by the
pulser is converted into an ultrasonic pulse (T pulse) by a transducer in
the probe, then the pulse is transmitted to the object under test. The pulse
(B echo) reflected from the back-wall of the object is received by the
reception transducer and is converted into an electrical signal. The signal
is amplified before being input to the time measurement block. The
thickness of the object is determined based on the interval between the T
pulse and the B echo, and by subtracting the delay component of the
delay material of the probe.

Fig.7.1:
S-B mode
Courtsey U.E. Systems Inc. Used by Permission
2. The T-B Mode
A vertical type probe is used in the T-B Mode. A pulse generated by the
pulser is converted into an ultrasonic pulse (T pulse) by a transducer in
the probe, then the pulse is transmitted to the object under test. The pulse
(B echo) reflected from the back-wall of the object is received by the
reception transducer and is converted into an electrical signal. The
thickness of the object is determined based on the interval between the T
pulse and the B echo.
 Fig. 7.2:
T-B mode
Courtesy U.E. Systems Inc., Used by permission

 Page 55
3. The T-B-B Mode
The T-B-B mode is a precision measuring mode in which a vertical-type probe
is used. An ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer is repeatedly reflected
between the surface and the back-wall of the object (B1 - B2 ..echo). The
reflected pulse is received by the reception transducer and is converted into an
electrical signal. The thickness of the object is determined based on the
interval between the B1 pulse and B2 pulse. Since this mode ignores the time
between T and B1, results are not affected by zero point error or paint on the
surface. Therefore, this mode can obtain precise results. Thickness can also be
measured through a painted surface.

Fig. 7.3:
T-B-B mode
Courtesy U.E. Systems Inc., used by permission

Locating And Measuring Pits

Pits will be located either by physical observation or by some non-destructive
method of testing. Physical observation requires looking inside the water
containing devise and in most cases removing surface deposits to measure
depth of corrosion penetration. Ultrasonic non-destructive testing requires use
of an instrument and with the use of a couplant such as water or an ultrasonic
gel, scanning the exterior of the surfaces in question.
It is very difficult to predict where pitting corrosion may concentrate since it
results from so many variables. It may be interesting to know that oxygen
dissolved in water is more corrosive than just air in the system because the
oxygen is ionized and more readily reacts with iron or other metals.

 Page 56
The following chart shows the pressure temperature relationship of oxygen
solubility.
Solubility of Oxygen in Water
Expressd as a fraction of Water Volume, at STP

Fig. 7.4:
Oxygen Dissolved In Water

All predictive maintenance programs require good records and a marking

scheme that will allow for follow-up evaluation. The process does not need to
be complicated, it just needs to be organized.

 Page 57
The following describes CORROSIONMASTER Model 621 Ultrasonic
Thickness Gauge. Manu-actured and distributed by U.E. Systems Inc.
Elmsford, NY. Information presented here used by permission.
The 621 Portable Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge accommodates numerous
materials including aluminum, brass, cast iron, copper, steel, lead, glass and
plastic.

Fig. 7.5:
Front View - Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge
Courtesy U.E. Systems Inc., Used by Permission

Operating Features
A. Automatic Power-offAfter about two minutes, if no readings are taken,
power is automatically shut off.
B. Inch/Metric SwitchIn inch position, resolution (last digit) of the display is
0.001”. In Metric, resolution is 0.1mm.
C. Automatic Backlight Photocell on front panel turns on backlight for the
LCD when ambient light falls below a preset level.
D. Probe Uncoupled IndicatorWhen coupling is broken, a 2-dot symbol:
appears in the center of the LCD.
E. Display HoldAfter coupling is broken, last reading remains on screen until
next reading is taken or power shuts off.
F. Over-range IndicatorIf reading is greater than 9.999” the Over-range dot
appears on the display. Example: 2.750 is a reading of actual thickness, but
2.7.50 indicates a thickness of 12.750
G. Low Battery IndicatorWhen decimal point in the LCD begins blinking,
approximately two hours of operation remain.
H. Battery Charge IndicatorWhile batteries are being charged, this lamp on
front panel remains lit. When charge is complete, lamp will go out and charge
current will be reduced. Charger can remain on without damage to batteries.
I. JB 600 Charger (supplied with gauge) has a standard wall plug for 115-v, 60
hz. Output lines plug into jack on rear panel of gage.
J. Replacing BatteriesInternal battery pack contains six nickle-cadmium cells.
In normal use, 300 to 1000 cycles of discharge (up to three years of service)
can be expected before replacement. Replacement batteries should be Gould
NICAD Type 500 SC or equivalent. Non-rechargeable batteries (AA) can be
used for instrument operation if required. Warning: Do not attempt to recharge
this type of battery, To do so can seriously damage the instrument.

 Page 58

Fig. 7.6 :
Back View - Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge
Courtesy U.E. Systems Inc., Used by Permission

Calibration
Calibrating for steel
1. Set inch/Metric switch to Inch.
2. Set Material Calibration Dials on rear panel to 355.
3. Connect probe plugs.*
4. Depress Power On switch to activate LCD.
5. Couple probe to calibration block. Adjust Trim until display reads exact
thickness of block (0.250” supplied).
The instrument is ready for use.
*Note: On instruments supplied with probe select switch, the Up position is for
the larger probe and the Down position for the smaller probe.
Calibration for Other Materials
1. First, perform the five steps for steel calibration to obtain proper setting of
Trim control.
2. Set Material Calibration Dials on rear panel to agree with setting shown in
calibration table (on rear panel) for material to be tested.
3. Couple probe to a sample of know thickness of material to be tested.
4. Carefully adjust Material Calibration Dials until exact thickness of sample
is displayed.
Instrument is ready for use.

 Page 59

Chapter 8
Chemical and Water Usage Should be Optimized
Knowing the cost of water and sewer charges should be required for every
person operating a cooling tower if conservation is the goal. Economical
cooling tower operation would be the second reason to know the cost of water
and sewer. Not everyone, however, may have the confidence or think it
worthwhile to make a radical shift from traditional treatment with a heavy
bleed to operating a cooling tower with reduced bleed to the sewer. This is a
big jump that requires certain knowledge and skills just as it does to get under
the wheel of a race car and operate it safely at full speed.
There is an initial learning curve required in almost every new endeavor. As
equipment or other products that offer the chance to enhance business success
become available, few good managers will consider learning new skills
anything but a challenge. It seems that every person involved in using this
advanced technology has had to learn again some of the basic concepts
associated with water treatment. When the basics are understood, water
treatment does not seem like such a complicated business. It is just as logical
to operate a cooling tower with zero water wasted to the sewer as it is to
operate a cooling tower with a heavy bleed as recommended by traditional
treatment. It is all in knowing what to do and having the right technology
available.
Cooling Towers were introduced as water-saving devices so a modern society
could use water cooled condensers and still have enough water for other
needs. There are few areas that will allow water cooled equipment to dump
cooling water direct to a drain. A cooling tower needs 100 times less water
than a condenser dumping direct to the sewer.
Few new technologies are readily accepted. No one wants to be first to give
new ideas a try, but by the same token, few want to be last. There were those
who found fault with cooling towers and wanted to continue to dump water to
the sewer until they were forced by law to stop. The use of a heavy bleed-off
on a cooling tower seems to be a tradition that may be hard to modify. It is
hoped this book will increase awareness that will bring with it the self
confidence to change.
Maximum water conservation is achieved with reduced blow-down associated
with use of the Advanced Technology discussed here. Proper water treatment
keeps heat exchange surfaces clean, and keeps water usage to a minimum. The
water evaporated is a matter of equipment load. The recommended bleed rate
is a statement made by the chemical company describing chemical efficiency.
The true cost of water treatment is the combined cost of the chemicals added
plus the water wasted to bleed.

 Page 60

How Cooling Towers Work

Cooling towers dissipate heat by forcing evaporation of the circulating water.
Evaporation is forced by breaking water into tiny droplets or by other means
needed to create a lot of surface area and then by passing air across the surface
for evaporation. The cooling by evaporation takes place on the surface of the
water during its fall to the bottom of the tower. It is similar to the cooling
experienced when stepping from a shower and the door is open for a little
breeze to blow inevaporation is removing body heat just as evaporation
removes the heat from the water in the cooling tower.
Heat is dissipated to atmosphere at the rate of about 1000 BTU’s for each
pound of water evaporated. The law of heat flow says it always goes from
high intensity to low intensity. Water returning to a cooling tower at 90° F
would be considered high intensity heat. If the air passing through the tower
had a wet bulb temperature of 70° F, this would be considered the low
intensity heat source. Evaporation is a process of heat exchange.
Understanding the Heat Source
The first refrigeration was melting ice. When mechanical refrigeration was
introduced it was rated based on the cooling effect of melting ice. Melting ice
gives up 144 BTU’s per pound as ice at 32° F becomes water at 32° F.

One ton at the evaporator is rated at 12,000 BTU/hr but that is not all the heat
that needs to be removed by the tower. In many refrigeration systems the
refrigerant cools the motor windings plus the mechanical heat generated in the
compressor. It is common practice in the industry to rate condensers at 15,000
BTU/hr/ton.
How Much Water Is Saved By A Cooling Tower?
When the term “one ton” is used in relation to cooling towers, it states the
need to remove heat at the rate of 15,000 BTU/hr. A 100 ton load will need to
reject 1,500,000 BTU/hr. A BTU is the amount of heat required to raise 1 lb.
of water 1° F. Without a cooling tower, if water increased 10° as it went
through a condenser it would require 150,000 lbs. or a little over 18,000
gallons of water per hour to cool a 100 ton load. Water droplets and moving
air are combined in a cooling tower to force evaporation and dissipate heat.
For each pound of water evaporated, about 1000 BTU’s of heat are rejected to
the atmosphere. Since a ton requires a rejection of 15,000 BTU’s, a cooling
tower will evaporate 1.8 gallons/hr/ton. (15 lbs. water divided by 8.3 lbs/gal =
1.8 gal/hr/ton)
A 100 ton tower will evaporate only 180 gallons per hour to dissipate the same
heat that would have required over 18,000 gallons of water in a once through
condenser. Since a cooling tower is installed as a water saving device, it does
not seem in keeping with that goal to waste more water to bleed than is
necessary.
Only pure water evaporates, the minerals stay behind and concentrate in the
remaining tower water. The economics of cooling tower treatment is centered
in how much water must be wasted in addition to the evaporation in order to
keep the minerals from exceeding a saturation point and depositing in the
condenser. A scaled condenser reduces heat transfer and makes the compressor
operate at higher temperature and pressureincreasing operating costs.
Cycles of Concentration
Cycles of concentration is a term widely used to describe how much the
minerals concentrate. It is the ratio between the minerals in the tower

 Page 61
water to the minerals in the make-up water. In their search for a term to
describe the concentration of minerals, the water treatment industry selected
the term “cycles of concentration”. It is a term that is more understandable if
the focus is on concentration rather than on cycles. Cycles used in this
definition cannot be thought of the same as when cycles describes sound or
electricity. Cycles describe concentration, and concentration is in reference to
the solids dissolved in the tower water compared to the solids dissolved in the
tower make-up water. The concentration results from evaporation.

Think of a beaker holding 100 ml of water that contains xx TDS of minerals.

Now visualize heat (^^^^) being applied until just half of the water is
evaporated. Alternately fill to beginning level with xx water and then
evaporate 50%. Note how the minerals concentrate.

Fig. 8.1:
Cycle of Concentration/Illustration

Bleed-off
A bleed-off is water intentionally wasted to drain that has been concentrated
by evaporation. Fresh low-solids water is then made up to the cooling tower. A
bleed-off controls & limits the cycles of concentration in a cooling tower. A
100 Ton Load will evaporate 180 Gallons/hour.

 Page 62

Bleed in gal/hr to maintain cycles

of concentration / 100 tons

Fig. 8.2:
Cooling Tower - Evaporation per Ton
When calculating the rate of bleed, it is necessary to know the evaporation rate
(tons of load × 1.8 gal/hr/ton), and the cycles of concentration recommended
for the treatment being used. The Advanced Technology should allow minerals
to concentrate a minimum of at least 2550 times regardless of make-up
hardness.
Calculated bleed at 1.5 and 25 cycles of concentration.
Example:

 Page 63

A Different Approach to Water Treatment

An Advanced Technology in water treatment for cooling towers gives the
sought for answer to the question many conscientious maintenance individuals
have asked, ”why do we have to dump all that expensive water and those
expensive chemicals to the sewer?” With the Advanced Technology the
answer is what they scarcely dared hope for, “you don’t.” With traditional
treatment the answer was that without proper treatment, no bleed will cause
fouling of the heat exchange surface and dramatically reduce system
efficiency and increase equipment power consumption.
Water treatment over the years has proven to be the best choice in the balance
of operating economics even though it has grown to be very complicated. The
water treatment industry as a whole has developed a procedure of treating each
problem individually. Scale, corrosion, and biological fouling are all
monitored as individual problems. The application of chemicals to provide a
solution to each problem can get quite complex in the traditional approach to
water treatment. With the cost of service to a cooling tower constantly going
up, it was time for a change.
The change came a few years ago when a small company from Kalamazoo,
MI, introduced the first real break-through in water treatment available in
years. They broke with the long standing tradition followed by almost all
water treatment companies for a very practical reason. They had carved out a
niche in the market offering water treatment for humidifiers in computer room
air conditioning units. Computer room humidifiers develop the same kind of
problems cooling towers dothey have scale, and organic growths- but
treatment must be limited to non-toxic chemicals. There was nothing available
from the traditional water treatment since none of their biocides were suitable
for use in the confined space that computer room humidifiers operate in.
A treatment formula was developed that had the ability to control scale at very
high levels of hardness. It was unique in that it did not use any toxic
chemicals. The results were so dramatic in the treatment of computer room
humidifiers that it soon found application in cooling towers, evaporative
coolers, steam boilers, and the list goes on.
The Advanced Technology discussed in this book is not about just a little
better formula of chemicals, it has much to do with application. Unacceptable
treatment results are quite frequently caused more by things mechanical than
things related to the chemicals used. The application of this chemical is more
successful when operators have a good understanding of basics.
Nearly everything associated with water treatment and maintenance comes
with a package of trade-offs, and this Advanced Technology is no different. A
cooling tower maintenance program is generally judged on:
1. How clean the cooling tower stays from splash deposits, etc.
2. How clean the condenser stays. (Is there an increase in operating costs due
to heat exchange fouling?).
3. The rate of bleed-off. (How many cycles of concentration is being held in
the cooling tower?).
4. The level of corrosion control.
With the Advanced Technology, the condensers will stay clean and electrical
costs will be as low as possible. The bleed will be low to keep water costs in
line, and there will be excellent control of corrosion, BUT, if there is not a
proper bal-

 Page 64
ance between air and water flow, it may require periodic washing of splash
areas to remove deposits. The subject of splash deposits will be covered in
more detail in Chapter 10, “Servicing Cooling Towers & Related Equipment”.
The traditional approach to water treatment, even with very close monitoring
by knowledgeable personnel, requires fairly high bleed rates. The condensers
will generally be at least moderately fouled, and corrosion control will
generally be marginal. If special emphasis is placed on corrosion control, the
inhibitors used will coat heat exchange surfaces and operating costs will
increase. BUT, on the plus side of the ledger in favor of traditional water
treatment, given the same mechanical problem of air and water flow inbalance
as indicated above, there will likely be fewer splash deposits because of the
heavy bleed.
With the idea of trade-offs in mind, the next two examples will show how both
water and chemical usage varies with the cycles of concentration maintained.
Substitute your figures for any job.
Calculating Water Savings When Bleed is Reduced
When evaluating cooling tower treatment proposals, it is important to consider
rate of bleed along with the cost of chemicals. It is generally not cost effective
to buy low cost chemicals that require higher rates of bleed.
1. To determine cycles of concentration on an operating tower, use TDS meter
and test TDS of both tower water and make-up water to the towercalculate
cycles of concentrations.

2. Formula for calculating rate of bleed to maintain a specified cycle of

concentration or to compare water savings when bleed is reduced.

*Make-up water = 1 cycle

 Page 65
3. Example of bleed rates at various cycles of concentrations is based on 100
tons. Use formulas in (2) above. (100 tons × 1.8 gal/hr/ton evaporation = 180
gal/hr.)

Cycles of concentration 1.5 cycles 2 cycles 4 cycles 25 cycles

Evaporation 180 gal/hr 180 180 180
Bleed 360 gal/hr 180 60 7.5
TOTAL MAKE-UP 540 gal/hr 360 240 187.5

4. Sample calculation based on 100 ton tower. Rate of bleed reduced from
operating at 2 cycles to operating at 25 cycles. Operating 12 hrs./day, 150
days/season, water and sewer costs at $0.0018/gal. ($1.80/1000 gal.).

172.5 gal/hr × 12 hrs/day × 150 days × $0.0018/gal = $558.98. This $558.98 is

an increase of available cash for other purchases. It was budgeted to be spent
for water.
When an efficient chemical is used the bleed can be reduced. When a low
bleed is used the chemicals fed will stay in the tower longer and result in
lower operating costs.
The following is an example showing chemical usage for the traditional water
treatment program based on bleed rate:
Calculate Chemical Savings When Bleed Rate Is Reduced

Cycles of concentration 1.5 cycles 2 cycles 4 cycles 25 cycles

Evaporation 180 gal/hr 180 180 180
Bleed 360 gal/hr 180 60 7.5
TOTAL MAKE-UP 540 gal/hr 360 240 187.5

Chemical residuals concentrate in a cooling tower just like minerals from the
make-up water. If a test residual of 10 ppm of chemical is needed, the
chemical feed rate at 10 cycles of concentration will be 1 ppm based on make-
up water; at 2 cycles of concentration the chemical feed will be 5 ppm based
on the make-up water. (ppm chemical feed = test residual divided by c/c)

 Page 66
Formula to determine pounds of chemical needed per day:

At 2 cycles of concentration:

At 25 cycles of concentration

To maintain a 10 ppm chemical residual in the cooling tower water, when the
bleed is set to maintain 2 cycles of concentration, it takes nearly 24 times more
chemicals to keep the same ppm residual in the water as it would if the bleed
was set to keep 25 cycles of concentration in the tower water. High bleed is an
economic issue for both the user and the chemical supplier, so is a reduced
bleed.
Drift As The Only Source Of Bleed
The Advanced Technology focuses a different light on the subject of water
conservation. The water-wasteful practices that have been the stock and trade
of many water treatment programs are being left behind as the Advanced
Technology gains acceptance.
Cooling towers are designed to conserve water, but until now, there was no
chemical available so that goal could be fully achieved. Water conservation is
an economic issue dealing with availability and disposal. As costs escalate, the
need to conserve water will increase. Conserving water reduces operating
costs. It also reduces community investment in treatment facilities. It preserves
a precious natural resource.
Today, with the Advanced Technology, any cooling tower can operate with
little to no bleed. Actual mineral concentration will be a matter of how
effective the drift eliminators are on the cooling tower.

 Page 67

Fig. 8.3:
Drift-Eliminators
Courtesy The Marley Cooling Tower Company,
Used by Permission

 Page 68
The following is a chart showing the relationship between evaporation, drift,
and bleed-off. All chemicals are not equal.
Bleed Drift Evaporation
How They Balance
A 100 ton tower will evaporate 180 gallons/hour, and there will be 300
gpm of water circulated across the tower with normal design. Drift at
0.001%* of circulation will be .3 gpm or 18 gallons per hour.

On a 100 ton Air Conditioning Load

Total
Cycles of Tower Evap. Bleed to Additional Bleed
Bleed
Concen. Circ. gpm (gph) drift (gph) Needed (gph)
(gph)
2 300 180 180 18 162
3 300 180 90 18 72
4 300 180 60 18 42
5 300 180 45 18 27
6 300 180 36 18 18
7 300 180 30 18 12
8 300 180 26 18 8
9 300 180 23 18 5
10 300 180 20 18 2
11 300 180 18 18 0
16 300 180 12 18
20 300 180 9.5 18
Fig. 8.4:
Bleed-Drift Evaporation How They Balance

 Page 69
As consideration is given to using the Advanced Technology, add present
water and chemical bills together and evaluate cost. Now add the proposed
cost of water and chemicals with the Advanced Technology and evaluate cost.
Savings in labor and hassle could be a bonus.
Three Common Options in Water Treatment
1. Remove hardness from the make-up water by softening so it cannot form
scale. ”Soft” water tends to be more corrosive so the treatment emphasis is
shifted from controlling scale to controlling corrosion. The softening process
is also expensive so there are limitations on both first costs and operating
costs. “Soft” water removes lignin from wood and is not recommended for
wood or wood-fill towers.
2. Feed acid to the cooling tower to control alkalinity so the hardness will stay
dissolved in the water. The goal of water treatment is to prevent deposits and
control corrosion. When acid is fed for scale control, the treatment emphasis
shifts to controlling corrosion. With safety becoming a more prominent part of
the decision making process, the use of acid is generally restricted to plants
that have very large towers and around-the-clock monitoring by qualified
personnel. The use of acid to control scale in HVAC cooling towers is on a
very rapid decline.
3. There are a host of what is often referred to as “new generation” type
chemicals being used to control scale but most of them are limited on how
high the hardness, alkalinity and silica in the tower water can get. In other
words, the hardness, alkalinity and silica of the make-up water is measured
and the rate of bleed is controlled so the hardness, alkalinity and/or silica of
the tower water will not exceed a safe upper limit. The significance of this
Advanced Technology is that cooling towers can now operate without the need
to increase bleed when the hardness, alkalinity or silica exceeds a certain level.
See Figure 8.5.

 Page 70

The Economics of Zero Bleed/100 Tons of Cooling Load

Salt Lake City water rates of $1.86/1000 for water & sewer used. (100 cu.ft. =
749 gal.)
Cost of Bleed

Each combination of water and chemical costs will produce a different

chemical cost line. The formulas for calculating chemical usage is given in
chapter 9.

Fig. 8.5:
Treatment cost vs. Water cost - High Hardness & Silica

 Page 71
The technology offered by traditional water treatment requires more bleed and
chemicals as hardness/silica increases, resulting in higher cost for both
chemicals and water.
In contrast, the Advanced Technology provides a smaller cost increase in
chemicals than would normally be realized by just the water where bleed must
increase. In many areas it is possible to pay for an entire treatment program for
just the cost of the water saved. This would allow water conservation to
finance the entire water treatment budget. If the entire chemical budget could
be saved for other uses, why not exchange water savings for chemical costs?
An understanding of water treatment is not complete until control equipment
limitations are put in perspective. Any water treatment program has variables
that must be taken into account in order for that program to be successful.
Chapter 9 discusses the feed equipment and chemical calculations
recommended for applying this Advanced Technology.

 Page 73

Chapter 9
Applying Treatment in Cooling Towers: Equipment and
Calculations
Reducing bleed on a cooling tower and saving enough water that would
normally go to bleed to pay the entire cost of the treatment is a new approach
to cooling tower maintenance. The idea is directly opposed to what the rest of
the water treatment industry is doing. Is the approach right? If success enjoyed
by following instructions is a criteria, the answer must be a resounding YES!!!
Questions And Answers About The Advanced Technology

If there is a very low bleed, in time won’t there be a block of

Question:
concrete in the sump of the tower?
No. With the Advanced Technology scale is prevented by
holding all hardness minerals in solution. If the minerals stay
Answer:
in solution they will form no scale on the tubes and there will
be nothing to settle out in the tower basin.
Traditional treatments, on the other hand, attempt to control
scale after the minerals are out of solution. Combine the
mineral fallout traditional treatments can’t control with the
bodies of dead bacteria from the biocide they use and you have
a formula for needing regular tower basin flushing.
How does the Advanced Technology control biological
Question:
fouling?
Reduced bleed creates conditions that are not conducive to
organism growth. Also, bacteria requires calcium, magnesium,
iron and other metallic ions in their diet just the same as we
Answer: do. The strong bond of the chemical to these ions render them
unavailable as a source of food so organic fouling doesn’t
develop. Bacteria growth will be rare where the chemical is
properly applied.
Question:How does The Advanced Technology control corrosion?
The chemical removes all deposits from metal surfaces and
 ties up the ferric ion so pitting cannot develop. The higher pH,
Answer: alkalinity and hardness controls general corrosion better than
traditional inhibitors. White rust on galvanized towers is a
thing of the past.
Question:Can a cooling tower really operate without a bleed?
No. But the issue is how much bleed. Every tower will lose
Answer:
some water through the drift eliminators. With

 Page 74

the Advanced Technology that drift is generally enough bleed.

How much do I need to know about the make-up water to be
Question:
able to apply this advanced technology?
It is necessary to know the total hardness and silica content of
the make-up water to set up the treatment. That information
can be had from readily available test kits or from a water
Answer: testing lab. After a treatment program has been established,
most prefer to feed chemicals in direct proportion to make-up
water and rely on periodic tests from the chemical supplier to
adjust feed rates.
Question:Can you give us a step by step outline of what to do?
Yes. Here it is. Treatment is applied in direct proportion to the
total hardness and silica of the make-up water. Select a feed
Answer: system as outlined later in this chapter. Follow the service
form ”Checks For Successful Water Treatment” (see Figure
9.1) to keep track of system treatment.
a. Record at least total hardness of make-up water on every
visit. In some areas hardness and/or silica may vary from
spring to fall or morning to night depending on the water
source. This testing is to establish a pattern of the variations so
proper treatment adjustments can be made.
b. Record gallons of water use from the make-up water meter.
c. Determine the inches of chemical drawdown for the feed
tank size and chemical concentration strength in use. Record
inches of drawdown. (FS = 32. In chart calculations).
d. From the chart, verify the inches of drawdown are in the
range of the gallons and hardness indicated. Adjust chemical
feed as necessary.
e. Record all needed information on the chart for future
reference.
Question:What symptoms will I see that need corrective action?
Answer:
 a. If treatment is short in the system for any reason that results
in mineral fallout in the tower, add more chemicals as soon as
possible. A surplus of chemical will remove the deposits.
b. A little mineral fallout in the tower means more chemical is
needed, it does not mean the condenser tubes will be fouled.
This advanced technology reaches chemical to hardness
equilibrium during evaporation. After the water reaches the
sump, no further mineral fallout will occur in the condenser
during even a very high temperature rise unless the system is
way under treated..
c. Clean-up is generally most economical when chemical level
is just above minimum treatment levels. When rapid clean-up
is taking place the tower water will often appear cloudy
(turbid). When treatment is added at the right rate, and there is
no clean-up taking place, the system water will be very low in
turbidity

 Page 75
Checks For Successful Water TreatmentChiller w/ Cooling Tower

Fig. 9.1:
Checks for Successful Water Treatment-Cooling Tower on Chiller

 Page 76

(clear). High levels of treatment for clean-up should be used

only where there are no small orifices in the system to plug or
where those systems are protected by a pre-filter.
Question:How can I feel confident the treatment is working?
Answer:
a. Log temperatures at inlet and outlet of heat exchangers to
show what is happening. Good heat exchange can only happen
in a clean system.
b. Install a Deposition Indicator that contains a small electric
heater as a service tool. Scale deposits at the hottest point in
the system first.

The Deposition Indicator

Ensure System Integrity
The Deposition Indicator provides you with a safe and efficient means for
monitoring your cooling water system for scale deposition. The Deposition
Indicator uses an electric heating element to simulate the conditions inside
your chiller tubes. If the integrity of your water treatment system has been
compromised, scale will deposit on the heated element. The scale on the
Deposition Indicator will alert you to a problemallowing you to take corrective
action and avoid a possible system failure.
Installation
The Deposition Indicator is easy to install. Select a point where the assembly
can be mounted directly in the water flow (as indicated
 Fig. 9.2:
Deposition Indicator
Courtesy Terlyn Industries, Inc. Used by Permission

 Page 77
in the diagram). It is important to mount the Deposition Indicator vertically to
allow the water to flow up through the unitthereby reducing the chance of air
pocket formation or the creation of a vortex area that could impede the water
flow.
Install shut-off valves on either side of the unit to allow removal of the
Deposition Indicator without requiring a shut down of the entire water system.
Connect the heating element to a switched 110 VAC power supply that is
controlled by the tower pump circuit. Water flow MUST be present when the
unit is active.
When removing the Deposition Indicator, make certain the power is
terminated and the element is allowed to cool in the water flow. Rinse the unit
in distilled water immediately after removal.
Contrasting Traditional and Advanced Technology Applications
ChemicalsTestingControl and Feed Equipment, three important parts of any
water treatment program. A couple of examples may be enough to show how
simple the application of the Advanced Technology can be when compared to
the traditional treatment.
There Are Two Big Variables in Water Treatment
1. The System Load
The actual BTU load on an air conditioning system varies from morning
to night and from spring to fall.
2. The Water Quality
Many cities have multiple water sources constantly being mixed
according to need. It is not uncommon to have the TDS and the total
hardness vary by multiples of 2 or 3 at a given location.
Every water treatment decision should consider what effect variable system
load and variable water quality can have on both end results and cost of
monitoring the system. Traditional water treatment has made controls based on
conductivity the most popular. That is a good subject to discuss.
A Conductivity Controller Applied To A Cooling Tower
 Fig 9.3:
Typical Conductivity Controller
Installation
The Conductivity Controller has a sensor in the circulating water that controls
TDS by monitoring electrical conductivity of the water. An increase in TDS
above a set point closes a relay that activates a solenoid valve for bleed and a
pump that adds chemicals. Controller activates feed pump and bleed at the
same time. If there is a change in either make-up TDS or rate of bleed-off, the
system will need an adjustment.
Common add-on TDS Controller accessories that are important to traditional
treatment but are often omitted due to cost.
1. Chemical Pump Lock Out Timerlimits pump running time when system
malfunction keeps bleed from reducing TDS. The tower is

 Page 78
not treated right but the chemicals are not wasted.
2. Biocide Timersare used so a toxic biocide can be slug fed with a pump at
regular intervals.
3. Bleed Lock-out for biocide application cycleallows the biocide to stay in the
system long enough to work. Without the lockout the addition of biocide
would raise TDS and immediately open the bleed. The biocide in the tower
would be diluted before it had a chance to work.
Effect of Variable TDS in Source Water When Using the Advanced Technology
None. TDS is generally not controlled except by the drift of the cooling tower.
Since TDS are not controlled there is nothing associated with TDS that needs
to be done.
Effect of Variable TDS in Source Water When Using Conductivity Controllers
Along With Traditional Treatment.
1. When make-up water has 200 ppm TDS and 3 cycles of concentration (c/c)
are the desired set point, the controller will monitor at 600 ppm solids in the
tower water. When the upper 600 ppm TDS control limit is reached, the
solenoid is opened and the pump runs to inject chemicals. Pump feed rate is
adjusted by tests to add the right amount of chemicals during the time the
bleed operates. If a test residual of 12 is required, the chemical pump would
add 4 ppm based on the amount of make-up water. That 4 ppm would
concentrate 3 times with the other minerals and give a 12 ppm chemical
residual.
2. A TDS increase in the city water to 300 ppm would cause the controller to
reduce c/c in the tower from 3 to 2 and the chemical residual would be
reduced from 12 to 8. At 3 c/c the bleed rate was .9 gal/hr/ton, but at 2 c/ c the
bleed is now 1.8 gal/hr/ton. Twice as much bleed needing to go through the
same valve doubles the running time of the chemical feed pump. Twice as
many chemicals will be used but when there is only 8 ppm chemical residual it
may be too low for the good results expected. This is why frequent testing is
so important with TDS controllers.
3. A TDS decrease in city water to 100 ppm would cause the tower to operate
at 6 c/c. At 6 c/c, if the chemicals could work at that level it would have been
set up that way. This is the point where traditional treatment allows deposits to
form in the system. Again, frequent testing is needed when conductivity
controllers are being used.
How the Advanced Technology Works When There is A Variable System Load
and Variable Water Quality
When chemicals are fed based on the volume of make-up water and where
there is no forced bleed, it is easier for the chemical feed to average the
hardness requirements of the system. If half of the time the chemical feed is
more than needed and half of the time it is less than needed, the overall system
is not likely to lack chemicals.
How Conductivity Controllers Work to Treat and Bleed When Variable System
Load and Variable Water Quality are Part of Traditional Treatment
In the traditional approach to water treatment, a conductivity control is used to
track the load by sensing the increase in the total dissolved solids (TDS).
Chemical feed rate and water bleed rate are usually determined based at least
in part on water hardness. As long as the quality of the make-up water is
constant, this system works quite well. When the make-up water varies from
different sources, the conductivity controller has a hard time relating to what is
happening. Since

 Page 79
chlorides have more effect on TDS than hardness, the TDS varies more with
the chlorides in the water than with the hardness. The ratio of hardness to
chlorides is not the same in all water. When bleed and chemical feed are based
in large part on water hardness, there is no guarantee the treatment will be
right for the hardness when the water quality varies. A Chemical feed pump is
set to add chemicals during system blowdown. The system requires close
monitoring because:
1. Controller responds to TDS without regard to hardness. If the chloride to
hardness ratio was not in the range of the original recommendations it could
result in improper treatment.
Where known variations of water hardness takes place, it is common to set up
treatment based on the worst expected water. This is a fudge factor to
minimize the required monitoring. It is expensive.
2. The TDS sensing probe is subject to fouling with scale or organic growths.
In large measure the success of the treatment depends on how clean the
sensing probe stays. Regular cleaning of the probe is an important part of
maintenance.
3. Most treatments used to control scale in cooling towers are only effective in
a fairly narrow range of test residuals. They do not work well when there is
too much or too little treatment. In addition, the cycles of concentration are
often set based on the level of hardness and alkalinity of the make-up water.
When changing make-up water conditions cause both the cycles of
concentrations and the hardness to vary, it is very difficult to get good results
with most traditional treatments.
4. Toxic biocides are generally added as separate treatments. Since biocides
are so expensive, many try to wait as long as possible before adding them in
an effort to keep costs low. This is the source of the water treatment guessing
game. How does a person know for sure how much biocide to use or which
biocide will be effective. It is generally necessary to wait till the end of the
season to find out if you were right. The most successful control of organic
fouling available is to keep it from growing. With the traditional approach to
treatment that would be very expensive.
How Scale is Formed
Decisions on how to treat for the prevention of scale can best be made with an
understanding of how scale is formed. To understand that process it is well to
review again the Water Cycle.
Begin with H2O as rain, add CO2 from atmosphere:

As water filters through the earth, Calcium Carbonate is dissolved.

Heat reverses the water cycle

 Page 80
The soft calcium carbonate sludge that comes out of solution when water is
heated would generally flush from the condenser tube to the tower basin if it
was not held by organic deposits and allowed sufficient time for scale crystals
to form. It may take as long as 8 hours for a calcium carbonate scale crystal to
form. If soft scale crystals are not restrained while they grow, they would
move on and settle out in areas of low flowthe tower sump. Keeping organic
deposits from growing is a major factor in the success this Advanced
Technology enjoys. By operating a tower where water conditions are not
conducive to organism growth, the important first step toward forming
deposits is not taken.
Sizing Tower Loads
Some cooling tower loads are rated in tons while others specify pump gallons
per minute (GPM) and then give the temperature drop across the tower. It is
important to be able to move back and forth with the information given to
assure treatment sizing is correct.
The term ”ton” assumes 15,000 BTU/hr that needs to be removed at the tower.
In order to do this it requires the evaporation of about 15 lbs. of water. It is a
factor of design that lets areas with a dry climate use smaller cooling towers
than must be installed in the more humid areas to achieve the same
evaporation.
Wet Bulb Temperature is the lowest temperature that can be achieved in an
area by evaporating water. It is a temperature that is taken into account by the
engineer sizing the tower. If the wet bulb temperature is 70° F, the lowest
temperature generally designed for would be 80° F, or designing to only
approach to within 10° F of the wet bulb. If the process water returned to the
tower at 90° F, there could be a 10° F temperature drop across the tower. If the
process water returned to the tower at 100° F or 110° F there could be a 20° F
or 30° F temperature drop across the tower. Whatever the design, the tower
would mix the right amount of air with the flow and temperature of the water
to cool the desired amount.
The condenser of an air conditioning unit is sized to use 3 gpm/ton, based on a
10° F temperature rise through the condenser. BTU = heat to raise 1 pound of
water 1 degree Fahrenheit.

 Page 81
In air conditioning applications you can usually divide pump gpm by 3 to get
the approximate tons. To convert figures given from a process tower, use the
following formula to arrive at tons:

Alternate Calculations

Size Treatment according to actual tower load.

NOTE: Cooling towers applied to absorption A/C units can be rated according
to the above calculations, or it is safe to assume the tower tonnage will be
twice the rated air conditioning capacity.
Application Information
For The Advanced Technology Where Bleed To The Sewer Can Be Reduced
To Zero If Desired, A Water Meter On The Make-up Is Always
Recommended. Consider two options:
1. Where the load is fairly constant a water meter only is needed to measure
water flow so the slow feed rate of an adjustable peristaltic pump can be
regulated.
2. Where the tower load is variable, it is desirable to install a water meter with
an electric contact head and a timer. In application the meter will close electric
contact points for an impulse to the timer at set intervals, say every 100
gallons. Each time the timer is activated it will run for a predetermined
number of seconds to add enough chemicals for the gallons of water added.
Adjusting feed rates only requires a new timer setting.
Selecting A Water Meter and/or Water Meter Timer
There are a number of water meter manufacturers supplying dependable
meters with and without electrical contact heads. It is important to select a
timer for the meter that can be adjusted to the seconds needed for accurate
pump operation.

 Page 82
Following is a meter/timer.

Fig 9.4:
Electrical Contacting Head Water
Meter with Timer
Courtesy Carlon Meter Company, Inc.,
Used by permission

Installation instructions are:

1. Flush the line thoroughly after plumbing changes to eliminate the possibility
of foreign material reaching the meter.
2. Do not exceed operating pressure of 150 psi.
3. Install meter horizontally with the register facing up and the inlet port
facing the supply water line.
4. It is recommended that if there is any possibility the water supply contains
foreign materials, a strainer be installed between the supply and the meter.
5. Connect the terminals on the pulse head to the meter input on the
controlling device. The switch is rated for a maximum of 10 amps at 250
VAC. The switch is a normally open type micro-switch.
6. Connect your controlling device to the water meter equipment (pump,
valves, etc.) Notice G.P.C. (Gallons per Contact) setting to determine
frequency of operation.
7. The meter is designed to handle a sustained flow of 1/2 of the rated
maximum flow. It is not recommended that the meter be run for long periods
of time at the maximum rating as excess wear will result and the life of the
meter will be greatly reduced.
8. To reduce potential harmful effects to equipment from water hammers
caused by quick closing valves, it is suggested that one of the following
actions be taken:
A. Install a “slow closing” valveavailable from most valve manufactures.
B. Insure that the valve is installed between the supply water line and the
meter.
C. Install an expansion device between the meter and the valve that will
absorb the shock of a water hammer.
9. Protect the meter from freezing and from heat in excess of 105° F.
10. This meter is not designed for outdoor installation.
Source: Carlon Meter Company

 Page 83
Selecting Pumps
Select a good quality adjustable feed pump. Pump must be able to add
treatment against water pressure at injection point. Select a point where there
is good circulation and the concentrated chemicals will not contact metal until
after they are diluted with system water.
Peristaltic pumps are selected because:
1. Their ability to operate without loosing prime makes them very reliable.
2. They are very accurate at low feed rates.
Check valves used to hold prime in diaphragm type pumps require the lines to
be vertical all of the time. If the foot valve on the pump suction line is allowed
to tip horizontal in the chemical drum because the tube is too long, it will be
very difficult to maintain proper prime and chemicals will not be added. The
interface between the “ball” and “O” Rings is subject to fouling if there is any
sediment in the solution being pumped.
Some periodic maintenance and parts replacement is required with any pump.
The following information is included on pumps.

Fig. 9.5:
Typical Stenner Single Head Pump
 Courtesy Stenner & Company, Jacksonville, Florida,
Used by Permission

 Page 84
Several Features Make Stenner Pumps Ideal for Application with this
Advanced Technology for Cooling Tower Treatment.
1. A mechanical control allows the pump’s output to be scaled from 5% to
100% with the simple turn of a dial. This eliminates the need for troublesome
electronic timers.
2. It is reportedly the only available metering pump that can operate reliably
and consistently against pressures of up to 100 psi. It is furnished with an
injection fitting so chemicals can be injected directly in pipe water flow.
3. Chemicals are metered without exposure to air or moving mechanical parts.
Peristalsis occurs when the rotation of the rollers around the inside diameter of
the tube housing compresses and dilates the pumping tube. This eliminates
diaphragms or foot valves while allowing the system to be completely self-
priming and to pump up to 50% solids and slurry mixtures.
4. All major feeder components are secured by brass locking rivets for quick
disassembly without tools. Pump tubes are easy to replace.
5. Pump capacity is determined by tube size and motor speed.
ADJUSTABLE RATE UNITS/OUTPUT CHARTS (GPD)
Low Pressure025 PSI Maximum Discharge Pressure
FEEDER SETTING:
MODEL TUBE SIZE
L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
45M1 #1 .2 .3 .6 .9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
45M2 #2 .5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
45M3 #3 1.1 2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 11.0 13.2 15.4 17.6 19.8 22.0
45M4 #4 1.7 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0 17.5 21.0 24.5 28.0 31.5 35.0
45M5 #5 2.5 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0

High Pressure0100 PSI Maximum Discharge Pressure

FEEDER SETTING:
MODEL TUBE SIZE
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
45MHP2 #1 .2 .3 .6 .9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
45MHP10 #2 .5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

Fig 9.6:
Typical Stenner Adjustable Rate Units/Outputs Charts (GPD)

 Page 85
Stenner Product Line Specifications

Discharge Pressures for Product

0 100 PSI
Line…………………
Output
2 170 Gals./Day (24 HRS.)
Range………………………………………
120v, 220v 50/60hz 250v,
Voltages…………………………………..
50hz 12v DC
AMP Draw………………………………. 1.7 for 120v 0.9 for 220v
RPM………………………………………..26 or 44
Horsepower……………………………… 1/30 Fractional
Lead Tubing (available in
Accessories Included………………….
1/4” OR 3/8”
Spare Feed Tube
Connceting Nuts
Injection Fitting
Clay Weight
Ferrules
Instructions

Chemical Application Information

This is about an Advanced Technology that allows zero forced bleed to the
sewer. A zero forced bleed is possible because the treatment holds all scale
forming minerals in solution so they cannot contribute to the familiar sludge
soup so common in cooling tower sumps. Treatment not only prevents
deposition of scale but acts to remove existing deposits from the system.
During clean-up it is necessary to feed more chemicals than is needed to just
prevent scale. This Advanced Technology, when used with zero forced bleed
to the sewer, creates tower water conditions that are not conducive to either
organism growth or corrosion. One chemical is all that is needed.
This is not a miracle chemical, but will give the results promised when it is
properly applied. Amount of chemicals required is based on gallons of make-
up required for evaporation and the total hardness and silica of the make-up
water. Total hardness and silica are both measured with simple test kits
available from many sources.
Gallons of water make-up can be measured with a water meter or estimated
based on system load. Where a water meter is on a cooling tower using
traditional treatment, the total make-up is measured and evaporation is
calculated based on bleed that controls cycles of concentration.

 Page 86
Gallons of evaporation plus the small amount of water leaving the tower as
drift is the total make-up desired for this zero bleed treatment. Other water
losses should be corrected as soon as possible. Water lubricated pump
packings should be adjusted to the minimum drip recommended by the pump
manufacturer.
Notice!!! Zero bleed treatment does not work well when applied according to
the rules for using traditional water treatment. The simple instructions that
follow will assure treatment success.
Determing Chemical Requirements
To determine the amount of chemical needed it is necessary to know the total
hardness and silica of the make-up water and then estimate evaporation rate as
close as possible. A 100 ton tower seldom sees a 100 ton load. What it does
see is what is needed to calculate treatment. A 100 ton tower at 75% load is a
75 ton load as far as the calculation is concerned.
The components of the formula for chemical use are as follows:

The formulas and figures used here are presented to illustrate the process only.
They are not intended to represent any particular chemical concentration.
Always calculate usage based on instructions from the chemical supplier.
Basic Formula

Example: Assume 200 ton load, FS =34, HF = 195


 Page 87

Applying Treatment with Peristalic Pumps

A chemical feed and control system needs to fit in with whatever else is going
on.
1. Will the pump be controlled by the water meter? The more variable the
load the more this is recommended.
2. Will treatment service be performed in house or by contract personnel
coming in on a regular schedule?
3. Does the total hardness in the make-up water remain constant? If not,
how much and how often does it change?
The calculations above are for a system operating 24 hours a day, 30.4 days
per month. The 10.97 gal/mo. of chemical would be about 0.36 gallons per
day. The options available for chemical feed include:
1. Select a pump that will feed in the output range required and allow the
pump to run while the tower is in operation. This provides lower
equipment costs where the operating load is fairly constant.
2. Dilution of the chemicals to match chemical pump feed rate may be
necessary depending on available pump capacity. Any chemical dilution
should be made with good quality distilled water.
3. Use electric contact head water meter with a timer that operates the
chemical feed pump for a set time during each contact closure.
Calculations For Timer Setting
This calculation is for a water meter that gives an impulse to the timer for each
100 gallons of makeup water. Hardness Factor = 195 ppm, FS = 34.

Each 100 gallons of tower make-up will require 15.8 ml of treatment to be

added to the tower.
Assume a chemical feed pump that will feed 3 gallons per day (gpd)

Timer setting

 Page 88
On a tower where the meter has one impulse for each 100 gallons of water,
195 ppm total hardness and silica combined, a pump with 3 gpd capacity, and
with a feed solution factor of 34, the timer would be set to operate the pump
122 seconds for each cycle. It is good practice to make the above calculations
to assure equipment selected will work properly. A meter with low gallons per
contact coupled with a very low feed rate pump may not be able to function
properly.
Make this check:

360 divided by 60 = 6 gallons per minute makeup. A 122 second pump

running time per cycle would be a good selection. At full load and with a
meter impulse every 100 gallons there would be over 16 minutes between
chemical feed cycles.

 Page 89

Chapter 10
Servicing Cooling Towers
Talking about servicing a cooling tower is somewhat like talking about a dog
or a cat, the one you are most familiar with comes to mind.
As different as cooling towers may appear, they still have many similarities.
Cooling towers mix water and air to induce evaporation and transfer heat to
the atmosphere. There are pumps, there are pipes, and there is a collection area
for some surplus water. There are multiple configurations that direct the water
through the tower and there are a variety of approaches for mixing air and
water. Since each person reading this information will start thinking in terms
of what they are most acquainted, we hope we cover something that is useful.
This advanced technology works best when there is a proper balance between
applying chemicals and mechanical maintenance.
Pressure And Temperature Differences
As treatment begins, it is desirable to record pressures and temperatures in as
many places as possible. Watch for trends so needed adjustments can be
identified early. This discussion will be about towers connected to air
conditioning units, but the same ideas would apply to other cooling systems.
In servicing a cooling tower keep in mind there must be a balance between the
heat rejected and the heat picked up. If the heat is not being rejected at the
tower, the water cannot pick up more heat. If the water cannot pick up heat
due to heat transfer surface insulation, there is nothing to reject at the tower.
An infrared thermometer is a good service tool to quickly measure surface
temperatures, pressure measurements are common practice.
The Heat Source
A typical air conditioning load is 15,000 BTU/ hr/ton. A 100 Ton chiller load
will therefore be 1,500,000 BTU/hr. A BTU is the amount of heat required to
raise 1 lb. of water 1°F. To raise the water cooling a 100 ton load, 10°F, it
would require 150,000 lbs of water per hour to be circulated through the
condenser. Once a pump is installed and balanced there will be a fixed flow
rate and the temperature across the condenser can be measured. If variable
speed pumps are in service, always measure temperature and pressure at a
selected pump speed.
1. When the chiller is operating at full load, the design flow will normally give
a temperature rise of 10°F. across the condenser.
2. At full load, if the temperature across the condenser is more than 10°F. it is
an indication water flow may be restricted. Check the pump screen or other
sources of restriction.
3. If the temperature across the condenser is less than 10°F., one of two things
is the normal cause:
a. The chiller is not loaded
b. The chiller is loaded and there is fouling in the condenser tubes. A
high chiller condensing temperature is generally a confirmation that the
tubes are fouled.

 Page 90
Please note the use of the word ”normal”. On occasion there might be some
unusual occurrence such as a leaking gasket on the water diverter in the chiller
condenser. This leak could give the same symptoms as a fouled condenser.
There would be high discharge refrigerant temperatures to the condensers and
low temperature rise across the condenser, because the cooled incoming water
is leaking through the diverter gasket to cool the leaving water. The by-pass
leak would reduce the flow of water through the condenser tubes and result in
higher condensing temperatures. The answer is not always obvious. There is
no substitute for good testing equipment and a questioning mind.
Dissipation of Heat
A cooling tower on a comfort air conditioning load is generally sized to cool
the circulating water to within about 10°F.of the wet bulb temperature. The
wet bulb temperature is the lowest temperature water can achieve through just
evaporation. The wet bulb temperature results because of atmospheric
conditions. The wet bulb temperature can be measured with a sling
psychrometer or by just wetting a piece of paper towel, waving it in the air,
and checking the temperature of the wet towel with an infrared thermometer.
The sump water of an operating evaporative cooler will also be at the wet bulb
temperature (assuming it has operated long enough to reach equilibrium).
Know your system. If an air conditioning load is properly sized, the
temperature split across the condenser will be close to the temperature drop
across the cooling tower. In case of a problem, check:
1. For proper air flow across the tower.
a.) Look for broken belts.
b.) Look for trash on intake screens.
c.) Look for internal fouling that will not let the air mix with the water.
2. For improper water flow across the tower.
a.) Look for plugged spray nozzles.
b.) Look for restricted holes in the water distribution pans that can causes
the water to flow to the sump through the overflow.
c.) Make sure screens ahead of the pump are clean. Check pump for
cavitation.
3. If pump is cavitating,
a.) Check for proper water level in the tower sump.
b.) Check for plugged screens in tower sump and pump intake.
Cavitation results when air separates from water being pumped. Air in the
pump reduces the water flow capacity. In addition to not moving enough
water, cavitation is about equivalent to sand blasting the pump impeller, it also
ruins pump bearings. The little whirlpool in the tower sump right above the
return to the pump is a common source of pumped air. Adjust the water level.
Splash Deposits
Splash deposits with any treatment are generally caused by conditions not
directly related to the chemicals used. Look for mechanical problems.
1. Any erratic air or water flow, higher or lower than design, may cause water
to splash and dry on the cooling tower fill. Any water that dries on a tower
surface away from normal flow patterns is referred to as a splash deposit.
Splash deposits are unsightly but seldom cause serious operating difficulties.
To limit splash, it is good design practice to size water circulating pump to
cooling tower

 Page 91
needs. Install bypass at chiller if needed for proper heat load water flow.
Adjust air flow where possible.
2. Worn, partially plugged, or improper spray nozzles that do not properly
cover evaporative condenser tubes with water will allow sections to dry and
leave minerals commonly referred to as splash deposits. Look for regular
patterns of clean and fouled sections on the tube bundle.
3. On smaller cooling towers, what may appear to be a pump problem due to
inadequate water flow, could actually be low water flow because part of the
pump capacity is being diverted to the by-pass required for the water treatment
conductivity controller sensor. Conductivity controller bypass requirements
are often specified at 5 gpm. On a small tower that much bypass could alter
spray patterns.
Recognizing the Difference Between Low Chemical Feed And Splash
Deposits
Deposits from splash or from low chemical feed look alike, the difference can
be determined by observing where they are in relation to the general water
flow. If the deposit comes out where there is full water flow it is most likely
caused from low chemicals. If the area of full water flow is clean and there are
deposits where the water is drying on the tower fill from lack of water flow,
that is called splash.
When using the advanced technology, it is important to understand that
hardness comes out of solution when the level of chemical is below the
minimum threshold required to hold the existing hardness in solution. Since
deposits on cooling tower fill can be either from splash or from not having
enough chemicals in the water, it is important to know the difference. One
solution is mechanical, the other is chemical, Many times as much can be
gained from observation as from chemical tests.
In traditional treatment, surface temperature in the condenser plays a big part
in how much scale will form. If both a centrifugal and a reciprocal chiller are
on the same tower, the reciprocal chiller will be much more difficult to keep
clean because of the higher refrigerant temperatures. The cooling tower may
appear clean but the condenser can be full of scale. With the Advanced
Technology the opposite is true, fallout from inadequate chemicals will be in
the cooling tower. When water starts with 300 ppm hardness and is already
concentrated 10 times, the water is holding 3000 ppm hardness in solution.
Now take a single drop and decrease the volume by 50% due to evaporation
and the chemical will be trying to hold 6000 ppm hardness in solution while it
falls through the tower.

Up to some very high point, there is a relationship between how much

chemical is in the water and the amount of hardness that can be held in
solution. Most hardness fallout problems whether resulting from water that is
sprayed or in sheets, can be solved by increasing chemical feed.
Splash deposits will generally be more prone to decrease capacity in
evaporative condensers than when the tower water cools a shell and tube
condenser.
Splash Deposits In Evaporative Condensers
In an evaporative condenser it is very important to have a proper balance
between water and air

 Page 92
flow but it is equally important to have enough chemicals present. Water flows
over the tubes to absorb heat. If all of the tubes are not properly covered with
water spray there will be “hot spots” and the water drift will dry on the tubes,
forming deposits. Air is blown through the spray of water to create
evaporation and remove the heat. As long as there is enough water flow the
tubes are fairly easy to keep clean. If there is not a proper balance between air
and water flow, there is very little chance the tubes can be kept clean. This is a
mechanical as much as it is a chemical problem. Any deposits on the tubes
restrict heat transfer and will require regular cleaning. If regular cleaning is
required, it is well to evaluate water flow along with the application of
chemicals. It is also more difficult to control organic growths if all the surfaces
in a tower are not kept wet with treated water. Scale forming on the lower
tubes of an evaporative condenser is generally caused by not enough chemical
in the water. At low chemical concentration levels the hardness will not stay in
solution until the water reaches the tower sump.
Capillary Leaks In Cooling Towers
Evaporative condensing units and some closed towers have slow leaks to the
exterior because the interior air pressure pushes the water out small joints that
are not properly sealed. The amount of water lost may not be significant but
when the TDS in the water is high, there are deposits on the tower surface that
look bad. Mineral deposits on the exterior of the cooling tower cause some
owners to feel the system must be fouling.
A new sealant was introduced a few years ago that will seal to almost any
material found in cooling towers. It seals through oil and under water. It is no
longer necessary to have surfaces dry to apply a sealer.

Fig. 10.1:
Astroseal
Courtesey of UE Systems Inc.

Shell & Tube Condensers Not Generally Effected By Splash Deposits

Shell & Tube Condenser are generally not effected by splash deposits since
splash deposits are in the tower. Splash deposits in a cooling tower are of
concern because the tower may need more frequent cleaning, but the operating
cost of the chiller will not be increased unless the deposits get so bad they
effect the water and/or air flow.
Hardness fallout is a function of chemical to hardness ratio, it is not affected
by temperature. It is not uncommon for water temperatures to increase 30° F.
to 50° F. in industrial process applications with no condenser fallout problems
when using the Advanced Technology.
It is important to remember there is no relationship between how clean the
condensers are and how much splash deposit may be present in a tower. Under
the same conditions a tower carrying 10 cycles of concentration will have 5
times more splash deposits than a tower carrying 2 cycles of concentration.
Splash deposits look bad, but if removed early will generally wash out with
hose pressure. With the Advanced Technology, splash deposits will be almost
as fine as talcum powder and they will generally be easier to wash from the
tower than splash deposits resulting from traditional treatment.

 Page 93
Hardness does not fall out of solution as a well defined crystal and it may be
practical to consider installation of a filtration system to remove suspended
solid, along wth dirt, before they become maintenance problems.
Dealing With Suspended Solids In A Cooling Tower
Anything in water that can be filtered, regardless of particle size, is suspended.
Everything else is ionized and stays in solution.
The value of the Advanced Technology is that it holds extremely high levels of
hardness in solution. It allows operating conditions where corrosion and
biological fouling are nil so there is less to filter than is common when
traditional treatment is being used. When using traditional water treatment,
suspended products associated with scale and organic fouling are a major
focus of maintenance.
When selecting a sediment removal system it is necessary to evaluate what
needs to be removed. It may not be practical to try to remove everything with
a single system. The practice of installing multiple systems to remove different
types of sediment in the most efficient manner possible seems to be the trend
of the future.
Traditional water treatment developed chemicals to lift and/or float some
organics and just heavier than water sediment. That kind of sediment removal
requires the expense of a heavy bleed and chemicals. It is not a complete nor
efficient sediment removal system.
Since the advanced technology will:
1. hold extremely high levels of hardness in solution,
2. minimize organic growths, and
3. control corrosion,
about the only suspended matter that normally must be removed from the
tower after initial clean-up is dirt blown in from the atmosphere. When water
conservation is a concern, the centrifugal separator and/or a “bag” filter that
does not require a back wash is a good choice.
Centrifugal separation has demonstrated a cost effective ability to remove the
more dense material from water regardless of particle size. When applying
centrifugal separation to zero discharge systems it is good practice to install a
bag filter on the dirt discharge of the separator so no water is wasted. Since
less dense particles may pass through a centrifugal separator, depending on the
quantity needing to be removed, it may be desirable to utilize a second bag
filter at a different location.
There are no single “fits-all” answers available when it comes to sediment
removal in water circulating systems. When applying a by-pass system for any
use, simple logic ought to prevail.
Caution!! It is important to assure the flow used for a side-stream filter
operation will not short the cooling tower to the point it will contribute to
“splash deposits” from reduced water flow. See Chapter 13 for tower basin
cleaning systems.

 Page 94

centrifugal-action separator

bag filters
May be used as a device for accumulating and concentrating
the solids separated by a centrifugal-action separator
(see illlustration above), thereby eliminating excess liquid
 loss. . . or. . . as a traditional barrier filtration device for
removing very fine solids or floating (non-settlable) solids.
Fig. 10.2:
Filters for Suspended Sediment Removal Courtesy of LAKOS,
Div. of Claude Laval Corporation

 Page 95

Condenser FoulingSource and Effects

The large air volume needed to mix with water droplets to force evaporation
carries with it contaminates that are washed out and become a source of
fouling in a condenser. The four major types of potential fouling include:
Organicoften called biological fouling.
SedimentationSettling of airborne dirt.
Crystallizationsometimes called scaling.
Polymerizationis a chemical reaction.
A chapter could be written on each of these contaminants but for our purposes
a brief summary will suffice. The potential for organic fouling and
sedimentation fouling are generally introduced to the tower from airborne
contaminants. The organic fouling grows from microscopic organisms floating
free in the air or riding on dust particles, etc. When introduced into the moist
atmosphere of a cooling tower where there is plenty of food and, in some
cases, plenty of sunshine, and the temperature is right, there is very rapid
growth. Growing bacteria deposit a thin film on heat transfer surfaces. The
thin film becomes a trap for circulating dirt suspended in the water and any
scale crystals that may have dropped out of solution. The fouling rapidly
grows, resulting in the need for higher temperature differences to push the heat
through to the circulating water. The higher temperatures mean higher
operating costs for the compressor. Heat transfer surfaces fouled with a
deposit, cause the compressor to work harder to build up a temperature high
enough to overcome the effect of the fouling.
Crystallization is introduced from minerals in the water. When water is heated
and calcium carbonate comes out of solution, it is a very light flock at first and
may take as much as 8 hours to become a crystal. It is easy for the sticky
surfaces of growing bacteria to attract and hold the soft scale flock. Almost all
deposits in a cooling tower or condenser are a combination of crystallization,
organic and sedimentation deposits. If the deposit does not contain some
calcium, there will be no chemical action from acid that will break up the
deposit and move it. When non-acid cleaners are used, the speed of cleaning is
a function of how much scale is present and how tight it is encapsulated in the
organic growths.
Polymerization is not a common type of deposit, but when it occurs, get with
the manufacturer of the chemical involved for clean-up instructions.
Polymerization is a reaction of the polymer-based treatment chemicals that
causes it to come out as a very sticky tenacious deposit, looking much like
melted caramel. Some water treatment chemicals can not have the pH lowered
and then let it rise, the treatment will deteriorate and polymerization will
occur. This might occur when an over-feed of chemicals flock out a lot of
hardness and acid cleaning seems the right thing to do. STOP. Drain the
system while the pH is low if acid is used for clean-up. If an over-feed of
polymer-based chemicals causes a problem that requires an acid clean-up, do
not neutralize the low pH solution in the tower system. It could cause a very
sticky polymer fallout to occur.
Water cooled air conditioning equipment is used because of economy of
operation. Clean water cooled equipment is the most efficient available. If
fouling is allowed, for each 2° F. the condensing temperature goes up, the
watts input will increase about 1% and the capacity will decrease at least 1%.
(A 20° F. condensing temperature rise results in a 10% power cost increase,
and a 10% decrease in chiller capacity).
Example: 100 tons, 20° cond. temp. increase,designed for 20 hrs/day
operation, power costs $0.065/kwh.

 Page 96
10% increased watts input:

TOTAL:
$ 9.75 / day for scale (cond. temp. increase)
$10.67 / day for decreased capacity
$20.42 / day to Finance a Dirty Condenser
Cleaning Internally Enhanced Tubes
As has been noted in other discussions, most deposits in a condenser start with
biological fouling. The fouling traps and holds suspended matter that is
circulating in the system. When water is heated and calcium carbonate, or any
other mineral, comes out of solution, it comes out as a tiny soft floc that is
easily trapped and held. Anyone observing the build-up of salt crystals knows
it takes quite a bit of time for a crystal to form. Calcium carbonate is no
different. Since calcium carbonate is one of the most prevalent suspended
solid in cooling towers, it is logical to assume it will be the most likely deposit
to be held by the organics and need to be removed.
The ratio of mineral to scale deposit can be determined by complete laboratory
chemical analysis, but much can be determined in the field by some simple
tests and observations. The deposit may be mostly organic with very little
calcium, or it could be just the reverse. It is important to make some kind of
judgement to determine what cleaning approach to take.
A first step is to collect a sample of the deposit and put it in a beaker with a
strong acid solution. The acid solution needs to be strong enough to give a
good strong reaction to the deposit. Hydrochloric acid is usually a good first
choice, but use whatever is available. Faster chemical reaction occurs when
the sample has been crushed to a fine powder but it is easier to determine the
amount of organic deposits and the ability of the acid to break up the deposits
if the sample is in larger pieces. Note the reaction or lack of reaction.
If the reaction is violent, there is probably a good supply of calcium carbonate
present. Next step is to allow the reaction to continue until all reaction stops.
Note what is left in the beaker. If the test starts with big pieces of sample and
end up with big pieces of organic, the acid will likely not be effective in
breaking up all the deposits. This is an important decision to make because
chemical cleaning with acid is generally not the best total solution when
dealing with internally enhanced tubes.
Keep in mind that a tube enhanced inside and outside does not have nearly as
much wall thickness as the old tubes used to have. It does not take many
cleanings, where the copper oxide film is removed, to materially shorten the
useful life of a tube.
If a tube is not completely clean, when it is put back in service it will
immediately begin to foul again. Generally the organic film is the last thing to
be removed. It is always a good idea to utilize mechanical cleaning as the final
phase whenever possible.

 Page 97

Mechanical Cleaning Of Internally Enhanced Tubes

Please note the configuration of an internally enhanced tube.

d-outside diameter of plain end

do-diameter over fins
dr-root diameter of finned section
di-inside diameter of finned section
Xp-wall thickness of plain section
Xf-wall thickness of finned section
Fig. 10.3:
Typical Internally Enhanced Condenser Tube
Type S/T Turbo-Chil Finned Tube is a product of Wolverine Tube, Inc. S/T Turbo-
Chil is a
registered trademark of Wolverine Tube, Inc. Published by Permission

When a tube is clean, the internal enhancement of a tube creates turbulence for
better heat transfer. By increasing the unit heat transfer, manufacturers are able
to reduce equipment size and cost to be more competitive. Internally enhanced
tubes lose capacity quite fast as fouling takes place. It is very important to
keep them clean.
Figure 10.4 on the following page shows a RAM-4 REAM-A-MATIC TUBE
CLEANER. It is available with a reversible motor to change the direction of
the brush rotation as it travels in and out of the tube.
The following instructions are useful:
1. Select the proper size brush and thread it onto the flexible shaft until it is
hand tight. Hold the shaft coupling with pliers and tighten the jam nut against
the shaft coupling with a wrench. This will prevent the brush from unthreading
when in the reversed direction. Use only brushes when cleaning internally
enhanced tubes. Never use a brush larger than the tube I.D.
2. Position the hose clamp on the outside of the flexible shaft so that when the
shaft is fully inserted into the tube, the entire bristle portion of the brush
extends outside the tube. The bristles must clear the tube before the brush can
be reversed. Care must be taken not to allow the exposed part of the flexible
shaft to extend beyond the tube end to prevent the wires from being cut by the
sharp end of the tube.
3. The design of the brush and the spiral in the tube cause the brush to move
through the tube with very little assistance from the operator. Depress the
”FORWARD’ side of the foot switch to enter the tube. To prevent undue strain
on the flexible shaft, do not change in/out direction or rotation direction until
the brush leaves the opposite end of the tube. Allow rotation to stop before
depressing the “REVERSE” side of the footswitch to exit the tube. The motor
must stop before it can reverse.

 Page 98
RAM-4 REAM-A-MATIC TUBE CLEANER

Fig. 10.4:
RAM-4 Ream-A-Matic Tube Cleaner
Courtesy Goodway Technologies Corporation,
Used by Permission

 Page 99

Expense Accounting And Water Treatment

The Advanced Technology is technically superior to anything presently
available from any traditional water treatment source, but the overall
acceptance has not been as rapid as might be expected. It is not true that if you
build a better mouse trap people will rush to your door.
Those who have been involved over the years teaching the basics of traditional
water treatment should be amazed at how completely what is taught is
believed. It is believed because it was taught by everyone selling water
treatment and it was the only option available. It is no longer the only option,
but now it seems to be “expense accounting” that becomes the road block to
accepting a more economical approach to maintenance.
From a business owner perspective, the real value of this advanced technology
is that it will allow savings in water, sewer, electrical power and the cost of
labor to apply the chemicals. Depending on circumstances, the cost of the
chemical could be higher, lower, or the same as is being spent for traditional
chemicals. It is common for accounting to charge water and electrical power to
a general fund, and charge chemicals and labor to the maintenance budget.
Where is the incentive for change if the savings made are not recognized?
Until expense accounting shifts financial responsibility for losses or savings of
water and electrical power to the maintenance budget, there is little incentive
for anyone including the chemical sales person to suggest changes. Present
purchases for water treatmenat include scale inhibitors, biocides, corrosion
inhibitors and perhaps chemicals to help float out the scale that drops our of
solution. For a sales person to suggest trading all of that for the sale of a single
chemical is not financially appealing unless there is an incentive available
from water or power costs saved. This is especially true if no one is asking for
a change.
It has been an interesting experience to discuss this advanced technology with
a number of water treatment companies. The technical aspects are not a
problem for most, it is the idea of not having so many items to sell and make
money from. There is really only one solution to that problem. Each person
must be able to identify and share in the savings available from applying the
treatment, and then find more customers. With the advanced technology it is
not necessary to spend as much time with an account to give good service.
Accounting is a management decision.
A Cooling Tower on a Plate & Frame Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is often used between the cooling load and the tower when
contaminates from the tower could foul the system. A good example is where
“free cooling” is in use. Many engineers do not want the tower water to
circulate directly through the closed system. A popular type of heat exchange
for this application is plate and frame. The plate and frame heat exchanger has
the advantage that it can be taken apart for cleaning. See Figure 10.5
“TypicalCooling Tower on a PlateFrame Heat Ex-changer” on the following
page.
It is important in a free cooling application that the heat exchange surfaces are
kept clean. Free cooling systems operate on close temperature differences so
any fouling can materially reduce system capacity.
Most cooling tower fouling starts with biological growth and is compounded
by suspended solids. A centrifugal separator can be a cost effective

 Page 100

Fig. 10.5:
Typical - Cooling Tower on a Plate - Frame Heat Exchanger
Courtesy of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation, Published by Permission

 Page 101
addition. The Advanced Technology is an excellent choice because tower
conditions keep organic fouling from developing. The traditional approach of
periodically adding a toxic biocide may kill growths, but if any growth had
started it would stay on the plate, reducing system capacity, until it was
removed at the time the heat exchanger was disassembled and cleaned.
When plate and frame heat exchangers are in use, the following suggestions
are offered.
1. Follow manufacturers instructions when starting or stopping water flow to
avoid any possibilities of water hammer. It is very important that the system to
which the heat exchanger is connected, is protected against sudden and
extreme variations of temperature and pressure. This is not only for the heat
exchanger but also for the pipe system itself and every piece of equipment
included in it.
2. Hydrochloric acid should never be used to clean stainless steel heat
exchangers. Consult manufacturer for approved materials based on the
contamination experienced.
3. Plate and frame condensers have small passages for water flow. It is good
operating practice to:
a. Install a centrifugal seperator or other suitable filtering system to
remove suspended solids.
b. When cleaning badly fouled systems on line with the Advanced
Technology, avoid high levels of treatment so cleaning will be slow and
less apt to plug water flow.
4. If operating chloride levels are a concern because of high cycles of
concentration and stainless steel plates, install a TDS controller of adequate
range and bleed to the highest possible level of safety and economy. Apply the
Advanced Technology treatment with a water meter/timer on the make-up
water line as outlined in chapter 9.
”Free Cooling” Without a Heat Exchanger
In many parts of the country, the wet bulb temperature is low enough in the
spring and fall that the water from the cooling tower can be used in place of
operating the chiller. The chiller will be operated in the heat of the summer,
but the rest of the year the chiller will be bypassed and the tower water is used
in what would normally be the closed system. In the past, the use of water
from the tower left deposits in the closed system that created corrosion
problems. Part of the year, the pipes and coils of the normal closed system
would function as a closed circulating system and could be treated as such, but
the rest of the year it was open to the contaminates associated with cooling
towers.
With the introduction of this Advanced Technology, it is now possible to clean
and treat this kind of system with great success. Review Chapter 5 of this book
dealing with corrosion. When this Advanced Technology is properly applied
with zero bleed to the sewer, there is generally less organic growth and fewer
corrosion cells. The Advanced Technology will also clean pipes of oxidized
iron or other deposits to remove the source of corrosion.
Set up normal treatment (see Chapter 9) on the cooling tower. If treatment is
starting in the spring or summer, manually add closed systems treatment based
on the Advanced Technology per manufacturers instructions. Slow clean-up
will take place. Record the level of the closed system TDS after the chemicals
are added. In the fall check the closed system TDS again. If the closed system
TDS increased to more than double, flush the system; if less than double, just
adjust valves to send regular tower treatment through the closed system.

 Page 102
It is good maintenance practice to install a centrifugal seperator and/or bag
filter to remove suspended solids that can foul a system. It is difficult to
maintain proper water velocities to flush dirt back to the tower when pipe sizes
are reduced due to severe system fouling.

Fig. 10.6:
Normal Air Conditioning Flow Pattern

Fig. 10.7:
Typical - “Free Cooling” Without a Heat Exchanger
Courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation, Published by Permission

 Page 103

Multiple Heat Pumps On A Single Cooling Tower

Fig. 10.8:
Typical - Cooling Tower with Multiple Heat Pumps
Courtesy of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation, Published by Permission

Multiple heat pumps are installed with a fluid cooler (a type of evaporative
condenser) and a hot water heater to remove or supplement heat not supplied
by the building. In these systems set up cooling tower treatment as discussed.
In older systems, if the closed loop is black iron pipe construction, there is
likely significant corrosion present. If the connecting pipe is PVC the
corrosion will be concentrated in the boiler and any valves that may contain
iron.
It is good maintenance practice to add some of the Advanced Technology
treatment formulated for closed systems. Install a centrifugal separator or filter
to remove suspended solids. This will eliminate many problems associated
with iron fouling.

 Page 104
Periodic chemical tests can show how much Advanced Technology chemical
must be added to the closed system. Consult with a chemical supplier. A by-
pass feeder is adequalte for chemical addition.

Fig. 10.9:
Typical By-pass Feeder

Ammonia Presence In Cooling Water

The presence of ammonia in cooling water will cause destruction of many
chemicals used in water treatment, either traditional or those based on the
Advanced Technology. Ammonia is an oxidizer and as such can also cause
corrosion. Running low level nitrogen ammonia tests on ammonia
refrigeration system’s water where normal treatment levels seem not to be
sufficient to maintain the system free of scale and corrosion is a must. If the
ammonia system has been running along trouble-free and suddenly a problem
occurs, suspect ammonia as the problem.
There will generally be small ammonia leaks into the water. The higher the
leakage, the more Advanced Technology will be required to counteract these
leaks and bond all cation hardness ions so they cannot drop out and form
scale.
Changing Out The Fill On A Cooling Tower
In the process of manufacturing fill sheets used in a cooling tower, a mold
release substance is used to help eliminate tearing or ripping of the plastic
material. It also speeds the molding operation. Unfortunately, this release
material is almost never washed off by the plastic manufacturer.
When these newly manufactured fill sheets are used to replace a bank of fill in
a cooling tower, and the tower has been shut down only to replace the fill, this
release material will be washed off when the tower system is restarted. If the
Advanced Technology is being used it will probably knock down the chemical
water treatment in the system. When this happens, all hardness that was held
in solution will drop out like rain falling from the sky.
Before replacing fill into the tower system, it is suggested that the fill be
thoroughly sprayed with a soapy solution and then with clear water. This
procedure though not removing all of the release agent, will remove most of it.
If the tower system has been operating with high cycles of solids, it would be a
good idea to bleed the system to a very low solids level before placing the new
fill in service.

 Page 105

Electronic Cooling Tower Water Level Control

The waves created in some cooling towers make it very difficult to keep the
standard make-up float valve from leaking. A leaking valve floods the tower
and makes it impossible to maintain correct cycles of concentration of the
treatment chemicals. Excellent results can be had by replacing the standard
make-up float valve with an electronic water level sensor and a slow closing
make-up valve. Only slow closing valves should be used in a tower make-up
line to avoid water hammer & pipe damage that would occur with a standard
solenoid valve. Always install contact head water meter on a main line by-pass
down stream from the solenoid valve. Water meter should always be filled
with water, install traps as necessary.

Fig. 10.10:
Electronic Liquid Level Control
Courtesy Martron Inc., Published by Permission

 Page 106

Thin Film MediaCapacity and Fouling

1. More Capacity or Less Drift With The Popular Thin Film Tower Media
Generally formed from thin molded sheets of PVC, this film type fill
causes the water to spread thin, flowing over large vertical areas to
promote maximum exposure to air flow.

Fig. 10.11:
Section of Thin Film Cooling Media
Courtesy The Marley Cooling Tower Company
Published by Permission
This design promotes very efficient cooling but is extremely sensitive to
poor water and poor air distribution.
Some engineers insist that a little fouling on the thin film media increases
cooling because there is greater surface area. This is true of all
evaporative cooling medias. The problem is in control. How do you keep
a “just right film” of fouling? There are other concerns:
A. As fouling builds, the gap between the sheets narrows. As the space
narrows the air velocity must increase. As the air velocity increases it is
more difficult to maintain a uniform sheet of water on the fill surface for
good evaporation, plus the water is more prone to be carried with the air
as drift. In time, continued fouling will limit air flow through the tower
 fill and reduce the cooling capacity.
B. A drift eliminator is designed to remove most of the water entrained in
the air. Specifications normally call for a minimum drift based on tower
circulation rate. Where the drift eliminator is an integral part of the tower
fill, the specification might call for a drift level of 0.02% of circulated
tower water at a face velocity of 550 fpm fill velocity. Exceeding design
fill face velocity for any reason, including fouling, will increase drift.

Fig. 10.12:
Cooling Tower Fill with Inlet Air
Control and Drift Eliminators
Courtesy The Marley Cooling Tower Company
Published by Permission

C. Drift is raw cooling tower water with all of the solids it contains. Drift
is a cooling

 Page 107
tower bleed to the atmosphere. It has the potential to be a nuisance in car
and building spotting, or a hazard based on its proximity to power lines
or substations. Drift is a function of tower design and there is no known
documentation that it is appreciatively altered one way or the other as
cycles of concentration change.
2. Biological Growths Are The Basis Of Most Thin Film Fouling
Paper No. TP94-05. Cooling Tower Institute, Film Fill Fouling In
Counterflow Cooling Towers: Mechanism And Design, by Kenneth P
Mortensen and Stephen N. Conley, The Marley Cooling Tower Company.
Published by permission.
Quote is the first paragraph of the Abstract and the first section of the
conclusions that deals with fouling mechanism.
Abstract
High-efficiency crosscorrugated PVC film packing materials-first introduced in the
U.S. for new counterflow cooling tower products in the 1970s-have in a number of
instances recently been used to improve the thermal performance of older splash and
flat-sheet-filled counterflow towers. These highly interfaced PVC packs in new
towers and retrofit service have been applied in a variety of circumstances and
conditions. In some locations raw waters have fouled packs. This fouling process
can, if left unchecked, reverse performance gains from the tower upgrade and add
substantially to cooling tower structural loading.
Conclusions
This research has yielded a number of interesting, instructive, and substantial
conclusions, summarized below:
Fouling Mechanism
Biofouling to the level reported to have negative thermal effects can be achieved
in a laboratory within a short time frame (100 days).
Silt exposure alone is not the cause of fill plugging.
Biological growth alone can create substantial detrimental fouling.
The combination of silt and biological growth can create rapid and catastrophic
fouling.
Total Aerobic Bacteria counts should be limited to less than 10000 cfu/ml when
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) exceed 25 ppm if an ”industry standard”
crosscorrugated design fill is in place in the system.
 Control of the Total Organic Carbon (TOC, i.e. nutrient level) in a cooling system
may be effective in limiting biofouling in that system, but is not now useful as a
practical control technique.

It is interesting to note that control of the nutrient level in the cooling water is
a direct by-product of the Advanced Technology. If the organism does not
have the right food, and water conditions are not right, growth will be
restricted.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1970,p. 1006,V. Conditions Affecting Growth Of
Bacteria.

 Page 108
1. Food Requirements.“Bacteria must obtain from their environment all nutrient
materials necessary for their metabolic processes and cell reproduction. The food
must be in solution and must pass into the cell. In general, large molecules such as
proteins and starches do not penetrate, but there is evidence of selectivity on the part
of the cell wall or membranes with respect to penetration of smaller molecules. The
food materials contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and
phosphorus in varying degrees of complexity. Other important elements also are
supplied: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, copper, cobalt,
and others. If the supply of even one essential substance is inadequate, metabolic
activities and growth are limited…”
From “Bacteria” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition (1970), 2:1006

The advanced technology discussed in this book uses a very strong bond
between the chemical and the hardness to control scale. A side issue is that
when scale is controlled with the chemical there is almost never any biological
growths so there is almost never a reason to use a biocide. To date there has
been no in-depth scientific inquiry to determine exactly what happens, it just
does. Perhaps the simple explanation given by the writers in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, that “If the supply of even one essential substance
is inadequate, metabolic activities and growth are limited. …” is as close as is
needed for now. In time the “scientific community” may want to confirm the
details, but for most, end results are what is needed.
Legionnaires’ Disease In Cooling Towers
Some discussion of Legionnaires’ Disease is included in Chapter 1 and
Chapter 13 dealing with Evaporative Coolers. Included here are the last three
paragraphs from “Legionella: Impact on Water Systems in Buildings”. by J.C.
Feeley, and G.K. Morris, Ph.D.
Once considered exclusively an American disease associated only with air
conditioning, outbreaks of Legionnaires’ disease have occurred worldwide, the
majority of which are now associated with hospital, hotel, office building, and
residential potable water systems that are contaminated with the bacterium. (Authors
note, not part of quoted text: outbreaks from potable water systems are almost
always associated with a devise that causes the water to mist. The organisms are
carried on the aerosol from the misting devise) In recent years industrial leaders and
building managers have become increasingly concerned and are taking greater
responsibility for building occupant health and safety. This may be due to pressure
from employee groups, concerns about legal liability, and the general philosophy
among business managers concerning greater responsibility for employee health.
 For these reasons, it is expected that the legionellae bacteria will be of even greater
concern in the next decade, and their disease-causing potential be taken more
seriously in the design of new buildings as well as in the maintenance of existing
ones.
Two recent findings should strongly influence the role of legionellae in the future.
Both suggest that good maintenance is effective in the control of legionellae. The
first is that protozoa appears to be selectively amplifying Legionella in water
systems (Barbaree et al. 1986). Since Legionella can

 Page 109
multiply in both protozoa and alveolar macrophages, some investigators now
believe that protozoa are the natural host of Legionella in the environment and that
humans are only accidental secondary hosts. Association of Legionella and protozoa
in the environment, and the ability of the legionellae to survive within the protozoan
cell, may provide mechanisms for legionellae to survive harsh environmental
conditions. The ability of legionellae to multiply intracellularly in protozoa increases
the likelihood that they will overwhelm alveolar macrophages in the lungs.
Therefore, those legionellae associated with protozoa in the environment may be
more likely to be pathogenic.
The second is that well-maintained towers are less likely to permit the amplification
of Legionella bacteria. Well-maintained towers are those that undergo regular
mechanical inspections to ensure that they are maintained in good repair with at
least quarterly drainage and cleaning of wetted surfaces and areas of alternate
wetting and drying to prevent the accumulation of dirt, scale, slime, and
microorganisms; effective treatment of circulating water for control of
microorganisms, scale and corrosion; and systematic documentation of operating
and maintenance functions (Wisconsin Division of Health 1987.)
Copyright 1991 by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tulle Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329. Reprinted
by permission from ASHRAE Transactions 1991, Volume 97, Part 2, page 149.

 Page 111

Chapter 11
Descaling Cooling Systems at a Higher pH
Each year the regulations get tighter on what can and cannot be put into the
sewer. It has been quite a few years since most cities banned dumping low pH
solutions associated with acid cleaning a cooling tower direct to the sewer.
Scale still forms, and in many cases acid is still used, but now the solution
must be neutralized to a higher pH before it is dumped. To avoid liability and
all the other hassles involved, many firms simply call in a company who
specializes in acid cleaning and lets them meet the legal requirements. Hiring
an outside firm to do acid cleaning may not be a bad approach, but being able
to safely clean equipment in house at a much lower cost is now an option.
How The Advanced Technology Works
The Advanced Technology increases the capability of scale-forming materials
(calcium, magnesium, silica, iron, etc.) to stay in solution allowing a system to
carry extremely high cycles of concentration. This results in any free scale
forming ions to be immediately sequestered, and also brings any existing scale
slowly back into solution.
Deposits form from hardness in water when positively-charged ions, such as
calcium, magnesium, and iron, combine with negatively-charged ionssulfate,
silica, and oxygen. Once these ions combine and they come out of solution,
scale deposits form. The incidence of scale is normally greater as the
temperature increases.
The Advanced Technology introduces negatively-charged ions with a very
strong attraction to positively-charged ions. As the Advanced Technology
circulates, it comes in contact with positively-charged ions. They combine.
The bond formed is so strong that these ions (calcium, magnesium, iron)
cannot develop into deposit-forming composites. In water with a sufficient
level of the Advanced Technology, the negatively-charged ions (sulfate, silica,
and oxygen) have nothing with which to combine, and are left as free radicals.
The bonding of the Advanced Technology with positively-charged metallic
ions, or chelation, follows a very specific sequence.
Treatment Nuclei Attraction
 Fig. 11.1:
Ions with the Highest Electrical
Potential Chelate First

 Page 112
The natural order of attraction of the positive ions to the Advanced
Technology results in ions with the highest electrical potential chelating first.
Calcium ions (with their higher electrical potential of -2.763) are the first to be
bonded. As calcium is removed from circulation and from existing scale, the
other materials once bonded with the calciumsuch as sulfatesreturn to
circulation. Testing will show an increase in sulfate levels.

Fig. 11.2:
Expected Clean-up Pattern
Courtesy Terlyn Industries Inc.
Published by Permission

Magnesium ions (-2.370 are the next to be chelated. As the Advanced

Technology bonds with the magnesium, the silica, previously bonded with the
magnesium, is returned to circulation.
Iron, with an even lower electrical potential (-0.440) is the next to be chelated.
As the system reaches cleanliness, the sulfate and silica levels will gradually
become parallel. Figure 11.3 on the following page shows the clean-up
signature of an automobile assembly plant. Notice how the sulfate reading has
crossed under the silica test, and the silica test continues to climb, indicating
additional clean-up is still occurring. When the sulfate and silica levels
become parallel, the levels define the true cycles of concentration. The cycles
of concentration in above example are 50-55; clean-up is still occurring.
Figure 11.4 on the following page shows that if there is a surplus of calcium
ions over the loading capacity of the Advanced Technology nuclei (about 3000
calcium ions per nuclei), and there had been either magnesium or ferric ions
previously attracted, the nuclei will unload the magnesium and ferric ions in
favor of the calcium ions.
The natural order of attraction results in system turbidity, a typical
characteristic of rapid system cleaning.
The advanced technology removes all scale deposits including silica and iron
oxides. As explained previously, it also removes the cations from the dead
structure of biological growth, eliminating this cause of corrosion.
As system clean-up occurs, the ions with the higher electrical potential are
attracted to the Advanced Technology first. Since calcium is of a higher order,
magnesium and iron will remain tied to silica and oxygen. Since these two
metallic ions are generally a small part of the scale formation relative to
calcium, a reformation of scale is never experienced during cleaning other
than a gray colored mud. This mud, sometimes found on the bottom of a
cooling system, causes no problems. As clean-up progresses, it will also go
back into solution.
The Advanced Technology tends to keep biological fouling from developing
by tieing up the food supply but it does not control by killing the organism as
biocides do. When using the Advanced Technology, it may be necessary to use
a non-oxidizing biocide to control growth, particularly during a scale clean-up
as trapped spores are released into the water. However, do not add a biocide
until it becomes necessary.

 Page 113

Fig. 11.3:
System Water Analysis Charted During Clean-up
Courtesy of Terlyn Industries, Inc.
Published by Permission
Attraction & Rejection of the Nuclei

Fig. 11.4:
Some Circulating Fallout During Clean-up is Common

 Page 114
Equilibrium between Nuclei when
Treatment Level is sufficient

Fig. 11.5:
Typical Nuclei Bonding in a Clean System

Oxidizing chemicals, such as chlorine, iodine, ammonia, chloramine, etc.,

must not be used in cooling systems where the Advanced Technology is being
used. These chemicals contain properties which conteract the effects of the
Advanced Technology. Such interaction will likely cause the solids present to
drop out into scale.
When a System is Removed From Service
To facilitate condenser tube inspection, when a condenser carrying very high
solids (in the range of 20 or more cycles) is removed from service and the end-
bells are to be removed for inspection purposes, do not allow the high solids to
air dry in the tubes. If it does, the high solids water will leave a residue on the
tube surfaces. Flushing the tubes with fresh water as soon as possible rids the
tubes of the high solids water before it air dries.
However, should drying of the solids occur, the residual will return to solution
as soon as the system is placed back in service.
The Clean-Up ProcessA Case Study
1. Install and initiate normal treatment.
2. For more rapid cleaning set treatment at 20% 50% above normal calculated
treatment. Where a system may have small orifices for dirt to plug such as
might be present in a plate and frame heat exchanger, only increase treatment
by a factor of about 10%.
3. If system is badly fouled and the fastest cleaning possible is desired, hand
feed additional chemicals.
4. pH of the system water may be lowered some as chemicals are batch fed in
larger quantities but the does not get low enough that it could be responsible
for the cleaning. The Advanced Technology has a low when formulated so it
will stay in solution, but it does not function as an acid during the cleaning
process. The Advanced Technology cleans very well when the solution pH is
above 7.5 or 8.0.

 Page 115
5. To keep costs to a minimum it is good practice to manually clean as much
as possible before initiating either regular treatment or system cleaning.
6. As cleaning progresses it is good practice to remove debris as it settles in
the sump. Anything the Advanced Technology does not have to break down
and/or dissolve saves time and money.
7. It is recommended that appropriate safety equipment be utilized whenever
any chemical is being used. People have different sensitivity to chemicals and
it is best to avoid problems. Follow instructions on the Material Safety Data
Sheet.
After clean-up is complete, reduce chemical feed according to calculations and
chemical tests and continue treatment. The same chemical responsible for
cleaning is used for treatment.
Be aware that during clean-up, monitoring corrosion with coupons will not
give accurate results. As indicated, as long as there are calcium ions for the
chemical to react with they will not combine with iron. Corrosion coupon
monitoring is only meaningful when the system is clean and the concentration
of sulfate and silica ions are equal.
The following case study of a major Jet Turbine Company shows what
happens during the cleanup process. Note the sulfate (SO3) and the silica
(SiO2) cycles of concentration. Data published courtesy TERLYN
INDUSTRIES, INC.

Feb. Sulfate cycles highdenotes calcium is being

1993:removed.
June Silica starts to cycle highMagnesium is being
1993:removed.
Aug.
Silica still being removed.
1993:
Sept.
Silica still being removed.
1993:
Sulfate and silica cycles about the same.
Nov.
Clean-up nearly complete. Chemical
1993:
requirements will be less on a clean system.
 Clean-up is a function of chemical level and
water movement. Rate of clean-up has a lot to
do with the density and type of deposit. It is
Note: generally more economical to maintain
treatment levels geared toward slow cleaning,
but circumstances differ. Clean-up is a very
orderly chemical process.

Case Study: #0091

Subject: A Major Jet Turbine Company
Start of Study: December 1992.
End of Study: December 1993.
Treatment Used: Advanced Technology
Tower Size: 900 Tons
Make-up Water Anaylsis:
pH 8.1
P ALK 0 ppm
M ALK 90 ”
CL 13.8 “
Ca 100 “
Mg 65 “
TOTAL 165 “
SO3 30 “
SiO2 6.2 “
Fe .05 “
TDS 389 “

Before start-up of the Advanced Technology, it was noticed that some scale
deposits were present in the system. Some of this deposit was collected to be
analyzed. (See following deposit analysis)
ORGANIC:
Qualitative organic analysis of chloroform extractables from the sample
using FTIR indicated the presence of aliphatic hydrocar-

 Page 116
bons, and possible carbonyl functional groups.
INORGANIC:
Inorganic analysis performed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Unit (ICP).

Ash 52% @ 850

content: degrees C
Ca 81.1%
Mg 5.8%
Fe 0.7%
SiO2 1.1%
Al 1.7%
Cu 0.4%
Zn 0.4%
P2O5 5.9%
SO3 4.2%

The determination was made that the treatment program would clean these
deposits during operation. Cycles are calculated from make-up analysis.

Laboratory Analysis: February 1993

pH 8.9
M ALK 600 ppm
Cl 370 “ 26.8 Cycles
SO3 1600 “ 53.3 “
SiO2 126 “ 20.3 “
TDS 3500 “

Because of the unusually high bonding strength of The Advanced Technology,

the analysis normally used for hardness is not accurate. We use a blind test to
determine a balance of constituents in the sample. Sulfate and silica levels
show removal of calcium and magnesium respectively.
The above analysis shows a clean-up of calcium is occurring indicated by the
high level of sulfate (SO3) cycles present.

Laboratory Analysis: June 1993

pH 8.9
Cl 520 ppm 25.2 Cycles
SO3 1100 “ 18.3 “
SiO2 210 “ 23.3 “
TDS 3600 “

The above analysis shows a continuing clean-up. However, notice how the
silica cycles are now higher than the sulfate cycles indicating that most of the
calcium has been removed and magnesium is now being removed.
At this time it was decided to go to a Zero Bleed program and all forced bleed
was removed from the system.

Laboratory Analysis: August 1993

pH 8.9
Cl 2060 ppm 100 Cycles
SO3 4000 “ 66.7 “
SiO2 650 “ 72.0 “
TDS 9900 “

Indicators are close to being balanced. Some magnesium cleaning is still

taking place.

Laboratory Analysis: September 1993

pH 8.9
Cl 3220 ppm 161.2 Cycles
SO3 5000 “ 83.3 “
SiO2 920 “ 102.2 “
TDS 11500 “

Magnesium still being cleaned from the system.

Laboratory Analysis: November 1993

pH 8.9
Cl 3500 ppm 170.0 Cycles
SO3 6300 “ 105.0 “
SiO2 930 “ 103.3 “
TDS 23000 “

 Page 117
This analysis indicated a good balance and a very clean tower system.
Published courtesy: TERLYN INDUSTRIES, Kalamazoo, MI
This Advanced Technology has demonstrated its capability of carrying high
cycles of solids without deposition occurring. The same technology that
functions as a very efficient cleaning mechanism for fouled cooling towers
also works very well in many other applications where water fouling may be a
problem.

 Page 119

Chapter 12
Treating Evaporative CoolersIncluding Direct/Indirect
Evaporative Cooling is becoming more of a major player in the commercial air
conditioning market. With energy costs for air conditioning being a major
concern and many owners of larger mechanical refrigeration systems still
needing to convert to the ”evironmentally safe” refrigerants, decision makers
will be forced to consider every available alternative. It just might be that a
major expansion and acceptance of evaporative cooling will depend on how
simple and cost effective the water treatment is. The goal of this chapter is to
expand on that subject.
In air conditioning, what consumers want to buy as an end product is properly
conditioned air or water for an industrial process or for comfort. In a free
market there are generally several options available to achieve each goal. How
soon sales professionals forget that all that is wanted is a clean system that will
last a long time and deliver the promised results. How that goal is achieved is
what makes for exciting competition. Water treatment can become a
competitive cost saving feature instead of an expensive necessity.
Evaporating water is the source of cooling just as in a cooling tower. Since air
from evaporative cooling is generally delivered to occupied space, some
limitations such as restricting chemicals that impart odors or have the potential
to contaminate the air with toxic substances is logical and welcomed by all
concerned. A conflict develops however, as some evaporative media
manufacturers call for a heavy bleed as the recommended water treatment, and
local governments are calling for restricting low priority uses of such water.
More and more there is serious consideration given to requiring near zero
discharge to the sewer of evaporative cooling devices. This is a conflict those
associated with the sales and application of evaporative cooling must address.
Indirect Cooling
Indirect evaporative cooling has been a real boon to the industry. An indirect
evaporative cooling unit allows for sensible cooling without exposing the air
stream to water. The reduction of air temperature by sensible cooling with the
indirect section allows for more effective cooling than could be had with
evaporative cooling alone. Consider a small section of a psychrometric chart
in Figure 12.1.
Note that air enters the cooler at 99° F. dry bulb and 67° F. wet bulb. The
indirect cooler reduces dry bulb temperature to about 80° F and, in the
process, shifts to cool along the 61° F. wet bulb line rather than cooling along
the 67° F. wet bulb line that would have been the case without the indirect
cooling. All indirect coolers have the objective of reducing air temperature to
cool on the lowest wet bulb line possible. When evaluating equipment for
purchase or maintenance, it is important to recognize that the efficiency of the

 Page 120

Fig. 12.1:
TypicalDirect/Indirect Cooling

 Page 121
system will be in direct proportion to how efficient the indirect cooler is. Any
loss of efficiency due to fouling will have a dramatic effect on the cooling
ability of the unit.
There are several ideas on the market that allow evaporative cooling to
provide for entire cooling requirements, or to interface with and reduce the
operating cost of mechanical cooling.
Following is a discussion of four different systems that utilize evaporative
cooling to remove building heat. The first 3 systems utilize indirect and direct
evaporative cooling. The 4th system makes use of heat pipes to extract heat
from the air without adding moisture to the conditioned air. Evaporative
cooling in this case cools one end of the heat pipe and rejects the heat to the
atmosphere. In all four applications a major part of the heat is removed by
evaporative cooling so less mechanical refrigeration is required. In any of
these systems, properly conditioned water and clean heat exchange surfaces
are a must if long term economic benefits are to be realized.
1. Cooling tower water circulates through a chilled water coil just ahead of an
evaporative cooler media in an air stream. The water coil removes sensible
heat as shown on the psychrometric chart from points represented from A to B.
The evaporative cooler will then cool from B to some temperature represented
by C. Evaporative cooling without the indirect pre-cooler would cool along the
wet bulb line from A to a point represented by D. Figure 12.2.
 Fig. 12.2:
Cooling Tower and Water CoilIndirect Cooling

 Page 122
2. Another indirect cooler utilizes plastic tubes with a mesh coating to increase
evaporation. Make up air to the building goes through the plastic tubes and a
cross flow of air cools the exterior of the tubes. Water is pumped to a
distribution pan that drips on the tube bundle to cause evaporative cooling.
This gives the A to B cooling described in 1 above. Figure 12.3.
3. Still another indirect cooler consists of a patented plate-type heat exchanger
constructed of aluminum. The exchanger is comprised of segregated vertical
and horizontal air passages. The vertical wet side passages have a highly
absorbent wicking bonded to the plates. Stainless steel “V” notched channels
distribute water onto the wicked surface. Secondary or scavenger air

Fig. 12.3:
Water Flow Over Coated Plastic TubesIndirect Cooling
Drawing courtesy of Hastings Industries Division of Eric Inc.
Equipment shown is a Vari-Cool I/D Packaged System manufactured and sold by
Hastings Industries Division of Eric Inc.

 Page 123
is blown down the wet side passages along with the water. The water
evaporates from the surfaces, cooling the plates and consequently air flowing
through the other side. Figure 12.4.
4. Heat pipes or any of the above indirect systems cool air out of the presence
of water. With heat pipes the water is applied only in the evaporative coolers.
A heat pipe has a sealed refrigerant charge in finned tubes. In many respects it
looks like any other common finned tube but in application it is different.
They are applied with half the coil in a cooled air stream, the other half is in an
air stream that is to be cooled. The cooled end is generally in an air stream
cooled by evaporative cooling. The refrigerant con-

Fig. 12.4:
Water Flow Over Specially-Designed Plates for
Indirect Cooling
Courtesy Norsaire Systems, Inc., Published by Permission

 Page 124
denses in the cool air stream and flows by gravity to the other end of the pipe.
When exposed to the warm air stream, the refrigerant is evaporated by the
warm air and returned to be cooled again. The warm air is cooled as the
refrigerant evaporates inside the pipe. Figure 12.5.

Fig. 12.5:
Typical Heat Pipe System
Courtesy Heat Pipe Technology, Inc.
Published by Permission

Operation Of Heat Pipe System

100°F. outdoor air is drawn in at A by fan 47 and is pushed across evaporative
cooler section 48 where it is cooled to 70° F. The 70° F. air then passes across
one end of heat pipe 49 before i ist exhausted to outdoor air at B. Fan 23 also
draws in outside air at 100° F. A’. As it crosses heat pipe section 50 it is cooled
to 80° F. B’. It crosses an evaporative cooler section 12 where it is cooled to
60° F. C’, It then passes over heat pipe section 13 and is exhausted to outdoor
air. At 1, room air at 80° F. passes across heat pipe section 18 and is cooled to
65° F. at 2 where it is pushed back to the room by fan 24.
5. In residential and light commercial applications where it is possible to get
by with a little less efficient cooling, two stages of cooling are built into the
same unit. The first stage (indirect) consists of a cross-flow air stream cooling
the air outside the presence of moisture. The second stage is a regular rigid
evaporative cooler pad. The cooling follows the pattern described in (1) above.
Regardless of which combination of technology is used in the direct or indirect
section, the efficiency of the system will be a matter of how well fouling is
controlled. Controlling fouling is the stated object of water treatment.

 Page 125
There is now an option in water treatment where the goals of everyone
concerned can be realized:
1. The life of the media can reach or exceed that expected by the manufacturer
while providing the promised cooling efficiency.
2. The owner can receive full return on his investment at the lowest possible
operating costs.
3. Water conservation can become a reality because very little water will be
wasted to the sewer.
It should not come as a surprise that the giants of the water treatment industry
did not develop an advanced technology. The railroad was in the transportation
business but they never gave us the automobile. Mainframe computer
manufacturers did not give us the personal computer, traditional film makers
didn’t invent videotape. A nearly 80 year old record making industry nearly
came to an end within about 5 years after the introduction of the compact disc.
When you look at our industrial history in a free market, on what basis could
anyone expect major trend changing advances to come from the leaders. The
manufacturers of traditional water treatment chemicals have over a billion
dollar in sales each year with limited competition. There are several national
sales organizations, but the available technology has had little advancement in
the past quarter of a century. It ought to be time for a change.
Munters is the name of a leading manufacturer of rigid evaporative cooling
media that has gained wide acceptance. The media is popular because of the
high cooling efficiency associated with its use. The high efficiency is
available, however, only from clean media. Fouling from either mineral or
organic deposits (bacteria and the waste products associated with growing
bacteria) will limit evaporation and reduce the life of the media. The media is
stable in a pH range of 6.0 9.0. The deposition of scale in time will not only
reduce evaporation but will increase pH under the deposit and could damage
the media. Some waste products associated with growing bacteria are acidic
and will lower pH and shorten media life as well as reduce cooling. The pH of
the circulating water is not an indicator of the pH on the media surface under a
deposit. Growing bacteria is generally the source of odors in the system.
Applying Treatment to Residential-Sized Evaporative Coolers
On small coolers, especially the blower surrounded by aspen or other pads, it
is generally adequate to add a few ounces of a dilute solution of the Advanced
Technology. Operate the cooler without a bleed. It may be necessary to flush
and add more chemicals once or more during extra long seasons, or where the
cooling load is heavy and used more hours per day than normal for comfort
cooling, such as kitchen make-up air units. This recommendation has also
proven successful for residential-sized coolers with the rigid high efficiency
single and two stage type evaporative cooler media.
Applying Treatment to Larger-Sized Evaporative Coolers
As long as there are no water leaks in the system, any evaporative cooler can
be treated by adding a seasons worth of chemicals at one time. The chemical is
not lost from the system by evaporation. The amount added is not critical since
there is no high intensity heat source and any minerals that come out of
solution will simply settle in the system sump to be removed at the end of the
season. The Advanced Technology does not evaporate, it stays with the water,
but if the cooler sump water is lost, the chemical will be lost also.

 Page 126
When air is passing through a water spray, or an evaporative cooler media, it is
important to control the ”face velocity”, or small water droplets will be
entrained in the air stream. A face velocity of 500 feet/min. is 500 cu.ft. of air
passing through 1 sq. ft. of media in one minute. On small units the face
velocity does not seem to be a problem, because the design is controlled by the
factory. On larger field erected units the components may not always be
perfectly matched and face velocity can be a problem with regard to water
drift. In the quest to get the last bit of capacity out of a system there may be no
allowance for fouling. Any fouling can give a slight increase in face velocity,
and the resulting drift carries water from the system. It must be noted here that
drift evaporates in the air stream and increases moisture content (humidity).
Drift needs to be controlled for greater cooling comfort, but health reasons are
also important.
A cooling tower operates very successful with zero water wasted to the bleed
because there is always a small amount of drift and in most cases it make very
little difference how high the dissolved solids get. In large evaporative cooler
sections filling the entire duct, there has been no evidence that moderate
increases of minerals in the range of 15 to 20 cycles of concentration will
cause any more drifting of the water in the system than when it is operated at
very low cycles of concentration. The reason for a heavy bleed has nothing to
do with drift. Heavy bleed is a treatment concept promoted by traditional
water treatment because they do not have the technology to control scale.
Heavy bleed has to do with controlling mineral fouling. If fouling is not
controlled it is almost impossible to operate a system without drift. If drift
takes place, the comfort of the system is compromised. Recommendations to
control the bleed to maintain elevated cycles of concentration allows for full
value of the Advanced Technology to be realized while keeping some bleed on
the system. A cooling tower has some bleed as drift that limits how high
minerals in system water will concentrate, but that drift imposes no serious
operating concern. Any drift associated with an evaporative cooler is an
operating concern, it increases the humidity in the air stream. That increased
humidity compromises system comfort.
The decision to use a chemical pump or not, is made based on the potential for
water to be lost by splash, drift or the intentional use of a bleed. On all
commercial or field constructed evaporative coolers either direct or indirect,
the use of controlled chemical feed and bleed is recommended.
On mid-sized commercial systems where some splash or other limited leaks
are a problem, a small pump, sized according to the CFM of the unit, is a basic
minimum recommendation. The pump will interlock with the cooler
circulating pump so chemicals will be added any time the system is in
operation.

 Page 127

Estimating Water Usage For Chemical Treatment Purposes

Water usage in Evaporative Coolers can be estimated by multiplying the
blower CFM by the dry bulb temperature change across the media and
dividing that by 10,000.

To calculate chemical treatment needed:

Size chemical treatment based on either tons of load or CFM of the cooler. If
desired, close bleed and add full season’s treatment at beginning of the season.
Check TDS to be sure system does not leak. See chapter 9 to calculate
treatment needed based on gallons used and total hardness of make-up water.
Equipment RecommendationsPeristaltic Pump with Timer
Direct/Indirect EquipmentPump/Timer & Pump

Fig. 12.6:
TypicalDirect/Indirect with Pumps and Timer

 Page 128
To automate chemical feed and bleed on an indirect/direct evaporative cooler
with two sumps, it will require one pump timer combination and one
additional pump. It will also need two solenoid valves. The chemical pumps
will be sized according to the CFM of the cooler. Install the bleed solenoid
valves, one tapped into the pump discharge of each circulating pump. Install
the pump timer combination to add chemicals to whichever of the two sections
is the lead unit, the first stage, the one that turns on first when the control calls
for cooling.
The pump/timer will get power from the same source that turns on the water
circulating pump of the first stage unit. Both solenoids will be powered by the
timer in the pump/timer combination. This will happen whenever the lead unit
is operating. The single pump will be installed on the second stage cooler and
will be hooked up to the same power that operates the circulating pump of the
second stage unit. In operation, the first stage of cooling turns on the water
circulating pump of the first stage of cooling and also powers the pump/timer
that adds chemicals to the first stage and operates the solenoid valves for both
the first and the second stage of cooling. The solenoid for the second stage is
open but will only lose water when the second stage of cooling is called for
and that pump is running. When the circulating pump of the second stage of
cooler is on, the pump will add chemicals.
Equipment RecommendationsWater Meter, Pump And Timer
On larger systems it will be more cost effective to install a water meter with
contact head and timer on the make-up line to the system. On the discharge of
the water circulating pump install a by-pass that will hold a probe of a high
range conductivity controller. Install a solenoid valve on a bleed line. The
solenoid valve will be the only equipment plugged into the conductivity
controller. The water meter will measure makeup and the timer with a pump
will add the chemicals. The only function of the conductivity controller is to
control the cycles of concentration. Apply chemicals as if it were a cooling
tower.
Legionnaires’ Disease In Evaporative Coolers
If evaporative coolers are properly sized, installed, and maintained, there is
very little chance that Legionnaires’ Disease will ever be a problem with them.
Any one of three conditions could keep legionnaires’ disease from developing.
Keep in mind that the bacteria must have an environment that will allow it to
grow to where the organisms are at least 100 times the concentration of the
organism present in the make-up water to the cooler.
1. Minimum water temperature for bacteria growth is 68° F. If the water
temperature is below 68° F, the bacteria will not grow.
2. As the pH of the system water increases above 7.2, the growth rate of the
bacteria is reduced.
3. If the water particle entering the air stream is smaller than 0.3 microns, the
droplet will not be large enough to carry the bacteria, and the organism will
not be able to leave the cooler water.
When considering a maintenance program for evaporative coolers, keep the
following in mind.
1. As was discussed in chapter 1, the size of water droplet leaving the water
evaporating device must be big enough to carry the bacteria. The size of the
bacteria (it is shaped like a rod or log) is 0.3 to 0.9 microns in diameter, and
1.0 to 10.0 microns in length. The bacteria can only be spread if the water
droplet is at least 0.3 microns in diameter. In

 Page 129
evaporative cooling systems the water is released as a vapor or gas which is
0.00014 to 0.01 microns in size.
2. The Legionella pneumophila will not grow in water cooler than 68° F. Since
most evaporative coolers are less than 65° F, bacteria growth will be limited
by temperature.
3. The upper limit of the optimal pH range for reproduction of the organism is
7.2. As the water concentrates to higher cycles of concentration with the
Advanced Technology, bacteria growth is not experienced.
Now consider what can go wrong:
1. If evaporative cooling media fouling occurs so that air face velocities
increase beyond minimum design limits, drift will begin, and the size of the
water droplet may increase sufficient to carry any available bacteria with it.
Where evaporative coolers are used to cool occupied spaces, it is imperative
that proper maintenance be performed.
2. Many evaporative coolers are not operated for long periods of time, and the
minimum temperature may go high enough for bacteria growth to occur.
3. The high pH of the system water seems to be the best safe guard against the
growth of the organism causing legionnaires’ disease. With the use of the new
generation of chemicals, evaporative coolers can operate with little or with no
bleed and the water pH will increase. During the time this Advanced
Technology has been in use there have been numerous tests to identify
colonies of Legionella pneumophila to determine the potential for infections.
To date, tests have not identified any colonies that have the potential to cause
problems. Whatever is happening with the treatment, rather higher pH or
restricting organism growth by tying up the metallic ions, systems stay clean.
Treating Air Wash Systems
Air Wash systems do exactly what their name implies, a water spray washes
the air and then usually a chilled water coil cools the air to remove excess
moisture. Some parts of the country will add humidity to the air stream part of
the year and require a great deal of new water to be added to the sump. During
this cycle there will be a need to control both scale and organic fouling. Part of
the year the chilled water coil will be removing humidity from the air and
there will be little if any fresh water added to the system. The major problem
when the system is removing humidity will be the control of organic fouling.
Both scale and organic fouling seem to be controlled with the Advanced
Technology as it ties up metallic ions (the food supply.) Select a pump based
on the CFM of the system and the hardness of the make-up. Install the pump
so it will operate with the air wash circulating pump. A pump/timer
combination will add chemicals and allow control of a bleed solenoid valve if
it is installed..
When the Advanced Technology is applied as directed, it will limit scale and
organic fouling along with the corrosion in the sump. It is important that the
chemical pump be allowed to run continuously and add chemicals as
recommended since not all the problems will be solved if the chemicals are
only fed according to the need to control scale based on the hardness of the
make-up water. Keep in mind that clean-up is generally required because the
minerals in existing deposits can feed organisms in the absense of adequate
chemical control. The use of a pump and timer is recommended. The timer
could control bleed part of the year when necessary and be used to operate the
pump during limited system make-up.

 Page 130

Corrosion ControlLarge Rigid Media Evaporative Coolers

The Advanced Technology relies on water velocity to remove existing scale
and corrosion products. It also requires water flow on a surface to keep
corrosion from growing. In many large field erected evaporative coolers there
is very limited water velocity in the sump to remove and control corrosion.
Corrosion control can be had with the Advanced Technology by installing a
small circulating pump dedicated to the continuous movement of water around
the sump.

 Page 131

Chapter 13
Achieving Cost Effective Zero Forced Sewer Discharge in
Cooling Towers
Water is often referred to as the universal solvent because it will hold so many
and so much mineral in solution. If conservation is the goal, it seems
reasonable to let water do as much as it can.
It is time to set aside some of the myths about water and water treatment so
conservation in cooling towers can become a reality. For the past 20 years
conservation minded people have been talking zero bleed on cooling towers.
The problems of the past were that the technology available to achieve zero
forced bleed to the sewer was labor intensive and required substantial first cost
investment. (See page 18Options Traditional Water Treatment Have
Examined.) An advanced technology introduced to the market about 10 years
ago has low enough first costs to find very general use. It is, however,
important to install the right mechanical equipment.
There are some simple concepts most users of traditional water treatment will
have to think about before making the shift.
1. The cycles of concentration in most cooling tower will be automatically
limited at some level by the tower drift.
2. The minerals that readily fall out of solution are those subject to inverse
solubility.
3. This advanced technology of water treatment will allow minerals normally
subject to inverse solubility to concentrate to extremely high levels as long as
adequate chemical is used.
The Great Salt Lake in Utah will achieve a salinity of 27% before minerals
come out of solution due to concentration. Some areas of the lake will only
achieve a salinity of 14 16% because of the fresh water entering the lake. The
areas of lower salinity do not deposit mineral crystals to their surroundings.
To put things in perspective it is instructive to calculate how concentrated
minerals get at various cycles of concentration in a cooling tower.
Assume make-up water with 500 ppm TDS:
Using the same formula:
At 10 cycles = .5 % Minerals in solution
20 cycles = 1.0% Minerals in solution
50 cycles = 2.5% Minerals in solution
Soda pop has 10% solids in solution. A saline

 Page 132
solution used on a regular basis by the medical profession has a mineral
concentration of 0.9%. A saline solution is considered by my local pharmacist
to be a very weak concentration of minerals and yet it is the same as the
minerals in a cooling tower with a make-up of 300 ppm TDS operating at 30
cycles of concentration.
Those selling traditional water treatment instruct users to dump the tower
water to the sewer at a fraction of the mineral concentration of a saline
solution. High priced water is dumped to the sewer. Inefficient chemicals
continue to be used. The solution to the problem will come with improved
technology and education of both users and chemical suppliers.
How Drift Limits Cycles of Concentration
Drift is stated as a decimal fraction of circulating water loss. Common figures
include, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0002. Drift is water lost by reason of air flow that is
not evaporation. Other losses include splash, uncontrolled leaks, and the
controlled bleed to the sewer. Any water loss results in lower cycles of
concentration. The figures following assume drift will be the only water loss
other than evaporation.
Assume a 1000 ton tower on air conditioning that circulates 3000 GPM. A
drift of 0.001 would be 3000 × 0.001 = 3 GPM. Multiplied by 60 minutes per
hour would be 180 gallons as drift. Evaporation amounts to 1.8 GPH per ton.
On a 1000 ton tower that would amount to 1800 gallons per hour evaporation.
Drift is a form of bleed. The ratios between bleed, evaporation and cycles of
concentration is shown in the formula:

Put another way:

Given that information it is easy to calculate the cycles of concentration that

would result when drift is the only bleed.
0.001 Drift = 11 cycles of concentration
0.0005 Drift = 21 cycles of concentration
0.0002 Drift = 51 cycles of concentration
Our example above showing the percent of minerals in solution was based on
water with 500 ppm TDS. As we noted at 50 cycles that was only 2.5%
minerals in solution.
Create a Different Metal Image
The typical mental image is that high cycles of concentration will
automatically create blocks of concrete in the tower sump. That is not true
when using the Advanced Technology. Considerat 50 cycles of concentration
the minerals present in cooling water is less than 3 times that of a saline
solution. Somehow that doesn’t seem so difficult to work with. A soda pop has
4 times more solids than the above example.
Just controlling scale, corrosion and biological fouling with a single chemical
does not solve all cooling tower problems if zero bleed to the sewer is the
goal. Every operator knows airborne dirt entering a system is a problem if
there is no way to remove it.
There are mechanical alternatives to a bleed to the sewer for dirt removal. As
has been stated several times in this text, there are chemical solutions and
there are mechanical solutions. The removal of dirt and other airborne debris
is a mechanical problem that can be dealt with. The following is published
with permission from LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation.

 Page 133

New Technology Improves Tower Basin Cleaning

By: William Leizear and Randall Delenikos
Presented at the 1995 World Filtration and Separation Society Conference
Abstract
The utilization of filtration for the removal of solids from liquids takes on
many different techniques and concepts. Increasingly, the value of filtration
for purposes of keeping various liquid reservoirs free of troublesome
accumulation has become recognized for its significant potential to reduce
downtime and improve a liquid system’s operating characteristics. Proper
filtration, however, only partially satisfies this goal.
Introduction
The rediscovery of specific equipment and the identification of important
parameters necessary for its proper application have resurrected selected
filtration concepts for the effective protection of liquid systems which are
dependent on open reservoirs. This work defines the criteria for optimum
performance and displays operating examples for conceptual problem solving.
Instead of blowdown. Instead of shutting down the system to drain and dredge
the tower basin. Instead of suffering the fouling and bacteria problems
associated with grit and scale build-up in a cooling tower, effective filtration
can now be applied at a fraction of its previous cost… thanks largely to a little
device known as an ”eductor.”
For years, liquid filtration manufacturers have competed to provide an
effective system for cleaning the basin of a cooling tower. Field research,
however, revealed that it wasn’t only the performance of the filter that
mattered, but also the technique for directing the unwanted solids into the
filter. After all, a filter can only remove the solids it sees. Until recently, the
techniques included elaborate and often costly header pipes, spray nozzles and
huge pumps in order to sweep the settling solids toward a filters intake for
separation, returning the water to the tower basin. Now it is known that in
order to move the solids in a tower basin, water pressure is not nearly as
important as water volume…and water volume can now be accomplished
without the use of huge, expensive pumps…and that water can be distributed
with a far more simplified header system. All of this…with eductors.
An eductor creates volume without high pump energy. Simply, it is a venturi in
a submerged application (such as in a cooling tower basin) which provides that
for every 1 gpm that is pumped through it, 5 gpm will discharge from its
trumpet-like outlet. This enables a smaller pump to deliver the volume of
water needed to sweep solids more effectively and efficiently toward a filter
system’s intake for separation. This technique has not only reduced the pump
requirements, but has also simplified the header installation design. It’s easier
to specify. It’s easier to install. And it is far less costly.

Fig. 13.1:
Typical Eductor
Courtesy of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval
Corporation, Published by Permission

First created as a fluid mixing device, the eductor was re-discovered by a

California filtration

 Page 134
manufacturer, who experimented and field-tested the concept to develop its
parameters of use in any given situation. Essentially, there are three sizes of
eductors that have been identified for common use. The following chart lists
them by connection size, flow range and area of influence.

Connection Size Inlet Flow Outlet Flow Area of Influence*

Male, N.P.T. U.S. gpm U.S. gpm See Diagram
3/8” 10 50 Approx. 3 sq.ft.
3/4” 19 95 Approx. 6 sq.ft.
11/2” 47 235 Approx. 12 sq. ft.
*NOTE: Minimum inlet pressure to an eductor is 20 psi. Flow rates noted above
reflect that pressure. Higher pressure will increase the area of influence.

The “pattern of influence” of each eductor has been determined by various

controlled and field testing.

Fig. 13.2:
Eductor Pattern of Influence
Courtesy of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corpora-
tion, Published by Permission.
These patterns are not absolute and, more importantly, they are not indicative
of the total influence of a given eductor in a given application. Do not assume,
for example, that the area just beyond an eductor pattern of influence is
completely unaffected by the eductor flow. Monitored field applications have
confirmed that the cumulative effect of a well-designed eductor installation
can influence an area greater than the mathematical total area of influence
represented by the total number of eductors utilized. In essence, the eductor
need not be installed with “overlapping” patterns of influence in order to be
effective at sweeping solids in a cooling tower basin (or other pit/sump).
Continuous basin-sweeping activity (vs, only intermittent use) seems to create
an ongoing turbulence within the basin, preventing particle-contaminants from
permanently settling in so-called “dead spots”. Note also that eductors draw
liquid volume from the area surrounding its main body. This further adds to
the overall pattern of influence and is a factor in proper installation designs.
An effective eductor layout for a given application takes into consideration the
following factors:
Basin size/shapeNot only total area, but also distance from side to side,
recognizing that larger eductors or crossing headers may be necessary to
prevent settling in the center of the basin. Baffles, weirs or other elements
which can cause settling or create dead spots must also be taken into
consideration.

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Basin liquid depthThe pressure of significant depth can dampen the influence
of the eductors. Each eductor also requires a minimum depth at which it can
operate in order to avoid cavitation.

Eductor Size Minimum Fluid Depth

3/8 inch 12 inches
3/4 inch 18 inches
11/2 inch 30 inches

Competing flow characteristicsThe presence of another pump, a drain, a

discharge outlet or other influence of flow in a given basin must be taken into
consideration and must either be overcome, isolated or compatibly combined
with the eductor pattern for effective solids sweeping action.
Expected solids loadThis factor interprets both volume of solids and the type
of solids to insure that active turbulence prevents settling in the tower basin.
Effective eductor installation designs insure that their header pipes do not
interfere with the intended solids sweeping action by slightly raising the
hearers off the tower basin floor.
With this new technology, cooling tower operators are re-examining the real
benefits of tower-cleaning filtration. Reduced downtime and basin cleaning is
a major savings to any operating budget. Keeping spray nozzles clean and the
piping system and/or heat exchangers free of fouling debris promises much
better tower operating performance. And now, extended value can be achieved
by controlling the build-up of solids which can otherwise create a breeding
place for harmful bacteria/fungi (e.g. Legionella). Operating either as a
separate flow pattern or in conjunction with the tower flow system, an
effective solids-removal filter can control the solids accumulation and fouling
problem in a cooling tower and promote longer fluid life with less blowdown
and a reduced need for make-up water (and chemical recharge).
 Fig. 13.3:
Solids removal filter system for zero-
bleed systems.
Courtesy of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval
Corporation. Published by Permission.
Less downtime. Improved operating characteristics. Less water loss. Reduced
chemical consumption. And the potential for reducing sewage/liquid disposal
costs. These benefits rapidly reveal the payback value of tower-cleaning
filtration…and now, the technology is very cost-effective. In fact, some
filtration systems manufacturers are now directly designing and providing
custom tower-cleaning systems for individual tower needs, complete with the
proper eductor system and a package for solids concentration and zero liquid
loss.

 Page 136

Fig. 13.4:
Solids Removal Filter System with Eductors
Courtesy of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation, Published by Permission.

To achieve greater overall system efficiency, all aspects and components of the
system must become more effective. The criteria for individual component
selection must, therefore, be more stringent. This is particularly true of the
filtration equipment chosen to accompany a proper eductor/basin cleaning
system. Mismatched, neither component of the system will function to its
potential, limiting the performance potential.
All filtration can and should be evaluated according to the following criteria:
PerformanceDetermine the particle type and size that must be removed from a
system in order to prevent fouling in the system. Compare that requirement
with the capability of the filter. Note that it is not unusual to specify two (or
more) filters in order to effectively remove two (or more) types of
contaminants.
Engineering/system integrationConsider the filter’s optimum placement in a
system and its impact to flow, pressure and physical presence. The operating
demands of the filter must be compared to the operating specifications of the
system…and what modifications, if any, may be necessary to accommodate
the filter.

 Page 137
InstallationExamine the space available and the piping modifications
necessary to accommodate the filter. Give consideration to the space necessary
for maintenance and/or the storage of replaceable elements.
Maintenance/servicingKnow the service requirements to keep the filter
operating properly. Look at downtime (both duration and frequency), labor
and special tools or services.
Replacement costsRoutine replacement of filter elements or other parts subject
to wear/repair/replacement must be factored into the operating budget.
Pressure lossSome filters operate at a steady pressure loss (regardless of
contaminant load). Other filters can reach very high pressure losses before
recommended cleaning/servicing. Compare this pressure loss to system
needs…and calculate the energy costs, too.
Liquid lossExamine the cleaning/flushing/backwashing requirement in terms
of lost liquid volume. Consider sewage and/or disposal costs, make-up liquid
and chemical additives. Judge the potential to reduce total waste disposal via
reduced liquid loss…and reduce or eliminate your EPA-regulated status. By
concentrating solid contaminants and recycling virtually all system liquid,
waste minimization can be an effective payback consideration.
Evaluate your cooling tower system and its contamination problems. Analyze
your filtration options according to selective criteria. Compare the current
costs of system contamination to the costs of proper filtration system. Know
that today’s equipment and accessories provide for a new level of
performance…and that many of these new products (like the eductor) can
increase payback value at costs lower than ever before.
On the following pages are typical cooling tower sweeper installations:
In cooling towers with reduced blowdown it requires control of dissolved
solids with the application of the right chemicals and the control of suspended
solids with proper filtration. When both are under control the system will stay
very clean.

 Page 138
Typical cooling tower sweeper installations:

Fig. 13.5:
Suggested Plumbing 5’ x 10’ Tank
Courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation
Published by Permission

 Page 139

Fig. 13.6:
Suggested Plumbing 10’ x 10’ Tank
Courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation
Published by Permission

 Page 140

Fig. 13.7:
Suggested Plumbing 10’ x 20’ Tank
Courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation
Published by Permission

 Page 141

Fig. 13.8:
Suggested Plumbing 20’ x 25’ Tank
Courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation
Published by Permission

 Page 142

Fig. 13.9:
Suggested Plumbing 15’ x 25’ Tank
Courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation
Published by Permission

 Page 143
Also shown on the following pages are three options for filtration applications
where circulating water is diverted for suspended solids removal.
This shows the side stream returning to the main system pump suction.

Fig. 13.10:
Side Stream Returns to Pump Suction

This shows the side stream returning to the tower.

Fig. 13.11:
Side Stream Returns to Source (Cooling Tower)

 Page 144
This shows a pump and filter system drawing and returning water to the main
circulating system.

Fig. 13.12:
Side Stream Returns to System
All above courtesty of LAKOS, Div. of Claude Laval Corporation
Published by Permission

 Page 145

Chapter 14
Case Studies
The case studies presented in this chapter were selected to represent the
exceptional results users are getting when applying The Advanced Technology
according to instruction. There is not room in this book to report on all the
exciting things that are happening. It is hoped these few examples will be
sufficient to show what others are using as cost effective solutions to
maintenance concerns. Just keeping a system clean would be a new experience
for many operators of cooling water systems, but keeping the system clean in
the simple way reported here, with zero water being wasted to the sewer,
borders what might be described as incredible.
It is interesting that microbiological testing and testing for corrosion with
coupons, or other means, is not part of the reports being generated by users of
The Advanced Technology. Users observe both scale, corrosion and biological
fouling are controlled in ways traditional water treatment can not duplicate.
Since nothing corrosive is being added to the system, corrosion monitoring is
not viewed as an urgent necessity.
This is certainly not an all inclusive list of users. It is hoped that even with a
limited number of reports, the range of selected conditions covered might
prove to be useful in evaluating cost effective solutions to maintenance
concerns. If that happens, the goal of the author will be achieved.
The following case studies demonstrate:
1. This Advanced Technology can be applied in a variety of conditions with
excellent results.
2. That equipment will stay clean for a long time with the same formula of
treatment being applied continuously.
3. The Advanced Technology is less complicated to apply than traditional
treatment.
In order to protect privacy, end users are not identified by name. Chemical
treatment companies and/or contractors reporting on their experience are
shown instead.
Product names used are propriety formulations of the company supplying the
treatment. In all cases it is based on the Advanced Technology described in
this book.
Case Study #1
Customer: Manufacturer of automotive parts, Muskegon, MI
Submitted by:
TERLYN INDUSTRIES, INC.
4301 So. Manchester, Suite E
Kalamazoo, MI 49001
Equipment:
175 tons of Process Cooling Tower operating at 10 degree delta T, 24 Hrs/Day,
6 days per week, 52 weeks per year.
Customer Needs:
Since estimated down time costs are about $1,000.00 per hour, it was very
desirable the customer find a reliable chemical with simple monitoring
requirements. It was a goal to elimi-

 Page 146
nate scale build-up and excessive corrosion in the cooling tower and related
equipment. Because of the high cost of down time, it was desirable to
accomplish the clean-up without down-time and without using acids. There
was also an economic need to eliminate hazardous water discharge to the
sewer and save money with discharge conservation.
Solution:
They elected to use TERLYN CWT3 treatment program that allows cooling
systems to operate with zero water being wasted to the sewer. It offered the
advantage of a single feed, a non acid treatment that did not require the use of
any pesticides, and simple monitoring.
Results:
This system has been treated with the CWT3 for 5 years. During that time the
system cleaned up and has remained clean. The customer has realized major
water savings associated with the use of a zero bleed treatment.
Author’s Note:
This system was selected as a tower typical of process cooling and air
conditioning where the delta T across the tower generally doesn’t exceed
about 10 degrees.
Case Study #2
Customer: A southern manufacturer of electrical components
Submitted By:
Barry Hayes
HAYES CHEMICAL CO., LLC
6 Chestnut Street Granite Falls, NC 28630
Equipment:
Evapco Induced Draft, box fan tower. 300 gpm circulation rate. 10 degrees F.
design drop across tower. Cools process equipment, multiple shell and tube
heat exchangers.
Make-up Water Analysis:

Total Hardness 50 ppm

Total Alkalinity 35 ppm
Silica 11 ppm
Chlorides 75 ppm
pH 7.1

Feed Equipment Used:

Electronic metering pump (24 gpd), 24 hour 7-day timer. In-line ”bag-type”
filter.
Beginning Condition:
Tower coils had some minor scale. Tower had been operated at high bleed rate
for several years. Condition of tower was not a major concern. Customer did
not have access to sewer system and wanted to go to a no-bleed system to
avoid further discharge into a septic tank system.
Treatment Program:
Rx-50 is added at a set rate daily by metering pump. I test water monthly and
inspect tower. Tower is drained and washed once a year. Customer does no
field testing. He pumps directly from the shipping container. I provide him a
properly formulated product that always stayed in solution and has been
trouble free.
Reported Experience:
System has run for almost 2 years with zero forced bleed. There has been no
scale or sludge build-up. System has operated with no biocide addition for
entire time Rx-50 has been in use with no visible sign of algae, slime, etc.
Problem Solved:
The customer need was that he had no access to a sewer. Tower has run at 189
cycles based on TDS with no sign of deposits. There has been no sign of
organic growth and customer has decided to use Rx-50 and no bled at another
plant in the area that does have access to sewer. Customer is very satisfied
with results, cost, and reduced labor by his people.

 Page 147
Author’s Note:
This job illustrates the value of The Advanced Technology where silica is
involved. Make-up water has 11 ppm silica. 11 × 189 = 2079 ppm silica being
held in solution without deposits. This is well over 10 times what traditional
water treatment claim is the silica upper limit.
Case Study #3
Submitted By: TERLYN INDUSTRIES, INC.
4301 So. Manchester, Suite E
Kalamazoo, MI 49001
Customer:
A primary test facility for automotive engine manufacturers.
Equipment:
A 500 ton cooling tower system with hot well/ cold well remote sump
configuration. System averaged 15 20 degrees delta T. Cooling water used for
high demand dynamometer, testing equipment, and load stressed internal
combustion engines. System contains both plate and frame and shell and tube
heat exchangers. Dynamometer has areas with 0.040 water flow clearance and
water temperatures varying as much as 20 degrees F.
Customer Needs:
The site suffered from long term build-up and effects of scale, biological
fouling, and corrosion in both the cooling tower and related equipment due to
traditional phosphonate/acid treatment programs. Bleed was set by the water
treatment supplier to maintain about 2 cycles of concentration in the tower
water. Site personnel spent several hours per week filling out EPA
conformance documentation due to the high bleed-off volumes of hazardous
chemical-laden water. For 20 years the system had an algae bloom problem in
the covered water distribution pans of the cooling tower.
Solution:
Plant personnel decided to go with the TERLYN CWT3 single chemical
treatment program and operate their system with zero water being wasted to
the sewer. They installed a small peristaltic pump and operated with a set feed.
Chemicals are injected into the cold sump.
Results:
An immediate positive result was that the need to file the EPA reports came to
an end. In addition to that, the deposits of scale, biological fouling and
corrosion were removed from the system without the use of acid in about 6
months. With plant down time running about $10,000.00 per hour, on line
cleaning resulted in substantial savings over the cleaning process that had
become a tradition. Make-up water was reduced by 50% and at $4.53/1000
gallons for water and sewer it amounted to over $15,000.00 savings the first
year. The 20 year old algae problem was gone in about two weeks and never
returned. After 2 1/2 years using the same chemical the tower continues to stay
clean from corrosion, scale and biological fouling.
Author’s Note:
This system was selected to represent towers with higher than normal water
temperatures and critical components needing consideration.
Case Study #4
Submitted by: Joe Large
FULLER ENGINEERING COMPANY, LLC
4725 N.W. Plaza West Drive
Zionsville, Indiana 46077-9225
Customer:
Major metal processing facility for a world-wide battery manufacturer. Tower
water is used to cool furnaces that melt down and recycle materials used to
manufacture new batteries.

 Page 148
Equipment:
A 500 ton tower with an evaporation load more like a 2000 ton tower because
it has between 40 60 degrees delta T.
Customer Concerns:
Cooling tower and related system piping were continually clogged by scale
and weakened by corrosion. System had to be shut down on a regular basis to
locate and repair clogged lines. Estimated down time cost is $12,000.00 per
hour. Harsh operating conditions of the past required a tower replacement
every two or three years. Chemical safety became an issue when hazardous
biocide use resulted in injury to a worker.
Solution:
TERLYN CWT3 water treatment program was administered to the cooling
system with the aid of an electrical contact head water meter, a timer and a
chemical feed pump. This choice offered significantly lower chemical
application hazards and because there was to be no discharge to the sewer it
would help with the environment. After a short initial clean-up where the
bleed had been greatly reduced, the operating personnel stopped all forced
bleed so the full economy of the treatment could be realized.
Results:
System has operated nearly 3 years with no need to be shut down due to
scaling or clogged lines. During that time chemical tests and visual
observations show there has been a complete cleaning of system deposits.
System operates at zero forced bleed to the sewer and the plant is realizing
savings in water/sewer averaging $1,500.00/month. Corrosion problems are
virtually eliminated in both tower and piping. After those nearly three years of
operation with this New Generation of Treatment, where past history would
dictate the need for a new tower, a maintenance supervisor observed, “Tower
looks like the day I bought it”.
Author’s Note:
This case study was selected as typical of plants requiring a very high
temperature drop across the tower. It features a single chemical formula fed to
control scale, corrosion, and limit the growth of biological fouling. Zero
forced bleed to the sewer is an important benefit.
Case Study #5
Customer:
An office tower in downtown Denver that is 25 stories high including the
mechanical penthouse. Operated by a building management group.
Submitted By:
ECONOMY AIR CONDITIONING & HEATING
945 West Kenyon
Englewood, CO. 80110
A full service mechanical contractor. Maintains industrial and commercial
heating, air conditioning and refrigeration equipment.
Equipment Involved:
The building has a secondary condenser loop that serves packaged units
throughout the building. The main building air conditioner is a centrifugal
chiller. The system has two (2) Marley Aquatowers rated at 100 ton each. The
building has used conventional water treatment since it was built
approximately 20 years ago.
Customer Problem:
ECONOMY AIR CONDITIONING has a contract to provide the needed
mechanical service to keep the systems running right. The chief engineer at
the building called to report that three package units in the basement were
tripping out on high head pressure. These units had shell and tube heat
exchangers of the type common to package equipment. The alarm factor for
the engineer was that these units had just recently

 Page 149
been acid cleaned.
Evaluation by ECONOMY AIR CONDITIONING revealed that the water
entering the loop was 78 degrees F., while the water leaving the condenser was
between 135 and 140 degrees, (over 55 degree temperature rise where it
should have been no more than 10 degrees). This was a definite water flow
problem. The circulating pump involved had design output considering the
operating limitations. Logic dictated there was a restriction in the piping.
Extreme scale build-up was suspected and permission was requested to add
some of the advanced technology rather than further deteriorate the system
with continued use of traditional acid products. ECONOMY AIR
CONDITIONING had used this advanced technology on cooling towers and
had confidence as to what the likely outcome would be.
Reported Experience:
ECONOMY AIR CONDITIONING Service Engineers closed the bleed and
“slugged” the system with one gallon of treatment and let it run. A continuous
feed of The Advanced Technology was also added. Within 5 days the delta-T
on the loop was down to 15 degrees. The loop continued to clean and brought
“junk” back to the tower for several weeks.
After the system was clean and operating properly for a time, it was put back
on conventional treatment because of owners partiality. The high temperature
of the loop is an inherent problem for traditional treatment. It is now standard
practice when the chillers have a heat exchange problem, and it occurs on a
somewhat regular basis, the engineer cleans the fouling with The Advanced
Technology and then reverts back to the treatment the owners consultant tells
him to use.
Author’s Note:
This case study was selected because it focuses on the tendency of a cooling
system using traditional treatment to develop scale where centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors are on the same tower. When applying traditional
treatment with one of the popular scaling indexes, which temperature should
be included in the calculations to determine the “safe” level of bleed when the
reciprocating chiller is only a small percent of the total chiller load?
This is where what I like to refer to as “mechanical problems” (higher than
recognized temperatures) can cause traditional treatment to fail. Reciprocating
chillers have higher condensing temperatures than centrifugal chillers. Where
traditional treatment is being used, that fact needs to be recognized and
adjusted for. The Advanced Technology is not temperature sensitive and works
equally well at all temperatures.
This case study also highlights the value of The New Generation Treatment as
a stand alone acid replacement for safely cleaning many jobs.

 Page 151

Chapter 15
Understanding Infrared Temperature Scanning
Cooling towers are mechanical devices designed to transfer the heat picked up
from a chiller, or other process, to the atmosphere. Prior to the introduction of
equipment that scanned infrared heat energy, industry had limited ability to
easily measure surface temperatures and track the flow of heat. The need to
acquire more and better information in a short time is a good reason to
understand more about infrared. It may be that now is a good time to teach
servicemen how to use temperature to determine pressure so they can avoid
venting controlled substances such as refrigerants to the atmosphere. The
regulations covering the release of refrigerants to the atmosphere is a good
reason to keep service gauges in the tool box except when absolutely
necessary.
Heat is neither created nor destroyed. In buildings, it is added or removed by
nature or perhaps the HVAC/R systems. The ability to make quick accurate
temperature measurements will make any knowledgeable sales or service
oriented person more productive.
Measuring Temperatures
There are basically two types of temperature measuring devices on the market
today, contact and non-contact.
1. Contact equipment that must touch the object for temperature measurements
includes mercury, bi-metal, and thermocouple type measuring devices. This
type of temperature measuring equipment requires enough contact time for the
temperature of the contact point to reach and become exactly the same as the
object where the temperature measurement is desired. This is not an easy task
to accomplish in many instances. Except for air and water, good surface
contact of the temperature measuring device usually requires some surface
preparation. In some cases insulation is necessary to assure good contact. It is
also difficult to know how much time is required for the temperature
measuring device to stabilize so it is at, or as near as possible to, the
temperature of the object being measured. A thermocouple measures electrical
resistance of the probe and converts resistance to temperature. The multitude
of heads available for use with thermocouple type measuring devices attest to
how difficult it is to get a good thermal contact. The thermal contact is all
important since the thermocouple must be heated to the exact temperature of
the object being measured. With the cleaning and the waiting required, it is not
possible to collect much information very fast, and what is collected is often of
marginal accuracy.
2. Infrared thermometers, on the other hand, are temperature measuring
devices that do not need to contact an object. The use of infrared equipment
gives instantaneous tempera-

 Page 152
ture measurements without any surface preparation except where the surfaces
are highly reflective. Heat is sensed as “radiated energy”, there is no heat
exchange involved. Radiated energy is converted to a voltage signal and a
microprocessor instantly projects a digit on a screen to be read. That is why
rapid, accurate temperature readings are possible. With the use of infrared
temperature measurements, a whole new world of service & sales possibilities
are available. In addition to the value of infrared for checking heat flow in a
tower system, consider:
A. Being able to check the pressure, by measuring the temperature at any point
in a refrigeration or steam system, without installing pressure gauges. The
temperature converts to the pressure. Gauges are not needed, except to
determine the presence of non-condensables.
B. Being able to scan any surface and instantaneously see hot or cold spots.
Insulation voids in walls or on pipes can be seen at a distance. Points of
infiltrating air can be seen since the point of leaking air will be hotter or cooler
than other areas.
C. Being able to make a non-intrusive temperature check of refrigerated goods
by simply scanning the product. Temperatures of meats, dairy products, frozen
foods, etc., are all easy to check with infrared.
D. Being able to scan for hot ballasts in florescent lights, or see the
temperature of air grills high on a wall. The temperature of the grill shows the
moving air temperature.
E. Being able to scan electrical panels for hot spots to locate problems and
then verify repairs.
Heat Radiation
In 1665, Sir Isaac Newton became the first to split sunlight into colors with a
prism. He demonstrated the existence of light as radiated energy of differing
wavelengths.
 Fig. 15.1:
Light Divided into Prisms

About 135 years later, William Herschel, another English astronomer/scientist,

measured the heat content at each of the colors of Newton’s spectrum.
Herschel discovered that the thermometer

 Page 153
registered the greatest heat beyond the red-in an area of the spectrum he could
not see. He coined the term “infrared” to describe this heat energy “beyond the
red.”
One hundred years later, a German scientist by the name of Max Planck solved
the problem of quantifying heat radiation. He made it possible to apply
radiation physics as a tool. Planck developed the concept of “quanta” to
explain heat radiation. This led to the development of quantum physics that is
a study of the way the universe works.

Fig. 15.2:
Heat Content of Light Rays Measured
It was not until World War II that infrared was utilized in any significant way
for commercial purposes. It was during this time that weapon guidance
systems were developed using infrared.
Heat radiation is emitted by all bodies at all temperatures above absolute zero.
Heat radiation is also absorbed and reflected by all bodies at all temperatures.
When it is said that heat radiates from a hot body to a cold body, it means that
more heat radiation is emitted by the hot body than by the cold body,
therefore, a net heat exchange results.
All objects having temperatures above absolute zero radiate infrared energy.
This energy travels in all directions, at the speed of light. The infrared
thermometer has a lens that collects the radiated energy and focuses it on an
infrared detector. The detector responds by producing a voltage signal which is
proportional to the amount of energy received, and therefore to the
temperature of the target. By sampling and manipulating the output of the
detector, the unit’s microprocessor-based electronics can display the
temperature and other related values according to the model of instrument in
use.
Since there are such a wide range of infrared thermometers and options
available, it is very important to define the range and types of temperature
measurements that will be needed when considering the purchase of infrared
equipment. Not all infrared instruments can be used with equal efficiency on a
given job. Is it important to know exact temperatures, or is it only necessary to
evaluate differences in temperature?
Any discussion of temperature measurement accuracy with infrared must
include a discussion of emissivity. Emissivity has to do with how accurate
temperature readings will be when the infrared thermometer is pointed at
surfaces that are very shiny, verses when it is pointed at dull or non-reflective
surfaces.
What Is Emissivity?
As defined in the second college edition, Webster’s New World Dictionary,
“Emissivity is the relative ability of a surface to radiate energy

 Page 154
as compared with that of an ideally black surface under the same condition.”
Perhaps a little simpler explanation for this discussion is: emissivity is an
estimate to quantify the amount of radiated and reflected heat seen by the eye
of the infrared thermometer.
Some objects reflect infrared energy as well as emit (radiate) it. Shiny or
highly polished surfaces will reflect more infrared energy than dull surfaces
do. Infrared rays follow the same laws visible light does. Some of the light
will be absorbed on a given surface and part of it will be reflected. Black is a
color that shows there is no reflected light, so it can be assumed there will also
be no reflected infrared energy. White light contains all the colors in the light
spectrum, so, when white light is present, it can be assumed no rays are being
absorbed on to a surface. Any surface reflecting a color shows that part of the
light rays are reflected and the balance of the light rays are absorbed. The use
of the term emissivity is an attempt to give some idea of what portion of the
infrared is reflected and how much is radiated.
The emissivity value, which can have a number anywhere from 0.1 to 1.0, is
an estimated amount for the actual infrared energy being emitted. The higher
the emissivity number, the larger the portion of heat energy emitted and the
easier it is to get accurate temperature readings. Infrared sensors are accurate
for emitted energy; reflected energy needs to be adjusted for. On a scale from
0.1 to 1.0, the 1.0 assumes a black body with no reflected heat while the 0.1
describes a highly reflective surface with very little radiated infrared energy.
Most surfaces encountered in the HVAC/R industry will have an emissivity
between 0.8 and 1.0. In that range of emissivity there is not a lot of reflected
energy to cause much of an error in temperature readings. The convenience of
being able to scan and get many temperature readings in a hurry, and readings
that are far more accurate than have been possible without this technology will
help sales and service people make more and better decisions.
When selecting infrared temperature measuring equipment it is well to decide
how accurate the results need to be and then select equipment accordingly. Not
all infrared equipment are designed to do the same job.
Automatic Emissivity Compensation
Some infrared measuring instruments have a feature called automatic
emissivity compensation. The infrared sensor is just behind a polished
concave half cup surface. When the instrument is placed on the surface to be
measured, any dark color is reflected over and over until the surface is the
same as a black body with an emissivity of 1.0. With this kind of instrument it
is not necessary to consider emissivity except for highly polished metal
surfaces, or very high temperatures. This equipment works best in contact, or
very near contact, with the surface being measured.
Other instruments have features that make them very usable at considerable
distance from the target area, and the automatic emissivity is not standard with
them. With these instruments it is necessary to set an estimated emissivity and
be content with the small amount of error involved. The amount of error will
generally be much less than would be possible with other types of temperature
measurements, and the reading will be instantaneous. Some instruments have a
laser sight to show the center of the target area. At 30 feet, the eye of the
infrared sensor will see the average radiated energy from say a 12 inch circle
that has the laser beam as a center.

 Page 155
It is often desirable to check the emissivity of an unknown surface to get a
better feel of how accurate the temperature readings being taken are.
Checking For Unknown Emissivity
1. For temperatures up to approximately 500° F, place a piece of common
masking tape on the object to be measured.
2. Allow sufficient time for the masking tape to reach thermal equilibrium
with the object.
3. With the adjustable emissivity of the instrument set to 0.95, measure and
note the temperature of the masking tape. This step establishes the actual
temperature of the object.
4. Measure the surface temperature of the sample with the infrared
thermometer. Press the emissivity adjustment up or down during the
measurement until the display indicates the sample’s actual temperature. Note
and record the corresponding emissivity value as shown on the display. Use
this value whenever the same material is measured again. When infrared
detection equipment is used in areas where very high temperature differences
are encountered, it is important to follow the instrument instructions regarding
emissivity, to minimize errors.

 Page 157

Glossary of Terms
A
ACIDA substance which releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
Most acids will dissolve the common metals, and will react with a base to
form a neutral salt and water.
ACID ATTACKCorrosion caused by an acid.
ACIDITYThe quantitative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydroxyl
ions.
ACTIVATED CARBONA granular material usually produced by the roasting
of cellulose base substances, such as wood or coconut shells, in the absence of
air. It has a very porous structure and is used in water conditioning as an
absorbent for organic matter and certain dissolved gases. Sometimes called
“activated charcoal”.
ALKALINITYThe quantitative capacity of a water or water solution to
neutralize an acid. It is usually measured by titration with a standard acid
solution of sulfuric acid, and expressed in terms of its calcium carbonate
equivalent.
ALLOYA substance composed of two or more metals combined by heating.
ANIONA negatively charged ion in solution, such as bicarbonate, chloride or
sulfate.
ANODEThe positive terminal of an electrolytic cell.
APPROACH TEMPERATUREIn a cooling tower, the difference between the
temperature of the cooled water and the wet bulb.
AQUIFERA layer or zone below the surface of the earth which is capable of
yielding a significant volume of water.
ASHRAEAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers.
ATOMA small particle of an element that can exist either alone or in
combination with similar particles of the same element or of a different
element.
B
BACTERIAUnicellular micro-organisms which typically reproduce by cell
division. Although usually classed as plants, bacteria contain no chlorophyll.
BASEA substance which releases hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water.
Bases react with acids to form a neutral salt and water.
BICARBONATE ALKALINITYThe alkalinity of a water due to the presence
of bicarbonate ions (HCO3).
BIOLOGICAL DEPOSITSIn a cooling water, microscopic organisms such as
slime. Slime is usually gelatinous or filamentous.
BLEED-OFFRemoval of a portion of water contained in a cooling system to
reduce concentration of impurities.

 Page 158

C
CALCIUMOne of the principal elements making up the earths crust, the
compounds of which when dissolved make the water hard. The presence of
calcium in water is a factor contributing to the formation of scale and
insoluble soap curds which are a means of clearly identifying hard water.
CARBONATESCompounds which contain the CO3 group.
CARBONATE ALKALINITYAlkalinity due to the presence of the carbonate
ion.
CARBON DIOXIDEA gas present in the atmosphere and formed by the decay
of organic matter; the gas in carbonated beverages; in water it forms carbonic
acid.
CATHODENegative terminal of an electrolyte cell.
CATIONAn ion with a positive electrical charge, such as calcium, magnesium
and sodium.
CAUSTICSolutions that contain hydroxyl ions and has a pH greater than 7.0.
CHELATE (CHELANT)Chemical structure that holds a metallic ion in a ring
of five or six atoms. The metallic ion is ”sequestered”.
CHELATIONThe property of a chemical which when dissolved in water
keeps the hard water salts in solution and thus prevents the formation of scale.
CHLORINEA gas, Cl2, widely used in the disinfection of water and an
oxidizing agent for organic matter, iron, etc.
CHLORINE DEMANDA measure of the amount of chlorine which will be
consumed by organic matter and other oxidizable substances in a water before
chlorine residual will be found; the difference between the total chlorine fed
and the chlorine residual.
CLOSED SYSTEMWater system that is not exposed to atmosphere.
CONCENTRATIONAn expression of the amount of a substance in solution,
expressed as PPM or gms/liter.
CONDUCTANCEA measure of the ability of a solution to carry electricity;
the reciprocal of the electrical resistance. The unit of conductance is the mho
(reciprocal ohm).
CONDUCTIVITYThe quality of power to carry electrical current; in water,
the conductivity is related to the concentration of ions capable of carrying
electrical current.
CORROSIONThe destructive disintegration of a metal by electrochemical
means.
CORROSION PRODUCTSCompounds formed by either chemical or electro-
chemical reaction between a metal and its environment.
D
DELTA TThe temperature change through a heat exchanger or across an
evaporative cooling device.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSUREThe difference in pressure at two points in a
water system; may be due to differences in elevation, or to friction losses or
pressure drops due to resistance to flow in pipes, filters or other devices.
DISSOLVED SOLIDSThe weight of matter in true solution in a stated volume
of water; includes both inorganic and organic matter; usually determined by
weighing the residue after evaporation of the water at 105 or 180 degrees C.

 Page 159
DISTILLATIONThe process in which a liquid, such as water, is converted
into its vapor state by heating, and the vapor cooled and condensed to the
liquid state and collected; used to remove solids and other impurities from
water; multiple distillations are required for extreme purity.
DRY BULB THERMOMETERSee wet bulb thermometer.
F
FLOW CONTROLA device designed to limit the flow of water to a
predetermined value over a broad range of inlet water pressures.
E
EPAEnvironmental Protection Agency.
EVAPORATIONIn cooling water it is a change of state from a liquid to a
vapor.
G
GRAIN(gr.) A unit of weight equal to 1/ 7000th of a pound, or 0.0648 gram.
GRAIN PER GALLON(gpg) A common basis for reporting water analysis in
the United States and Canada; one grain per U.S. gallon equals 17.12
milligrams per liter (mg/l) or parts per million (ppm). One grain per British
(Imperial) gallon equals 14.3 milligrams per liter or parts per million.
GRAM(g) The basic unit of weight (mass) of the metric system, originally
intended to be the weight of 1 cubic centimeter of water at 4 degrees C.
H
HARDNESSA characteristic of natural water due to the presence of dissolved
calcium and magnesium; water hardness is responsible for most scale
formation in pipes, cooling towers, boilers, ice machines, and water heaters,
and forms insoluble “curd” when it reacts with soap. Hardness is usually
expressed in grains per gallon, parts per million, or milligrams per liter, all as
calcium carbonate equivalent.
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATIONThe concentration of hydrogen ions
in moles per liter of solution; often expressed as pH. (See pH)
HYDROLOGIC CYCLEThe water cycle, including precipitation of water
from the atmosphere as rain or snow, flow of water over or through the earth,
and evaporation to water vapor in the atmosphere.
HYDROXIDEA chemical compound of an element or elements with the
hydroxyl anion.
HYDROXYLTerm used to describe the anionic radical (OH-) that is
responsible for alkalinity of a solution.
I
INFLUENTSolution that enters any process.
INFRAREDHas to do with those invisible light rays just beyond the red end of
the visible spectrum. Their waves are longer than those of the spectrum colors
but shorter than radio waves. They have a pentrating heating effect.
INHIBITORAny compound that inhibits chemical activity (scale or corrosion)
by filming or chemical modification
IONAn atom, or group of atoms which function as a unit, and has a positive or
negative electrical charge, due to the gain or loss of one or more electrons.
(See Ionization)
IONIZATIONThe process in which atoms gain or lose electrons and thus
become ions with positive or negative charges; sometimes used as
synonymous with dissociation, the separation of molecules into charged ions
in solution.

 Page 160
IRONAn element often found dissolved in ground water (in the form of
ferrous iron) in concentrations usually ranging from zero to 10 ppm (ml/l). It
is objectionable in water supplies because of the staining caused after
oxidation and precipitation (as ferric hydroxide), and because of unsightly
colors produced when iron reacts with tannins in beverages such as coffee and
tea.
IRON BACTERIAOrganisms which are capable of utilizing ferrous iron,
either from the water or from steel pipes, in their metabolism, and
precipitating ferric hydroxide in their sheaths and gelatinous deposits. These
organisms tend to collect in pipe lines and tanks such as softeners during
periods of low flow, and to break loose in slugs of turbid water to create
staining, taste and odor problems.
L
LANGELIER’S INDEXAn indicator of whether water will either tend to
dissolve or tend to precipitate calcium carbonate. To calculate Langelier’s
Index, the actual pH value of the water and Langelier’s saturation pH value
(pHs) are needed. Langelier’s saturation pH value is determined by the
relationship between calcium hardness, total alkalinity, total solids
concentration, and temperature of water. Langelier’s index is determined from
the expression pH-pHs.
LIMEHard water scale containing a high percentage of calcium carbonate.
LIMESTONEA sedimentary rock, largely calcium carbonate, and usually also
containing significant amounts of magnesium carbonate.
M
MAGNESIUMOne of the elements making up the earth’s crust, the
compounds of which when dissolved in water make the water hard. The
presence of magnesium in water is a factor contributing to the formation of
scale and insoluble soap curds.
MAGNETITEA self-limiting type of corrosion product of iron that occurs
when the influence of oxygen is limited; the oxide layer that is formed
prevents further corrosion.
MAKE-UPWater in a cooling tower used to replenish the system after
blowdown, leakage, or other losses.
MINERALA term applied to inorganic substances, such as rocks and similar
matter found in the earth strata, as opposed to organic substances such as plant
and animal matter. Minerals normally have definite chemical composition and
crystal structure. The term is also applied to matter derived from minerals,
such as the inorganic ions found in water.
MOLECULEThe simplest combination of atoms that will form a specific
chemical compound; the smallest particle of a substance which will still retain
the essential composition and properties of that substance, and which can be
broken down only into atoms and simpler substances.
N
NEGATIVE CHARGEThe electrical charge of an electrode or ion in solution,
due to the presence of an excess of electrons, characteristic of an anion.
NEUTRALIn electrical systems, the term used to indicate neither an excess
nor a lack of electrons; a condition of balance between positive and negative
charges. In chemistry, the term used to indicate a balance between acids and
bases; the neutral point on the pH scale is 7.0 indicating the presence of equal
numbers of free hydrogen (acidic) and hydroxyl (basic) ions.

 Page 161
NEUTRALIZATIONIn general, the addition of either an acid or a base to a
solution. The use of alkaline or basic materials to neutralize the acidity of
some waters is a common practice in water conditioning.
O
ONCE THROUGH SYSTEMCondenser circulating water system where water
is drawn from a source, used in a system, and returned to the source.
OPEN SYSTEMWater system that is exposed to atmosphere.
OPERATING PRESSUREThe range of pressure, usually expressed in pounds
per square inch, over which a water conditioning device or water system is
designed to function.
ORGANIC CONTAMINATESThese can be man-made substances, such as
herbicides, pesticides and detergents, or naturally occurring by-products of
vegetative decay and biodecomposition such as humic and fulvic acids. They
are all compounds that contain carbon and, generally, hydrogen.
OXIDATIONA chemical process in which electrons are removed from an
atom, ion or compound. The addition of oxygen is a specific form of
oxidation. Combustion is an extremely rapid form of oxidation, while the
rusting of iron is a slow form.
P
PARTS PER MILLION (ppm)A common basis for reporting the results of
water and wastewater analysis, indicating the number of parts by weight of a
dissolved or suspended constituent, per million parts by weight of water or
other solvent. In dilute water solutions, one part per million is practically
equal to one milligram per liter, which is the preferred unit.
PERISTALTIC PUMPSMoving a fluid forward with alternate contractions
followed by dilations as spaced rollers squeeze and relax a plastic tube.
pHThe reciprocal of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH
scale is from zero to 14, and 7.0 is the neutral point, indicating the presence of
equal concentrations of free hydrogen and hydroxide ions, pH values below
7.0 indicate increasing acidity, and pH values above 7.0 indicate increasing
base concentrations.
POSITIVE CHARGEThe electrical charge on an electrode or ion in solution
due to the removal of electrons. Characteristic of cations
PPMThe abbreviation for “parts per million”.
PRECIPITATESolid material that can no longer be held in a solution due to
change in pressure, temperature, or chemical condition. It then precipitates
out.
PRESSURE DIFFERENTIALThe difference in pressure between two points
in a system due to differences in elevation and/or pressure drop due to flow.
PRESSURE DROPA decrease in water pressure during flow due to internal
friction between molecules of water, and external friction due to irregularities
or toughness in surface past which the water flows.
R
RAW WATERUntreated water, or any water before it reaches a specific water
process or treatment device.
REDUCTIONA chemical process in which electrons are added to an atom, ion
or compound.

 Page 162
RESIDUALThe amount of a specific material remaining in the water
following a water treatment process. May refer to material remaining as a
result of incomplete removal or to material meant to remain in the treated
water.
T
TDSThe abbreviation for “total dissolved solids.”
S
SENSIBLE HEATHeat that changes the temperature of a substance. On the
other hand, latent heat cannot be sensed by a change in temperature.
T
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDSThe weight of solids per unit volume of water
which are in true solution, usually determined by the evaporation of a
measured volume of filtered water, and the determination of the residual
weight. A term used to describe the conductivity as related to the
concentration of ions capable of carrying electrical current.
TRANSDUCERA device that transmits energy from one system to another.
W
WATER-FORMED DEPOSITSAn accumulation of insoluble material either
derived from water or formed by the reaction of water on surfaces in contact
with water.
WET-BULB THERMOMETERThat one of a pair or thermometers in a
psychrometer having its bulb covered with a wet cloth, while the other (dry-
bulb thermometer) is left uncovered: the rate of water evaporation from the
wet bulb and its resultant cooling depends on the water vapor content in the
air, which can be determined by comparison of readings on the two
thermometers.

 Page 163

Appendix
Addresses and telephone numbers for businesses providing product
information and/or case studies used in this book.
ADVANTAGE CONTROLS, INC.
202 Wall Street
Muskogee, OK 74402
Phone (918) 686-6211
CARLON METER COMPANY
1710 Easton Drive
Grand Haven, MI 49417
Phone (616) 842-0420
ECONOMY A/C AND HEATING
945 West Kenyon
Englewood, CO 80110
Phone (303) 789-9990
Fuller Engineering Co., LLC
4725 N.W. Plaza West Drive
Zionsville, IN 46077-9225
Phone (317) 228-5800
GOODWAY TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION
420 West Avenue
Stamford, CT 06902
Phone (203) 359-4708
HASTINGS INDUSTRIES
DIVISION OF ERIC, INC.
Industrial Park East
4855 East Industry Circle
Hastings, Nebraska 68901
Phone (402) 463-9821
HAYES CHEMICAL COMPANY LLC
6 Chestnut Street
Granite Falls, NC 28630
Phone (704) 396-2225
HEAT PIPE TECHNOLOGY INC.
15803 N.W. 140th Street
Alachua, FL 32616
Phone (904) 462-3464
LAKOS, DIV. OF CLAUDE LAVAL CORPORATION
1365 North Clovis Ave.
Fresno, CA 93703-0119
Phone (209) 255-1601
MARLEY COOLING TOWER COMPANY
7401 West 129 Street
Overland Park, KS 66213
Phone (913) 664-7400
MARTRON, INC.
2200 South Richey St.
Santa Ana, CA 92705
Phone (714) 546-7117
METAL SAMPLES CO.
152 Metal Samples Road
Mumford, Alabama 36268
Phone (205) 358-4202
NORSE AIR SYSTEMS
3602 So. Inca Street
Englewood, CO 80110
Phone (303) 783-2204
Terlyn Industries Inc.
4301-E. Manchester Road
Kalamazoo, MI 49001-0800
Phone (616) 383-8246
UE SYSTEMS INC.
14 Hayes Street
Elmsford, NY 10523-2536
Phone (914) 592-1220
WOLVERINE TUBE INC.
1525 Perimeter Parkway
Suite 210
Huntsville, Alabama 35806
Phone (205) 890-0460

 Page 165

Index
A
absolute zero 153
absorption 3, 81
acid 3, 6, 14, 17, 18, 28, 33, 69, 95, 96, 101, 111, 114, 125, 146, 147, 149, 157,
158, 160, 161
acidity 17, 18
adhering deposit 24
adjustable emissivity 155
Advanced Technology 8, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 40, 41, 45, 46, 47, 50,
59, 62, 63, 66, 69, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 81, 85, 89, 91, 92, 93, 99, 101, 103,
104, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 145,
147, 149
aerobic bacteria 107
air bubbles 50
airborne contaminants 95
alkalinity 6, 8, 17, 18, 20, 29, 31, 33, 35, 45, 47, 69, 73, 79, 146, 157, 158,
159, 160
alveolar macrophages 109
ammonia 104, 114
anions 5
anode 18, 39, 40, 44, 46
AOX discharge 21
aquifer 6, 157
automatic emissivity compensation 154
B
bacteria 8, 73, 95, 107, 108, 109, 125, 128, 129, 133, 135, 157, 160
barrier 23, 29, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46
bi-metal 151
bicarbonate 3, 4, 16, 17
bio-fouling 20
bleed-off 28, 59, 61, 63, 68, 77, 147
briquette 12
by-pass feeder 104
C
calcium 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44,
47, 73, 79, 80, 95, 96, 108, 111, 112, 115, 116, 157, 158, 159, 160
capillary leaks 92
carbon dioxide 3, 158
carbonate 3, 4, 5, 6, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 33, 34, 79, 80, 95, 96, 157, 158, 159,
160
carbonic acid 3, 33, 158
catalyst 1
cathode 18, 39, 40, 158
cations 5, 6, 7, 15, 25, 40, 42, 43, 49, 77, 81, 85, 92, 106, 107, 112, 117, 121,
124, 134, 136, 137, 143, 161
cavitation 37, 38, 90, 135
centrifugal chiller 148, 149
centrifugal separator 93, 99, 103
change of state 2, 3, 28, 159
chelated 112
chelation 111, 158
chemical efficiency 59
chemical metering pump 13
chemical residuals 65
chiller 44, 48, 75, 76, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 101, 148, 149, 151
chloramine 114
chlorides 5, 21, 31, 79, 146
chlorine 114, 158
chromates 17, 21
cobalt 108
colorimeter 15, 31
concentrate minerals 28
condenser tubes 19, 74, 89, 90, 91
conductivity 4, 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 77, 78, 91, 128, 158, 162
conductivity measurement 14
conductivity sampling 14
conservation 1, 2, 12, 23, 28, 59, 66, 71, 93, 125, 131, 146
contacting head water meter 13, 82
controllers 13, 14, 15, 78
cooling tower 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 30,
35, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 73, 75,
77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104,
105, 106, 107, 108, 111, 117, 119, 121, 126, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135,
137, 138, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 157, 159, 160
copper 21, 31, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 57, 96, 108

 Page 166
copper-corrosion inhibitors 21
corrosion 6, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35,
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 55, 57, 63, 64, 69,
73, 85, 93, 99, 101, 103, 104, 109, 112, 115, 129, 130, 132, 145, 146, 147,
148, 157, 158, 159, 160
corrosion penetration 55
couplants 53
coupon 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 115, 145
crosscorrugated 107
crystal agent 18
crystal modifying chemicals 18
crystallization 95
cycles of concentration 18, 19, 20, 21, 28, 30, 31, 46, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
66, 78, 79, 85, 92, 101, 105, 107, 111, 112, 115, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 147
D
Deposition Indicator 76, 77
deterioration 19, 37, 38, 42
digital titration 31
dispersion 18
drift 28, 66, 67, 68, 73, 74, 78, 86, 92, 106, 107, 126, 129, 131, 132
drip feed 12
dry bulb temperature 2, 3, 119, 127
E
eductor 133, 134, 135, 136, 137
eductor pattern 134, 135
electrochemical 38, 50, 158
electrochemical current noise 50
electrolysis 1, 40
electrolyte 39, 158
electrolytically 41
electromechanical 15, 16
electronic 15, 16, 84, 105, 146, 153
electronic metering pump 146
electrostatic deposition 42
emissivity 153, 154, 155
emit 153, 154
emitted 153, 154
equilibrium 27, 33, 74, 90, 155
evaporation 2, 3, 5, 8, 18, 19, 22, 23, 28, 35, 42, 60, 61, 62, 65, 68, 74, 80, 81,
85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 106, 122, 125, 132, 148, 158, 159, 162
evaporative cooler 3, 8, 23, 63, 90, 108, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128,
129, 130
evaporative cooling 2, 106, 119, 121, 122, 123, 125, 129, 158
F
face velocity 106, 126
Fahrenheit 80
ferric 26, 39, 40, 73, 112, 160
ferric hydroxide 39, 40, 160
ferrous hydroxide 39
field erected 126, 130
film forming inhibitor 20
filters 19, 21, 79, 133, 136, 137, 158
filtration 93, 133, 135, 136, 137, 143
finned tube 97, 123
fouling mechanism 107
free radical 26, 30, 111
FS 63, 64, 74, 86, 87
G
galvanization 42
H
halogenated biocides 21
hardness 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 45, 47,
62, 63, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 95, 104, 108,
111, 116, 127, 129, 146, 159, 160
heat exchange 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 28, 35, 37, 46, 51, 59, 60, 63, 64, 76, 99,
100, 101, 102, 114, 121, 122, 135, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153, 158
heat pipe 121, 123, 124
HF 41, 86, 87
humidity 126, 129
Hydrochloric 96, 101
hydrogen 1, 6, 29, 37, 39, 44, 108, 157, 159, 160, 161
hydrogen ion 6, 29, 37, 39, 157, 159, 161
hydrous oxide 37
hydroxyl 6, 29, 37, 39, 157, 158, 159, 160
hydroxyl ion 6, 29, 37, 39, 157, 158
I
implosion 38
indirect evaporative cooling 119
Induced Draft 146
infrared 89, 90, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 159
infrastructure 1, 23
internally enhanced tubes 96, 97, 98
inverse solubility 4, 131
iodine 114
ionized impurities 6

 Page 167
ions 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
29, 30, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 51, 56, 64, 65, 68, 69,
71, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97,
101, 104, 106, 107, 109, 111, 112, 115, 117, 119, 121, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
131, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 151, 153, 154, 155,
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162
iron oxide 38, 40, 112
L
Langelier 33, 35, 160
latent 2, 3, 162
layer 29, 42, 43, 119, 157, 160
Legionella pneumophila 7, 8, 129
Legionnaires Disease 7, 8
lignin/tannin 18
Linear Polarization Resistance 50
liquid 2, 3, 12, 37, 42, 105, 133, 134, 135, 137, 159
M
magnesium 5, 6, 7, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 31, 44, 47, 73, 108, 111, 112,
115, 116, 158, 159, 160
make-up air 125
manganese 7, 108
maximum water conservation 59
mechanical contractor 148
mercury 44, 151
metallurgy 48
metering pump 13, 84, 146
microbiocide 8
microbiological contaminants 19
micromhos 4
microscopic cells 30
microscopic organisms 19, 95, 157
modification 18, 136, 137, 159
molybdate 20, 21
Munters 125
N
negative ions 26
negatively charged hydroxyl ions 39
nitrate 21
nomograph 34
non-adhering sludge 18
non-condensables 152
non-oxidizing chemicals 20
non-reflective surfaces 153
nondestructive tests 53
nuclei 25, 26, 27, 112, 114
nutrient level 107
O
organic 7, 19, 21, 30, 35, 63, 73, 79, 80, 92, 93, 95, 96, 101, 107, 115, 125,
129, 146
organic carbon 107
oxidation 39, 40, 41, 42, 45
oxidizing chemicals 20
oxygen 1, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 55, 56, 108, 111,
112
ozone 21, 22
P
passivation 45, 46
pathogenic 109
peristalsis 84
peristaltic 81
permeability 42, 43
Persulfate UV Oxidation 31
pH 6, 7, 8, 14, 15, 17, 20, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 45, 47, 73, 95, 111,
114, 115, 116, 125, 128, 129, 146
pH control 14, 15
Phosphate esters 18
phosphates 16
phosphonate 31, 147
physics 153
piezoelectric 53
pitting 28, 29, 37, 38, 40, 44, 45, 53, 55, 73
pollution control 16, 20
polymerization 95
polyphosphates 16, 18
porosity 42, 43
positive ions 26, 27, 112
positively charged hydrogen ions 39
potassium 44, 108
prism 152
protozoa 108, 109
psychrometer 90
psychrometric chart 119, 121
pulse-reflection 53
pump impeller deterioration 37
Q
quantum physics 153
R
radiated energy 152, 153, 154
radiation 152, 153
reactive solids 45
reagents 11
reciprocating 149
Redox 15, 46
reflect 134, 154