International Journal of Cast Metals Research

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Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys

J. P. Pathak, S. Mohan, J. K. Singh & S. N. Ojha

To cite this article: J. P. Pathak, S. Mohan, J. K. Singh & S. N. Ojha (2006) Centrifugal casting
of leaded aluminium alloys, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 19:5, 283-288, DOI:
10.1179/136404606X153876

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1179/136404606X153876

Published online: 18 Jul 2013.

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Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys
J. P. Pathak*, S. Mohan, J. K. Singh and S. N. Ojha
Hollow cylindrical castings (90 mm outside diameter, 80 mm internal diameter and 150 mm
length) of leaded aluminium alloys (Al–4.1Cu–15,20,25Pb) were prepared by verticle centrifugal
casting technique. Operational parameters such as mould speed and pouring temperature were
optimised for 20 wt-% lead alloys. These casting parameters (mould rotation speed
1600 rev min21 and pouring temperature 900uC) were found to be suitable for 15–25 wt-%Pb
alloys. Lead distribution in various sections of the casting was assessed by chemical analysis and
metallographical study. Mechanical properties of cast alloys were assessed at room temperature.
Lead is dispersed in Al–4.1Cu alloy matrix as globules and patches, and occurs in the
interdendritic region of aluminium rich dendrites. Concentration of lead is more outside layers of
casting than that inside the layers. Lead decreased mechanical properties of Al–4.1Cu alloy.
Keywords: Centrifugal casting, Leaded aluminium alloy, Bearing, Wear

Introduction prepared binary Al–Pb (with 10, 16 and 20 wt-%Pb),

It has been found that a number of foundry techniques
have been developed and employed to prepare leaded
aluminium alloys all over the world, but sedimentation
problem of lead in aluminium melt even with extreme
casting rates never permitted satisfactory results till day.
It is well known1–3 that lead is more effective than tin as
a soft phase alloying addition and it confers the
necessary antiscoring and antifriction properties to
aluminium. But owing to a wide miscibility gap in
molten state of lead and aluminium, large differences in
densities, a large freezing range and insolubility in each
other at room temperature4 impose problems in
preparation of aluminium–lead alloys. Therefore, it is
not easy to disperse lead uniformly in aluminium matrix
to a required amount by conventional melting and
casting technique.
In spite of all the above problems in production, this
alloy has an edge over other alloys and it is being
produced by special techniques although there is some
extent segregation of lead in each case. Al–Pb alloy is
produced by continuous casting5,6 of an induction
stirred melt over a water cooled horizontal strip mould
so that a billet of leaded aluminium alloy is developed in
which the upper surface contains a lower amount of lead
as compared with the lower surface. Al–Pb alloy is also
prepared by atomisation followed by compaction and
sintering of the powder in the form of strip. By
ultrasonic7 mixing during melting and casting, 10 wt-%
lead is dispersed in aluminium alloy by a special casting
technique8 developed in UK. Principle of rheocasting9 is
also utilised for dispersion of lead in Al, Al–Cu, Al–Cu–
Mg and aluminium–silicon piston alloys. Kim et al.10
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, India
*Corresponding author, email janardan_pathak@yahoo.com
ternary Al–16Pb–4Cu and quaternary Al–16Pb–4Cu–
Mg alloys of pure metals in a high frequency induction
melting furnace (all compositions in this paper are given
in wt-% unless otherwise stated). These alloys were
remelted at ,1373 K and rapidly solidified in nitrogen
gas. The rapidly solidified alloy powders were consoli-
dated by canning, degassing and then by hot extruding.
Wear property of quaternary alloy is better than that of
the binary and ternary alloys. A new continuous leaded
aluminium strip casting device and process11 is being
developed in Germany. In this technique, Marangoni
motion will be utilised to compensate gravity induced
motion.
In India, a number of foundry techniques have also
been developed to prepare leaded aluminium alloys.
Thixocasting technique12 where melt is vigorously
agitated in the two phase fields with the help of a
specially designed stirrer and finally poured into metallic
mould. A technique13 known as impeller mixing and
bottom discharge chill casting was developed which
dispersed lead up to 30 wt-% uniformly in aluminium
alloy. Leaded aluminium alloys were also prepared by
stir casting.14,15 Compocasting technique16 was also
employed to prepare Al–Pb alloys and lead up to
28 wt-% could be trapped easily in the interdendritic
region of aluminium rich dendrites.
Although a number of foundry techniques are
available for the production of leaded aluminium alloys,
their limitations do not permit to overcome the
segregation of lead in aluminium melt. The centrifugal
casting technique provides a special feature which is
distinct from other casting processes because in this case,
solidification of the melt occurs under the influence of
centrifugal force. Centrifugal force balances the gravi-
tational pull and facilitates distribution of lead in
aluminium/aluminium alloys while providing some
annular shape of the casting. The high pressure during
freezing in conjunction with directional solidification

ß 2006 W. S. Maney & Son Ltd.

DOI 10.1179/136404606X153876 International Journal of Cast Metals Research 2006 VOL 19 NO 5 283
Pathak et al. Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys
1 Photographical view of verticle centrifugal
machine
assists feeding and accelerates the separation of non-
metallic inclusions and removal of dissolved gases. A
high quality casting free from microshrinkage and gas
porosity is developed. Recently, some attempts have
been made to prepare17 leaded aluminium alloy hollow
cylinders by using verticle centrifugal casting technique
where lead content is only 10 wt-%, but for good tribo-
logical properties, lead amount should be .10 wt-%.
Today, leaded aluminium alloys are prepared by a
number of techniques, but the use of centrifugal casting
technique is limited. Under centrifugal casting techni-
que, solidification of the melt takes place under the
influence of centrifugal force. Centrifugal force distri-
butes the metal and also forms the internal surface of
annular castings. Casting produced is of high standard
and metallurgical qualities are up to the mark. Copper–
lead bearings18 are prepared while utilising the
principle of centrifugal casting. Trails for lead bronze
linings on the steel bearing shells have also been made
by centrifugal casting. Earlier, some attempts have
also been made to prepare Al–Pb and Al–Cu–Pb
hollow cylinders by using verticle centrifugal casting
technique.19,20
In the present investigation, aluminium–copper–lead
alloy hollow cylinders were prepared by vertical
centrifugal casting technique. Vertical and horizontal
distribution of lead across the wall thickness was
examined. Owing to influence of centrifugal force, heavy
element lead has been thrown away from the centre of
the casting towards the outer surface and there is
concentration gradient of lead from the outer surface
to the inner surface along the thickness of the hollow
284 International Journal of Cast Metals Research 2006
cylinder. The hollow cylindrical castings can be used as
bearing liners after flattening, rolling and roll bonding
with steel plate backing.
Experimental
Aluminium (98.7 wt-% purity), lead (98.6 wt-% purity)
and Al–40Cu master alloy were used for the preparation
of Al–4.1Cu–(15–25)Pb alloy. Fire clay powder
(,150 mesh) was used for mould coating.
A well designed, fabricated equipment was used for
the preparation of Al–Cu–Pb alloy hollow cylindrical
casting. The photographical view of the vertical
centrifugal casting machine is shown in Fig. 1. This
machine consists of a cylindrical cast iron mould of
100 mm internal diameter, 150 mm length and 10 mm
wall thickness, mounted vertically on a shaft with a
cover plate, which retains the molten metal in the mould
and controls the height of the casting. The shaft was
connected with an electric motor by a V belt. The shaft is
driven by this arrangement through a speed varying
pulley, which could be adjusted for different speeds of
mould rotation, with the help of lever connected to it.
The speed could be ranged from 500 to 1700 rev min21
in steps of 100 rev min21. The entire mould assembly
was covered by a steel sheet shield to protect the
operator from the metal splashing, if any, during
operation.
For the preparation of Al–Cu–Pb alloy, a required
amount (900 g) of aluminium and master alloy of
casting stichiometric composition were weighed and charged
into a fire clay crucible. This crucible was kept in an oil
fire furnace. The furnace mouth was closed with asbesto
sheet cover and melting of charge was performed while
firing the furnace by mixing oil droplets with air. Before
starting the pouring of molten metal, the mould of
centrifugal casting machine was coated with fireclay and
dried by gas torch. A stirrer was inserted into the
metallic melt through the crucible cover opening and
melt was stirred for 90–120 s, during which a required
amount of lead chips were charged into the melt. After
mixing and providing 200uC superheat to the melt, the
crucible was taken out from the furnace and the molten
alloy was poured into pouring basin of centrifugal
casting machine, which led the molten charge into the
revolving mould of centrifugal casting machine. The
melt was let to fall into the rotating mould which was
already adjusted at a suitable 1600 rev min21. A stopper
rod was used to control the melt flow and finally after
solidification, the casting (Fig. 2) was taken out from the
mould for further investigation. Density of casting was
measured while taking samples from different sections of
the casting. Theoretical values as well as measured
values of density were given in Table 1.
Microstructural examination was carried out in detail
to study the dispersion of lead in Al–Cu matrix alloy.
The cylindrical castings were sectioned, and samples
taken from these sections were polished by standard
metallographical technique and etched with Keller’s
reagent before examining by using optical and scanning
electron microscopes.
Quantitative analysis of lead content of casting was
also performed by precipitating lead as lead dichromate.
The precipitate of lead dichromate was dried and
weighed, and the weight percentage of lead was
VOL 19 NO 5
 Pathak et al. Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys

Brinnell hardness test was performed on all specimens

using 5 mm steel ball indenter under a load of 500 kg for
a period of 30 s.

Results and discussion

Preparation of leaded aluminium alloy
A set of hollow cylindrical castings of Al–4.1Cu–20Pb
alloy were prepared at various mould speeds (900–
1200 rev min21) and a fixed melt pouring temperature
of 900uC. Another set of castings were made while
varying pouring temperature (700–1100uC) but keeping
the mould speed 1600 rev min21. In each case, thick-
nesses of bottom, middle and top portion of cylindrical
casting were measured and it was found that casting
prepared at 900uC and 1600 rev min21 has a nearly
equal thickness throughout its length (Fig. 2). This
1600 rev min21 speed and 900uC temperature were
found to be the suitable condition for the preparation
of centrifugal casting of Al–4.1Cu–20Pb alloy. When the
casting of Al–4.1Cu–15Pb and Al–4.1Cu–25Pb alloys
were prepared under the same condition, it was found
that 1600 rev min21 mould rotation and 900uC pouring
temperature were the suitable condition for these
2 Photographical view of hollow cylindrical leaded alumi- compositions as well.
nium alloy casting
Density
calculated. The lead content of different sections of the Theoretical density of Al–4.1Cu–(15,20,25)Pb alloys
casting is given in Table 2. (Table 1) and as cast density values do not differ more.
Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, com- This indicates that the prepared cast structures are dense
pression strength and hardness of casting were deter- and sound, and do not have any serious porosity
mined. Standard samples (4.5 mm diameter, 17.8 mm problem.
gauge length), at least three tensile test samples, were
machined from one-third height of the cylindrical Microstructure
casting and by employing an Instron testing machine To acknowledge the dispersion of lead, microstructures
at a crosshead speed of 0.05 cm min21, ultimate tensile of Al–Cu–Pb alloy at one-third and two-thirds height of
strength (UTS), 0.2% offset proof stress and percentage the cylindrical casting (height 15 cm) were examined.
of elongation were evaluated from the test results. The optical microstructures of centrifugally cast Al–
Compression test samples (10 mm length, 8 mm dia- 4.1Cu–(15,20,25)Pb alloys at one-third and two-thirds
meter) were machined from the same portion of the height (bottom to top) of the casting are shown in
casting and crosshead speed of the Instron machine was Figs. 3–5 respectively. Figures 3a, 4a and 5a show the
same as that in the tensile testing. The stress for 20% optical microstructures of the outer surface at one-third
reduction in length of the sample was calculated. height of the castings whereas Figs. 3b, 4b and 5b show
the microstructure of the outer surface at two-thirds
Table 1 Average values of theoretical and experimental height of the casting.
densities of as cast Al–Cu–Pb alloys Figure 6a and b show the optical microstructures
Theoretical Experimental of inner surface of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb at one-third and
Alloy composition*, density values, density values, two-thirds height of the casting. The optical micro-
wt-% g cm23 g cm23 photographs show a nearly uniform dispersion of lead in
Al–Cu matrix; of course in some areas, lead particles are
Al–4.1Cu–15Pb 3.15 3.03 massive and lead patches are thicker. The light areas are
Al–4.1Cu–20Pb 3.29 3.10 the solid solution (a dentrites) of copper in aluminium
Al–4.1Cu–25Pb 3.45 3.13
and the dark areas are the lead rich portion which
*wt-% of Pb varies ¡(0–2.8). existed as immiscible liquids above and below the

Table 2 Weight percentage of lead at one-third and two-thirds height of Al–Cu–Pb alloy cylindrical casting (casting
height 15 cm), wt-%*

Pb at one-third height

Alloy Pb at one-third Pb at two-thirds Inner Outer

composition Al Cu height of casting height of casting surface surface

Al–4.1Cu–15Pb Bal. 4.1 16.2 14.1 12.6 18.3

Al–4.1Cu–20Pb Bal. 4.1 21.6 19.4 16.1 24.4
Al–4.1Cu–25Pb Bal. 4.1 29.3 23.7 22.4 30.2
*wt-% of Pb varies ¡(0–2.8).

International Journal of Cast Metals Research 2006 VOL 19 NO 5 285

Pathak et al. Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys

a at one-third height of casting from bottom; b at two-

thirds height of casting from bottom
5 Optical microstructures of outer surface of hollow
cylindrical casting of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb alloy
a at one-third height of casting from bottom; b at two-
thirds height of casting from bottom
solidification temperatures of dendrites. It can be seen
3 Optical microstructures of outer surface of hollow
that lead occurs in the form of patches and globules in or
cylindrical casting of Al–4.1Cu–15Pb alloy
around the interdendritic areas between aluminium
rich solid solution dendrites. Interdendritic network of
Cu Al2 (large gray particles) with interdispersed or

a at one-third height of casting from bottom; b at two- a at one-third height of casting from bottom; b at two-
thirds height of casting from bottom thirds height of casting from bottom
4 Optical microstructures of outer surface of Al–4.1Cu– 6 Optical microstructures of inner surface of hollow
20Pb alloy cylindrical casting of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb

286 International Journal of Cast Metals Research 2006 VOL 19 NO 5


a at one-third height of casting from bottom; b at two-
thirds height of casting from bottom
7 Scanning electron microscopy microstructures of inner
surface of hollow cylindrical casting of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb
alloy
superimposed Pb rich phase (black particles) is also
present. In high lead (25Pb) (Figs. 5 and 6), a
discontinuous dispersion of lead nodules in or around
the primary aluminium rich phase is evident. Figures 7
and 8 show the SEM microstructure of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb
alloy casting at one-third and two-thirds height of the
casting. Figure 7a and b are the inner side microstruc-
tures whereas Fig. 8a and b are the outer side micro-
structure. In these SEM microstructures, lead phase
appears bright and primary aluminium rich copper
dendrites dark. The coarser globules and the thicker
particles are evident in the interdendritic regions. From
the above microstructures, concentration gradients can
be visualised. At one-third height (outer surface) of the
casting, the dark lead phase (Figs. 3a, 4a and 5a) is more
than that at two-thirds height of the outer surface
(Figs. 3b, 4b and 5b). Inner surface depicts less dark
phase (Fig. 6a and b) than their counter outer surface.
Scanning electron microscope reveals the similar occur-
rence as the optical microscope, but more clearly, inner
side layer of the casting contains a less amount of lead as
seen in bright contrast in Fig. 7a and b than their outside
counterpart (Fig. 8a and b). These SEM microstructures
clearly depict the lead (bright contrast) concentration
gradient along the horizontal (Figs. 7a and 8a) and
longitudinal (Figs. 7b and 8b) directions.
Chemical analysis
In order to assess the distribution of lead along the
longitudinal and horizontal directions of Al–4.1Cu–
(15,20,25)Pb alloy cylindrical castings, the wet chemical
International Journal of Cast Metals Research
Pathak et al. Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys
a at one-third height of casting from bottom; b at two-
thirds height of casting from bottom
8 Scanning electron microscopy microstructures of outer
surface of hollow cylindrical casting of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb
alloy
analysis for lead was performed. The amount of lead
present in longitudinal direction in the samples selected
at one-third and two-thirds height of cylinders was
determined by chemical analysis and listed in Table 2. It
was found that there is a slight variation in lead content
of the cylindrical casting at one-third and two-thirds
height. The bottom portion contains some more amount
of lead than the top portion owing to lead segregation. It
is also found that the amount of lead in Al–4.1Cu–Pb
alloy casting increased from 2.1 to 3.6 wt-% as the
casting height decreased from two-thirds to one-third.
Table 2 also presents the lead content horizontally on
outer and inner surface of cylindrical casting at one-
third height. It is found that amount of lead on outer
surface is more than that on the corresponding inner
surface. As such in the case of Al–4.1Cu–25Pb alloy, the
outer surface contains 30.2 wt-%Pb whereas the inner
surface has 22.4 wt-%Pb. Al–4.1Cu–15Pb alloy cylinder
outer surface contains 18.3 wt-%Pb and the inner
surface 12.6 wt-%Pb. Therefore, it is found that there
is more increasing trend of concentration gradient of
lead in the horizontal direction than that in longitudinal
direction of aluminium–copper matrix alloy. This
happened because of higher density of lead than that
of Al–4.1Cu matrix and hence lead particles are
considerably affected by centrifugal force as compared
with aluminium–4.1 wt-% copper matrix and therefore
lead is thrown towards the outer layers of casting.
Mechanical properties
Table 3 shows the various mechanical properties of Al–
4.1Cu–(15,20,25)Pb alloys evaluated in the present
2006 VOL 19 NO 5 287
Pathak et al. Centrifugal casting of leaded aluminium alloys
Table 3 Mechanical properties of centrifugally cast Al–Cu–Pb alloys
Alloy composition, 0.2% offset Percentage of
wt-% stress, MPa UTS, MPa elongation, %
Al–4.1Cu–15Pb 80.2 122.1 12.3
Al–4.1Cu–20Pb 74.4 119.2 13.4
Al–4.1Cu–25Pb 69.2 117.6 14.2
investigation. The hollow Al–4.1Cu–(15,20,25)Pb alloy
cylinders were prepared with optimum mould speed of
1600 rev min21 at 900uC pouring temperature. Various
test samples for mechanical property test were machined
from one-third height of the centrifugally cast cylinders.
Different mechanical tests were performed on these test
samples. It is found that when the Al–4.1Cu base alloy
was diluted with lead, there is a significant change in all
the mechanical properties. It can be seen that the
hardness and strength properties decrease whereas the
percentage elongation increases with lead. The change in
mechanical properties occurs because of the presence of
soft lead which decreases the strength properties and
hardness of the base alloy. On the other hand, the
ductility of lead is very high and it is deformed heavily in
preference to the Al–4.1Cu matrix alloy. This reduces
the stress concentration in the matrix and makes the
alloy more deformable. During stressing, lead does not
work harden as it recrystalises21,22 below room tem-
perature. All these factors help in increasing the
percentage elongation of the centrifugally cast leaded
aluminium–4.1 copper alloy.
Conclusions
With the help of vertical centrifugal casting technique,
lead (15, 20 or 25 wt-%) can be dispersed in Al–4.1Cu
alloy. Castings prepared are of hollow cylindrical form
which both ends are open. Mould rotation of
1600 rev min21 and 900uC molten metal pouring
temperature are the suitable casting parameters.
Globules and patches of lead occupy the interdendritic
regions of aluminium rich dendrites. It was found that
there is a concentration gradient of lead from inner to
outer surfaces of the cylinder. The outer surface contains
a higher amount of lead than the inner surface at the
same height of the cylinder casting. Even though there is
288 International Journal of Cast Metals Research 2006 VOL 19
0.2% compressed, Hardness,
compression stress, MPa BHN
142.8 38.6
138.3 35.2
118.6 31.4
longitudinally some concentration gradient of lead, this
gradient is less.
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