You are on page 1of 12

Need of Speciation of Particulate Matter in

Ambient Air :
Ashwini Kumar 2K14/EN/011

Ashwinkr007@gmail.com

Department of Environment Engineering, Delhi Technological University


Bawana Road, Delhi, India

Abstract profile of PM can also be developed by speciation

Speciation of particulate matter in ambient air is a studies. All in all the speciation of particulate

justifiable requirement of today’s developing matter in ambient air is a big requirement against

India. . The speciation of an element is the the challenging air pollution of today

distribution of an element amongst defined


1.0 Introduction
chemical species in a system. The determination of

chemical species represents the key to the Speciation analysis is the analytical activity of

understanding of biogeochemical cycles of identifying and/or measuring the quantities of one or

contaminants in environment, and their harmful more individual chemical species in a sample.

effects towards ecology. There are four routes by The chemical species are specific forms of an

which a substance can enter the body: inhalation, element defined as to isotopic composition, electronic

skin (or eye) absorption, ingestion, and injection. or oxidation state, and/or complex or molecular

All of them are triggered by the speciation profiles structure. The speciation of an element is the

of the particulates. The development of a distribution of an element amongst defined chemical

nationwide policy based on speciation profile can species in a system.

be done and the harmful health effects of a


1.1 Need of speciation
particular element of the PM matrix could be Whenever an analyst is producing data on the

studied efficiently using speciation .The presence and/or concentration level of elements in a

bioavailability can also be determined using the sample, the data are meant to answer one of the

speciation which would trigger as to how the following questions depending on the nature of the

interaction of PM occurs. The specific source sample:


 What is the nature of the probed entity? taken up, e.g. into the blood stream of the

organism)
 Are there any risks or benefits related to the
 distribution (the internal transport inside the
probed entity? [1]
organism to the tissue on which it has toxic

Depending on the origin of the sample effects - for example the crossing of the

(environmental compartment, human body, food, and intestinal membrane or the blood-brain

industrial product) such questions are related to the barrier)

specific activity of the chemical species, such as:  biotransformation (its accumulation, bio-

modification, detoxification in – and


 biological activity
excretion from – the tissues)
 toxicity

 mobility It is therefore essential that toxicological studies

 bioavailability should always consider the species present rather

 lifetime, fate and metabolism than the elemental constituent in order to create

 chemical and physical activity. meaningful data.

Since these characteristics are species related, EXAMPLE 2:

data on the presence of elements and their total


While arsenic is synonymous to poison for most
concentration do not promote relevant
people, it has become evident that even high
information.
concentrations of arsenic in marine foodstuffs are

EXAMPLE 1: harmless, since the main species present are the non-

toxic arsenobetaine, arsenocholine and arsenosugars.


The chemical species of a metal can affect

its toxicity by influencing its EXAMPLE 3:

 absorption (or the physical availability for Cr (III) compounds do have some positive biological

exposure - if the metal is tightly bound to in- activity and are therefore considered to be essential,

absorbable material, it cannot be readily Cr (VI) compounds are carcinogenic.


Chemical speciation analysis for the environment is microscope. These particles, which come in a wide

needed to provide information about the status as range of sizes (“fine” particles are less than 2.5

well as the processes involved for the emission, micrometers in diameter and coarser size particles are

cycling, degradation and fate of matter in the larger than 2.5 micrometers), originate from many

environment. different stationary and mobile sources as well as

from natural sources. Fine particles (PM2.5) result


Chemical analysis is acting as an information
from fuel combustion from motor vehicles, power
science, providing the data necessary to answer
generation, and industrial facilities, as well as from
certain questions, such as:
residential fire-places and wood stoves.[2] Coarse
Data on the emission, transport and exchange of
particles (PM10) are generally emitted from sources,
matter between different compartments of the
such as, vehicles travelling on unpaved roads,
environment.
materials handling, and crushing and grinding

operations, as well as windblown dust. Some


 Data on the chemistry, geo-chemistry, bio-
particles are emitted directly from their sources, such
geo-chemistry of different pollutants and
as smokestacks and cars. In other cases, gases such as
other materials in the environment.
sulfur oxides, SO2, NOx, and VOC interact with
 Data on the bio-accessibility, bioavailability
other compounds in the air to form fine particles,
and toxicity of pollutants towards plants,
which are called secondary particulate matters. Their
animals and humans.
chemical and physical compositions vary depending
 Data on the chemical and physical effects of
on location, time of year, and weather.
pollutants with respect to the energy

balance, mass and energy flows of the earth


1.3 Health and Environmental Impacts

1.2 Nature and Sources of the Particulate Matter Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarse particles.
Pollutant
These particles can accumulate in the respiratory
Particulate matter (PM) is the general term used for a system and are associated with numerous health
mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in effects. Exposure to coarse particles is primarily
the ambient air. Some particles are large or dark associated with the aggravation of respiratory
enough to be seen as soot or smoke. Others are so conditions, such as asthma.[4] Fine particles are most
small that they can be detected only with an electron
closely associated with such health impacts as of combustion-related particles are diesel and

increased hospital admissions and emergency room gasoline motor vehicles, managed and open burning,

visits for heart and lung disease, increased respiratory residential wood combustion, and utility and

symptoms and disease, decreased lung function, and commercial boilers. Combustion processes also emit

even premature death. Sensitive groups that appear to primary fine particles consisting of mixtures of many

be at great risks to such effects include the elderly, trace metal compounds and sulfuric acid mists.

individuals with cardiopulmonary disease, such as


2.2 SECONDARY AEROSOLS
asthma in children. In addition to health problems,

PM is major cause of reduced visibility and increased


The principal types of secondary aerosols are
haze in many parts of the world. Airborne particles
organics and ammonium sulfate and nitrate formed
also can cause damage to paints and building from gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and
materials
nitrogen oxides (NOx) which react with ammonia.

Gaseous organics from internal combustion engines

as well as other combustion sources such as cooking


2.0 CHEMICAL SPECIATION OF
are precursors to secondary organics.
PARTICULATE MATTER

The main sources of SO2 combustion of fossil fuels


PM 2.5 is composed of a mixture of particles emitted
in boilers and the main sources of NOx are mobile
directly into the air (primary aerosols) and particles
sources and combustion of fossil fuels in boilers.
formed by chemical transformation of gaseous
Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and ammonia (NH3 )
pollutants (secondary aerosols).[3,5,6]
are important precursors to secondary aerosols

2.1 PRIMARY AEROSOLS (ammonium sulfate, ammonium bisulfate,

ammonium nitrate) and their chemical abundances


The primary types of particles emitted directly
are useful at source and receptor locations to
include soil-related and organic carbon particles from
determine causes of high PM 2.5 levels.
the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass materials.

Sulfate, nitrate, particulate organic carbon, and


The main sources of soil-related particles are road
ammonium are quite often the major constituents of
dusts, construction, and agriculture. The main sources
PM 2.5. Most of the PM 2.5 and PM10 mass in urban
and non-urban areas can be defined by a combination containing these compounds grow into the droplet

of the following components that are both primary mode as they take on water.

and secondary aerosols:


2.6 Sodium Chloride:

2.3 Geological Material:


Salt is found in suspended particles near sea coasts,

Suspended dusts consisting mainly of oxides of open playas, and after de-icing materials are applied.

aluminum, silicon, calcium, titanium, iron, and other In its raw form, salt is usually in the coarse particle

metal oxides. The precise combination of these fraction and is classified as a geological material.

components depends on the geology and industrial When sodium chloride-containing water of fog

processes of the area. droplets evaporate, many of the “dry” core particles

are below 2.5 Fm in diameter. Particles that


2.4 Sulfate:
originally contain sodium chloride may be

neutralized by nitric or sulfuric acid; the chloride is


Ammonium sulfate, ammonium bisulfate, and
driven off and replaced by equivalent amounts of
sulfuric acid are the most common forms of sulfate in

atmospheric particles. These compounds are water nitrate or sulfate. Such particles will be classified as

nitrate or sulfate and will be deficient in chloride.


soluble and reside almost exclusively in the PM 2.5

fraction. Most fine sulfates are produced by oxidation


2.7 Elemental Carbon:
of SO 2 gas to sulfate particles. Sources of SO 2

emissions include coal-burning power plants and Particles emitted from combustion sources contain

copper smelters. light absorbing elemental carbon, often called “soot”

or “black carbon”. Particulate elemental carbon is a


2.5 Liquid Water:
tracer for combustion-derived particles, whereas soil-

Soluble nitrates, sulfates, ammonium, sodium, other and marine-derived aerosols contain negligible

amounts of elemental carbon. Geological material


inorganic ions, and some organic material absorb
contains variable abundances.
water vapor from the atmosphere, especially when

the humidity exceeds 70 percent. Sulfuric acid


2.8 Organic Carbon:
absorbs some water at all humidity levels. Particles
Particulate organic matter is an aggregate of The main source of NOx emissions are from the

hundreds, possibly thousands of separate compounds combustion of various fuels. About one-half of the

that usually contain more than 20 carbon atoms. No NOx is from stationary sources, while the remainder

single analytical technique can characterize the is from mobile sources such as spark- ignition and

organic compounds present. Particulate organic compression-ignition engines in automobiles and

carbon originates from combustion, geological trucks.

processes, road dusts, and photochemistry as well.


3.0 NEED OF SPECIATION OF PARTICULATE

2.9 Ammonium: MATTER

Ammonium sulfate, ammonium bisulfate, and Speciation analysis is the analytical activity of

ammonium nitrate are the most common compounds identifying and quantifying one or more chemical

containing ammonium. Ammonium sulfate and species of an element present in a sample.

ammonium bisulfate result from the irreversible


3.1 Inefficiency of total element concentration
reaction between sulfuric acid and ammonia gas.
analysis:

Ammonium sulfate is primarily present as neutralized


The determination of chemical species represents the
ammonium sulfate while ammonium bisulfate and
key to the understanding of biogeochemical cycles of
sulfuric acid are not present in great abundance.
contaminants (inorganic and organometallic) in

Atmospheric ammonia (NH3 ) results from biological environment, and their harmful effects to biota and

decay at the earth’s surface and can absorb on wet humans.[7] The toxicity of metals, their

surfaces or react with nitric acid to form ammonium environmental mobility, their interaction with solid

nitrate. and liquid phases, tendency to be accumulated in

living systems and their resultant toxicity are strictly


2.10 Nitrate:
correlated with the chemical speciation analysis. That

is why; knowledge of total concentration does not


Ammonium nitrate is the most abundant nitrate

compound resulting from a reversible gas-to-particle give sufficient information about the potential risks.

The failure of total elemental concentration analysis


equilibrium between ammonia gas and nitric acid
paves the way ahead for speciation of particulates
gas, and particulate ammonium nitrate.
which can give an efficient measure for the effects of effects can then occur in the organs, which are

particulates. sensitive to the toxicant.

3.2 Interaction of particulate matter with human • Skin (or eye) absorption:

body; (respiratory system) depends on speciation


Skin (dermal) contact can cause effects that are
profile:
relatively innocuous such as redness or mild

There are four routes by which a substance can enter dermatitis; more severe effects include destruction of

the body: inhalation, skin (or eye) absorption, skin tissue or other debilitating conditions. Many

ingestion, and injection.[8] These four routes depict chemicals can also cross the skin barrier and be

how speciation profile is linked to particulate matter absorbed into the blood system. Once absorbed, they

interaction with the human body thereby may produce systemic damage to internal organs.

necessitating the requirement of speciation profile for The eyes are particularly sensitive to chemicals. Even

the study of interactions with body especially the a short exposure can cause severe effects to the eyes

respiratory system of the humans:- or the substance can be absorbed through the eyes

and be transported to other parts of the body causing


• Inhalation:
harmful effects.

For most chemicals in the form of vapours, gases,


• Ingestion:
mists, or particulates, inhalation is the major route of

entry. Once inhaled, chemicals are either exhaled or Chemicals that inadvertently get into the mouth and

deposited in the respiratory tract. If deposited, are swallowed do not generally harm the

damage can occur through direct contact with tissue gastrointestinal tract itself unless they are irritating or

or the chemical may diffuse into the blood through corrosive. Chemicals that are insoluble in the fluids

the lung-blood interface. Upon contact with tissue in of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach, small, and large

the upper respiratory tract or lungs, chemicals may intestines) are generally excreted. Others that are

cause health effects ranging from simple irritation to soluble are absorbed through the lining of the

severe tissue destruction. Substances absorbed into gastrointestinal tract. They are then transported by

the blood are circulated and distributed to organs that the blood to internal organs where they can cause

have an affinity for that particular chemical. Health damage.


• Injection: on selective chemical species could very well

accelerate the fight against air pollution particularly


Substances may enter the body if the skin is
the dangerous particulate pollution.
penetrated or punctured by contaminated objects.

Effects can then occur as the substance is circulated 3.4 Health effects linked to PM components

in the blood and deposited in the target organs.


A growing body of evidence links long-term

3.3 Creation of a nation- wide air pollution exposure to PM to cardiovascular and respiratory

control policy focusing on selective chemical disorders, severe sickness and premature deaths.

species Investigating this link, most previous studies have

focused on the effects of different sizes of PM, while


With the promulgation of the new Particulate Matter
very few have investigated the role of its different
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS),
chemical components. PM is made up of many
all future designated nonattainment areas and
different elements, originating from numerous
surrounding regions may need to reduce emission of
sources including fossil fuel combustion, transport
fine particles and their precursors to permit those
and industry. Transition metal components such as
areas to attain the NAAQS. Efficient air quality
copper and iron are thought to be particularly harmful
management requires knowing which sources
as they have the potential to produce reactive oxygen
contribute to the problem and how much.
species, causing inflammation throughout the body.
Determining PM source contributions is complicated
Over time, this may cause disease. Findings suggest
due to the fact that often half or more of the PM mass
that not all components of PM are equally harmful.
is composed of secondarily formed species, hiding
Long-term exposure to transition metals in particular,
their point of origin. In addition, PM has a lifetime on
commonly emitted by traffic and industry, may be
the order of several days, enabling sources up to
associated with the inflammation that precedes
1,500 miles away to affect a source region.[9] If the
respiratory and cardiovascular disease. A time series
speciation of particulates is done in a comprehensive
study , which used principal components of chemical
and calculative manner it would enable the
characterised PM2.5 particulate matter reflecting
authorities to create a nationwide air pollution control
different source categories as its exposure metric,
policy focussing on selective chemical species. Focus
revealed a ranking of sources in exerting a toxic
effect in the order: road traffic > coal combustion, > the soluble or extractable elements in PM have

crustally-derived particles.[10] attracted much more attention in this field of study.

The chemical mobility of elements determined by Int.


3.5 Bioavailability
J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12 13087

PM is deposited in the alveolar regions of the lungs. leaching procedures is a good indicator for their

bioavailability, namely the degree and rate that a


The efficiency of their adsorption is 60%–80% [11].
substance is absorbed into a living system or is made
Many epidemiological and toxicological studies have

reported a link between PM exposure and decreased available at the site of physiological activity

lung function, aggravation of respiratory diseases and


3.6 PM speciation source profiles
increased hospitalization admissions for the elderly.
PM speciation source profiles indicate the chemical
A chemical analysis of PM as the indicator of
species that comprise the PM emissions released from a
pollution sources may provide new insights into the
specific source. These speciation profiles, commonly
underlying relationship between PM air pollution and
expressed as the mass ratio of each species to the total
health. Toxicological studies have suggested that the
PM, are used to characterize the different components
determination of the total trace element content of
that are associated with individual pollutant sources.
airborne particulate matter is a poor indicator of their
Currently there are different repositories of PM
bioavailability, mobility and toxicity [12].
speciation source profiles freely accessible, with the
Bioavailability is the prime consideration in
objective of being used for different purposes, such as
environmental risk assessment of toxicity. An
creating speciated PM emission inventories for
evaluation of the potential toxicities of trace elements
photochemical air quality modeling [13] or providing
is based on the distributions of their chemical forms.
input to the Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) receptor
The bioavailability of elements depends on the
models (RM). One of the best-known repositories is the
characteristics of their surfaces, strength of their
United States EPA SPECIATE database, which has been
bonds and properties of solutions in contact with
publicly available since 1988, and it currently contains
particulate matter. The amount of potentially bio
around 3000 entries. Source profiles from this American
available trace elements in PM can be estimated from
repository are usually used in European emission and air
the water-soluble fraction and the fraction extracted
quality modeling exercises owing to the scarcity of
by a dilute salt by extracting. Thus, investigations of
official and well-established European databases. With
the objective of filling this gap, a new database of PM upon. There is a lack of conclusive literature on the

speciation source profiles in Europe has been recently speciation studies which makes it a need of the hour

developed (SPECIEUROPE). to study the speciation of particulate matter especially

The SPECIEUROPE is a repository developed in the in a country like India which lags behind the world in

framework of the Forum for Air quality Modeling in control of air pollution measures. A nationwide

Europe (FAIRMODE) that contains the chemical policy and a comprehensive program can be

composition of PM emission sources reported in developed using the speciation data and records. This

European scientific papers and official reports. Currently, could prove instrumental in the go ahead for the fight

SPECIEUROPE consists of 209 PM speciation profiles, against air pollution specially pertaining to the

combining measured, composite, calculated (from particulate matter. Efficient and justifiable measures

stoichiometric composition) and derived (results of can be taken up for the control focussing on the

source apportionment studies) profiles.[14] Emission speciation of particulates in ambient air. Hence, it is

inventories are datasets used to estimate the amount of conclusive that speciation of particulate matter is the

air pollutants being emitted to the atmosphere, caused by ultimate need of the hour and we need to investigate

an anthropogenic or natural activity, at a certain it via practical studies and experiments.

geographical location for a given period of time.


5.0 References
Emission inventories are generally recognized as key
[1] Allen R.W., Mar T., Koenig J., Liu S.L.J.,
inputs to atmospheric modelling, especially when they
Gould T., Simpson C., and Larson T.
are used to design effective control measures to mitigate
Changes in lung function and airway
the adverse impact of air pollution
inflammation among asthmatic children
4.0 Conclusion
residing in a woodsmoke-impacted urban

The need for speciation of particulate matter is area. Inhal Toxicol 2008: 20: 423–433.

evident. The total elemental composition studies are [2] Andersen Z.J., Wahlin P., Raaschou-Nielsen

insufficient so as to give the accurate detailing O., Scheike T., and Loft S. Ambient particle

information about the effects of the particulates. source apportionment and daily hospital

Individual sources profiles can be determined using admissions among children and elderly in

speciation. Bioavailability can be justified on its basis Copenhagen.

and the health effects linked can be concentrated


[3] J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007: 17: [8] Richter, P.; Griño, P.; Ahumada, I.;

625–636. Bell M.L., Dominici F., Ebisu K., Giordano, A. Total element concentration

Zeger S.L., and Samet J.M. Spatial and and chemical fractionation in airborne

temporal variation in PM2.5 chemical particulate matter from Santiago, Chile.

composition in the United States for health Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41, 6729–6738.

effect studies. Environ Health Perspect [9] M. Guevara, F. Martínez, G. Arévalo, S. Gassó

2007: 115: 989–995 and J. M. Baldasano, Atmos. Environ.,

[4] US EPA. Environmental Protection Agency. 2013, 81, 209

Air Quality Criteria for Particulate [10] H. Simon, L. Beck, P. V. Bhave, F. Divita, Y.

Matter.National Center for Environmental Hsu, D. Luecken, J. D. Mobley, G. A. Pouliot,

Assessment-RTP Office, Research Triangle A. Reff, G. Sarwar and M. Strum,Atmos.

Park, NC, report no.EPA/600/P-99/002aF Pollut. Res., 2010, 1, 196

2004. [11] Schichtel, B.A.; Husar, R.B. Aerosol types

[5] Yue W., et al. Ambient source-specific over the continental U.S.: spatial and

particles are associated with prolonged seasonal patterns. Presented at the A&WMA

repolarization and increased levels of Conference, Kansas City, MO, 1992; Paper

inflammation in male coronary artery 92-60.07. 2. Husar, R.B.; Lodge Jr.,

disease patients. Mutat Res 2007: 621: 50– [12] Pope III C.A., Burnett R.T., Thurston G.D.,

60. Thun M.J., Calle E.E., Krewski D., et al.

[6] Smichowski, P.; Polla, G.; Gómez, D. Metal Cardiovascular mortality and long-term

fractionation of atmospheric aerosols via exposure to particulate air

sequential chemical extraction: A review. pollution.Epidemiological evidence of

Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2005, 381, 302–316. general pathophysiological pathways of

[7] Di Ciaula, A. Emergency visits and hospital disease. Circulation 2004: 109: 71–77.

admissions in aged people living close to a [13] Sarnat J.A., Marmur A., Klein E., Kim E.,

gas-fired power plant. Eur. J. Intern. Med. Russel A.G., Sarnat S.E., Mulholland J.A.,

2012, 23, 53–58. Hopke P.K., and Tolbert P.E. Fine particle

sources and cardiorespiratory morbidity: an


application of chemical mass balance and

factor analytical source-apportionment

methods. Environ Health Perspect 2008:

116: 459–466.

[14] Thurston G.D., Ito k., Mar T., Christensen

W.F., Eatough D.J., Henry R.C., Kim E.,

Laden F., Lall R., Larson T.V., Liu H., Neas

L., Pinto J., Stolzel M., Suh H., and Hopke

P.K. Workgroup Report: Workshop on

source apportionment of particulate matter

health effects ,intercomparison of results and

implications. Environ Health Perspect 2005:

113: 1768–1774.

You might also like