46

Brand Identities: A Framework for Successful Branding

Phani Tej Adidam •

A brand identity is an outward expression of the brand, including its name and visual appearance. The brand's identity is its
fundamental means of consumer recognition and symbolizes the brand's differentiation from -competitors. It is important to
note that a brand identity refers to the strategic goal for a brand; while brand image is what currently resides in the minds
of consumers. How should a brand and marketing manager develop a set of successful brand identities? This paper ties
together several extant researches in this area, and provides a comprehensive framework in terms of guidelines for creating
and building successful brand identities.

Key words: brand identities, brand image, brand names, marketing mix strategy.

Introduction features. This is how a company seeks to identify itself. In

A successful brand has high awareness, depicts a desirable
and unique image, gets easy recognition, and is highly trusted
by customers. The first critical step to achieve this level of
success with the customer is to have an excellent brand
identity (Keller 1993). A lot of research has been done on
individual topics related to building brand identities and the
benefits these bring to a company. However, extant literature
does not provide any research that brings all the elements
together to provide an overall understanding of what brand
identity is, and what steps are required for establishing a
powerful set of brand identities. Therefore, the objective of
this paper is to assist a marketing manager understand the
various elements associated with brand identities and suggest
a framework to help a company establish its brand identity
for successful branding.
Robertson (1987) says that the most important strategic
decision facing the marketing manager during launch of a
new product is in choosing not just an appropriate brand
name, but to select a good set of brand identities. While
several activities are required to build a valuable brand, the
starting point of this brand-building strategy requires
establishing a powerful set of brand identities as foundation.
In this paper, we begin with an introduction of brand identity,
and then present the basic concepts, theory, and elements
involved in the process of developing strong brand identities.
In the next section, we discuss the need for a powerful brand
identity in order to deliver superior performance. In the final
section, we emphasize the role of brand identities in a brand's
success and conclude by providing a suggestive framework
to marketing managers in which we detail important steps
involved in building a good brand identity.
Introduction to Brand Identity
The identity of a brand originates from the company that is
responsible for creating a differentiated product with unique
today's marketplace brands are seen everywhere, and the ones
that succeed are the brands that are trusted and easily
recognizable by customers. For example, Coca Cola, the world
leader in cola drinks, has been able to maintain its strong
presence in the soft drinks market because the trademarks
Coke and Coca Cola denote values that go beyond mere
physical attributes and product labelling. For this
communication strategy to be successful, companies have used
a strong brand identity as foundation with differentiated
products that have high awareness and a good image
perception in the minds of the consumer. The perceived
knowledge about the brand in the mind of the customer along
with the trust placed on the brand sums up what brands and
brand equity develop through a powerful brand identity.
The marketing mix strategy plays an important role in
establishing a brand identity. For example, the tangible
attributes that comprise the product will send a message to
the consumer about the various features of the brand. The
dual air bags and anti lock braking system installed in a
particular brand of car communicate to potential buyers the
safety benefits inherent in buying the car. The warehouse
like ambience of Metro retail chain stores and the emphasis
on self service are signals to the consumer that the company
competes on the basis of low cost. Therefore, through brand
identities, companies seek to convey their individuality and
distinctiveness to all their consumers and other stakeholders.
Making the Case for a New Brand
Identity
Most companies have a tendency to n;lme new products/
services/offerings with a new unique and proprietary name.
Over time, this approach creates a proliferation of names
that can easily result in a catalogue of proprietary names.
These names become increasingly difficult to manage in the
marketplace. This section will help managers to provide a
framework as how to make a case for a new brand name.

*Executive Management Education Professor, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182.

Brand Identities: A Framework for Successful Branding
While establishing a new brand identity or name, executives
should consider the several arguments and make the
determination based on whether there is overwhelming need
for a new name. The decision makers should consider the
following questions before deciding upon the need for a new
name:
• Is there an existing brand name in the corporate portfolio
that can stretch to cover appropriately the new offering?
• If there is no existing brand that is stretchable, will a
new name allow entry into a market that the firm does
not have permission to enter?
• Will new name cause confusion in the marketplace?
• Is there adequate executive support for a new name?
• Is there enough money in the budget to develop market
and protect a new brand name?
• Is the new offering strategically important to drive
purchasing?
There is an undeniable natural inclination to think that new
things require new names, but that is not always the case. In
fact, the 'rush to name' is one of the biggest contributors to
a much greater corporate brand problem - an unruly brand
portfolio. Too often, brand managers' zeal to launch new
brands leads them too quickly to decide in favour of new
names before they carefully consider whether the new
offering would be better off marketed under the name of an
established brand already in the corporate portfolio. For
example, the entry of Adidas into the men's deodorant
category was an extension from athletic wear to a personal
hygiene. This was a stretch for a brand where sweat is a part
of the game. However, Adidas recognized that its high
awareness and high brand rank among men was relevant.
They made the right choice in sticking with the Adidas name
rather than coming up with a new name, which Adidas can
endorse. The decision to market under the Adidas name gave
the new brand immediate credentials and maximum push to
both the retailer and the customer. On the other hand,
Toyota's decision to enter into the luxury brand with a new
name 'Lexus' was an instant hit and provided huge returns
for Toyota's decision. Therefore, it is very important for
decision makers to make the case for a new brand name or
identity before deciding upon it.
The Inhibiting Effect of Brand Name
Meaning
The choice of a brand name is an important means to build
equity (Aaker 1991). According to memory network theory,
brand name can strengthen the association between the brand
and benefits implied by the name (e.g. Diehard, Lean Cuisine,
Newsweek) because each time the brand name is recalled,
the de facto benefits implied by the brand name is also
practised (Keller, Heckler, and Houston 1998; Keller,
Stemthal, and Tybout 2002). In addition, brands with names
that imply a benefit may inhibit consumers' ability to retain
benefit information unrelated to the benefit implied by the
brand name. Essentially, a meaningful brand name reinforces
the link between the brand and the benefit the name implies
47
at the expense of benefits that the name does not imply. The
strength of association between the brand name and the
benefit implied by the brand name becomes so strong that it
inhibits the process of spreading activation to other nodes
in the memory network. This phenomenon is known as output
interference. For example, the name Sunlit for a brand of
laundry may reinforce the benefits 'gets clothes bright', but
may inhibit the ability of consumers to learn specific
information about other brand benefits (e.g. stain removal
properties, gentle on fabrics, etc.).
Therefore as a general guideline, it is better to select brand
names or identities that are neutral in associated benefits of
the brand name when a product has multiple benefits.
However, a product with a single large benefit is
recommended to have a brand that has a high suggestive
meaning associated with the brand name.
Role of Sound Symbolism on Brand
Names
Selecting a brand name for a new product is often the focal
point of introductory marketing programmes. An effective
brand name can enhance awareness and create a favourable
image for the product (Aaker 1991, 1996). Contrarily,
consumers do not respond well to an ineffective name, which
could spell a product's demise. One of the biggest failures
in marketing history is the failure of Ford Edsel brand due
to its name (Hartley 1992). In 1997, the US patent and
trademark office received over 220,000 applications for
trademarks, and the applications have been growing. This
suggests that creating new brands distinguishable from others
is more difficult today than ever.
Klink (2000) conducted a research to study the role of Sound
Symbolism on Brand Names. He concluded that brand
sounds could convey meaning for marketers to better
distinguish their products in an overcrowded marketplace,
and therefore studied the sound effect of vowels and
consonants on brand names. The summary of Klink's study
is shown in the next section ..
Effect of Vowels and Consonants on
Brand Names
While there are a number of ways to classify vowel sounds,
the front/back distinction has long been a focus of sound
symbolism research. The front/back distinction refers to the
location of the highest point of the tongue during
pronunciation. Consider the vowel sounds in the words bee,
bin, bay, bet, ban, cot, home, put, and boot. As one
pronounces the list from left to right, the highest position of
the tongue occurs more towards the front of the mouth for
bee than for bin. Vowel sounds where the highest point of
the tongue is in the front of the mouth are front vowels.
Back vowels are those vowel sounds produced where the
highest point of the tongue is in the back of the mouth.
In addition to vowel sounds, Klink (2000) also studied the
sound effects of consonants on brand names. His research
investigated consonants in four categories. They are stops
(letters p, t, b, d, g, and k); voiceless stops (p, t, and k);
48
voiced stops (b, d, and g); and fricatives (letters f, s, v, and
z). Based on tests conducted, Klink empirically corroborated
the following:
1. Products with brand names containing front vowel sounds
as opposed to back vowel sounds are perceived as smaller,
lighter, milder, thinner, softer, faster, colder, bitterer, more
feminine, friendlier, weaker, lighter, and prettier.
2. Products with brand names containing fricatives (f, s,
v, and z) as opposed to stops (p, t, b, d, g, and k) are
perceived as smaller, faster, lighter, sharper, softer, and
more feminine.
3. Products with brand names containing voiceless stops
(p, t, and k) as opposed to voiced stops (b, d, and g) are
perceived as smaller, faster, lighter, sharper, softer, and
more feminine .
4. Products with brand names containing voiceless
fricatives (f and s) as opposed to voiced fricatives
(v and z) are perceived as smaller, faster, lighter, sharper,
softer, and more feminine.
Therefore, marketing managers can use Klink's study as a
suggestive framework for selecting brand names, when they
need to convey attributes of the product through name. Klink
(2000) also suggests that his theory is more successful when
applied to brand names which are service oriented.
Role of Imagery on Brand Identity
Often, pictures are better remembered than words. This has
been proved by research in both psychology (Paivio 1969)
and marketing (Adidam 1995; Alesandrini 1983; Gardner
and Houston 1986). Paivio (1986) expanded this further to
arrive at the picture superiority effect through the dual coding
theory. This theory presented the role of imagery in
associative learning. Imagery is the visual/non-verbal
memory representations of concrete objects and events or
non-verbal modes of thought in which individuals actively
generate and manipulate such representations. The verbal
and visual systems are functionally independent where one
system can be active without the other or both can be active
in parallel. Summarizing dual coding theory, Paivio has
presented a dual coding hypothesis which suggests that a
concrete word (e.g. EDGE, MUSTANG) would be likely to
generate both verbal and visual memory codes, while an
abstract word (e.g. CREST, FINESSE) would be less likely
to generate a visual code. Similarly, the name 'Rhino Tire
Company' provides added meaning when compared to 'Bell
Tire Company' as it conveys semantic information about
the durability of the brand. Hence, this idea is an important
input for selecting a brand name.
Adidam (1995) used the dual coding theory and found that
a 'high imagery' brand name would store a stronger brand-
product association in the memory node than 'low imagery'
brand name. Also, a brand logo plays an important role in
enhancing brand awareness of the product. In this research
study, he concluded the following:
1. Brand names with high imagery and high fittingness
level would tend to have very high brand recall and
Paradigm
recognition, and are candidates for top of mind
awareness.
2. Brand names having low imagery, but complemented
by a very strong fittingness level would tend to have
higher brand recall than brand recognition.
3. Brand names having low association, but complemented
by a very high imagery would tend to have higher brand
recognition than brand recall.
4. An associative logo would tend to enhance brand
awareness more than a non associated logo.
5. A character/pictorial logo would enhance brand
awareness more than an abstract logo.
The main implications are that the various brand identities
must be mutually reinforcing so that they can interactively
enhance brand awareness, and in tum would enhance brand
equity.
Effects of Brand Name Exposure
Advertisers spend billions of dollars annually on advertising
programmes that do little more than reinforce the brand
name. Simple brand name exposure benefits the brands
largely. Brand name imprinting is a function of brand name
exposure. Brand name imprinting is the process of creating
and strengthening the brand name node in the brand memory
network through brand name exposure. Brand name
imprinting at a time prior to the presentation of specific brand
information will improve the retention of that information
by strengthening the association between the brand name
and brand information. Baker (2003) conducted a research
and proposed that brand names with neutral meaning are
likely to succeed more as they do not carry perceptual
baggage that can interfere with the creation of new
associations of brand name with information. The effects of
brand name exposure are discussed in subsequent
paragraphs.
Brand Name Salience
It is typically defined as brand familiarity through measures
such as recognized speed and order of recall. Brands with
high brand name salience are recognized and recalled more
quickly than other brands. All things equal, a brand that is
recognized more quickly than other brands on a store shelf
is more likely to be purchased. Brand name salience most
likely influences purchases in product categories
characterized by little differentiation (Baker and Lutz 2000).
In other product categories, it is likely to influence brand
consideration directly, but has less impact on brand choice.
Brand Name Habituation
An individual's attitude towards an object is directly
proportional to the number of times the individual is exposed
to that object. Known as the mere exposure effect, it is robust
across a range of attitude objects, exposure environments,
and delay intervals (Bornstein 1989). More recently, mere
exposure of the brand name has shown to influence brand
choice behaviour when consumers perceive brand
alternatives to be similar, or when they are not motivated to
Brand Identities: A Framework for Successful Branding
search for brand differences (Baker 1999). Although brand
name habituation's effect on purchase behaviour may be
similar to that of brand name salience, the process is far
different. Brand name salience is a conscious, explicit effect
of brand name familiarity, one cause of which is brand name
exposure. The mere exposure effect is an automatic effect
of brand name exposure that is not mediated by subjective
perceptions of brand name familiarity (Bornstein 1989). It
is now widely accepted that the mere exposure effect is
mediated by an unconscious habituation response. That is,
the more often an object (brand) is seen, the less threatening
it becomes. As its threat diminishes, it becomes more
approachable and likeable. The habituation effect is not
mediated by subjective perceptions of brand name
familiarity, nor does it require conscious recognition of any
prior exposure to the brand name. This is a key distinction
between this and brand name salience effects.
Brand Name Imprinting
According to memory network theory, knowledge is an
association of nodes and links. Nodes are stored concept of
information. Links connect and relate these nodes to one
another (Anderson 1983; Bargh 1984). The hub of a brand
memory network is the brand name node. For example, brand
information nodes on the brand name McDonald's memory
network may include the associated brand information such
as 'hamburger', 'fries', 'convenient', and so forth. The
activation of brand name node facilitates the conscious
retrieval of brand information nodes linked to the brand name
node. Brand names imprinted and reimprinted on an ongoing
basis should enable the formation of stronger linkage
between the brand name node and information that is
associated to the brand name. Contrarily, insufficient brand
name imprinting may not only weaken brand information
retention, it may also trigger a cycle of inefficient learning
that is difficult to correct.
Brand Identity versus Brand Image
From a communications perspective, the key difference
between brand identity and brand image is that the company
drives brand identity while customers' perception on the
brand is brand image. Brand message is ' packaged' or
'wrapped' in terms of brand identity, and it is 'unpackaged'
or 'unwrapped' by the consumer in the form of brand image.
Identity represents the firm's reality, while image represents
the perception of the consumer.
Brand identity and brand image are products of the
communications environment in which they exist. Brand
loyalty can be created and maintained by strengthening
identity-image linkage. In other words, the gap between
'company realty' and 'consumer perception' has to be
minimized or eliminated. Creation of values for the firm
and the consumers occur only when the consumer
understands and appreciates the brand message. The brand
also has to address consumer needs better than the
competition. In an over communicated marketing
environment, it is very easy for brand identity and brand
image to be out of sync. When this happens, consumers
will move on by ignoring the brand.
49
Need for Powerful Brand Identity for
Superior Performance
The job of establishing a brand identity does not stop after
choosing a good name and associating it with a suitable
imagery. The company has to increase its awareness to
translate the names and imagery into market and financial
performance (Barwise, Higson, Likierman, and Marsh 1989).
This section of the paper explains to a marketing manager
how a powerful brand identity leads to strong financial
performance for the company and superior value for the
customer.
According to Yoo, Donthu, and Lee (2000) and Baldauf,
Cravens, and Binder (2003), brand equity, established
through brand identity, leads to superior value to the customer
and firm. The major focus of their research was to explore
the brand building efforts and the resulting effect on the
dimensions of brand equity. They investigated the effects of
price, store image, distribution intensity, advertising
spending, and price deals on three particular dimensions of
brand equity - perceived quality, brand loyalty, and brand
awareness. Further, Yoo, Donthu, and Lee (2000) proposed
that the three brand equity dimensions are antecedents to
brand profitability and brand sales volume. Thus, a powerful
set of brand identities is a must to have good brand
awareness, perceived quality and brand loyalty, thereby
proving the need for a powerful brand identity to result in
superior financial performance. We next explore these
dimensions in some detail.
Brand Awareness
This is 'the ability for a buyer to recognize or recall that a
brand is a member of a certain product category' (Aaker
1991 ). Brand awareness influences the selection of products
amongst a variety of choices for the customer. As brand
awareness increases, customers purchase more of the
product, which then results into more profits and market
performance for the firm. The value seen by the customer in
the product increases as they purchase more of the product
due to brand awareness.
Perceived Quality
This is another dimension of brand value that compels a
consumer to select a product or service. Product quality is a
firm's essential resource for achieving competitive
advantage. Perceived quality is defined as the consumer's
judgement about a product's overall excellence or superiority
with reference to substitutes. If a firm can continuously
enhance the perceived quality within the minds of consumers,
the result of this effort will directly translate into profits for
the firm.
Brand Loyalty
A deeply held commitment for repeated purchase of a
preferred product or service consistently is called as brand
loyalty. An important characteristic of loyal customers is that
they consistently favour a brand and refrain from switching
to other brands. The first two dimensions of brand equity
make the customer purchase the product initially. However,
50
brand loyalty is what causes the customer to have repeated
purchase, and thereby constantly increase the profitability
and market performance of the firm.
To summarize, the three dimensions of brand equity (brand
awareness, perceived quality, and brand loyalty) are directly
proportional to the results (profitability, market performance,
and customer value). However, a firm needs a distinct and
powerful brand identity as a foundation for establishing these
brand equity dimensions (brand awareness, perceived
quality, and brand loyalty). Therefore, it can be derived that
a powerful brand identity is the foundation for a firm's
sustained profitability and success.
Implications and Guidelines to Establish
a Powerful Set of Brand Identities
We now summarize our discussions by providing a set of
seven pertinent guidelines to brand and marketing managers
on how to establish a powerful set of brand identities. Brand
identity originates from the identity of the company, which
creates a differentiated product with appropriate positioning.
In other words, the four Ps - product, pricing, promotion,
and place - are very important and play a major part in
establishing a brand. Thus,
Guideline 1: The four Ps - product, pricing, promotion, and
place - are the fundamental requirements for any marketing
success, which could be aided well by having a powerful set
of brand identities.
One of the very first steps in having a brand identity is having
a good brand name. A marketing manager needs to make a
case for creating a new name or use an existing name. This
decision should depend on the differentiation and positioning
strategy for the product. Other considerations for making
the decision should be financial strength to support the
marketing initiative and make sure that a new or existing
name used will not affect other brands within the corporate
portfolio of brands. Thus,
Guideline 2: When deciding upon the brand name, make a
decision on using an existing brand name or create a new
one. This decision depends on the differentiation and
positioning strategies, financial strength to support the new
brand name, and the offerings from other brands within the
same company.
Brand names strengthen the association between the brand
and the benefits implied by the name. If the name directly
has a suggestive meaning related to the product, the other
product benefits are generally not recalled. Therefore, it is
recommended to have a suggestive meaning if the product
has single benefit. It is better to have a brand name with
neutral meaning associated with it for products that have
multiple benefits. Generally, services industries are likely
candidates to have more suggestive brand name related to
the benefits offered by the identity. Thus,
Guideline 3: Select brand names that are neutral in associated
benefits and less suggestive when a product has multiple
benefits. However, if a product has a single large benefit, it
is recommended to have a brand name that has a high
suggestive meaning.
Paradigm
The use of vowels and consonants used in brand names
convey the personality of the brands. As you investigate the
list of vowels (a, e, i, o, u), the more use of vowels in the left
of the list for a brand name will depict a personality that is
smaller, lighter, milder, thinner, softer, faster, colder, bitterer,
more feminine, friendlier, weaker, and prettier than vowels
used in the right of the list. Similarly, among consonants the
use of letters (f, s, v, z) in a brand name depict a personality
smaller, lighter, milder, thinner, softer, faster, colder, bitterer,
more feminine, friendlier, weaker, and prettier than the letters
(p, t, b, d, g, k). Thus,
Guideline 4: When choosing a brand name, choosing letters
that make up a brand name creates a personality or image
perception amongst consumers.
It is desired to have a brand name with a logo or imagery
associated with it. This association tends to increase brand
awareness. If a marketing manager desires to have a high
awareness, recognition and recall, the imagery has to be
complemented by a suggestive brand name. A brand name
that is less suggestive with high imagery has higher brand
recognition but lower brand recall. On the other hand, a brand
name with high suggestiveness and low imagery results in
high brand recall than brand recognition. The marketing
manager needs to decide on having a high imagery and
suggestive brand name based on these suggestions and
guideline 3 to arrive at the appropriate strategy. Thus,
Guideline 5: A brand name with an associated logo/imagery
tends to enhance brand awareness more than a non associated
logo. In addition, a brand name with high imagery and high
fittingness level would help in high brand recognition and
recall.
Once the brand name and imagery is established, the brand
name has to be exposed to the customers several times and
imprinted in their brain using appropriate communication
strategy. This would strengthen the association between the
brand name and brand information. A customer's purchase
decision tends to favour the brand if it is familiar through
measures such as speed and order of recall. Thus,
Guideline 6: Influence customer's purchase decision by
exposing and imprinting the brand identity in the consumer's
mind through multiple communication strategies.
While communicating the brand identity to the customer, an
image or perception is formed in the minds of the consumer
based on the content communicated. This perceived image
could differ from the brand identity communicated by the
company. This gap between the communicated brand identity
and perceived brand image has to be shortened for making
the brand identity effective. To bridge this gap, marketing
managers need to focus on differentiation strategies,
understand the choices available to consumers in terms of
information gathering about the brand and its products, study
customer behaviours and rethink their communication
strategies. Thus,
Guideline 7: Form strategies to bridge the gap between the
communicated brand identity and perceived brand image in
the minds of the consumer.
Brand Identities: A Framework for Successful Branding
Conclusion
Extant research papers have discussed topics such as making
a case for new brand names, effects of brand name exposure,
effect of sound in choosing a brand name, benefits of having
good brand identity, and so forth. However, it has been difficult
for brand and marketing managers wanting to have a big
picture on all the elements that lead to developing a good
brand identity, as they had to look at several different papers
to tie all the elements together. Therefore, the goal behind
this research paper was to tie all the good ideas presented
about brand identities from different research studies into one
synopsis paper that would elucidate the elements that create a
good brand identity, and expand further to provide a guideline
for brand and marketing managers to establish a powerful set
of brand identities for successful branding.
The first decision for a brand manager is whether to develop
a new brand name or to extend an existing brand for launching
new products. If a new name is required for a product or service
that has single large benefit, we recommend that the name
needs to be highly suggestive about the benefits offered by
the brand. On the other hand, if the brand offers multiple
benefits, we recommend that the name be less suggestive and
more neutral. A brand name with a highly complementing
imagery has more potential to be successful. The process of
establishing a successful brand does not stop at choosing a
brand name and imagery. Brand awareness has to be increased
in order to establish brand identities in the marketplace, and
this could translate into better financial performance for the
company. Brand awareness could be increased using multiple
communication strategies to imprint the name, logo, and
benefits offered by the brand in the minds of the customers.
While enhancing the brand awareness, a gap could be formed
about what the company tries to communicate through its
marketing strategy and what customers perceive about the
brand. The company has to take all efforts to bridge this gap.
It is in this stage that the company has to combine all its
resources effectively to establish the four Ps to arrive at the
right marketing mix. This effort from the company could
potentially establish a good brand that comprises a powerful
set of brand identities as its foundation.
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