Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Thar coal field of Sindh Province, is the largest coal field of Pakistan having an area of about 9,000 sq. Km. Its coal resources, of all categories, based on the exploratory drilling of 217 holes, are 175, 000 million tonnes ( Ghaznavi, 2002). The maximum of 20 seams have been noted in Thar coal field, however, they varies from place to place. The thickness of coal seams ranges between 0.0 to 22.81 meters, The cumulative coal thickness varies and attained a maximum of 36 meters in one of the borehole, The thickness of overburden varies from 114 to over 200 meters. Geological survey of Pakistan (GSP) selected four selected four specific tracts blocks in this field for systemic evaluation and appraisal of coal resources by drilling on | Km prid pattern. Chemical analysis of the Thar coal samples from the all drill holes show that the weighted average values (on as received basis) of volatile matter range between 26.50 and 33.04%, moisture varies from 43.24 to 49.01%, and heating values fluctuate between 5,780 and 6,398 Bew/tb. On dry basis the heating values fluctuate between 10,723 and 12353 Btu/ Ib (Jalee! et. al. 2002). 1,1 Location and Accessibility The Thar Coal Field (about 140 km by 65 km) is located in the Thar Desert, in the south- castem part of the Sindh province of Pakistan, The Thar Desert of Pakistan is part of a much larger desert of the same name extending to the north and east into Rajasthan, India (Fig.t). The Thar coalfield is located approximately between latitudes 24° 15° to 25° 45° N and longitudes 69° 45° to 70° 45°E’ The whole coalfield is divided into four blocks (Fig.2), of these Block-t is located east and south-east of the town of Islamkot and is the subject of this study, From Karachi a 410 km metalied road leads up to Mithi via Hyderabad-Mirpur Khas- Naukot and Thatta-Badin-Naukot on the western outskiet of the Thar Coal Field. Un- metalled sandy tracts fit only for 4 x 4 vehicles, lead onwards into Thar Coal Field. The rail wack from Karachi to Hyderabad, leads up to Naukot which is abou! 50 km from Mithi1.2 Objectives of Study The objective of this study is summed up in the title namely to establish “Organic Facies, Depositional Environment and Thermal Maturity Modelling of the Thar Coal Field” using coal petrology. For this it was decided to carry out organic petrological studies on the coals and associated coaly sediments from five boreholes from Sinhar Vikian and Varvai sub- blocks of Block —1. It was considered that these studies would be useful in establishing coal facies, basin analysis, and establishment of the environment of deposition as well as some properties associated with the technical applications e.g. power generation of the coal. Under this scheme following studies have been carried out. Potrography of the coal bearing strgta: The coal petrology is being increasingly used to solve geological problems. The use of an organic petrographic microscope allows for yank and facies determinations and to estimate the degree of diagenesis more satisfactorily and more quickly than with mineralogical methods. The organic petrographic work involved the following: 1. Maceyal analysis on polished samples to determine the composition of different coul macerals to help establish coal facies and interpret environment of deposition of the Thar coal. 2. Vitrinite reflectance measurements to determine the ranks of the coal. Organic geochemistry and Rock-Eval pyrolysis of selected coal samples to determine the hydrocarbon potential of the coal. Basin analysis and theraral maturity modelling of the coal field and adjoining areas to assess maturity trend of the Thar Field.Index erovINe. MONROE 28 Panutanaaumar © moa 26 2 Kum 200. 20 vot nH 100 a Fig 1.1. Location map of Thar Coalfield, Sindh, Pakistan (modify afler Khan et al. 1999) 1,3 History of Thar Coalfield Development and Previous Work The discovery of this giant coal field was the culmination of a coal exploration and assessment programme (COAL REAP) involving the Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The first tangible indication that coal is present beneath the sands of the Thar Desert came with drilling of five water wells by the British Overseas Development Agency (ODA) in cooperation with Sindh Arid Zone Development Authority (SAZDA) in [988. Based on the presence of coal in the ODA-2 water well, the USGS/GSP examined and described dril) cuttings from nearbySAZDA wells. Well number Th-5 andT'h-6 were geophysically logged in March 1989 and July 1989 respectively and on the basis of these geophysical logs, it was estimated that the total thickness of coal present in Th-3 was 19m and in Th-6 was 16.1em. In October 1992. a 21-hole exploration programme was initiated to define the magnitude and geographic limits of the Thar Coal field. It was successfully completed in mid-summer, 1993, During the last quarter of 1993 additional ten test holes were drilled by Jhon T. Boyd Company. Coal samples were collected for proximate analysis by the USGS/GSP trom the first twenty-five Thar coalfield test holes. The average analytical values of 315 samples trom 22 bore holes were sulfur 1.57%, ash 8.83%, moisture 48.57% and volalile matter 58.72% (DAF%). Average as received Biu 5333, and specific gravity 1.33 were also determined (Fassett and Durrani, 1994). Most of the work since then has been done is by the Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP), United States Geological Survey (USGS) and in some Master’s level study by students of the Punjab and Karachi universities. The GSP and USGS reports include drilling data, geological and geophysical logging, basinal studies, proximate coal analysis, vank and coal quality, and reserve estimation. Faiga Khan (2001) and Fram Nisar (2001) of Botany Department, Punjab University, Lahore, did the Palynology of SV-10 and SV- 08, respectively. SanFilipo et al, (1992) reported the exploration history of Thar field, including coal fields of Pakistan and the Indian states of Gujrat and Rajisthan. This report also includes proximate coal analysis, coal petrology and Palynology of a few samples Work by Ahmad and Zaigham (1993) provided a good representation of the subsurface ueclogy of the Thar Desert area. Fasset and Durrani (1994) compiled the USGS open file report 94-167, which described the gcology, stratigraphy and geochemical analysis data of twenty-two boreholes, The GSP report LR No. 629 by Khan et al, (1996) is an extension of previous coal exploration programme and concentrated mostly on Sinhar Vikian — Varvai area (Block-1). Very recently an international Energy Agency report by Topper, (2004) discussed the worldwide use of lignite and gave his suggestions about the actions needed to facilitate the use of the Thar coal.7040 70 20 70°30" INDEX I os sce | omnis 0 | | maces a . | mucin . es On 24°50 auto as “ . sy oui , , . ea : Gromioree BBS Jinde jo Tar cr * 2a'a0 aS stock . 2.9) Ste : 12 Dhinkario Matta jo Tar : 0. ; sTe.i2 Fi 5 17 15 Kika \ 2 5 Kilomotars eo . _}24°30 Fig.1.2 Blocks of Thar Coal Field (after Jaleet et. al., 1999). STP = Boreholes drilled between Oct, 93 & Feb. 94, TP = Boreholes drilled between Oct. 92 & mid- summer 93‘The report by Jaieet et al. (1999) is a composite document providing summarized picture of the geology of the deposit based on data obtained from drill holes. This report also discusses the coal quality, coal reserves and geotechnical studies of the sub-surface units 1.4 Methodology of the present study 1.4.1 Sampling Complete cores of the coaly horizons and associated sediments of five boreholes were collected from Geological Survey of Pakistan. More than 100 samples were collected for organic petrology and geochemical analysis from one borehole (SV- 13) from Sinhar Vikian sub block and from four boreholes (VV- 4, VV-12, VV-13 & VV-14) from Varvai sub block (Fig.3). Coal occurs at 143,80m (in borehole VV-12) to 245.28 m (SV-13) depth interval and the average seam thickness is 26.98 m, Samples were packed in polythene bags, marked with borchole numbers and respective sample depths. Efforts were made to sample from all major variations within the coal seams. Out of 102 samples 44 samples were selected for geochemical study.* ahove Jo Ter Mula jo Toe 7 ay Fenn nea eo 4 1 snnannon As» aye . \ Oe 1g 4 SU 8 aga , ase "5 ’ index Apt ni 20 Tae © Bore Holes stud 2 Mc -Won-Gore Bore Hoies (aug: 68 Fob. 2 © sip nore Holes foe. a3" Fan.) + Soteimerte . MurlbJp tor | San 20430 Goth + Kad Jo Goth Ysana aren Fig, 1.3 Map showing the boreholes selected in the present study. The detail litho logs of five boreholes were prepared using Rock works computer programme. The stratigraphic sequence encountered in these boreholes are also correlated (Fig 1.4)Vet Vv-05 SVS VAIS Ved 0 ° 01 Dune Sand ] Dane Sand 56: Dune Sub- Reeent fs Sub- Recent r KEY Recent Bara Fm. Siar Bin, Granite Vig. 1.4 Stratigraphic columns of boreholes VV-04, VV-12, VV13, VV-14 and SV-13, 1.4.2 Laboratory Methods 1.4.2.1 Coal Petrography Organic Petrology iy the branch of Earth Science dealing with the origin, occurrence, struciure aud history of sedimentary organic matter. Petrology is broader in scope than pevography, which is concerned mostly with the description and classification of sedimentary organic matter. Facets of organic petrology have found many applications in fundamental and applied earth scienees. Vitrinite reflectance measurements, for example, are commoniy used in petroleum exploration, coal rank determination, basin modelling, and minerals exploration, Maceral analysis is used in petroleum source rock characterization, blending of coals for coke -making, and interpretation of paleo-depositional environments. Fluorescence microscopy is another commonly used method of characterizing the compositional evolution of sedimentary organic matter, particularly from the standpoint of oil generation during organic maturation,1.4.2.1.1 Preparation of samples for coal petrography Most of the samples were prepared as particulate/ granular section, while few whole coal samptes were also prepared. For particulate sections, specimen was crushed and sieved through ! mm — sized sieve. An appropriate quantity of the crushed fractions between 1 mm and 0.85 mm grain size Was placed in a plastic mould (3 & 4 cm diameter) and was mixed with epoxy resin (one part of hardener to ten parts of araidite) to form the particulates. The particulate was allowed to dry overnight. After the samples were hardened, they Were removed from plastic moulds, If the samples were still soft they were put in the air-steam of the dry-oven at a temperature of 60°C, otherwise they were considered ready for grinding and polishing. For grinding, silicon carbide papers of different grit sizes, fixed on a rotating disc at about 200 rpm speed were used. Particulates were manually ground at four stages on silicon carbide papers of grit numbers 120, 320, 400 and 600, using running water, After grinding samples were polished on wirtz TG 250 machines fitted with rotating holder. Diamond powders of different grain sizes were used as polishing and Sonax oil as lubricant material. The grinding and polishing procedures followed are summarised below. Grinding (Manual) Stage | Wheel Size Lubricant | Pressure | Time Covering T Silicon carbide | Grit 180 Water Manually |” Depending | paper Grit 320 Water Manually | on quality ) 3 ~ Grit 400 Water Manually - 4 . Grit 600 Water Manually Polishing (Manual) Stages | Wheel Covering [| Time | Pressure | Diamond | RMP | Lubricant : Powder T__[Pexmet@iretonicu [Simin | Manually | 2-3 a 200__| Sonax oll IT | same as above- dain | Manually | 1-3. 200 | Sonax oil TM | sameasabove- | 10-ISmin [| 750g | l-3p 200] Sonax oil IV }sameasabove- | 10-ISmin | 750g | 0-05 200 | Sonax oil1.4.2.1,2 Microscopy A Zeiss MPV 3 microscope photometer fitted with a photomultiplier was used for the petrographic work. The photometer head is fitted with an interference filter and a measuring diaphragm. The measuring diaphragm used for reflectance measurements has an adjustable aperture. The microscope was equipped with Hewlett Packard microcomputer and printer. The microscope was equipped with white (halogen) and Auorescent light sources. White light was obtained from a 12V/100W halogen lamp (with stabilized current) while a JOOW ultra high-pressure mercury lamp provided the fluorescent light, The radiation emitted by the ultra high-pressure mercury lamp passed through an exciting filler (BG 12, 2 mm thickness) of ultra-violet + violet + blue light excitation range 330 - 500 nm. & suppression filter K 510 ~ K 530 inserted in the optical path reflected the radiations harmful to the eye. Microscope is attached with a Contax 167MY camera. This is a sophisticated auto-exposure SLR camera feature with a multimode system which is digitally controlled by a high performance CPU. Coflex software program made by Zeiss was used for measuring vitrinite reflectance. Immersion oil used was made by Carl Zeiss (518 C, DIN 58 884, ISO 8036/1 Ne = 1.528 at 23°C) 14.2.1.3 Maceral Analyses Maceral analyses were carried out under the microscope using reflected white tight and, where necessary, reflected fluorescent light with the X10 ocular and the X40 oil immersion objective. At least 500 points on each sample were counted using a mechanical stage and a point counter. The counting involved the macerals, submacerals and mineral matter. The results are expressed in volume percentage of each component (vol %) for V (Vitrinite), L (Liptinite), | (Inertinite) where V + L + F = 100% and V, L, I, M (Mineral matter) where V + L + 1 + M = 100%, (See Stach et al., 1982; and International Handbook of Coal Petrology. 1971, for detailed procedures of maceral analysis). 1,4.2.1.4 Vitrinite Reflectance o Random vitrinite reflectance (Rm %) measurements were made by calibrating against two sets of relerence standards (Gadolinium - Gallium - Granat Nr. 91-59, Ro sso om, ot =1.674%,& Glass, R s46 mm, oa = 0.684%;) using monochromatic (546 nm) non-polarized light in conjunction with a X10 ocular and a X40 oil immersion objective. The reflectance measurements were carried out mostly on ulminite and textinite. Corpohuminite has also been measured because of the scarcity of ulminite and the homogeneity and higher frequency of the occurrence of corpohuminite. 1.4.2.2 Geochemistry and Rock-Eval Pyrolysis For geochemical analysis coal samples were erushed and ground to make powder of 200 mesh for analysis. The total organic carbon % (TOC %) and sulphur % content were determined by LECO CS-244 analyser on as received basis. The content of extractable organic matter was determined using powdered rock samples. The EOM was fractionated into saturated (C)s+), aromatic hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbon (NSO) by Liquid Column Chromatogeaphy on silica gel / aluminum oxide by eluting with n-hexane and dichloromethane, respectively. Saturated hydrocarbon fractions (Cy5+) were analysed by Gas Chromatography but no identifiable peaks were received. For ash and moisture contents ASTM methods D = 3173 and D-3174 were followed. For the determination of genetic potential, Tmax, $1, $2 and $3, the samples were analysed using Rock-Eval Il. Rockival analyzed at Geological and Reservoir Laboratories of Oil and Gas Development Corporation Limited (OGDCL), Istamabad. For Rock-Eval analyses User's Guide manual and guidelines discussed by Sykes and Snowdon (2002) were followed. The geochemical results, source rock potential and its interpretation are presented in chapter 5, 1.4.2.3 Palynology Conventional palynological methods were applied for samples preparation and examination of the palynomorphs. The samples were prepared and studied in the palynological laboratory of the botany department of the Punjab University, Lahore under the direct supervision of Dr. Khan Rass Masood. A brief summary is as follows. Twenty grams (20gm) of the coal / rock sample was crushed to a grain size of >2mm. The samples were first ueated with concentrated HC! for 24 hours; samples were washed thoroughly with distal water, The same process was repeated with hydrofluoric acid (HF). Samples (sample + water) were shifted to test tubes, centrifuged and water was poured out. Heavy liquid (of Zine chloride) was added to the samples in the test tubes, These samples were again centrifuged and the slides were prepared using glycerin jelly. Palynomorphs were identified up to species tevel, Slides were examined under the microscope and photomicrograph of selected palynomorphs were taken