Supplemental Data
Elephants Classify Human Ethnic Groups
by Odor and Garment Color
Lucy A. Bates, Katito N. Sayialel, Norah W. Njiraini,
Cynthia J. Moss, Joyce H. Poole, and Richard W. Byrne
Experimental Procedures
All cloth types used for olfactory testing were 100% cotton, red in
color, and similar in weight. Those used in the Maasai- and un-
worn-cloth conditions were traditional Maasai shukas (shawls; size
approximately 120 cm 3 85 cm; weight 480 g) purchased at the
same time from the same shop. Because it would be impolitic to
ask a Kamba man to wear a Maasai shuka, the cloth presented in
the Kamba trials was a red cotton t-shirt (size approximately 80
cm 3 75 cm; weight 300 g). In comparing reactions to cloth hue,
the comparison stimulus was a white cotton towel (size approxi-
mately 120 cm 3 70 cm; weight 500 g). All cloth types were stored
in the same location prior to the tests.
To ensure that elephants did not react differently to different types
of red garment, we compared reactions upon the presentation of
a clean, unworn red t-shirt and a clean, unworn Maasai shuka by us-
ing a between-subjects design. All variables measured as reactions
to garment odor and color were examined (i.e., time spent station-
ary, travel speed, distance moved away in 5 min, and time to relax).
With log-transformed data, there was no difference in the reactions
to the two red cloth types when neither had been worn (between-
subjects MANOVA, F(4,9) = 0.480, p = 0.751, Wilks l = 0.824).
Two Maasai and two Kamba men were instructed to wear a stim-
ulus garment for 5 days, after which each was collected for use. We
were concerned that the elephants tested should have no familiarity
with the individual men involved. The Maasai men came from a tradi-
tional boma outside of the National Park, and the Kamba men were
employed in the AERP research camp. Three of the elephant groups
tested in the first experiment ranged near this camp; the results re-
mained unchanged when those groups were excluded (within-sub-
jects MANOVA, F(8,50) = 10.188, p < 0.001, Wilks l = 0.145). There
were no inherent differences in reactions between cloths worn by
each of the two Maasai men (between-subjects MANOVA,
F(4,14) = 1.920, p = 0.163, Wilks l = 0.646) or each of the two Kamba
men (between-subjects MANOVA, F(4,14) = 0.211, p = 0.928, Wilks l =
0.943). After use in the experiments, each Maasai or Kamba cloth
was returned to the wearer and exchanged for another that had
been worn over the five previous days. The Maasai and Kamba
men washed the returned cloth in their normal fashion, and then
wore it for 5 days until it was again collected for use. Cloths were
then used in experiments over, at most, a 6 day period. In order to
check whether the human scents dissipated over the course of a se-
ries of trials, we compared the reactions in trials at different intervals
since the cloth was last worn, 1–3 days versus 4–6 days; no differ-
ence was detected (between-subjects MANOVA, F(4,33) = 0.462, p
= 0.763, Wilks l = 0.947). Unworn cloths were used repeatedly unless
they were touched by the elephants, at which point they were
washed by a thorough soaking in warm water without detergent,
rinsed in clean water at least three times, and dried in an open
area before being used again. To minimize any contamination, all
cloths were kept separately between trials in double-layer plastic
bags placed in separate plastic buckets with a lid and stored at least
20 m apart. Experimenters wore latex gloves when handling any of
the cloths.
We were able to present all three types of cloth to 18 elephant
groups, allowing a within-subjects comparison of cloth condition.
One additional group was presented with the two worn cloths, but
we were unable to find this group again to present them with the un-
worn cloth, so the full 19 groups could only be compared in reaction
to the two human scents. The presentation order of the three cloth
types was counterbalanced, and there was no effect of presentation
order on the reactions observed (between-subjects MANOVA,
F(8,26) = 1.097, p = 0.397, Wilks l = 0.559).
Small, single-family groups were used in all trials, and only when
they were stationary (either resting or feeding) or moving slowly.
There was no effect of previous activity (resting, feeding, or moving)
S1
on the reaction to the cloths (between-subjects MANOVA, F(8,100) =
1.215, p = 0.298, Wilks l = 0.831). After finding a suitable test group,
we assessed wind direction by inspecting the movement of grass
vegetation and checked by holding a light cloth out of the stationary
vehicle’s window. Wind direction was noted with an eight-point
compass scale. We then located a suitable clump of vegetation in
a trajectory directly upwind of the elephant group, and placed the
stimulus on the bush (median distance between stimulus cloth and
elephant group, Kamba-worn cloth = 40 m, minimum 30 m, maxi-
mum 100 m; median distance Maasai-worn cloth = 40 m, minimum
30 m, maximum 100 m; median distance unworn cloth = 30 m, min-
imum 20 m, maximum 30 m). The cloth was generally placed closer
to the elephants in the unworn condition so that it could be ensured
that they still noticed this much weaker olfactory stimulus. There
were no consistent differences in the height of the surrounding grass
when the cloth was presented within the three conditions (one-way
analysis of variance [ANOVA], F(2,53) = 0.397, p = 0.675), and the
height of the surrounding grass at presentation (<0.5 m = low
grass, >0.5 m = high grass) did not affect the reaction to the cloths
(between-subjects MANOVA, F(4,51) = 1.366, p = 0.259 Wilks
l = 0.903). Figure S1 demonstrates typical presentations of each
cloth type, with stills taken from the recorded videos. As soon as
the cloth was in position, we drove approximately 100 m away,
perpendicularly to a line between the cloth and the elephant group,
and began filming with a Canon digital video recorder. The filming of
the group continued for at least 10 min after the elephants’ initial
orientation toward the cloth, after which time the cloth was retrieved
and placed back in its storage container. At least 1 week elapsed
between presentations of different stimuli to the same group.
Ethical Considerations
We were concerned about minimizing the potential stress to the el-
ephants from the experimental trials. Each elephant group was only
presented with each garment type once. We did not present any
stimuli to groups that had new-born calves (born in 2007), to groups
in which any individual showed signs of physical injury or illness, or
to any group that was known to have recently endured a stressful
event such as darting for veterinary treatment. Stimuli were not pre-
sented to any group that was in or on the edge of a swamp because
running through mud or water risks injury, and stimuli were always
removed within 15 min from the group’s first reaction. No animals
fell or showed any sign of injury while reacting to experimental stim-
uli. After every trial, we approached the group to ensure that no an-
imal was distressed, using the Amboseli Elephant Research Project
vehicle as normal; in every case, the elephants were calm and re-
laxed by the end of the trial.
Analysis
To categorize elephants’ individual experience, we rated each ele-
phant before experimentation began as having had either personal
experience, if they had been themselves speared or witnessed the
spearing of a dependent calf, or family or bond group experience
if their experience with spearing was more indirect. We divided the
family or bond experience group into individuals from families who
had experienced two or more incidents of spearing in the last 20
years, and those with less than two incidents in the last 20 years.
This gave three categories of experience with spearing, from highest
to lowest. Among families presented with the three cloths, seven
were rated as high experience, six as medium experience, and five
as low experience; the family that only completed two of the three
trials was also rated as low experience.
For each trial conducted, we exacted several variables: (1) We
measured the time elapsed between the elephants’ first noticing
the cloth and moving away. An elephant was taken to have noticed
the cloth when it moved its trunk to orient the tip in the direction
of the cloth, holding the tip of the trunk at least 0.3 m off the ground;
S2

to relax. Relaxation was defined as a change in activity, such as be-

ginning to feed or dust bathe, which are characteristically preceded
by other indicators of relaxation, such as the relaxing of the head and
tail posture and an increase in spread of the group.
All statistical analyses were carried out with Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) v.10, with a = 0.05; all hypotheses
tested were two tailed. Data were tested for normality with the Kol-
mogorov-Smirnov test before parametric tests were applied, and
where necessary, data were log transformed so that compliance
could be ensured. If the assumptions of parametric statistics were
still not met after log transformations were applied, appropriate non-
parametric tests were used on untransformed data.
To avoid the problems of multiple testing when using four mea-
sures of reaction, we employed multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA),
and Bonferroni corrections were applied to any subsequent pairwise
comparisons.

Figure S1. Presentation of Each Cloth Type

The shuka ([A]: Maasai-worn and unworn cloth conditions), t-shirt
([B]: Kamba-worn cloth condition) and white towel ([C]: white, un-
worn cloth condition) were all similar sizes and weights and were
presented in the same way by placement on a bush upwind of the
elephant group.

to consider the group as having moved, all individuals had to move

at least 1 m away from their original locations. (2) We calculated the
travel speed in the first minute after moving by using an estimate of
distance traveled. (3) We estimated the total distance traveled away
from the cloth in the first 5 min after moving. Distances were judged
independently by L.B. and at least one of N.N. and K.S. (interob-
server reliability scores for distance estimation: L.B.:K.S. r = 0.996;
L.B.:N.N. r = 0.993). (4) We measured the time taken for the group