Running head: Investigation on Sites visited 1

Literature Review

Chad King

The Lodge School

STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 2

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

Various activities have been affecting coastal wetlands. The locations being investigated

are Graeme Hall Christ Church and Long Pond St. Andrew Barbados. These Wetlands provide

habitat for many organisms and are being affected by various activities.

PURPOSE OF STUDY:

To investigate the areas of Long Pond St. Andrew and Graeme Hall Christ Church

Barbados over a 3 month period. The positive and negative effects of Activities on the two

Coastal Wetlands will be investigated and the sites will be visited on the 16th of October 2017.

The number of points to be observed on each site will be three points. Each site will be visited

two times 6 weeks apart. On site at each point, at each location, the temperature will be taken,

water samples will be collected, photos will be taken of various activities, flora , fauna and

human activities in the surroundings will be observed. Water quality tests will also be conducted

such as Iron, Cyanide, Copper, Sulphide, Ammonia-Nitrogen, Phosphates, Nitrate and Nitrite

tests. In the lab, the water samples collected will be tested for Conductivity, Turgidity, pH and

free Carbon Dioxide.

STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 3

LITERATURE REVIEW:

Coastal wetlands are wetlands found in watersheds such as marshes, mangrove swamps.

According to (Pendleton, 2008), “Coastal habitats provide ecosystem services essential to people

and the environment.” These services provided by wetlands are flood protection of the upland

areas, erosion control, providing habitats for many species, water quality, recreation and Carbon

sequestration.

In addition, Coastal Wetlands help majorly in water quality, the Wetlands filter out

chemicals from the water before they reach the ocean. Human activities have majorly impacted

Coastal wetlands in Australia. Pollution is one human activity that impacted the Wetlands in

Austrailia which can have a major effect on the Wetlands. Some human activities are

construction, chemical factories and sewage plants. These activities cause pollution of the water

in the Wetlands which harm the aquatic life and affect water quality. Stated by (queensland

Government, 2010-2018) “Many wetlands, particularly those near cities, have been polluted by

human activities. Waterways often carry toxic loads of nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides and

contaminants from previous activities that involved sewage plants, chemical factories, refineries

and industry.” Human activities also cause the change in water chemistry. “The impoundment of

water in reservoirs leads to a number of changes in water quality. Water released from the

bottom or deep layer of an impoundment is characterised by colder temperatures, lower levels of

dissolved oxygen and a build up of toxic substances (queensland Government, 2010-2018). The

water is contaminated from reservoirs in australia as pointed out in the study and harmful

substances are leaked into the water such as sulphates, manganese and other substances.

Also Sewage discharge influences water quality by the increasing nitrate concentration

releasing into the water. This increasing nitrate and lower concentration of other chemicals can
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 4

lead to death of aquatic life, also can lower the oxygen concentration in the Coastal wetlands

causing the loss of habitat for the fish.

However, Residential activities also impact water quality, one way is urbanization. As

urbanization occurs roads, houses and other infrastructures are built. Urbanisation changes water

quality by the construction produces sediment that runs off into the wetlands, This adds polluants

to the water quality. (USEPA 19994B) states “These pollutants may enter wetlands from point

sources or from nonpoint sources. Construction activities are a major source of suspended

sediments that enter wetlands through urban runoff.” Agricultural activities impact water quality

by fertilizers being used on crops , These fertilizers contain phosphates that are transported into

wetlands by rainfall. These fertilizers increase the phosphorus concentration in the Coastal

wetlands which majorly changes water quality. Domestic activities such as the washing of

clothing and vehicles impact the water quality. The detergents used for washing clothing runs off

into the wetlands, these detergents contain phosphate which can lead to eutrophication in the

Coastal wetlands. “high nutrient levels cause extended eutrophication , in particular ,phosphorus

may reach toxic concentrations.” (Ewel 1990). Also The less Dissolved oxygen and more

Phosphates and Nitrates from the various factors overtime cause the process of eutrophication

where algae blooms over the surface of the water blocking all sunlight and at the end of the

process the water becomes anoxic where aquatic life cannot survive.

In wetlands waste water is a factor that changes pH in wetlands, Waste water can

significantly raise the pH of a wetland. “ (Papagiorgio), Waste water is any water altered by

human settlement and can include pool water, sewage water as well as can storm drain water.”

According to (Papagiorgio) “This water has a very low pH, or high acid level, raising the pH of a

wetland.” In wetlands dissolved oxygen concentration ranges from 6-14 mg L. Dissolved oxygen
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 5

is changed by water temperature. Turbidity ranges from 0-110 NTU in coastal wetlands and is

changed by increase of suspended sediments.

STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 6

SOURCES:

Burke, T. (n.d.). Wetlands Of Maryland.

Papagiorgio, N. (n.d.). pH of water in wetlands. Retrieved from Sciencing: https://sciencing.com/factors-

affect-ph-water-wetlands-6723700.html

Pendleton, L. (2008). wetlands. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/coastal-wetlands

queensland Government. (2010-2018). Retrieved from

https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/fisheries/habitats/freshwater-wetlands/human-impacts-on-
wetlands

Tiner, B. (n.d.). Wetlands of Maryland. Retrieved from http://mde.maryland.gov

Johnson,.R.L,.Holman,.S,.Holmquist,.D.D...1999.Water.Quality.
with.CBL..Vernier.Software,.Oregon

Ghaly AE, Ramakrishnan VV (2015) Nitrogen Sources and Cycling in the Ecosystem and its
Role in Air, Water and Soil Pollution: A Critical Review. J Pollut Eff Cont 3:136.
doi:10.4172/2375-4397.1000136
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 7

METHODOLOGY

For this study, various sites were visited points at sites were visited in the Barbados. The
sites visited were Long Pond St. Andrew and Graeme Hall Christ Church. Site 1 and 2 were
visited on the 23rd of October 2017 and sites 3 and 4 were visited on the 5th of February. The
students involved in the study were placed in groups of two to conduct the activities at each site.
The research is divided into qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative is primarily used to gain an understanding of reasons and helps to develop

ideas. Qualitative includes visual coloration, dissolved oxygen, human activities, flora and fauna
observed, water quality, vegetation, inorganic and organic waste. Quantitative is used to quantify
the problem by producing numerical data which can be converted into important statistics.
Quantitative includes Temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity, Turbidity, Ammonia Nitrate and
Free Carbon dioxide.

Test Methods

100ml of water was collected in a beaker. The

thermometer was immersed into the beaker
upright with the bulb inside of the water.

Water sample collection A sample of water was collected into a beaker,

then placed into a plastic

bottle.

The water sample was placed into a test tube then

Visual Coloration
compared against a white background.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 8

One test tube was filled with 5 ml of distilled

Dissolved Oxygen water another test tube was filled with 5ml of
sample water both tubes were then capped. Five
drops of methylene blue solution were placed
into each test tube. The colour change was
recorded every 5 minutes.

A 3ml sample of water was placed in a calibrated

Nitrate – Nitrogen Test
tube. Nitrate Test Sol #1 was added and mixed. 2
level measures of Nitrate Indicator Powder #2
were added and shaken.

Chlorine A Chemplate® cavity was filled approximately

2/3 full of water to be tested. 2 drops of chlorine
Test Solution was added and mixed

Iron A 5ml water sample was measured in the

calibrated tube. 5 drops of Iron Test Sol #1 were
added followed by 1 level spatula of Iron
Indicator Powder.

Copper A Chemplate® cavity was filled with a sample

of the water. 1 drop of Copper Test Sol. #1 was
added and mixed, 2-3 drops of Copper Test Sol.
#2 was added and mixed.

Phosphorus A 5ml water sample was added to a test tube.15

drops of Phosphate Test Sol.#1 was added and
mixed followed by 2-3 drops of Phosphate Test
Sol #2.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 9

3ml of the water sample was added to the test

Sulfates and Sulfides
tube. 3-4 drops of Barium Nitrate solution were
added followed by Hydrochloric acid in excess

Turbidity The tube was rinsed with the sample water to be

tested. The water sample in the container was
swirled or stirred vigorously until it was
homogenous. The tube was observed from a
distance about 10 to 20 centimeters directly over
the tube so that you could see the viewing disk
while the sample was being poured in. Water
was added slowly to the tube until the disk
became harder to see. Water was kept being
added slowly until the pattern on the disc became
hard to see. The viewing disc was watched
closely, and water was added even more slowly.
The pouring stopped as soon as the pattern on the
disc could no longer be seen.

pH The chemplate was rinsed with the water sample

to be tested. 8-10 drops of the water sample to
be tested was placed in the cavity of the
chemplate using a plastic pipette. 1 drop of the
universal Ph indicator was added and mixed
with a plastic spatula. The color immediately
observed in the results table below was recorded
and compared to the color chart from the list
below. These steps were repeated with the
remaining water samples
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES
Electrical Conductivity
Nitrate concentration
Free carbon Dioxide
10
One hundred ml (100ml) of sample water was
placed into a glass beaker. The multimeter was
set to the electrical conductivity setting for
measuring electrical resistance in micro siemens
(µS). The tips of the probes were stuck into the
water so that the probe was completely
immersed. Time for the reading to be stabilized
was allowed and the electrical conductivity value
in µS was recorded
One test strip was dipped into 250ml of a water
sample
The strip was removed and was shook once
briskly to remove excess water
Twenty-Five seconds was waited then the total
nitrate concentration was matched to the chart
The conical flask was rinsed with the water
sample to be tested. 50ml of the water sample
was measured using a measuring cylinder and
the contents were transferred to the 250 cm3
conical flask. 2-3 of the phenolphthalein
indicator was placed in the conical flask and
swirled. The burette was rinsed with the 0.01M
NaOH solution and filled to the zero mark. The
0.01M NaOH was slowly titrated dropwise to the
sample in the conical flask until a light pink
color which persisted indicating the end point.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 11

Ammonia- Nitrogen Ten milliliters (10ml) of water the water

sample was measured in a calibrated tube. One
drop of Ammonia Test Sol.#1 was added into
the water sample and mixed. Eight drops of
Ammonia Test Sol.#2 was added into the
solution and mixed
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 12

Presentation and Analysis

Graph 1 below comparing the average Turbidity at each site.

 Site 1(Long Pond), Site 2 (Graeme hall), Site 3 (Long pond revisited), Site 4 (Graeme
hall revisited)

Average Turbidity at each site

97.3 91.3
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
33.3 Site 4

107.2

From the Chart above, it is observed that the First site visit(site 1, Long Pond) has a lower
average turbidity than the return site vist(site 3,revisit). For the Long Pond sites (site 1 and 3),
Site 1(Long Pond) has the lower average Turbidity value of 91.3 NTU and Site 3(revisit) has the
higher average Turbidity value of 107.2 NTU. For the Graeme Hall sites (site 2 and 4), Site
2(Graeme Hall) has the lower average Turbidity value of 33.3 NTU, and Site 4(revisit) has the
higher average Turbidity value of 97.3 NTU.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 13

Graph 2 below comparing the average pH at each site.

 Site 1(Long Pond), Site 2 (Graeme hall), Site 3 (Long pond revisited), Site 4 (Graeme
hall revisited)

Average pH at each site

9.2
9 9 9
8.8
8.6
pH value

8.4
8.3
8.2
8 8 pH
7.8
7.6
7.4
site 1 site 2 site 3 site 4
Sites

The graph above shows the average pH at each site. The average pH value for site 1(Long Pond)
is 8 and the average pH of site 3(revisit) is 8.3 therefore the alkalinity increased. The average pH
of site 2(Graeme Hall) is 9 and the average of site 4(revisit) is also 9.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 14

Graph 3-

Graph Showing The Average Nitrate Concentration of site 1(Long Pond), site
2(revisit),site 3(Graeme Hall) and site 4(Graeme Hall revisit)

41.66

11.66
Nitrate
concen
tration

site 4
/mg/L

60
13.37 site 3 site 1
40
site 2 site 2
20 3.33
site 3
0 site 1
site 4

Sites

The graph above indicates that site 1(Long Pond) with a value of 3.33 mg/L, has a lower Nitrate
concentration than site 3(revisit) with a value of 11.66mg/L. Also site 2(Graeme Hall) with a
value of 13.37 mg/L, has a lower Nitrate concentration than site 4(revisit) with a value of 41.66
mg/L.

Graph 4-

Graph Showing The Total Average Electrical Conductivity For Long

Pond And Graeme Hall

Graeme Hall (Site 2 & Site 4)

Electica conductivity/µs

Long Pond ( Site1 & Site 3)

0.00
2,000.00
4,000.00
6,000.00
8,000.00
Sites

Graph above showing that the Long Pong sites(1 and 3) with a value of 6,747.52 µs has a higher
electrical conductivity than the Graeme Hall sites(2 and 4) with a value of 379.5µs.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 15

Graph 5-

Average Free Carbon Dioxide Conc. at sites 1(Long

Pond), 2(Graeme Hall),3(L.P Revisit),4(G.H Revisit)
Free Carbon Dioxide conc.

200 145.32 177.52

103.84 105.6 Site 1
mg/L

site 2
0
Site 1 All sites…
site 3
site 2 site 3
site 4 site 4
Sites

The chart above shows that at site 1( Long Pond), the average Free Carbon Dioxide
Concentration was 145.32 mg/L and at site 3(Revisit), the average concentration was 103.84
mg/L. It shows that Site 1 has a higher average concentration than site 3. Also that At site
2(Graeme Hall)), the average Free Carbon Dioxide Concentration was 177.52 mg/L and at site
4(Revisit), the average concentration was 105.60 mg/L. It indicates that site 2 has a higher
concentration value than site 4.

Pie Chart Showing the Free Carbon Dioxide

Concentration Percentages at the 4 sites

Site 4
14% Site 1
29% Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 3
36% Site 4
Site 2
21%
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 16

Graph 6-

Graph Showing The Temperature At The Sites

30.5

30
29.7
29.5

29 Site 1
28.7
28.5 Site 2
Site 3
28
27.7 Site 4
27.5

27 27

26.5
0 1 2 3 4 5

The temperature for Site 1(Long Pond) was 28.7◦C and the temperature for Site 3(Revisit) was
27.7◦C, there was a decrease of 1◦C over the three-month period. Site 2(Graeme Hall) had a
temperature of 29.7◦C and Site 4(Revisit) had a temperature of 27◦C, there was a decrease by
2.7◦C over the 3 month period..
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 17

Tables Showing: Ammonia Nitrogen Concentration results for Sites 1, Site 2, 3 and 4

SITE 1 SITE 3
Ammonia: Pale Pale Pale yellow Pale Yellow Yellow
Nitrogen yellow yellow (+) present yellow (+) present (+)
(+) (+) (+) present
present present present

SITE 2 SITE 4
Ammonia: yellow Yellow Yellow Deep Deep Deep
Nitrogen (+) (+) (+) orange orange orange
present present present high conc high conc High conc
(+) (+) (+)
The tables above shows the colours which indicated the concentration of ammonia-nitrogen at
each site. at site 1( Long Pond), the pale yellow colour present was less intense than at site
3(Revisit), with a yellow colour present. It shows that Site 3 has a higher ammonia-nitrogen
concentration than site 1. Also that At site 2(Graeme Hall)), the yellow colour present is less
intense than at site 4(Revisit), with a higher colour intensity (deep orange). It indicates that site 4
has a higher ammonia-nitrogen concentration value than site 2.

Discussion: The pollution and harms caused by these variables in the study disrupts the natural
Coastal Wetlands in the study. This is indicated by the data collected and observed at the 4 sites.

From the data collected, there are high carbon dioxide concentrations at site 1(Long Pond) of
145.32 mg/L and at site 3(revisit) of 177.52 mg/L and ammonia- nitrate concentrations at site
4(Graeme Hall revisit) there was a deep-orange colour therefore the concentration high. Since
the nitrate concentration is high, the water contents were highly anoxic. At site 4, the sewage
crisis could have added to the colouration of the water.

At site 1(Long Pond) and site 3(revisit), there were human activities such as Businesses such as a
gas station, agriculture and a road which could have also increased the concentration of Nitrates
and Phosphates from fertilisers running into the water which contributed to the suspended
particles, increasing Turbidity also the higher the ammonia-Nitrogen, the higher the carbon
dioxide concentration and the waters conditions became more anoxic.
STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 18

At sites 2(Graeme Hall) and 4(revisit), there were a lot of human activities taking place. These
activities such as Businesses and roads being close to the site caused the runoff of chemicals
such as Phosphate and Nitrates which add to the amount of suspended particles which could also
increase Turbidity in the water. As the results collected indicated Site 4 had a Turbidity of 97.3
NTU because of the increase in suspended particles from the runoff from the sewage crisis in the
area.

The less Dissolved oxygen and more Phosphates and Nitrates from the various factors overtime
cause the process of eutrophication where algae blooms over the surface of the water blocking all
sunlight and at the end of the process the water becomes anoxic where aquatic life cannot
survive. Evidence of this was indicated from the Ammonia-Nitrogen test at site 4(Graeme Hall
revisit) where the colour was Deep-Orange therefore the concentration of Ammmonia-Nitrogen
was very high which means the water was highly anoxic and not at the standard for the survival
of aquatic life.

At site 4(Graeme Hall revisit), the temperature was higher than at site 2(first visit) therefore it
had the lowest value of Carbon DioxideAccording to (Johnson, R.L, Holman, s, Holmquist,
DD),” Temperature affects the ability of water to dissolve Carbon Dioxide.” The temperature
also affects the pH of the water, the higher the temperature the lower the pH would be.
According to (west lab),”pH decrease with the increase in temperature.”

Nitrates and Phosphates also affect the pH of water. The pH at each site ranged from 8 to 9. On
the pH scale, a pH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic and above 7 is alkaline. The average pH at
each site is in the alkaline region of the pH scale and is determined that the Nitrates and
Phosphates keep the pH of the water relatively balanced.

Conclusion: The Human activities have indeed affected Graeme Hall and Long Pond over the 3
month period. The Factors and variables which led to the discovery of the impacts of the Human
activities were pH levels, visual colouration, Ammonia-Nitrogen, Turbidity, electrical
conductivity and Free Carbon Dioxide concentration. Overtime at Long Pond, there was an
increase in pH by 0.8. For Graeme Hall, there was no increase. Overtime at Long Pond, there
was an increase in Nitrate concentration of 8.33mg/L and an increase at Graeme Hall of 28.29
mg/L. The Turbidity at Long Pond increased overtime by 16 NTU and Graeme Hall had an
increase by 64 NTU. Overall site 4 had the highest overall impact because this site was the
greatest site impacted as indicated by the study. The study shows it has the most amount of
human activities, ammonia-Nitrogen concentration and turbidity also the site was close to a
sewage crisis.
 STUDY OF VARIOUS SITES 19

Recommendations:

Based on the ammonia Nitrogen results, better sewage management should be put into place.

Stricter laws should be put in place for dumping and runoffs from Human activities (Businesses)

The areas of Long Pond and Graeme Hall should be monitored to acquire and maintain a
optimum Wetland.

Bibliography:

Papagiorgio, N. (n.d.). pH of water in wetlands. Retrieved from Sciencing: https://sciencing.com/factors-

affect-ph-water-wetlands-6723700.html

Pendleton, L. (2008). wetlands. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/coastal-wetlands

queensland Government. (2010-2018). Retrieved from

https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/fisheries/habitats/freshwater-wetlands/human-impacts-on-wetlands
Johnson,.R.L,.Holman,.S,.Holmquist,.D.D...1999.Water.Quality.
with.CBL..Vernier.Software,.Oregon

Ghaly AE, Ramakrishnan VV (2015) Nitrogen Sources and Cycling in the Ecosystem and its
Role in Air, Water and Soil Pollution: A Critical Review. J Pollut Eff Cont 3:136.
doi:10.4172/2375-4397.1000136