2013 Fall Manual PDF

Geology 101
Lab Manual
Quartz Crystals
Quartz is a common component of all rock types. We will explore rocks
and minerals in weeks 2 through 5.
Geology Department
Western Washington University
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
Acknowledgments 2
Introduction and Important Information 3
How to Use Google Earth 7
Academic Integrity 8
Lab #1: Plate Tectonics 11
Introduction to Rock Cycle 27
Lab #2: Igneous Rocks 31
Lab #3: Sedimentary Rocks and Depositional Environments 47
Lab #4: Metamorphic Rocks 67
Lab #5: Rock Quiz and Campus Field Trip 79
Lab #6: Streams, Coastlines & Groundwater 85
Lab #7: Geologic Hazards in Whatcom County 97
Lab #8: Geology of Washington 107
Lab #9: Comprehensive Lab Quiz Study Guide 117
Rocks Identification Charts 119
Mineral Identification Tables 121
1
Acknowledgments
This lab manual is an evolving project that began Fall Quarter, 2000, written and compiled by faculty and
graduate students of the Geology Department at Western Washington University. Primary contributors are Terri
Plake, Geology 101 Instructors, Erik Bilderback, Chris Houck, Dave Tucker, Michelle Malone and all Geology
Teaching Assistants. Others who have provided significantly to this project are George Mustoe, Scott and Marca
Babcock, Dan Bunk, Katie Callahan, Andrew Greene, Pete Stelling, Gerry Greisel, Casey Hannell, and Paul
Thomas. Scott Linneman provided ideas and inspiration. Portions of several labs were modified from the Geology
Lab Manual of the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota, and a geology lab manual
from Lewis-Clark State College. The plate tectonics lab was modified from an exercise written by Dale S. Sawyer,
Rice University. Thank you to George Mustoe who has provided advice and technical support over many years. In
addition, we have benefited greatly from comments and suggestions made by the teaching assistants and students
of the Geology 101 labs. We thank you!
By no means is this manual finished. If you have any comments or suggestions, we would appreciate
hearing from you.
Geology Department
Western Washington University
August, 2001
Revised continuously through September, 2013
Figure 1. Gneiss with granite and pegmatite dikes cutting across it, Laxford, England. Image source: http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk.
2
Introduction
The purpose of Geology 101 Lab is to give you
hands-on practice in the application of geologic principles.
Geology 101 lab gives you the opportunity to develop skills
of observation, and to see the Earth in new ways. In this lab
you will take a closer look at what the Earth is made of, what
processes form our landscapes, what changes are taking
place during your life time, what changes could take place in
the future. You will learn to make reasonable interpretations
from your observations. This lab manual will start with a big
picture of the Earth and then zoom in. As a class, we will:
• Examine plate tectonics and Earth’s features. Plate

tectonics provides a framework in which to study and
understand the interrelationship of all Earth Systems.
• Examine the materials of which our planet is made.
Each rock has a story to tell that you will learn to read.
• Examine landscapes produced and modified by physical
processes of erosion and deposition in river, glacial,
shoreline systems. These landscapes are represented on
topographic maps. Map reading skills will enhance your
life in many ways, having many practical applications,
from land ownership, water well locations, and enjoyment
Figure 2. A student climbing to get a better look at the of outdoor activities.
gravels in Alaska.Image source: Pete Stelling.
You should supplement this lab manual with your textbook where you can find glossy colored photographs and
diagrams. We recommend that you bring your textbook to each lab session to use as a handy reference.
Each lab exercise follows this format:
Warm-Up Quiz: This is done on the Canvas page for the geology lab (not on your lecture class Canvas page).
This must be completed by 11:55 PM the night before your lab. The quiz covers material from the upcoming lab,
as well as short review from the previous lab, and is designed to prepare you for the lab work to be completed
during class.
ConcepTest: A ConcepTest will be given at the beginning of each lab period. These assessments are not graded,
but may be used to determine attendance. The ConcepTests are challenging and designed to determine what you
already know about the subjects we’ll be dicussing in lab.
Objectives: A list of concepts and skills to learn and master.
Materials: What you will need to bring to lab.
Background information: Information necessary to complete the lab.
Lab Activities: Hands-on activities and questions designed to help you to

practice geology (require a TA check).
Homework: To be turned in at the beginning of next lab. Figure 3. A sample of fluorite, a mineral.
Image source: Rob Lavinsky, www.irocks.
com.
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Tips for Success
• Organize this lab manual and your lab notes in a 3-ring

binder.
• Prepare before you come to lab. You need to come to lab
knowing what you are going to do. You will finish the
In-Class activities during the lab session if you take the
time to figure out what you are going to do in lab.
• Expect to spend time outside of lab time to complete
the activities. The better prepared you are before lab,
the more you can accomplish within the lab period. The
labs are designed so that a well-prepared student should
be able to finish most activities during lab, with only
one or two Homework problems to finish outside of lab. Figure 4. A cutaway view of the Earth, exposing the internal
• Read your lab manual and complete the pre lab structure. Image source: http://www.gkbasic.com.
worksheet.
• Refer often to your lecture textbook, it contains useful colored pictures and excellent diagrams.
• Mastering new skills (e.g. identifying rocks or reading topographic maps) takes practice - Like learning to ride
a bike, you may skin your knees a few time, but then once learned, you don't forget.
• You are encouraged to work in groups. However, you are required to turn in your own work, as you will be
graded for individual work.
• Form study groups with your friends.
• If your eyes are open, you will begin to see geology every where you go.
Figure 5. A cartoon diagram depicting the rock cycle, an essential concept in geology. Image source:
http://www.geolsoc.org.uk.
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The Process of Science
Geology 101 strives to teach you the process of science. There are many ways in which science is practiced,
and this lab will explore many of these throughout the quarter. Notice that every week will be doing science,
but not every lab will include an experiment, or even a hypothesis to test. Description, experimentation, creating
models of nature, and comparisons are all valid ways of gathering new scientific data. What you do with the data
is the most important part.
Before each lab of the quarter:
• Please read through each lab completely in the lab manual (including maps and questions).
• Complete the online Warm-Up Quiz before coming to class. Warm-up quizzes are based on the material
learned in the previous week’s lab and the information in the upcoming lab. Warm-up quizzes can be found in the
Modules section of the Canvas web page for the geology lab course. Each quiz is listed under the corresponding
lab. Access the Canvas site by:
- Go to www.wwu.edu (WWU homepage).
- Under the Technology heading, go to the My Western link.
- Log in using your universal User Name and Password. If you do not have a User Name and Password
set up yet, go to the ATUS office on the first floor of Haggard Hall (use the entrance by the fountain in Red
Square, not the library entrance).
- To access Canvas, click on the Canvas link (located on the top bar of the page, next to Web4U).
- All of your Canvas courses should be listed on the Canvas page. This course is listed as Geology 101
Lab (make sure you know which is your lab page and which is your lecture page).
Figure 6. A Laguna, CA neighborhood after a landslide. Where do you want to build your house?
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Lab Activities
A important note about the time required to complete lab activities:
Lab activities have been divided into In-Class and Homework sections. The In-Class activities use
materials that are only available in class, and your answers to these sections will be graded by your TA before
you leave the lab room. The Homework activities are intended for you to complete after you have finished the
In-Class activities - you are welcome to work on them in lab if you still have time. Homework will include short
answer questions that are based on material from your In-Class activities, textbook, lecture, lab manual, and/or
online resources.
There are several labs that include Google Earth activities. Google Earth is available in all ATUS computer labs
on campus, and is free to download if you’d like to work on your own computer (http://www.google.com/earth/
index.html). If you are new to Google Earth, refer to the next page for instructions. Don’t be surprised if you need
to come back to the lab to complete a lab exercise. Some labs will take you longer than others. If you pre-read
every lab, you will be more likely to complete the lab during the 2 hour lab period.
Figure 7. An image of the May 18, 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. Image source: Rob Krimmel, www.usgs.gov.
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How to Use Google Earth
There will be several labs that include questions based on using Google Earth. This is a Virtual Globe
program that installed on all ATUS computers on campus and is free to download at http://www.google.com/
earth/index.html. If you are unfamiliar with Google Earth, Google provides several online tutorials explaining
how to navigate and use various tools in Google Earth (for the full series of beginner tutorials, see http://www.
google.com/earth/learn/beginner.html).
Below is a screen shot that highlights several important elements of Google Earth that you’ll be asked to use in
some lab questions. If you have questions, ask your TA or consult the Google Earth tutorials
Tools Menu: where the Places Panel: where downloaded

options menu is located. placemarks will appear. Ruler Tool Navigation Tools
Layers Panel: also

include geographic web Eye (Camera)
layers. Scale Bar Latitude/Longitude/Elevation Elevation
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Academic Integrity
http://www.wwu.edu/integrity
Integrity is a core value at Western, and is an essential component of being a Western student, staff or
faculty member. Academic integrity is more than not cheating, and it is certainly not limited to plagiarism, as is
often misunderstood. Integrity is choosing the honorable option because it is for self-betterment, not because you
are afraid of getting caught.
A liberal education requires you to expand your mind and broaden your understanding of the world beyond a
single professional goal. Here at WWU students are encouraged to explore a variety of disciplines. In the words
of Dr. Charles Sylvester (WWU PEHR Dept.), “a liberal education will help you connect seemingly disparate
disciplines, and find connections between arts, sciences, humanities, and skills.”
What does this mean for this course? Even if you do not intend to be a geologist, you can benefit from learning
how the Earth formed, how it works, and how humans interact with and affect it. Practicing integrity means
challenging yourself, striving for excellence, taking risks, learning from your mistakes, doing your own work,
and giving credit whenever you use the work of others. Completing the course activities on your own is the best
way to expand your knowledge and understanding of the world. If you have questions about academic integrity
regarding yourself or your classmates, please talk to your TA or professor.
Additional information on academic integrity can be found on WWU’s Integrity Webpage: www.wwu.edu/
integrity. This webpage provides all the information you need, including the importance of integrity, how to
promote it, as well as types of academic dishonesty and how to avoid them. It also includes WWU’s policy and
procedures on academic honesty (appendix D of the WWU Catalog).
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Lab partners:__________________ ________________________ Name: __________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
ConcepTest
Each week we will begin lab by answering questions on key concepts from this week’s reading and the previous
week’s lab. These questions are not graded, but will be used as attendance. Once you complete the lab, answer
the questions on the back page of the ConcepTest and compare your initial thoughts to what you have learned
since.
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Small Group Answers Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:

Now that you have completed this week’s lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that you’ve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the “initial thoughts” box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now we’re going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
What aspects of this lab were the most confusing to you?
Other comments about the lab?

Lab 1: Plate Tectonics
Lab #1: Plate Tectonics
The purpose of today’s lab is to investigate the nature of plate boundaries using scientific data that are
compiled on various types of maps. The maps plot the locations of volcanoes, earthquakes, ages of the sea floor,
and topographic features (mountain chains, trenches, island chains, etc.). The plotted data displays patterns and
trends that can be used to determine the locations and types of plate boundaries.
Objectives
1) Learn methods of scientific inquiry, how to “do” science.
2) Look at maps that show various types of scientific data, locations of volcanoes, earthquakes, topography, and
age of oceanic crust. Look for patterns in the plotted data.
3) Use the observations to make reasonable interpretations about plate boundaries and the interactions between
plates.
4) Present your findings to a group of your peers and then compile your findings to make interpretations about
plate boundaries.
5) Work in groups to answer questions about the Earth and global plate tectonics.
Materials
Pencil (no pens) Colored Pencils
Testbook Ruler
Calculator
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today, requires a TA check)

Activity 1: Plate boundary location
Activity 2: Geologic profession maps
Activity 3: Characterizing boundary types
Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)

Activities on pages 17-20
Plate Tectonics
The suggestion that the positions of the continents have shifted through time is a relatively old idea that
dates to the first maps of the New World’s coastline. Early naturalists quickly noted the jigsaw fit between the
eastern coastline of the Americas and the western coastlines of Eurasia and Africa. The idea or hypothesis that the
continents have moved was eventually called continental drift.
In contrast, plate tectonics is a more recent theory that describes how the continents have moved. The plate
tectonics theory is one of the most important and far-reaching theories in geology. It is based on an investigation
of the sea floor using technology that was not available until the 1960’s to 1970’s. The basic concept of plate
tectonics is that the Earth’s rigid lithosphere is broken into about a dozen large and other small plates. The plates
move relative to one another. A critical aspect of plate tectonic theory is the recognition that the continents do
not shift as isolated landmasses, but that most plates are made of both continental and oceanic portions that
move as a single unit. The interaction of these plates with one another is largely limited to their edges, called
plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are the most active areas of the Earth’s surface. The majority of the Earth’s
volcanoes, earthquakes, and regions of mountain building occur at or near plate boundaries. Plate boundaries fall
into three major categories that depend on the relative motion of the adjacent plates:
Divergent (move apart) Convergent (move together) Transform (slide sideways)
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In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Tectonics Research Group

Assemble into groups of four.
1. First, get to know your colleagues. Introduce yourselves and say something about:
• Your major or intended major
• Why you are taking geology
• Where you are from and where you live now
• Share one thing that you are good at
2. Each member of your group picks a location. Choose from:

• Japan
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge
• Northern India
• San Andreas Fault
Activity 2: Find Your Location

You will become the expert about your location. When you return to your group, you will teach your group
about your location data patterns, and what the data tells you about the nature of your plate boundary.
1. First examine the data patterns shown on each map in a global context, then concentrate on the plate boundaries
listed on the chart. See hints on the bottom of this page for ideas about what to look for specifically for each map.
With the patterns of data you observe, complete the chart on pg. 14 in pencil. The first plate boundary type has
been completed as an example.
Hint: To understand what your map says, look for patterns (especially for symmetry, asymmetry, and completeness)
in the data. You must look carefully to see details. Make a list of your observations on your specialty map as you
discuss them.
• Seismology (earthquakes)
− Determine the earthquakes’ epicenter depth:
∙ Is the epicenter shallow? Intermediate? Deep? More than one depth?
∙ Do you see any patterns?
• Volcanology
− Look at the geographic distribution of volcanoes, as well as their relation to plate boundaries.
− Note that some volcanic chains occur on continents, some on oceanic islands, and some in ocean basins.
− Are the volcanoes oriented parallel or perpendicular to adjacent plates?
• Geography
− Note areas of high elevation vs. low elevation.
− Which are higher elevation, continental land masses or oceanic basins? Be sure to use the scale.
• Geochronology (geologic ages)
− What do the colors represent on this map?
− What is the age distribution of oceanic crust?
− Relative to the continents, where is the oldest oceanic crust? What is the relationship between oceanic
crust age and boundary type?
∙ If there is no correlation between age and boundary type, be sure to state “no correlation.”

Tip: A black and white copy of each map is included at the end of this lab.
Be sure to review each map and the above hints for the final exam.
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Activity 3: Reassemble Tectonics Research Groups
1. Discuss the findings from each locality. Go to the appropriate specialty map during the discussion. Determine
how each specialty data can help distinguish between different types of plate boundaries based on the patterns
observed.
Step 1:
Complete the chart on pg. 14 in pencil with your group members’ observations.
Step 2:
Come up with a hypothesis about the appropriate plate boundary type for each group of boundaries
based on you observations and discussion. Fill in the boundary type names (divergent, transform or
convergent) in the appropriate blanks on your chart.
Step 3:
Go to the Plate Boundary Map on pg. 15, use the appropriate symbols to show relative motions
along the five plate boundaries listed on the chart (it is not necessary to label all the plate boundaries
on the map).
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Step 1: Analyze the data from your location from each map Step 2:
(complete using specialty hint on pg. 12, then teach your group members about your location when you regroup)
GEOGRAPHY GEOCHRONOLOGY What type of plate

LOCATIONS VOLCANOLOGY SEISMOLOGY Data: Rock ages in Millions of
Data: elevation in meters Data: volcanoes above water Data: Earthquake hypocenters boundary is this?
years
Associated geographic features Are volcanoes present in Is there a pattern to Are there patterns to the
(trench, mountain chain, island each of the boundaries? earthquake locations? Depth? relative ages of crust? Describe.
chain) and their locations Where? Describe. Describe.
Deep ocean (trench) on plate Volcanoes form a north- EQ’s go from shallow depth Youngest sea floor on west (these are three variations
Oceanic-Continental
boundary, high mountains south chain east of the plate on west edge of SA plate, edge of Nazca Plate, oldest of this type of boundary,
(example:
on continent inland of plate boundary + a few scattered get deeper further inland (to near plate boundary with SA depending on the types of
west coast of S. Am.)
boundary on oceanic plate east) plate interacting crust)
Oceanic-oceanic
Japan
Continental-
continental
Northern India
Mid-Atlantic ridge
Why is there no oceanic crust

older than 180 million Years?
San Andreas Fault in

California
TA CHECK _____________
Step 3: Go to the chart locations and draw the appropriate symbol for each boundary on this map
Map
Symbols
Convergent
pppppp
(with saw teeth
pointing toward
the overriding
plate)
Divergent
Transform
TA CHECK _____________
15
Use this page for notes, drawings, or comments that might help you answer the homework section later.
16
Homework Activities
The rest of this lab may be completed in lab or outside of lab. You may find that working on these
questions while the TA is in the room can be a big advantage. Keep in mind that some questions will require
computers that are not available in the lab room.
Activity 1: Plate Boundaries

This activity of the lab is organized by plate boundary type. For each type, first draw the plate boundary, then
answer the questions that follow. Be sure to include:
• Symbols for earthquakes at different depths (different symbols for deep, medium and shallow if needed)
• Label important topographic features (such as volcanoes, mountains, trenches, mid-ocean ridges, etc.)
• Label where the older (O) and younger (Y) sea floor is located only if known
• Arrows indicating the direction of plate motion
• If you used any of your own symbols, add them to the symbol key below
I. Convergent Boundaries
(Draw the cross sections in the rectangles below)
(Continental-Oceanic)
Symbol Key
trench mountain range/
Y OY volcano Y younger ocean crust
O older ocean crust
**
* *

shallow earthquakes
A cross section of one deep earthquakes
type of convergent
boundary has been done direction of plate motion
for you as an example.
(Oceanic-Oceanic) (Continental-Continental)
1. Oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary questions
a. In which plate do earthquakes occur (subducting/overriding/both)? ________________________________
b. What happens to earthquake depths as you move inland in a subduction zone? ______________________
c. Where do volcanoes occur in a subduction zone? Are they right on top of the plate boundary, inland of the
plate boundary on the overriding plate, or inland of the boundary on the subducting plate? Circle one.
d. Why do volcanoes occur there? Describe in detail. _____________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________
e. What physical property of oceanic lithosphere makes it able to subduct/sink at convergent boundaries?
________________________________________________________________________________________
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2. Continental-continental convergent boundary questions
a. At these boundaries, are earthquakes shallow, deep or both? ____________________________________
b. Are there a lot, a few, or no volcanoes associated with these boundaries? __________________________
II. Divergent Boundaries (Oceanic-Oceanic)

(Draw the cross section below; use the same symbols as before)
3. Why is the youngest oceanic crust found near the divergent plate boundaries?__________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What properties of divergent boundaries cause it to form ridges of higher elevation than the rest of the ocean
floor? _____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Now mentally close up the Atlantic ocean by “reversing” the plate movement along the transform faults (at
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). This is what the world looked like about 180 million years ago. What country or con-
tinent was adjacent to Boston before the Atlantic opened? ________________________________________
III. Transform Boundaries

(Draw a map view below; use the same symbols as before)
6. Describe earthquake locations and depths at transform boundaries. What do you think causes earthquakes at
these plate boundaries? Why is the pattern different than at convergent boundaries?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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Activity 2: Google Earth questions
For this activity, you will need to use Google Earth software, which is on all ATUS computer labs at WWU. If
you’d like to load this software on your own computer, it is free to download at http://www.google.com/earth/
index.html.
Use Google Earth to open some files to aid our investigation of plate tectonics. Open the Canvas page for this lab
and go to Modules 1 Lab 1 1 Lab 1 - Plate Tectonics.kmz. Now look at Google Earth and you’ll see the plate
names and boundaries colored by boundary type.
1. Fly to the Atlantic ocean (use the search box).
a. What kind of plate boundary runs the length of the Atlantic ocean? ________________________________
b. Next, fly to Iceland (use the search box again). Considering your answer to the previous question, what do
you think has been happening in Iceland, and will continue to happen? ______________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
What effect might this have on the size of Iceland? _______________________________________________
2. Zoom out and look at the entire globe. Notice that some plates have continents and some do not. Can a single
plate have both oceanic and continental parts? ____________________________________________________
a. Name two plates that support your answer. ______________________ _________________________

3. Turn on the Volcanoes layer (Layers window 1 Gallery 1 Volcanoes) in Google Earth. Now fly to western
Washington State so that you can see the plate boundaries. Note that all three boundary types are present just
offshore.
The volcanoes in the Cascade Range are the result of subduction. In this particular subduction zone water is car-
ried down with the subducting plate, causing the mantle to melt and create magma. Melting happens at a depth of
around 100 km.
The distance between the trench (the plate boundary) and the volcanic arc (e.g. Cascades) is called the arc-trench
gap. The arc-trench gap helps us determine whether a subduction zone is steep or shallow. A wide arc-trench gap
indicates a shallow subduction zone, whereas a narrow arc-trench gap indicates a steep subduction zone. The arc-
trench gap is measured from the peak of a volcano directly across the horizon to the trench.
a. Using the Google Earth ruler tool (see pg. 7), what is the arc-trench gap for Mt. Rainier? ______________km
b. Now investigate Nicaragua. What is the arc-trench gap for Masaya volcano? _______________ km
c. In the boxes below, sketch the cross sections for the two subduction zones for which you measures the arc-
trench gap. On the vertical axis, use 0 km for the Earth’s surface. Plot the trench at 0 km, 0 km (•). Remember,
the trench is located where the two plates meet. Label the trench (T), the zone of melting (M), and the location
of the volcano (V).
Mt. Rainier, WA, USA Masaya volcano, Managua, Nicaragua
100 100
0 km • 0 km •
-50 -50
-100 -100
-100 0 km 100 200 300 -100 0 km 100 200 300

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d. Now fly to the Krakatau volcano just northwest of Jakarta, Indonesia (search for Krakatoa and look for the
nearest volcano). Measure and write down the arc-trench gap here (be sure you aren’t measuring the distance
to the nearby transform boundary). How does this subduction zone compare to the Cascasdes and Central
America?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Find India on the plate boundary and scientific specialty maps.
a. The Indian plate collided with Eurasia approximately 45 million years ago. Curiously enough, India did not
simply stop after the onset of the initial collision. Over the last 45 million years, India has continued to plow
into Asia at the remarkable rate of about 5 cm/year! How many kilometers has India pushed its way into Asia
in the last 45 million years? Show all work for your calculations (no calculations, no credit).
1 km = 1000m 1 m = 100 cm

_______________km
b. What outstanding topographic feature do you think resulted from this collision? _____________________
c. Let’s put that distance into perspective. Imagine that a change in the plate tectonic environment of Washing-
ton State caused it to plow its way eastward as far as India has advanced into Asia since the collision. What state
or region would be Washington’s eastern most neighbor (instead of Idaho)? Use the Google Earth measuring
tool to help you. __________________________________________________________________________
5. Find California on the plate boundary and scientific specialty maps.
a. Los Angeles is on the west side of the San Andreas transform fault system. Movement along the fault is car-
rying LA northwest (with respect to North America) at an average rate of approximately 3.2 cm/year. Assum-
ing that the motion will continue in the same direction and at the same rate for the next few hundred million
years, how many kilometers will Los Angeles have traveled in 27 million years? Again, show all work for your
calculation.
_______________km
b. Assuming the Pacific Plate continues to move northwest, carrying Los Angeles with it, which state might LA
collide after it travels about 3,500 km? Be as specific as you can.
________________________________________________________________________________________
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21
22
Note that the volcanology map only shows volcanoes that rise above sea level! Many more volcanic vents are found on the sea bottom. They
generally correspond in location to the regions of sea floor seismic activity shown on that specialty map. Note changes on the large specialty map
posted in your lab. Also, note the inset box for the San Andreas fault region - the volcanoes do not occur on the San Andreas fault itself, but occur
more inland (toward the center of the conitnent).
23
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Legend in
Millions of Years
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:


Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle
Every Rock Tells a Story
Identifying rocks is an acquired skill. To obtain these skills you must make careful observations and describe
the properties that define the rock, such as composition and texture. Based on those properties, interpretations are
made about how the rock formed. In most cases, with some exceptions, we rarely witness the actual formation
of rocks. One such exception is the formation of volcanic rock from the crystallization of lava. Some of you may
have been lucky enough to have seen rocks form at Kilauea volcano in Hawai’i.
The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle (Fig.1) is a conceptual summary of rock forming processes that occur within Earth and on
Earth’s surface. The three main rock types illustrated in the rock cycle (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic)
form through very specific geologic processes. Furthermore, through weathering, lithification, metamorphism,
melting, or crystallization, one type of rock can alter into another. In other words, rocks are recycled and formed
into other rocks.
Rock type: General processes

Igneous Crystallization of molten rock (magma)
Sedimentary Weathering of pre existing rocks, deposition and lithification of sediments
Metamorphic Pre-existing rocks subjected to increases in pressure and/or temperature, changing
their form in the solid state (meta = change, morph = form)
Figure 1. The Rock Cycle.

The shaded boxes highlight the three
main types of rock. Image source:
http://www.scienceviews.com.
27
Rock Cycle
Rock vs. Mineral
Rocks are made of aggregates of one or more minerals or biochemical components (such as plants or fossils).
In geology, a mineral has a very specific definition. A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid
with a fixed chemical formula. Minerals have a set of diagnostic physical properties that can be used to identify
the minerals, for example:
• Hardness (resistance to scratching)
• Cleavage (a mineral’s tendency to break along preferred planes of weakness)*
• Fracture (how a mineral breaks not along preffered planes of weakness)*
• Effervescence in hydrochloric acid
• Taste *A mineral can have both
• Magnetism cleavage and fracture, but
• Color (a very poor distinguishing property) some only have fracture.
Examples of minerals are: quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, calcite, and halite.
Granite is an igneous rock typically composed of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Schist is a metamorphic rock typically composed of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Shale is a sedimentary rock typically composed of clay minerals.
Coal is another sedimentary rock composed entirely of carbon that was derived from plant material.
Identifying Rocks
I. Texture
Hint: For most of us, the texture means the feel or appearance of the surface of an object; whether it has a rough
or smooth surface. In geology, the texture of a rock refers to the characteristics of the material that makes up
the rock, as opposed to the feel of the outer surface.
Rock texture is the size of the minerals (or fragments), their shape, and how they are stuck together. The
texture helps determine the origin of the rock (Fig. 2). The texture of the rock is perhaps the most important tool
used to determine whether the origin of a rock is igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. The texture reflects the
geologic processes involved in the formation of the rock.
Key rock-identifying observations:
1. Size of the mineral (or fragment) constituents that make up the rock
Can you see the minerals/grains with your naked eye, or do you need a microscope?
Are particles all the same size or a mixture of different sizes?
2. Arrangement of mineral grains is a property that you will eventually use to tell if the rock is igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic in origin.
Are the minerals intergrown together?
Are individual particles cemented together?
Are there holes in the rock from the escape of gas bubbles?
Does the rock have a squashed look?
Do the minerals in the rock appear to have a preferred alignment?
3. Shape of the particles that make up the rock not the shape of the hand sample
Are the particles that make up the rock angular or rounded?
Are they well-formed crystals or rounded fragments?

28
Rock Cycle
Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Textures

Careful examination of rock texture places most (not all) rocks
into one of three categories that depend on how they formed
Interlocking crystals Particles cemented together Banded minerals

Common texture: crystalline Common texture: clastic Common texture: foliated
Rock crystallized from Lithification of sediment Rock subjected to increased

magma produced rock pressure & temperature causing
parallel alignment of minerals
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Figure 2. Rock identification based on texture.
Observation Texture Interpretation

Particles cemented together Clastic Particles transported, deposited, and stuck together (Fig. 3)
Parallel alignment of minerals Foliated Growth of minerals in preferred orientation due to

pressure conditions (Fig. 4)
Interlocking crystals Crystalline Minerals grown together from magma crystallization

(Fig. 5)
Different sized crystals in a Porphyritic Different cooling rates (associated with extrusive igneous
groundmass rocks; Fig. 6)
29
Lab #2: Igneous Rocks
Figure 3. An example of a clastic texture.
Figure 4. An example of a foliated texture.
Figure 5. An example of a crystalline texture.
Figure 6. An example of a porphyritic texture.
II. Composition
Rock composition refers to the minerals or components that make up the rock, which give clues to the
environment of their formation. Because they have a definite chemical formula, minerals tell us the chemical
composition of the rock. For example, the composition of volcanic rocks can indicate whether the rocks formed
in association with a mid-oceanic ridge, a subduction zone, or a hot spot.
30
The purpose of today’s lab is to introduce you to igneous rocks. By the end of the lab you should be able
to distinguish between different igneous rock types and interpret their origin.
Objectives
1) Learn that every rock tells a story.
2) Know the difference between a rock and a mineral.
3) Know how to tell whether an igneous rock is felsic, intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic, and what the composition
tells us about the tectonic setting of formation.
4) Igneous rock textures to know, and what they mean when you see them.
5) Recognize and describe the meaning of the following igneous rocks
• Plutonic: granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, dunite
• Volcanic: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
6) Conduct an experiment and explore how the density of igneous rocks controls plate tectonics.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook
Calculator
Pre-lab work (to be completed before lab begins)

Complete the online Warm-Up Quiz using the information in this lab and your textbook, as well as the web
links provided on the Canvas site.
The ConcepTest will be on material related to plate tectonics from lab 1 and reading material from lab 2 (this
lab).

Activity 1: Igneous minerals
Activity 2: Igneous rocks
Activity 3: Density and plate tectonics

31
Igneous Rocks
Origin of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks originate from molten rock. “Igneous” is derived from the Greek word for “fire” (think
of ignite). Molten rock underground is called magma, and molten rock that erupts at the surface is called lava.
Cooling of magma and lava produces igneous rocks.
Magmas can flow easily or sluggishly, and this characteristic is described as their viscosity (resistence to flow).
High viscosity (or viscous) magmas have high resistence to flow and flows slowly. Low viscosity magmas have
low resistence to flow and flow easily. Viscosity is controlled by the magma’s chemical composition, fluid vs.
mineral content, and temperature. For example, magma viscosity increases as it cools (the magma thickens). For
more information about viscosity go to pg. 36.
Igneous Rocks Classification

Igneous rocks are typically classified on the basis of their texture (crystal size and arrangement) and
chemical composition (minerals present). The texture of an igneous rock reflects its cooling history. The
composition of igneous rock, to a large degree, reflects its plate tectonic setting during formation.
I. Igneous Textures
The texture of an igneous rock reflects how the magma cooled and crystallized to form minerals. The size of
the crystals depends on the cooling rate. Coarse-grained textures indicate slow cooling (tens of thousands of
years), whereas fine-grained and glassy textures indicate fast cooling (months to hours). Texture is used to
indicate whether the magma cooled at the surface (volcanic) or deep underground (plutonic).
The following are igneous textures:
Coarse-grained: Interlocking crystals (typically 1-10 mm) that can be seen with the naked eye. Great thickness
of overlying rock insulated the magma, so that it cooled slowly to form large crystals. Igneous rocks exhibiting
this texture cooled deep underground.
Fine-grained: Small interlocking crystals (typically <1 mm, which are too small to see with the naked eye).
Most fine-grained igneous rocks cooled at the Earth’s surface after being erupted from a volcano. Fine-grained
textures can also result from shallow intrusions, or if magma is injected into fractures in cooler rock. These
injections are called dikes or sills.
Crystal (phenocryst) Groundmass (matrix)
Porphyritic: An igneous rock texture that is
composed of two different distinct crystal sizes
(see Fig. 1). Specifically, crystals >2mm in size
are called phenocrysts, and they are embedded
in a groundmass made of fine-grained crystals
(often called a matrix). Porphyritic rocks are
interpreted to have undergone two stages of
cooling: the phenocrysts would form while the
magma is slowly cooling deep under ground,
and, when the magma erupts, the groundmass
cools quickly when exposed at the surface.
Figure 1. A volcanic rock with a porphyritic texture.

32
Glassy: Volcanic glass is called obsidian and lacks crystals.
Rocks that are very glassy show a characteristic conchoidal
(curved) fracture pattern (see Fig. 2). Glassy texture forms
when lava cools so quickly, or is so viscous that ions can not
migrate through the melt and become arranged in an ordered
pattern to form crystals.
Pyroclastic: When molten material is erupted from a volcano

it can solidify before it hits the ground, yet still be hot enough
to weld to other erupted material (Fig. 3). This forms a rock
called tuff, which is composed of fragments (of other rocks) Figure 2. Obsidian showing glassy texture
and crystals, all embedded in a matrix of ash. and conchoidal fracture.
Vesicular: Vesicles are holes in volcanic rock that form as

lava solidifies around gas bubbles. These are good indicators
of volcanic rocks (plutonic rocks don’t have vesicles). This
term can be used as an adjective (e.g. this is a vesicular
basalt). The size of the bubbles is often dictated by the
viscosity of the magma, with bigger bubbles forming in less
viscous magma because they can coalesce more easily.
Figure 3. Welded tuff.
Some rocks are defined by their vesicles:

• Scoria (larger, less abundant bubbles in reddish-black
rock, called a scoreacous texture. See Fig. 4)
• Pumice (a lot of little bubbles, almost foamy and very
light weight, called a pumiceous texture). Pumice Figure 4. Scoria (scoriaceous texture).
often has enough bubble space that it will float in water.
II. Igneous Compositions

Color is a quick way to estimate the chemical composition of most (but not all) igneous rocks. The color of
most igneous rocks is controlled by the types of minerals present. To generalize, a darker color commonly
indicates that the rock is composed of minerals with a higher iron/magnesium content. A lighter color indicates
the rock contains minerals with high silica (SiO2, mineral name quartz) and low iron/magnesium content.
Dark colors (such as black obsidian, or nearly black andesite) may indicate the lack of crystals. In these rocks,
the black color is a result of the light being absorbed by glass rather than being reflected back to our eyes form
mineral grains.
Most magmas can be grouped into three broad categories based on their chemical composition. These categories
are mafic (less silica, more Mg and Fe), intermediate, and felsic (more silica, less Mg and Fe). In geology,
rock chemical composition is presented in oxide form. For instance, Si contents would be listed as SiO2. The
average chemical compositions of felsic, intermediate, and mafic igneous rocks are shown in Fig. 5 on the next
page. This graph reveals that most igneous rocks are composed of similar elements in different amounts. Note
that silica is the most abundant in all three compositional groups, with content ranging from approximately
50% to 70%. The silica content of igneous magmas is very important because it influences the viscosity of the
magma, which determines the behavior of the magma/lava.
33
Composition of Igneous Rocks

0% 100%
Felsic
Intermediate
Mafic
SiO2 FeO+Fe2O3 MgO+CaO Al2O3 Na2O+K2O

Silica Iron Magnesium+calcium Alumina Sodium+potassium
Figure 5. Average chemical compositions of mafic, intermediate, and felsic igneous rocks. Note that silica (SiO2) is the dominant oxide
in all three types of igneous rocks.
Igneous Rock-Forming Minerals

The minerals present in an igneous rock indicates the rock’s chemical composition. Thankfully, there is a
correlation that determines the kinds of minerals that will occur together in a rock. This correlation is determined
by the magma’s chemical composition, as well as the pressure and temperature of crystallization (Fig. 6-7).
Important Igneous Minerals

Mineral Diagnostic Mineral Properties Composition
Many colors (often dull, sometimes translucent), hard (scratches glass),

Quartz Felsic
conchoidal fracture (can break in smooth curves), no cleavage
Brown/translucent, soft (scratches with fingernail),
Mica
1 good cleavage (flakes off into thin sheets)
White/pink/tan, hard (scratches glass),
Feldspar
good cleavage in 2 directions
Amphibole/ Dark (black or greenish gray), hard (scratches glass),
Pyroxene good cleavage
Olivine Green (weathers to orange), hard (scratches glass), no cleavage Mafic
Figure 6. Igneous rock-forming minerals and their properties.
Composition Mineral Content
Felsic Must contain feldspar and quartz, very minor dark minerals (therefore light in color).
Intermediate Contain mostly feldspar and some dark minerals (usually amphibole), usually no quartz.
Mafic Contain feldspar and abundant dark minerals, no quartz (therefore dark color).
Ultra Mafic Contain almost entirely dark minerals such as pyroxene and olivine. No extrusive
equivalents.
Figure 7. Characteristic minerals for each compositional group.
You will need to be able to identify the igneous rock-forming minerals. Luckily, there are only eight common
igneous rock-forming minerals, which have been grouped into 4 broad compositional categories listed in Fig.
7 above. For additional information on igneous rock classification refer to the Igneous Rocks and Associated
Minerals diagram (Fig. 8).
34
Dark color Green (from olivine)
Light color Intermediate color
(black) (can have black flecks)
(white/pink) (gray)
Extrusive
(fine grained or No common
porphyritic) Rhyolite Andesite Basalt extrusive
Intrusive equivalent
(coarse grained)
Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Dunite
quartz feldspar-
feldspar
feldspar pyroxene olivine
Minerals
amphibole olivine
mica Mica amphibole pyroxene
pyroxene
amphibole olivine
75 wt% SiO2 increasing silica content 45 wt% SiO2
increasing viscosity
OBSIDIAN
Figure 8. Igneous rocks identification chart, including important minerals.

Special Textures SCORIA
PUMICE
Vesicles (bubble holes) may or may not occur in any composition of volcanic (extrusive) rock.
Typically vesicles are smaller in more felsic magma and larger in more mafic magma.
35
Magma Viscosity
As defined previously, viscosity is resistance to flow. A fluid with high viscosity resists flow and is sticky
(flows like cold honey; Fig. 9). A fluid with low viscosity is runny (flows like water; Fig. 9). Viscosity determines:
• The shape of volcanoes
• Whether a volcanic eruption will be explosive or relatively quiet
• How easily a magma will rise through the crust to Earth’s surface. This can control where a magma might
solidify (whether deep underground or on Earth’s surface).
Figure 9. Viscosity differences between water

(left) and honey (right). Image source: Vienna
University of Technology.
Gas bubbles form in magma as it rises. The gas bubbles are less dense (buoyant) than the magma, so they cluster
at the top of the magma body. As the gas bubbles cluster, they enduce pressure build-up within the magma body,
which pushes the magma upward. Therefore gases that can’t escape prior to an eruption increase the explosive
potential of a volcano.
Common
Silica Gas Common
Composition Viscosity Volcanic Pyroclastics
Content Content Rock Types
Landforms
Extrusive: basalt, scoria Flood basalt,
(very abundant) plateaus, ocean Cinders,
Mafic ~50% Least Low floor cinder bombs
(1050-1300°C) (1-2%) (runny lava) Intrusive: gabbro cones, shield
(abundant in oceanic crust, volcanoes,
rare in continental crust) small calderas
Extrusive: andesite
Composite,
Intermed. (abundant) Tuff,
Intermediate ~60% Intermed. volcanoes, large
(thick lava) ash fall
(900-1100°C) (3-4%) calderas
Intrusive: diorite
(abundant)
Intrusive: granite
(abundant in continental Pyroclastic
crust, rare in oceanic crust) Volcanic domes, flows,
High
Felsic ~70% Most large calderas tuff,
(very thick
(650-1000°C) (4-6%) Extrusive: tuff filled with ash pumice,
lava)
(abundant) ash fall
rhyolite, obsidian
(less abundant)
Figure 10. Viscosity and behavior of felsic, intermediate, and mafic magmas.
36
Density of Igneous Rocks
Density is an important property of igneous rocks. Consider the questions: Why are there deep ocean
basins and why are there high continents? Why is continental crust thicker than oceanic crust? Why is oceanic
crust subducted and not continental crust? These questions can be answered with density differences.
Imagine two boards floating in a pool, one made of dense plywood and another made of light Styrofoam. Even
if the boards are the exact same volume, the plywood floats a little lower in the water because it is more dense.
The same is true with the Earth’s crust, where continents are made of material that is less dense than the ocean
floor. Some rocks have densities so great that they rarely make it out of the mantle. If you know the densities of
an igneous rock, you can infer the tectonic setting. Read the section below for a little more information about the
tectonic settings of various igneous rocks, and study Fig. 11 on the next page.
Density is a measure of the amount of mass per unit volume, such as g/cm3 or kg/m3.
Density = Mass (g)

Volume (cm3)
Note: 1mL = 1cm3
Tectonic Settings: Where Igneous Rocks Come From

After many observations worldwide, detailed chemical analyses on scores of rock samples, and with
countless scientific experiments, geologists have derived theories about how and where rocks melt, and what
happens to the magma during its journey prior to solidification.
The mantle is composed of ultramafic rocks. Ultramafic rocks have silica contents that are lower than mafic
rocks, and they are dominantly made of dark minerals (e.g. olivine and pyroxene). When the ultramafic rocks in
the upper mantle are partially melted, mafic basaltic magma is created. Although melting rocks is easiest when
water is present, much of the basaltic magma produced at divergent plate boundaries (such as mid-ocean ridges,
continental rift zones, or hot spots) occurs without water. This melting, called dry decompression (partial)
melting, is caused by expansion of hot rock as it rises through the mantle. As the magma gets closer to the
surface, it is under less confining pressure and can expand to become liquid.
Intermediate andesitic magmas typically form when basaltic magmas, formed from the wet decompression
melting of mantle rock in subduction zones, incorporate continental material as they rise to the surface.
Felsic rhyolitic magmas typically form from wet partial melting of the upper mantle and continental rock. Most
felsic magmas are generated at depth in continental collision zones. For this reason the cores of many mountain
ranges are composed of felsic rocks, and why eruptions of rhyolite occur at subduction zone volcanoes. Felsic
magmas can also occur at continental hotspots. To better illustrate where different igneous rocks tend to form, a
cross-sectional view of plate boundaries is shown in Fig. 11.
37
38
Mid-ocean ridge: Hotspot volcanism:
Continental crust:
Extrusive Mafic near (e.g., Hawaii)
Intrusive Felsic and Intrusive Oceanic crust:
Subduction arc volcanism: surface; Intrusive Extrusive Mafic near
Intermediate Extrusive Mafic
Extrusive Intermediate and Mafic at depth surface; Intrusive
Extrusive Felsic Mafic at depth
Wet partial melting

of the upper mantle
Dry partial melting

(decompression
melting) of the
upper mantle
(ultramafic)
Upper Mantle
(“plastic” ultramafic)
Figure 11. Tectonic environments of igneous rocks

In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Identifying Common Igneous Minerals

I. Minerals
Learn to recognize the important rock forming minerals. In groups of 3 or 4, use Fig. 6 as a guide to the
diagnostic properties that will help you identify the minerals in the mineral tray. The numbers listed here
correspond to the numbers on the mineral samples.
1. (2 samples) _________________________ 2. (2 samples) ___________________________
3.___________________________________ 4._____________________________________
5. (2 samples, light = muscovite, dark = biotite)_______________________________
II. Minerals in Rocks and Rock Identification

For rock samples 6 and 7, identify the minerals in each rock and use Fig. 8 to identify the coarse-grained
igneous rock based on the minerals it contains. Cleavage planes (if the mineral has cleavage) are visible when
they reflect light (glint) as you rotate the rock through different lighting directions.
6. Rock sample 6
a. Minerals:
Translucent, gray mineral: ____________________
White or pink opaque mineral: _________________
Dark colored mineral(s): ______________________

b. Composition (felsic, intermediate, mafic or ultramafic?): ______________________
c. Rock name: ________________________________

7. Rock sample 7
a. Minerals:
Green mineral: _____________________________
Black flecks (if present): _____________________

b. Composition (felsic, intermediate, mafic or ultramafic?): ______________________
c. Rock name: ________________________________
8. It can be difficult to distinguish between granite and diorite.

a. Which rock will contain very little quartz or mica? _________________________________________
b. Which of the two rocks will have a higher percentage of dark, mafic minerals? ___________________

TA CHECK ________________
39
Activity 2: Identifying Common Igneous Rocks
The purpose of this activity is to learn to differentiate igneous rock samples according to their texture
(primarily grain size), and composition (based on visible minerals and color).
1. Separate the intrusive (coarse-grained) rocks in the Activity 2 tray from the extrusive (fine-grained or
porphyritic) rocks.
Texture Interpretation
Fine-grained: few or no visible crystals (<2mm) Fast cooling at or near surface of the Earth
Porphyritic: mix of coarse and fine grained textures Two cooling stages
Coarse-grained: visible crystals (>2mm) Slow cooling at great depths
2. Arrange the fine-grained/porphyritic and coarse-grained piles in order from light-colored to dark-colored as
shown below. Your ability to judge can be improved by looking at the minerals in the coarse-grained samples as
you did in Activity 1. This ordering approximates the chemical composition of the samples.

Compositions
Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic

Fine-grained Light-Colored Intermediate Color Dark-Colored (no common equivalent)
Coarse-grained Light-Colored Intermediate Color Dark-Colored Dark or Green
3. Once you’ve arranged the rocks, ask your TA to come check your work. Now record the sample # and rock
name in the appropriate space in the chart on the next page. Use Fig. 8 to help you identify the rocks. Be sure to
include rock texture descriptions if the rocks are porphyritic or vesicular.
Color Light Medium Dark Dark/Green

Composition Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
Texture: Sample #: ________ Sample #: ________ Sample #: ________ RARE

Fine-grained (no sample)
(extrusive/ Name:___________ Name:___________ Name:___________
volcanic)
Texture: Sample #: ________ Sample #: ________ Sample #: ________ Sample #: ________

Coarse-grained
(intrusive/ Name:___________ Name:___________ Name:___________ Name:___________
plutonic)
TA CHECK ____________
40
Activity 3: Understanding Density and Plate Tectonics
Much of the reason plate tectonics works is because of density differences between major sections of the
planet. In this activity, you first identify some additional igneous rock samples, and then measure their physical
properties (mass and volume). With these data you can then calculate their densities. Follow the steps below.
1. After looking at the rock samples for this activity, identify each rock and write the name in the second column
of the chart below.
2. Using the scale, weigh each rock sample and write down your measurement in the table. Always include units.
3. To measure the volume of the sample we will measure the volume of water that is displaced when the rock is
submerged.
Step 1: the graduated cylinder should be about half full of water. Before you submerge the rock, very carefully
and accurately measure the top of the water. Always note the value of a tick mark.
Step 2: gently submerge the rock in the cylinder, trying hard not to get your hands (or anything else) wet we
want to keep all the water in the cylinder.
Step 3: very carefully and accurately measure the new height of the water.
Step 4: calculate the change in volume of the water and record your answer in the table.

Remember that 1 mL = 1 cm3
4. Calculate the density and record it in the table. If you need a hint on how to do this, refer back to pg. 37.
5. Finally, infer the tectonic setting. Where would you expect to find the most dense rock? Where would you
expect to find the least dense rock? Choose from the major divisions of the Earth: continental crust, oceanic crust,
mantle, and core.
Sample # Rock Name Mass Volume Density Likely Tectonic Setting

(identify) (measure) (measure) (calculate)
4A
4B
4C
TA CHECK ____________
41
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Density
Based on your results from your density measurements, answer the following questions.
1. Which type of igneous rock subducts at convergent boundaries? Please explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. In an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary, which plate will subduct? Please explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The major compositional layers of the Earth are the core, the mantle, and the crust.
a. Which layer is the most dense? Why?________________________________________________________
b. Which layer is the least dense? Why? ________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Google Earth

The remainder of the homework questions will involve the use of Google Earth. Open up the program,
then go to the Canvas page for your Geology 101 lab section and navigate to Modules 1 Lab 2. There you’ll find
a series of Google Earth files. The files are named by the question to which they correspond in the homework
questions below.
Need a Google Earth refresher? Go to page 7.
1. Sierra Nevada Batholith.

Batholith is the term for the largest class of igneous intrusion, and the Sierra Nevada batholith forms the core of
the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and Nevada. There are exposures of granite in places like Yosemite
National Park.
a. Open the Lab2_1a_SierraNevadaBatholith.kmz file. This file will place a red polygon outlining the batho-
lith. Use the transparency slider at the bottom of the Places panel to help get oriented.
To get a sense for the size of this intrusion, measure length in kilometers.

______________km
b. Open the Lab2_1b_HalfDome.kmz file (be sure to turn off the batholith layer from 1a). This will take you
to the Half Dome at Yosemite National Park, which was carved by glacial ice flowing over the granite batholith.
In meters, measure the minimum thickness of the batholith by determining the difference in elevation between
the top of Half Dome and the floor of the valley.
Note: If you can’t see the lat/long/elevation, go to the View menu and make sure the Status Bar is checked.

________________m
42
2. Tectonic Associations with Igneous Rocks
For each of the following questions, open the Google Earth placemark with the same question number. The files
for this activity are located on the lab Canvas page under Modules 1 Lab 2.
Hint: Are you on continental crust? Oceanic crust? Refer to the in-class activities for help.
a. Lab2_2a_EXTRUSIVE.kmz. Investigate this area by flying around.

What type of igneous rock would you expect to see at this location (rock name)? _______________________
What kind of texture would you expect this rock to have (fine- or coarse-grained)?_______________________
What composition would you expect of this rock (ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, felsic)? ________________
b. Lab2_2b_INTRUSIVE.kmz. Investigate this area by flying around. This location is meant to be several
kilometers underground.
What type of igneous rock would you expect to see at this location (rock name)? _______________________
What kind of texture would you expect this rock to have (fine- or coarse-grained)?_______________________
What composition would you expect of this rock (ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, felsic)? ________________
c. Lab2_2c_INTRUSIVE.kmz. Investigate this area by flying around.

Hints:
• Look at pictures of the area (you may need to turn on the Photos layer)
• Tilt the view angle (Shift + ↓)
Name two igneous rocks that you would expect to see at this location, and indicate whether they are felsic,
intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic.
___________________________(rock name) ________________________ (composition)
d. Investigate Lab2_2d_Hawaii.kmz by flying around as you have for the previous locations. Note the various
colors along the ridge crest, particularly the dark material. This dark material is a lava flow, seen from an areial
view.
What is the tectonic setting?_______________________________________________________________
What do you think the texture of these rocks is likely to be (fine- or coarse-grained)? ____________________
What do you think the composition of these rocks might be (felsic, intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic)?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Now open Lab2_2d_MtShasta.kmz. Compare the Hawaiian lava flows you just looked at to those at Mt.
Shasta (size, shape, length). _________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Refer to the pre-lab reading material and review lava behavior. What do you think causes the differences be-
tween these flows?_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
e. Lab2_2e_EXTRUSIVE.kmz. Investigate this area by flying around.

Name two igneous rocks that you would expect to see at this location, and indicate whether they are felsic,
intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic.

43
f. Open Lab2_2f_OmanOphiolite.kmz. This is the Oman ophiolite, one of the best ophiolite examples in the
world. An ophiolite is a sliver of Earth’s mantle that has been pushed on top of the crust. This area is one of the
very few places we can actually see Earth’s mantle.
What igneous rock would you expect the Oman ophiolite to be made of? _______________________________
What kind of texture would you expect this rock to have (fine- or coarse-grained)? ______________________
What composition would you expect of this rock (ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, felsic)? _________________
Activity 3: Putting It All Together

One of the really cool things you should learn from this lab is that you can predict the rock types present
at different tectonic settings (and vice versa). Label the plate tectonics diagram below with the igneous rock type
that is most common in each location. To help you, refer to the prelab reading, as well as your answers to the
previous activity. One of these has been done for you as an example.
Hint: Some rocks form in more than one tectonic setting (see Fig. 11).
Extrusive Extrusive
OR Rhyolite
Extrusive
Intrusive Extrusive Intrusive
Intrusive
Intrusive
(hot spot) (mid-ocean ridge)
(lithospheric
mantle) (subduction zone)
(asthenospheric
mantle)
44
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:


Lab #3: Sedimentary Rocks and Depositional Environments
The purpose of today’s lab is to introduce you to sedimentary rocks. By the end of the lab you should be
able to distinguish between different sedimentary rock types and interpret their depositional history.
Objectives
1) Know the processes through which sedimentary rocks form.
2) Be able to identify common sedimentary minerals.
3) Be able to identify common sedimentary rocks.
4) Be able to interpret the origin of sedimentary rocks on the basis of their texture and composition.
5) Be able to create a geologic history by interpreting a sequence of sedimentary rocks.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook
Calculator (Homework)

Pre-lab work (to be completed before lab begins)

The ConcepTest will be on material related to igneous rocks from lab 2 and reading material from lab 3 (this
lab).

Activity 1: Depositional environments
Activity 2: Geologic rock record
Activity 3: Sedimentary rocks

47
Sedimentary Rocks
The interaction of pre-existing rocks with the hydrologic cycle at the Earth’s surface results in the formation
of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks typically form in layers, such as the colorful layers exposed in the Grand
Canyon. Locally, the Chuckanut Mountains consist of sedimentary layers of conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone,
and coal.
Sedimentary rocks form through two major processes:
1. Detrital and clastic sedimentary rocks are derived from the weathering of pre-existing rock, where the sediment
is transported, deposited, buried, and lithified (solidified into stone). Examples of such rocks are: conglomerate,
sandstone, and shale.
2. Biological and chemical sedimentary rocks are a result of the settling and lithification of precipitates (such
as mineral grains) and organisms (such as plankton). Examples of such rocks are: limestone, halite, chert, and
diatomite.
Origin of Sedimentary Rock

There are 4 main steps in the formation of most sedimentary rocks:
I. Weathering of pre-existing rocks
II. Erosion and transportation of sediments or ions in solution
III. Deposition
IV. Burial and lithification
I.Weathering
Weathering of pre-existing rocks produces sediment (Fig. 1). There are two main ways that rocks can weather:
Mechanical (physical) weathering is the process of breaking rock material into smaller particles. If you
hit a rock with a hammer and it breaks into various-sized pieces, you have physically weathered the rock by
decreasing the particle size. This increases the surface area without changing the chemical composition of the
minerals.
Chemical weathering occurs when minerals interact with the environment and are chemically changed. Some
minerals dissolve in water (e.g. halite), or oxidize (e.g. iron rusts) to form ions in solution or new minerals.
Feldspar reacts with water to form clay, which is the constituent of shale, the most abundant sedimentary rock.
The main products of mechanical and chemical weathering are:
Lithic (rock) fragments: broken pieces of parent (pre-existing) rock.
Resistant mineral grains: some minerals are relatively stable at the Earth’s surface and are resistant to
alteration. Quartz is the most common resistant mineral.
Clay: clay is formed by the chemical weathering (specifically hydrolysis, the chemical breakdown of a
compound due to reaction with water) of feldspar minerals. Besides being a mineral, the term clay also refers
to sediment that is smaller than 1/256 mm.
Ions in solution: chemical weathering of non-resistant minerals releases ions such as Si, Ca, Na, Fe, Mg.
These ions are present in lakes, rivers, groundwater, and the ocean where chemical sedimentary rocks form by
precipitation or evaporation. Ions dissolved in groundwater can precipitate and cement clastic particles together.
Ion precipitation can also form beautiful geodes, agates, and thundereggs by filling rock cavities (holes).
48
Weathering products are dependent on the composition, grain-size, and the type and degree of weathering. For
example, weathering of a coarse-grained granite will produce sand-sized particles, clay minerals, and dissolved
ions. However, since basalt is fine-grained and does not contain any resistant minerals, basalt will eventually
break down completely into clay minerals and dissolved ions.
Weathering Products
Visible Grains Clay Ions in Solution

• Quartz Na - sodium Fe - iron
• Rock fragments Ca - calcium Si - silicon
• Lightly weathered non- Mg - magnesium
resistant minerals
Clastic Rocks Chemical Rocks Biochemical Rocks

Sediment Rock Compound Rock Compounds Rock
≥256mm boulders breccia, conglomerate CaCO3 limestone CaCO3 fossils fossiliferous limestone
64mm cobbles NaCl rock salt Powdered CaCO3 chalk
4mm pebbles SiO2 chert Powdered SiO2 diatomite
2mm granules CaSO4+2H2O gypsum Crystalline SiO2 chert
Fossilized C coal
1/16mm sand sandstone
1/256mm silt siltstone
≤1/256mm clay mudstone, shale
Figure 1. Weathering products and the sedimentary rocks they form.
II. Transportation
Weathering products that are eroded from their source can be transported by moving water, ice, or wind.
Sediment can undergo physical changes that affect the texture of the sediment. The three main sedimentary
textures that tell us about the transport history of sediments are listed below:
Grain size of a sedimentary rock can be interpreted to indicate several things.

1. The energy of the environment at the time of deposition. The higher the energy (e.g. the swifter the water),
the larger the grain size that can be moved.
2. The grain size of sediment generally decreases as it gets farther from the source area due to breakage,
abrasion, or chemical weathering.
Rounding is the removal of sharp edges of rock fragments and resistant mineral grains as they grind against
one another or the ground surface. Angular grains have not experienced as much abrasion as well-rounded
grains (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Rounding progression

of grains.
49
Sorting is a process through which
sediment grains are selected and
separated according to grain size, and
in some cases grain shape or density
(Fig. 3). Well-sorted sediments indicate
constant energy over time. Poorly-sorted
sediments may indicate inadequate time
to winnow and sort grains.
These textures are also indicators of

energy.
Figure 3. Sorting of grains.
Fast, turbulent waters are high energy environments, and calm waters are low energy environments. Higher
energy environments produce large, angular, poorly-sorted sediments, whereas low energy environments
produce small, rounded, well-sorted sediments.
III. Deposition
Sediment is deposited when transporting agents, such as running water, glacial ice, or wind, lose energy and
can no longer transport the sediment load. Deposition also refers to the accumulation of chemical or organic
sediment, such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), clamshells on the sea floor, or plant material in a swamp.
IV. Burial and Lithification

Sediments are deposited in layers on top of one another, which packs loose sediment grains tightly together
(compaction). Compacted sediment can be hardened even further by the precipitation of cement (ions dissolved
in circulating groundwater) in the pore space between the grains. Common cements are calcite (CaCO3), silica
(SiO2), and iron oxides.
Sedimentary Minerals
Most sedimentary rocks are transported and deposited in water, and those rocks that are not formed in
water often have groundwater moving through them. The dissolved ions in the groundwater can form sedimentary
minerals, either in layers or filling cracks in rocks. Below is a chart listing the key properties of a few important
sedimentary minerals (Fig. 4).
Important Sedimentary Minerals

Mineral Diagnostic Mineral Properties
Many colors (often dull, sometimes translucent), hard (scratches glass), conchoidal fracture
Quartz
(can break in smooth curves), no cleavage
White (can be almost clear), soft (can be easily scratched with a fingernail),
Gypsum
good cleavage in 2 directions (but not at 90o)
White, crystals can be rhombic, reacts (fizzes) with dilutes acid (HCl),
Calcite
soft (scratched with a glass but not with a fingernail)
White or translucent, soft, 3 cleavage planes (cubic crystals),
Halite
salty taste (taste at your own risk!)
Limonite Yellow-orange, soft, amorphous (no constant or regular shape)
Feldspar White/pink/tan, hard (scratches glass), good cleavage in 2 directions
Figure 4. Common sedimentary minerals and their properties.
50
Depositional Environments
Sediments accumulate in depositional environments such as alluvial fans, river channels, flood plains,
deltas, lakes, desert valleys, beaches, shallow marine, and the deep sea floor. An important task of a geologist who
studies sedimentary rocks is to interpret the ancient environment in which the rock formed (Fig. 5-9). By making
detailed observations, a geologist can read the many clues that tell the depositional story of a rock sequence.
Property Observation Interpretation

Red, orange, and yellow colors Oxidizing environment on
occur where Fe- and other oxides form continents
Color Suggests carbon that was preserved in a reduc-
Black ing environment (i.e. swamps or deep marine)
Grain size Energy or distance from source
Texture Rounding Abrasion history
Sorting Constancy of energy
Transported minerals or fragments Indicates the type of source area
Composition Minerals that form in Conditions in the environment must be

sedimentary environments just right to form rocks made of calcite,
halite, gypsum, quartz, or iron-oxides
Indicate mechanism of deposition, such as
Sedimentary Bedding, cross-bedding, graded wind or water currents, wind moving over
Structures bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, etc. shallow water, underwater density currents,
dessication of mud, etc.
Remains of animals of plants such as Organisms live in distinctive
Fossils shells, bones, teeth or leaves environments or niches as they have specific
requirements to survive
Figure 5. Properties you can use to interpret the depositional environment of sedimentary rocks.
Figure 6. a. An illustration of cross-bedded layers. Cross-beds are common indicators of a dune environment. b. Ripple
marks are common indicators of tidal flats, and can be used to tell current direction. c. Mud cracks help geologists
determine the up-right direction during deposition.
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52
Sedimentary Depositional Environments
Shallow Marine
Lagoon
Playa Lake
(Evaporite Rocks) Beach Dunes River
River
Desert Dunes (Headwaters) Swamp Lake Delta
Beach Delta
Alluvial Fan Glacier Tidal Flat
Seamount/
Guyot
Deep Marine
Abyssal Plain
Deep Marine
Submarine Fan
Figure 7. Depositional environments of different sedimentary rocks.

Alluvial fan A deposit shaped like an open fan that forms at the base of
mountains where a stream suddenly widens, spreads out, and
dumps its load.
Rock: conglomerate, breccia
Glacial Till - sediment melted out of glacial ice and deposited.
Stratified (layered) drift - gravels sorted and deposited by gla-
cial meltwater streams.
Rock: conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone
Dune Wind-deposited accumulations of mostly sand-sized particles.
Common in deserts and along coastal areas.
Terrestrial Rock: sandstone
(Continental) River Channel - where river water flows, channel deposits can be
boulder, gravel, to sand-sized particles.
Rock: conglomerate or sandstone
Point bar - sand or gravel bar at the inside meander bend.
Rock: sandstone (w/ cross-bedding)
Flood plain - silts, sands, mud deposited when a river
overflows its banks and floods
Rock: siltstone, mudstone/shale
Lake Freshwater low-energy environment where fine-grained
sediments are deposited.
Rock: mudstone/shale, limestone
Swamp Low depression, poorly drained soils
Rock: coal
Delta Where a river empties into the sea. Forms steeply sloping
cross-bedding as delta front grows seaward.
Rock: siltstone, sandstone
Lagoon An oceanic-sea water and freshwater environment protected
Transitional from wave energy by an offshore reef.
(marine coastlines, Rock: limestone, mudstone, chalk
where the sea meets Beach The transitional zone between the sea and the land, where
waves break on the shore, very high energy.
the land)
Rock: sandstone, conglomerate
Tidal flat Low flat area adjacent to the sea which is affected by the tides,
exposed at low tide and underwater at high tide. Typically
composed of silt and mud and commonly has ripples.
Rock: siltstone, mudstone/shale
Shallow marine Offshore, extends to about the edge of the continental shelf.
Rock: mudstone/shale, limestone, chalk
Marine Deep marine - Fine muds and microfossils, foraminifera and radiolaria.
Abyssal plain Rock: mudstone, chert
Figure 8. Common depositional envirments and their corresponding sedimentary rocks.
53
Sedimentary Rock Possible Environment of Deposition

Conglomerate Alluvial fan, glacial region, near rivers, beaches
Breccia Alluvial fan, base of a cliff
Sandstone Glacial area, rivers, dunes, beaches
Mudstone or Shale Rivers (floodplains), lake beds, tidal flats, deep marine
Limestone Shallow marine, lagoon (and some very large freshwater lakes)
Chalk Shallow marine, lagoon
Chert Deep marine
Coal Swamp
Figure 9. This chart is another way to look at some of the information listed in Fig. 8 on the previous page.
Classification of Sedimentary Rock

Begin by carefully observing the characteristics of the rock sample, then refer to the chart on the next
page. Choose and follow the path that best fits your observations. The flow chart begins with the big picture and
slowly narrows down to detailed characteristics.
Step1:
Determine whether the rock is clastic or detrital (contains sediment from pre-existing rocks) or chemical
or biological (formed from once living material or ions precipitated from solution).
Step 2:
If clastic or detrital, determine the rock’s grain size and roundedness/angularity.
If chemical or biological, determine the rock’s hardness and reaction to HCl.
Step 3:
Continue to follow the flow chart and compare the detailed characteristics with your observations.
Step 4:
Identify the rock based on your observations and the chart’s descriptions.
54
Clastic rocks can have fossils!

(i.e. fossiliferous sandstone
or fossiliferous shale)
Figure 10. Sedimentary rocks classification flow chart.
55
Interpreting Geologic History from Sedimentary Rocks
When one type of sedimentary rock is forming in a certain place (like a sandstone on a beach), another
type of sedimentary rock is forming nearby at the exact same time (like limestone in the shallow ocean floor and
shale on the deepest ocean floor). After these sediments are deposited, more sediment is deposited on top of them
(Fig. 11). The weight of the overlying sediments helps to compact the older (lower) sediments, which lithifies
them. Understanding this process helps us recognize that the rock at the base of a stack of rocks represents the
oldest material.
Figure 11. Sedimentary layering in Zion National Park.
If sea level changes, the environment of deposition for a given location may change as well. For example, if sea
level rises, a sandy beach may become flooded and the sand will be buried by shallow water organic material. So,
when we see a sequence of rocks with beach-like sandstone that is overlain by limestone, we can interpret this to
mean that the water got deeper in that location. Changing water levels can occur through sea level change (result-
ing from melting or freezing large quantities of glacial ice), or through uplift of the land. The two processes that
cause uplift are:
1. Compression through late tectonics: Imagine laying a pancake on a table and squeezing if from the sides - some
areas would wrinkle up. In geology, we refer to the wrinkling as uplift.
2. Land erosion: erosion is a slightly more complicated issue, but the results are similar. As erosion removes
material from the surface of the lithosphere, the lithosphere does not weigh as much in that location. Because the
lithosphere is “floating” on the asthenosphere, making the lithosphere lighter actually causes it to rise higher in
the asthenosphere. This moves rocks from the middle of the crust closer to the surface where continued erosion
will eventually expose them.
When we see a stream-cut canyon with sedimentary layers exposed in the canyon walls, we can interpret: 1. the
layers on either side of the canyon were probably connected at one point, representing a broad layer of sediment
that was deposited and lithified, 2. the oldest material is on the bottom and the rocks get progressively younger
toward the top, and 3. the youngest event to occur in this canyon is the one that is going on right now, the erosion
of the stream through the sediments (even if some of the rocks exposed in the canyon walls were deposited by a
stream, that happened millions of years ago in a totally different stream system).
Describing the events that took place and formed a rock sequence is called a geologic history. You’ll be asked
to do this in your homework, so if you have any questions about interpreting the geologic history of an area, ask
your TA.
56
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Identifying Common Sedimentary Minerals

The purpose of this activity is to become familiar with common or important sedimentary minerals
1. Divide into groups of 3 or 4. Every group will use one set of sedimentary minerals (tray 1).
2. Use Fig. 4 as a guide to the diagnostic properties that will help you identify the mineral samples in the tray.
Sample # Mineral Name Best Identifying Characteristic

(shape, reactivity, cleavage, etc.)
1
Which of these minerals are also common igneous minerals? _______________________________________
Activity 2: Describing Sedimentary Textures

Identifying specific minerals in sedimentary rocks is sometimes very difficult, so we rely much more
heavily on the texture of the rocks. Because sedimentary rocks are formed differently than igneous or metamorphic
rocks, we use different textural terms to describe sedimentary rocks.
Look at the table below, and look at the jars of sediment in tray 2.
1. For each of the primary sediment characteristics (sorting, grain size and rounding), determine which of the
sediments best fits the textural term listed.
Sorting Grain Size Rounding

well sorted poorly sorted large grain size small grain size rounded angular
Sample #
2. What do these differences between the sediments mean with respect to the transport history?______________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What do these differences between the sediments mean with respect to the energy level of the environment
in which they formed?________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK__________
57
Activity 3: Identifying Common Sedimentary Rocks
Investigate the samples in tray 3. In your groups, follow the steps below:
Step 1:
Make observations and determine diagnostic features and characteristics.
Step 2:
Use your observations to interpret the conditions of the sedimentary depositional environment.
Step 3:
Name the samples using the sedimentary rocks classification flow chart (Fig. 10).
Observations Interpretations Inference

(list at least 3) (list all that apply)
What is the main com- Rock Name
E.g. texture (grain size, sorting, position if it is chemical/
rounding), composition, fossil types, What is its depositional environ- biological? (Fig. 1)
hardness, reaction to acid, etc. ment? (Fig. 7 - 9) What is the energy level
if it is clastic/detrital?
TA CHECK__________
58
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Interpreting Depositional Environments
Look at the diagram below (refer to your pre-lab reading material for help). Fill in the blank boxes with
rock names that are reasonable given the environment of deposition. Use each rock name only once.
Conglomerate
59
Activity 2: Understanding A Geologic Rock Record
mountain
coast/beach shallow
tidal flat marine deep marine
continental
shelf
Above is an image from Google Earth of North America’s east coast. The dark shading off the coast is the drop
off that marks the end of the continental shelf.
On the following page there are three identical, generalized cross sections (vertical slices) along the dark line.
The cross sections show the transitions from mountain→beach→tidal flat→continental shelf→deep ocean abyss.
Each cross section represents a single point in time in Earth’s history, and your job is to name the different rocks
that form in the various environments of deposition.
1. Fill in the blank.
Start with Time I (top cross section). In each box, write the name of the sedimentary rock type you would expect
to be deposited in each environment (note: there may be more than one correct answer).
Next, in Time II (the middle cross section), notice the difference in sea level from Time I.
• Fill in the rock types that were deposited during Time I (copy your answers from the first step in the boxes
labeled 1).
• Considering the change in sea level, write the rock type that is currently being deposited (write these in each
of the boxes labeled 2).
Note: if the environment hasn’t changed much and the same rock will form as did in Time I, that’s OK.
For Time III, copy your answers from Time I and Time II and write them in the appropriate boxes. Once you’ve
finished filling in all the boxes, answer the questions on the page following the cross sections.
60
Note: not to scale
Time I
Sea
Level
1 1 1
Time II
Sea
Level
2 2 2
1 1 1
Time III
Sea
Level
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
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2. Look back at the second column in Time III (it has a star above it). Copy the rock names you wrote down to the
matching boxes below and complete the table.
Rock Type Depositional Environment Energy Level

(copy names over) (low, intermediate, high)
3
3. Think about the changes between Time I and Time II. What geologic events could have caused the change
in environment, and therefore the changes in energy level? Refer to Geologic History section in your pre-lab
reading. ___________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Think about the changes between Time II and Time III. What geologic events could have caused the change
in environment, and therefore the changes in energy level? Refer to Geologic History section in your pre-lab
reading. ___________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Compaction of Sediments

If the rocks in a sequence were uplifted above sea level, and a stream were to cut through the rocks, we
would see a stack of rocks in the canyon walls that all formed in the same location but at different times and in
different depositional environments. How long does this take? Let’s investigate.
1. Deposition: the principle of uniformitarianism says that the processes that are going on today are the same as
those that have acted in the past (“The present is the key to the past”). Modern depositional rates of limestone in
the Caribbean Sea are 0.5cm/1,000 years (kyr). Given that rate, how long would it take to deposit just one layer
from this rock sequence? Assume each layer is 100 m thick. Show your work (no calculations, no credit).
__________________ years
2. Compaction: sediment gets substantially compacted during lithification. For limestone, a typical amount of
compaction is 20% that of deposition. Given this, and using your previous answer, how long did it really take to
deposit one layer? Show your work (no calculations, no credit).
__________________ years
3. Assuming this rock sequence has 4 limestone layers, as well as a constant* compaction rate during the deposition
of all layers, how long did it take to deposit the whole stack of rocks? Use your previous calculation to answer
this question.
*in reality, these rates change over time depending on many factors; we’re assuming constant here just to make the calculations simpler.
__________________ years
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Activity 4: Constructing A Geologic History
By now you should have a good idea of how a single location can have lots of different rocks forming,
depending on the water level and the environment of deposition at the time. Let’s use the skills we’ve learned and
interpret the history of a real rock sequence.
The picture below is of a rock sequence exposed in a canyon wall. The dashed lines indicate the contacts between
the different rock layers. These layers are sedimentary rock layers formed long ago in the same way rocks formed
in the previous activities. These rocks have since been exposed by erosion. Specifically, the river that is currently
running through the bottom of the canyon eroded these rocks, but it didn’t form them.
Lee Limestone
Gunner Formation
Sarah Sandstone
Eliza Shale
Here are some distinguishing characteristics of these rock units that might help you identify their environment of
deposition. Make sure the environment you choose explains all of the characteristics (fossils included). Note that
the rock units are listed in alphabetical order, not chronologic order.
Rock Formation Characteristics

Name
Sarah Sandstone Lots of quartz, well-sorted, fine-grained, animal tracks and wind-blown cross-bedding.
(~184 million yrs old)
Eliza Shale Contains mudcracks, ripple marks, fern fossils and animal tracks. (~209 million yrs old)
Lee Limestone Fossils of freshwater and saltwater shellfish, corals, and sponges (~147 million yrs old)
Gunner Formation Sandstone and limestone - fossils of coral, sponges, shark teeth (~162 million yrs old)
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1. Fill out the chart on the left by writing the name and likely environment of deposition for this sequence of rocks.
Youngest Formation One Possible Depositional Lee Limestone

Name Environment Gunner Formation
Sarah Sandstone
Eliza Shale
Oldest
2. Write a geologic history. Use your new-found skills of interpreting sedimentary rocks to describe how this
canyon formed. In other words, what events occurred in this location to create each of these rock layers? Include
the following:
• Age of the formation and depositional environment (based on layer characteristics)
• What happened to change the environment over time
• How the rocks have been exposed
Note #1: The last event should be erosion by the modern river. Note the time difference between the time it took
to form these rocks and the time since they were formed. The modern river started flowing around 5 million years
ago.
Note #2: This question is intended to be challenging. If you get stuck, try consulting your TA during his or her
office hours. Please note that writing a geologic history of a sedimentary sequence is the main goal of this lab, so
do a good job here. Attach a sheet if you need more room.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:


Lab #4: Metamorphic Rocks
Lab # 4: Metamorphic Rocks
The purpose of today’s lab is to introduce you to metamorphic rocks. By the end of the lab you should be
able to distinguish between different metamorphic rock types, identify their potential parent rocks, and determine
the pressure and temperature at which they formed.
Objectives
1) Understand the processes through which metamorphic rocks form.
2) Be able to identify common metamorphic rocks and interpret their origin based on their texture.
3) Be able to name a possible protolith (parent rock) of a metamorphic rock.
4) Interpret the tectonic setting of various types of metamorphic rocks.
5) Be able to estimate ranges in pressure and temperature of formation for common metamorphic rocks using
charts and diagrams.
Materials:
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook
Calculator
Prelab work (to be completed before lab begins)

The ConcepTest will be on material related to sedimentary rocks from lab 3 and reading material from lab 4
(this lab).

Activity 1: Metamorphic minerals
Activity 2: Metamorphic rocks
Activity 3: Rock quiz review

67
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks)
are subjected to changes in temperature and pressure, but not high enough temperature to melt the rock (once it
melts, it’s an igneous rock). Some examples of metamorphic rocks are: gneiss, schist, phyllite, slate, marble and
quartzite (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Examples of metamorphic rocks, gneiss (left) and phyllite (right).
Origin of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism refers to the changes in the solid state to pre-existing rock, which commonly occurs
deep within the lithophere. Metamorphism can involve an increase in pressure (P) or temperature (T), or both.
Chemically active fluids also play a role in mobilizing ions to allow metamorphism to take place. The protolith
(parent rock) also determines the resultant metamorphic rock. Protoliths may be sedimentary, igneous, or
metamorphic rocks of a different grade. The characteristics of the metamorphic rocks indicate the tectonic setting
of formation (Fig. 2). Metamorphic conditions can occur in tectonic collision zones, subduction zones, or adjacent
to igneous intrusions deep below Earth’s surface (Fig. 3).
Characteristics Tectonic Setting Type of Metamorphism

Texture: non-foliated Adjacent to igneous intrusions.
Usually looks granular (interlocking Increased T, and Contact

crystals of one dominant mineral) often hydrothermal (hot) fluids,
are the most important agents.
Texture: foliated (less commonly Convergent boundaries or
granular) collision zones. Regional
or
Foliation types: Both tectonic settings cause
Progressive
slaty→phyllitic→schistose→gneissic increase in P and T.
(see next section for definition)
Texture: foliated (specifically schis- Subduction zones at convergent

tose) boundaries.
Subduction
Have a specific mineralogy called Cold ocean lithosphere subducts (blueschist)
blueschist (blue minerals formed in into the hot mantle creating
high P-low T metamorphism) special circumstances of
very high P and low T.
Figure 2. Metamorphic rock characteristics, tectonic setting, and types of metamorphism. T = temperature, P = pressure.
68
Contact Metamorphism
(around magma bodies)
high T - low P Hydrothermal alteration
(metamorphism) of ocean
floor basalts
Compression causing
mountain belts and
regional metamorphism
Figure 3. Tectonic setting of metamorphic rocks.

Lithosphere
Wet partial melting of
the upper mantle
Zone of high pressure/low

temperature subduction
zone metamorphism
69
Metamorphic Rocks Classification

I. Metamorphic Textures
Foliation is the diagnostic texture of metamorphic rocks, although not all metamorphic rocks are foliated.
Foliation is defined as the parallel or linear alignment of grains in a rock in an interlocking crystalline form
(Fig. 4). Most commonly the minerals that align are mica and amphiboles. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
generally display a recrystallized or granular texture (interlocking crystals that are often larger and more
intergrown that those in igneous rocks).
Protolith Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss
Figure 4. Progression of foliated textures. Degree of foliation is dependent upon the metamorphic grade (see next page).
II. Metamorphic Compositions
One of the important aspects of metamorphic rocks is that the composition of the rocks stays fairly constant.
Unless abundant hydrothermal (hot) fluids are involved, the bulk chemical composition does not change much
with metamorphism. Through changes in pressure and temperature, metamorphic rocks change by growing
new minerals with the same chemical composition. So, the elements that make up the protolith are the same
elements in the metamorphic rock.
III. Relationship Between Composition and Texture

The amount of pressure and the mineralogy of the rock affect the development of foliation. For example, if
the parent rock is composed of one dominant mineral (e.g. limestone or quartz sandstone), the elements in that
mineral can not rearrange to become new minerals due to the lack of other elements. In contrast, if a rock made
up of numerous minerals, the elements can rearrange to become new minerals such as mica and amphibole,
which tend to align and foliate.
Metamorphic Minerals
The different minerals present tell you a lot about the pressure and temperature of metamorphism, as dif-
ferent minerals will grow at different conditions (refer to Metamorphic Grade section on the next page). Below
is a table of some of the common metamorphic minerals.
Important Metamorphic Minerals
Mineral Diagnostic Mineral Properties Metamorphic Grade
Many colors (often dull, sometimes translucent), hard (scratches
Quartz glass), conchoidal fracture (can break in smooth curves), Any
no cleavage
Often dark red, hard (scratches glass), can have conchoidal frac-
Garnet Medium-high or higher
ture (break in smooth curves), no cleavage, crystal is 12-sided
White, soft (scratched with a knife but not with a fingernail),
Calcite Any
cleavage in 3 directions (rhombic), reacts (fizzes) with dilute acid
Brown/translucent, soft (scratches with fingernail), 1 good
Mica Medium-low or higher
cleavage (flakes off into thin sheets)
Light to dark green, hard, good cleavage, needle-shaped crystals.
Actinolite Medium-high or higher
A type of amphibole
White/pink/tan, hard (scratches glass), good cleavage in
Feldspar High
2 directions
Figure 5. Common metamorphic minerals and their properties.
70
Metamorphic Grade
Not all metamorphic rocks are recrystallized to the same degree. The intensity of metamorphism, called
metamorphic grade, depends on how much pressure and heat have been applied. Minerals tend to grow in size
with increasing grade. Also, some rocks change into other metamoraphic rocks depending on the grade. However,
certain rocks do not change much with increasing metamorphic grade (e.g. marble and quartzite).
The chart below (Fig. 6) is an approximate guide to the pressure and temperature ranges for different metamorphic
grades. Different metamorphic grades are a result of varying pressure and temperature conditions. To help you
with the the visualization of where in the different conditions occur in the lithosphere refer to Fig. 7.
Common
Metamorphic Pressure Temperature
Foliated Common Non-foliated Rock
Grade Range Range
Rock
Low 1-4 kbar 200-325 oC slate quartzite, marble, greenstone, serpentinite
Medium-low 1.5-6 kbar 325-450 oC phyllite quartzite, marble, greenstone, serpentinite
quartzite, marble, greenstone, serpentinite
Medium-high 2.5-12 kbar 450-525 oC schist quartzite, marble, greenstone, serpentinite
High 2.5-20 kbar 525-650 oC gneiss quartzite, marble, eclogite, serpentinite
Igneous
Once a rock melts, it is no longer metamorphic. If only part of the rock melts, the liquid part is magma and
the remaining solid part is still high grade metamorphic rock (this kind of rock is called a migmatite)
Figure 6. Table of approximate conditions for metamorphic grades. Units of pressure are in kilobars (kbar), where 1 bar is roughly equal
to atmospheric pressure, and one kbar is roughly equal to 1,000 times atmospheric pressure.
Temperature (oC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Sedimentary
conditions
Contact metamorphism 1
5
mm
2
rade
g
mm grade
low
10
3
low
mm grade
Depth (kilometers)
Pressure (kilobars)
ium
igh
4
n)
med
15
ite f elting
mh
atio
mm
orm
iu
(mig set of m
med
ade
5
h gr
s
ition
mat
20
On
Hig
cond
6
These conditions are
ous
not found in nature

Igne
25 7
8
Figure 7. P-T diagram for metamorphic rocks showing the different metamorphic grades.
71
Classifying Metamorphic Rocks
Follow these steps to help you identify metamorphic rocks. Use the chart below to name the rocks.
Step 1:
Determine whether the rock is foliated or non-foliated (Fig. 4, first column in the chart below).
Step 2:
Make observations about the texture. Look at the 3rd and 4th columns for suggestions.
Are the minerals aligned (foliated) or it the texture random (granular)?
Are the rocks shiny? Scaly? Banded?
Step 3:
Are the minerals big enough to see without a hand lens?
Are the minerals big enough to identify? If so, identify them. Check the 4th column to see if they are
listed.
Step 4:
Identify the rock. Look at the 1st column to estimate the metamorphic grade and the 2nd column to identify the
protolith.
Often grayish-green,
(shiny but no crystals)

Aligned minerals,
(“scaly” texture)
Non-Granular
(Massive)
Figure 8. Metamorphic rock classification chart.
72
Metamorphic Rocks and Isotherms
It is important to understand how pressure and temperature change in the lithosphere. Since the center of
the Earth is very hot (hotter than the surface of the sun), the temperature below Earth’s surface quickly rises as
depth increases. The rate of temperature change with depth is called the geothermal gradient. The geothermal
gradient varies depending where you are on the planet. In some places it is steeper (meaning it gets hotter faster),
and in other places is shallower (meaning is doesn’t get hot very quickly with depth).
Geothermal Gradient = Temperature (°C)

Depth (km)
Low grade metamorphism begins to take place at around 200oC. How deep must a rock be in order to reach this
temperature? Using a few data points and some clever math to calculate how heat flows through the Earth, we
can establish lines of equal temperature, called isotherms (“iso” meaning the same, and “therm” meaning tem-
perature). Isotherms can be flat or bend around cold or hot areas. In general, isotherms tend to be parallel to one
another. However, isotherms (and the geothermal gradient) are much more complex where there are inconsisten-
cies within the crust (e.g. a rising magma plume). See Fig. 9 below for a hypothetical isotherm diagram.
surface
lithosphere
200 C
o
200 oC
400 C 400 oC
o
600 oC 600 oC
800 oC magma 800 o
C
1000 oC 1000 o
C
1200 oC 1200 oC
1400 oC 1400 oC
asthenosphere
Figure 9. Hypothetical isotherm diagram. The surface is room temperature (~20 oC), and the isotherms increase in 200oC increments.
Notice how the isotherms curve around the magma chamber. The magma itself ranges in temperature from ~825oC and 1,300oC,
based on the isotherms, and the bottom of the magma chamber is hotter than the top.
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics

Pressure and temperature conditions vary in different tectonic settings. Also, different rocks types will be
present in different tectonic environments, so the protoliths can vary as well. As you examine the rock samples in
this lab, keep the following things in mind:
• The same parent rock can metamorphose into different metamorphic rocks depending on the grade.
• Typically, the grain size and the coarseness of the foliated texture increase with an increased grade.
• The type of minerals present in the rock are also clues to the pressure and temperature conditions. Many
minerals have very restricted conditions where they are stable. If conditions exceed the stability limit, the
mineral will break down and change into another mineral that is stable under the new conditions.
The significance: Metamorphic rocks commonly represent the roots of ancient mountains. The intense conditions
likely took place deep in a tectonic collision zone, either an ocean-continent convergent boundary or a continent-
continent convergent boundary. These rocks are then exposed at the surface due to uplift and deep erosion.
73
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Identifying Common Metamorphic Minerals

1. Use Fig. 5 to help you identify the metamorphic mineral samples in tray 1, then fill out the table below. Use
the minerals you have identified to answer the questions that follow.
Sample Mineral Name Metamorphic grade Best identifying characteristic

# (estimated) (shape, reactivity, color, hardness, etc.)
1
a. Which of these minerals are also common in sedimentary rocks? __________________________________

b. Which of these minerals are also common in igneous rocks? _____________________________________
c. Which of these minerals are unique to metamorphic rocks? ______________________________________
Activity 2: Identifying Common Metamorphic Rocks

1. Use Fig. 8 to identify the samples in tray 2, then fill out the chart on the next page.
Sample Foliated or Metamorphic Metamorphic Protolith

Non-foliated? Rock Name Grade
TA CHECK _______________________
74
Activity 3: Rock Quiz Review
To help you prepare for the rock quiz next week, we have provided samples of 9 rocks that are often
misidentified or mistaken for one another. As you are identifying the rocks, recall the processes you went
through in the Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rock Labs.
a. Use the rock identification sheetfound at the back of your lab manual.
b. Distinguish between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks using their characteristic textures.
Key Textures of
Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks

Interlocking crystals Particles cemented together Banded minerals
Common texture: crystalline Common texture: clastic Common texture: foliated
Rock crystallized from Lithification of sediment Rock subjected to increased

magma produced rock pressure & temperature causing
parallel alignment of minerals
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Description Sample Rock Name

Coarse-grained, plutonic, mafic
Fine-grained, volcanic, mafic

Igneous
Fine-grained, volcanic, felsic
Fine-grained, volcanic, intermediate
Fine-grained, light in color, potential for layers

and fossils
Very fine-grained, hard (scratches glass),
conchoidal fracture
Sedimentary Medium-grained, gritty
Fine-grained, soft, reacts with diluted acid

(HCl)
Metamorphic Fine-grained, slightly foliated
TA CHECK _______________________
75
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Metamorphic Grade
Use the figure below to answer the following questions. You may also want to refer to Fig. 3 & 6-7.
1. What type of metamorphism occurs at low temperature and high pressure? ____________________________
What letter on the chart corresponds to these conditions? ____________________________________________
2. Rocks near a magma chamber undergo contact metamorphism at varying temperatures and _______ pressure.
What letter on the chart corresponds to contact metamorphism? _______________________________________
3. Give the rock name that best matches the conditions for each location and the protolith.
Location 1: shale protolith ____________________ Location 3: shale protolith ____________________
Location 2: basalt protolith ___________________ Location 4: limestone protolith_________________
4. If the rock at location 1 continued to be buried to a depth of 10 km and temperatures of 325-425oC, what rock
would it become? ___________________________________________________________________________
What changes would occur in the rock as a result? _________________________________________________
5. If the rock at location 4 were heated to temperatures of 750o C, what rock would it become?______________
What changes would occur in the rock as a result? __________________________________________________
6. Think back to the various metamorphic rocks you have examined in lab. Why do the rocks with a shale pro-
tolith have more noticeable changes with pressure and temperature than those with a quartz sandstone protolith?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. List at least two protoliths that are poor indicators of metamorphic grade?_____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
76
Activity 2: Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics
1. Fill in the rock name that corresponds with the appropriate protolith on the diagram below. Consider the meta-
morphic conditions at each location. The eclogite sample has been done for you.
Hint: Keep in mind that although this diagram depicts a subduction zone, it also shows other types of metamor-
phism.
2. Draw the isotherms on the diagram below (refer to the pre-lab reading). To help you, the 500oC isotherm has
been drawn as a dotted line. Note that the isotherm is not a straight line. The cooler subducting lithosphere and
the hotter magma cause the isotherm to bend.
Hint: All isotherms should behave similarly, so use the 500°C isotherm as a guide. Keep in mind that the coolest
magma is >800oC, and the asthenosphere is about 1,300oC.
Protolith:
Protolith: shale sandstone
B
Oceanic
Geothermal Gradient
A
oceanic crust Protolith:
oceanic 200oC granite
lithosphere 400 C
o
500 oC
800oC
1000oC
magma
Protolith:
peridotite asthenosphere
asthenosphere
Protolith: basalt
Protolith: basalt
Eclogite
77
3. The rate at which the temperature increases with depth is called the geothermal gradient.
a. When the isotherms are more closely spaced, is the temperature changing more quickly or more slowly?
Circle one.
b. On the diagram on the previous page there are two vertical lines marked A and B. These lines are of equal
length (representing about 50 km on the diagram), but the geothermal gradient of line A is consistant, whereas
the geothermal gradient of line B is inconsistant. Calculate the average geothermal gradient for each of these
lines. Show your work (no calculations, no credit).
Hint: refer to your pre-lab reading for the geothermal gradient formula.
Assume that the lines start at the surface at a temperature of 0oC.
Use the isotherms you drew to estimate the temperature at the bottom end of the line.
Include units (oC/km)
Line A: __________________
Line B: __________________

c. Increasing pressure causes rocks to become more dense as they get metamorphosed. Look at where eclogite
forms. Do you expect eclogite to be very dense? _________________________________________________
What effect do you think this has on plate tectonics (think about why the plates move)? _________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 4: A Comprehensive Review

Now that you have seen all three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic), think about
the characteristics of each group.
1. How can you tell a rock from a mineral? _______________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How can you tell a non-foliated metamorphic rock from a plutonic igneous rock? _____________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How can you tell a breccia or a conglomerate from a porphyritic rock?________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How can you tell a biochemical sedimentary rock from a fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock (e.g. limestone
vs. mudstone)? _____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
78
Lab #5: WWU Campus Geology Tour
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________

Geology encompasses more than landscapes. The materials used to build cars, bikes, roads, buildings,
and sidewalks all come from geologic resources, and everything in our daily lives is affected by active geologic
processes. We don’t have to go very far to see abundant examples of geologic resources and processes in action.
Objectives
1) Go outside and use your geological and analytical skills.
2) Learn interesting information about rocks that you may see every day on campus.
3) Learn about several active geologic processes on our campus.
4) Observe how rocks are used effectively in art and as building materials.
Materials
Pencil
Clipboard
Wear appropriate clothes and shoes for going outside.

We will go regardless of the weather, so dress for cold and wet if necessary.

Review the Google Earth files provided on the Canvas site under Lab #5 (WWU placemark and the South
Bellingham LiDAR overlay).
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today)

Stops are subject to change.
Stop 1: Outdoor classroom on Sehome Hill
Stop 2: Sehome Hill landslide behind Art Building
Stop 3: Fisher Fountain
Stop 4: Main library entrance
Dark tiles under skybridge
Outcrop next to skybridge
Stop 5: Memory Walk and Old Main
Stop 6: Avalanche victims’ memorial
Stop 7: Edens Hall rock sequence

None
79
Starting
point
Follow along on this campus map

throughout the tour.
Clearly label the stop numbers on

this map as you go.
80
Stop 1: Sehome Hill Outdoor Classroom
1. Do you think this rock is igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic? ___________________________________
2. Pay close attention to rock grains and list their characteristics (e.g. size, roundness, sorting)? ______________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Identify this rock. _________________________________________________________________________
4. This outcrop is part of the Chuckanut Formation. Based on your observations, make some specific interpretations
about the possible depositional environments in which the outcrop in front of you formed.
Hint: In other locations, this rock contains plant fossils such as ferns and fronds.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Stop 2: Sehome Hill Landslide

A landslide occurred here in 1961. What evidence can you see that might suggest that there is still a slope
stability problem? Look at the sidewalk, the position of the trees, the age of the trees on the landslide and to either
side. Check whether there is any water leaking out of the hillside.
1. List and describe three observations below.

a. ______________________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________
Stop 3: Fisher Fountain

1. Look carefully at the fountain’s water level (if empty look at the ring left by the water). Based on your
observations and the figure below, why do you think the fountain’s water level is uneven? ____________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
WWU Campus Geology

Ridgeway Dorm
Wilson Library Miller Hall
Red Square Sehome Hill
WEST EAST
UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT
Dirt brought in for construction and landscaping
Peat beds formed in wetlands. Left after the final retreat of glaciers 10,000 year ago.
CHUCKANUT FORMATION
Sandstone and conglomerate
Siltstone, shale, and coal
81
Stop 4: Wilson Library
1. Examine the dark tiles under the skybridge. If you look carefully you will notice rectangular-shaped reflections.
These represent cleavage planes of amphibole and pyroxene.
a. Do you think this rock is igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic? __________________________________
b. What is the rock texture? _________________________________________________________________
c. What is the rock composition? _____________________________________________________________
d. Identify the rock. _______________________________________________________________________
2. Examine the rock outcrop next to the skybridge.

a. Do you think this rock is igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic? __________________________________
b. Observe the rock layers. What are the black layers composed of? __________________________________
c. Why is there a talus pile accumulated at the base of the outcrop? Explain. ___________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
d. This rock should look familiar to you. Where have you seen it before? _____________________________
Stop 5: Memory Walk and Old Main

1. Take a close look at the capsules. Note that older capsules were made from a different rock type than newer
capsules.
a. What two rock types have been used to make the memory capsules? _______________________________
b. Why do you think they switched? __________________________________________________________
2. What type of rock makes up the base of Old Main? _______________________________________________
3. Where do you think the builders got the stone for this part of the building? ____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Stop 6: Avalanche Victims’ Memorial

Six Western Washington University students were killed in an avalanche below the Roman Wall while
climbing Mt. Baker. The weather was hot, and the snow conditions were unsafe for climbing that day.
1. Examine the rock.

a. Identify the rock. _______________________________________________________________________
b. What geologic process formed these structures? _______________________________________________
Stop 7: Edens Hall

In order to put Edens Hall where it is, a portion of Sehome Hill had to be excavated, leaving this exposure
of the Chuckanut Formation. This outcrop, unlike the Sehome Hill classroom and the Wilson Library outcrops,
contains shale.
1. In the diagram below, list the four rocks we have seen in the Chuckanut Formation in their appropriate box.
Swamp Flood plain River
82
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:


Lab #6: Streams, Coastlines & Groundwater

The purpose of today’s lab is to introduce you to various types of hydrogeological processes.
Objectives:
1) Investigate water-related geologic processes.
2) Construct a scale model of a stream, make predictions, and observe stream processes.
3) Construct a scale model of a shoreline, make predictions, and observe shoreline processes.
4) Make observations about groundwater flow.
Materials:
Pencil (no pens)
Colored pencils
Ruler

Complete the online Warm-Up Quiz using the information in this lab and your textbook.
The ConcepTest will be on material related to WWU campus geology from lab 5 and reading material from
lab 6 (this lab).

Activity 1: Streams
Activity 2: Coasts
Activity 3: Groundwater

Activities are on pages 93-94
85
Hydrogeologic Processes
This lab investigates hydrogeologic processes (geologic process associated with water). Large populations
live adjacent to rivers and coastal areas, therefore it is important to understand these environments. We will
observe what can happen when humans interfere with natural systems.
Streams
Streams are dynamic systems that strive for equilibrium. Streams have many changing variables, including
discharge, water velocity, sediment load, and base level, which influence stream erosion, transportation, and
deposition of material.
Stream Characteristics
Stream discharge is the volume of water that flows past a given point in a unit of time. Units of measurement
influce cubic feet per second (f3/s, CFS) or cubic meters per second (m3/s, CMS). The distance water travels per
unit time (how fast water flows) is called stream velocity. Velocity, along with stream width and depth, are used
to define stream discharge:
Discharge (Q) = Width (W) x Depth (D) x Velocity (V)
The body of a stream is called a channel, which will deepen overtime as a result of downcutting. Base level
is a stream’s lowest limit of erosion. For streams that flow to the ocean, sea level is the base level. The downhill
slope of the stream bed (rise over run) is called the gradient. Streams widen their valleys through erosion and
mass wasting of material. As stream channels erode the land they form v-shaped valleys (unlike glaciers, which
form u-shaped valleys).
Channel Patterns
I. Straight
Straight streams are rarely found in nature. When straight streams do occur, they are a associated with a steep
gradient, a linear zone of weakness (e.g. fault), or are confined inside valley walls in a mountainous region
where the stream originates (Fig. 1).
II. Braided
Braided streams form in areas with highly variable discharge and high sediment load, such as valley outlets.
Braided streams deposit sediment in small islands, known as bars, within the stream (Fig. 1).
Headwaters
Straight stream
Braided stream
Cut bank
Meandering stream
Point bar
Ocean
Water
table
Delta
Alluvial fan
Bar Flood plain Cut off Oxbow lake
Figure 1. Stream types and localities.
86
III. Meandering
Meandering streams form in areas with a low gradient. The outer bends of a meander are the zones of highest
velocity and erosion (cut banks), and the inner bends are areas of lowest velocity and deposition (point bars).
With time, the cut banks of a meander will touch, causing the stream to flow in a shorter, straighter path (cut
off). When this happens, the abandoned meander will form an oxbow lake (Fig. 1).
Sediment Transportation and Deposition

Streams transport material in loads. There are three types of sediment loads, one being bed load, where
sediment is transported through rolling, sliding, and saltation (bouncing) of grains. The suspended load remains
lifted by water turbulence . The grain size that can be carried depends on the stream velocity (most suspended load
is clay and silt). The third type is dissolved load. This occurs when ions, the products of chemical weathering, are
carried in solution.
Sediment is not only deposited within the channel. During flooding events, the stream will overflow and deposit
mud, silt, and sand on lowlands adjacent to the stream channel, called floodplains. Larger depositional features
include alluvial fans, which develop when a mountain stream emerges from a confined canyon onto a wide
valley floor, and deltas, which develop when a stream empties into a standing body of water (Fig. 1). Deltas form
through foreset bedding (deposition of non-horizontal beds, which results in cross bedding).
Coastlines
The position of a shoreline moves landward or seaward depending on sea level (rise or fall), tectonic
movement (uplift or subsidence), or both. Before understanding the formation and erosion of coastal features, it
is important to understand the behavior of waves and sediment transport along a shoreline.
Wave refraction: The bending of wave fronts as they approach shallow water near the shore.
Longshore current: A current of water that travels parallel to the coast. This occur when waves break on the
shore at an angle.
Longshore drift: Refers to sediment that is transported parallel to the shore through longshore current.
Coastal Structures
Since the coast is a high-energy
environment, deposition and erosion
continuously form a variety of geological
features (Fig. 2). Accumulated sand that
builds a ridge off a point of land is called a
spit. The spit usually points in the direction
of sediment transport along a shore. In the
instance where a sand spit connects two land
masses (e.g. an island and the main land), it
is referred to as a tombolo. If a sand ridge
builds up to form a bar that closes off a bay
from the open ocean, it becomes a baymouth
Figure 2. A diagram illustrating coastal landforms.
bar.
Rocky points of land that protrude seaward, and are often made of resistant rock types, are called headlands.
Remnants of eroded headlands are known as sea stacks. When a horizontal bench forms through wave erosion
and cliff retreat it is called a wave-cut platform. When a cliff forms through wave erosion and mass wasting, it
is called a sea cliff. Sea cliffs occur in regions of high relief.
87
Coastal Disaster Prevention Jetties Seawall
The structures listed below are placed to prevent coastal Groin
erosion or sedimentation. However, many of these stuructures
frequently fail due to catastrophic natural events (Fig. 3). Breakwater
Jetties: Walls built to protect harbor entrances from sediment

deposition and storm waves. Jetties are often built in pairs.
Groins: Structures built perpendicular to the shore. Groins are
meant to trap sediment and widen the beach in the up-current
direction.
Breakwater: Off shore structure built to absorb energy of
Figure 3. Various man-made coastal disaster pre-
breaking waves and provide quiet water near the shore. vention structures.
Bulkhead/seawall: Structure built at the base of a slope parallel
to the shore. It is designed to protect the shoreline from energy of breaking waves and prevent erosion.
Groundwater
Groundwater is a critical part of the hydrologic (water) cycle that results from the infiltration of rain or
surface water. Water seeps downward through the soil and cracks in rocks to restore the groundwater supply. A
recharge area is where water soaks into the ground from the surface (e.g. rainy spots, lakes, etc.). A discharge
area is where water leaks out of the groundwater system (e.g. streams, springs, etc.). Groundwater flow rates
depend on the porosity and permeability of the subsurface material, as well as the hydraulic gradient (the slope
of the water table). Porosity is the volume of pore space in soil, sediment, and rock, and is often reported as
percentage (%) of open space in a rock. Permeability is the ability to transmit fluid, and how easy fluids travel
through the pore space.
Within the subsurface, water concentrations are divided into two zones. The unsaturated zone (vadose zone) is a
zone where some pore space is not filled with water. The saturated zone (phreatic zone) is a zone where all the
pore spaces are saturated with water. The boundary between the the two zones is called the water table (Fig. 1
and Fig. 4). The water table mimics the topography of the ground surface and therefore can have highs and lows
and can be sloped.
An aquifer is a porous and permeable layer of sediment or rock from which a useful amount of groundwater can
be obtained. An unconfined aquifer is a partially filled aquifer that is open to receive water from the surface.
A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a low permeability aquitard (a confining layer often made
of clay), and is therefore protected from surface contamination. Water in a confined aquifer is under significant
pressure.
unsaturated
zone
(vadose well
zone)
well
unconfined
aquifer sandstone
shale
confined
aquifer
saturated
zone granite
(phreatic
zone)
Figure 4. The influence of rock types on groundwater.
88
In-Class Activities
In nature, each geologic process has many variables. To successfully model change in real systems, it is
important to change only one variable at a time so that you can determine the effect from that change. Keep this
in mind when completing this lab.
Activity 1: Stream Processes

As a class, create a river setting, make predictions, and carry out several experiments to see if your
predictions are correct.
1. Create a meandering channel that is at least 4-5 cm deep and wide. Next, 4-5 volunteers can choose a site at
which to build a house.
a. In the box below, draw a sketch (to scale) of the river and buildings. Label your diagram with a scale bar
(the scale of a map or diagram is defined as the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on
the ground), north arrow, and with the following:
Headwaters Point bar
Meandering channel Delta (will build up over time)
Cut bank
b. Predict where you think erosion will occur, label places on your drawing with a E for erosion.
c. Predict where you think deposition will occur, label places on your drawing with a D for deposition.
Symbol Key
89
2. Make observations about change through time.
a. Turn the switch on and allow your river to flow for a few minutes.
b. Observe how the stream channel changes with time. Draw these changes on your sketch.
Hint: Note where erosion and deposition occur. Also pay attention to the delta, as it will grow over time.
c. Describe how the delta (or alluvial fan) grows over time. ________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
d. Assess the properties. Where did the most damage occur (cut bank or point bar)? Where did the least damage
occur? __________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Turn off the switch. Place a small block on the outside of one meander bend. This block is meant to serve as a
disaster prevention structure to prevent lateral channel erosion. Turn the switch on again. Observe that the block
causes rapid erosion in places not protected.
a. Observe the changes. What happens close to the structure? _____________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. What happens directly downstream on the same bank as the structure? _____________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. What happens directly downstream from the structure on the opposite bank? _________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Coastal Processes

1. Like most geologic processes, coastal processes involve small changes over long period of times. Therefore,
we will look at the effect of day-to-day water movement (low wave height, low energy) and storms (high wave
height, high energy).
a. Measure sediment thickness at the two marked locations. Write measurement on the chalkboard (in cm).
b. The TA will take a picture of the coastline prior to the storm stimulation.
c. Replicate a storm by increasing the wave height. Let the model run at storm intensity for 2 minutes.
d. Remeasure sediment thickness at the two marked locations.
e. The TA will take another picture of the coastline after the storm stimulation. To complete your homework
activity, refer to these pictures and the collected data, which will be posted on the Canvas page.
2. Where do you think the most erosion and greatest deposition will occur? _____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In the box below, roughly sketch the coastline and indicate where erosion and deposition occurred. Remember
to include a scale bar and a north arrow.
Beach side
Water side
90
a. When was the most sediment transported? ___________________________________________________

b. Based on your observations, when did the seawall (bricks) prevent erosion? When did they promote
erosion? ________________________________________________________________________________
c. Describe how your predictions about erosion and deposition compared to your findings. ______________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Groundwater Processes

1. Write the following terms in the appropriate location on the diagram below. Refer to your pre-lab reading
(pg. 88) for definitions.
recharge area discharge area water table
confined aquifer unconfined aquifer aquitard
vadose (unsaturated) zone phreatic (saturated) zone
2. Describe the shape of the water table of your model. _____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
well numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
u.s.t
lake
stream
lake
stream
water
water
input
input
water
water
exit
exit
91
3. For this experiment, read the instructions carefully.
a. Have a small syringe with dye, a large syringe with water, a ruler, and a stopwatch ready to use.
b. Add one drop of dye to well #6 using the small syringe, then add the contents of the large syringe to the
same well (this will help the dye percolate through the sand).
c. Time the movement of the dye for one minute.
d. At the end of the minute, measure the distance the dye traveled and write down on the space below.
Time: 60 seconds Distance: _________________ cm
e. Calculate the rate of groundwater flow. Show your calculations and include units.
Hint: Groundwater flow = distance ÷ time
___________________
f. What happened to the dye plume as it moved through the sediment?__________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
g. Observe water flowing through the sediment. What determines the flow direction? Refer to your pre-lab
reading. __________________________________________________________________________________
h. Now add one drop of dye to well #3 and follow it with water. Does the plume behave differently than it did in
well #6? Explain your observations. ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Reach into the rear of the tank and close the discharge area (turn the green handle 90 degrees either way). Now,
open the stream valve. In this exercise, the dye will represent some toxic pesticides or herbicides.
a. Make sure the stream is flowing properly.
b. Add one drop of dye to well #6 and follow it with a squirt of water.
c. What happens to the plume of contamination? _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
d. How does this impact the water table? ______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
e. Add another drop of dye (pollution) to the well. Where does the contamination end up and approximately
how long does it take for the water to clear up? __________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
f. If this model represented a real contamination scenario, how would the pollution impact a community who
relies on water from this groundwater source? ____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
g. If you were going to build a house on this model, which well would you want as your drinking water well?
Why? __________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK_________________
92
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Streams
1. Describe the relationship between water velocity and deposition and erosion of sediment. Think of where
erosion and deposition occurred in the stream table. _______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Think back to the In-Class activity and how the placement of structures impacted the stream behavior and vice
versa. What factors would be different in the real world? ____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Coasts
1. Go to the lab Canvas page and download the pictures and data from the coastal wave experiment. In the space
below, use colored pencils to draw the changes is the coastline over the course of the day.
a. Draw the coastline in the 8:00 am picture.
b. Using a different color, draw the coastline in the final picture.
c. Label the north arrow, scale bar, and show the direction of the incoming waves.
d. Label coastline features, which may include: headland, lagoon, islands, direction of longshore transport, etc.
Beach side
Water side
2. Comparing the first and last images, where did the most erosion occur (sediment 1 or sediment 2)? What about de-
position? __________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Now look at the entire sequence of pictures. Describe the changes to the coast line over the course of the day.
In particular, compare the erosion and deposition patterns between storms and daily events._________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
93
4. Look at the measurements of sediment thickness. Plot the results on the graph below, with time on the horizon-
tal axis (the dependent variable) and sediment thickness on the vertical axis (the independent variable). Write the
thickness values on the vertical axis. Be sure to plot both sediment 1 and sediment 2.
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00
a. Does sediment 1 thickness increase, decrease, or remain constant over time? What about sediment 2? Ex-
plain. ___________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Label storm events on the graph.
Activity 3: Groundwater
1. What is the difference between porosity and permeability? _________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Which sedimentary rocks tend to be more porous? Less porous? ___________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In many parts of the world, water demands Rural

Withdrawls (billion gallons/day)
can only be met by pumping groundwater. Industrial

However, over-pumping of groundwater Public Supply
can result in major problems. For instance, Irrigation
over-pumping groundwater depresses the

water table, which in return can alter the di-
rection of water flow. If a wetland (where
the water table meets the surface) is adja-
cent to a town that is over-pumping ground-
water, the water can flow from the wetland
towards the area of lowered water table,
possibly causing the wetlands to dry up.
Fresh Groundwater Withdrawls in the US (USGS data)

a. Examine the graph to the right.
What are two reasons that could be causing the increase in groundwater usage across the US?____________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Come up with and explain two problems that could result from over-pumping groundwater. ___________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
94
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:


Lab #7: Geologic Hazards of Whatcom County
Lab #7: Geologic Hazards in Whatcom County
Objectives:
1) Learn about some of the natural hazards that exist in Bellingham and Whatcom County.
2) Understand what factors lead to the highest potential for natural hazards.
3) Understand the role of water in natural hazards.
4) Assess Whatcom County’s volcanic hazards.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook

The ConcepTest will be on material related to hydrogeologic processes from lab 6 and reading material from
lab 7 (this lab).

Activity 1: Angle of repose
Activity 2: Earthquakes

97
Geologic Hazards of Whatcom County
Fundamental Concepts of Natural Hazards

Hazards are predictable through science. To successfully predict hazards, scientists study the frequency,
distribution patterns, size, and magnitude of past events. The consequences of natural hazards can be minimized.
The ability to predict and determine the probability of hazardous events is crucial for risk analysis, and
understanding how a natural hazards will affect people, communities, and infrastructure. The same hazardous
events that produced disasters in the past are now creating catastrophes. Poor land use, increasing populations,
and more expensive building practices are resulting in significantly greater damage from modern hazards in terms
of both human and financial losses. In order to reduce the impact of natural hazards, there must be cooperation
between scientists, politicians, engineers, land-use planners, and disaster management personnel.
Risk vs. Hazard

The terms hazard and risk are often used incorrectly. A hazard is the actual phenomenon that will cause
damage to people or property. Risk is the likelihood of being affected by a hazard. Therefore, it is important to
identify potential hazards for a given area, and equally important to assess the risk for those hazards.
Mitigation
Mitigation is the effort to lessen the impact of natural disasters on people and property. Mitigation
techniques vary for each hazard. Nearly all mitigation plans include an educational component, because even the
greatest hazard mitigation plan will fail if no one knows what the hazards are and what should be done when they
occur. Examples of mitigation techniques include evacuation routes, engineering, education, and planning ahead.
Western Washington Geologic Hazards

There are many hazards that pose a risk to residents of Whatcom County. We will be investigating three
of these geologic hazards: mass wasting, earthquakes, and volcanoes. Other hazards are very important, and more
information can be found at the Whatcom County Division of Emergency Management: http://www.co.whatcom.
wa.us/dem/pdf/natural_hazards.pdf .
I. Mass Wasting
Ground failure and subsequent movement of earth materials downhill is called mass wasting. Mass wasting
includes many different types of ground failure, and range from small instantaneous events (e.g. a rock falling
off a cliff), to large instantaneous events (e.g. an extensive mass of sediment flowing downhill due to slope
failure), to large gradual events (e.g. slow movement of upper soil layers, known as creep). There are several
types of mass wasting that have dramatic impacts and occur in numerous regions, the most common being
debris flows. Debris flows occur when loose or uncompacted sediment flows turbulently downhill.
se
po
Re
of
le
ng
unconsolidated sediment
A
Figure 1: The angle of repose is the steepest angle a sediment pile can form.
Before we can learn to avoid debris flows, we must first understand some important concepts. The most
important of these is called the angle of repose, which is steepest angle at which a sloping surface composed
of loose, unconsolidated material will remain stable (Fig. 1). Angle of repose only pertains to loose sediment,
and varies with the size and shape of the sediment, as well as the amount of fluid present. Slopes gentler than
the angle of repose are stable. However, if the angle is increased at all, the sediment fails and slides down slope.
98
II. Earthquakes
The origin of an earthquake is call the hypocenter
(focus), and the surface point directly above the
hypocenter is called the epicenter. Earthquakes
are an exceptionally important geologic hazard in
the Pacific Northwest since the Juan de Fuca plate
subducts beneath the North American plate, resulting
in a relatively constant stream of earthquakes.
Additionally, as the oceanic lithosphere of the
Juan de Fuca plate sinks into the asthenosphere,
it compresses from the high pressure and creates
deeper earthquakes. Furthermore, the transform
boundary of the San Andreas Fault to the south, the
extension of the basin-and-range province to the
Figure 2. Collapse of I-880 in San Francisco from the M6.9 Loma
southeast, and the tectonic activity to the northeast
Prieta Earthquake in 1989
all serve to twist and tear the continental crust in the
Pacific Northwest.
There are many factors that control how much the ground moves during an earthquake. The two most important
controls are the amount of energy released from the earthquake (magnitude) and the distance from where the
rock actually ruptured. Another crucial factor is the rock that seismic waves pass through. Earthquake waves
travel differently through different rock types, and looser, less tightly bound rock or sediment slows down the
seismic waves. This will increase the amplitude of the waves, which increase shaking and results in greater
damage (Fig. 2). In general, sedimentary rock is less dense and less compacted than igneous or metamorphic
rock, and unconsolidated sediment is even less dense and structured than sedimentary rock.
One of the biggest problems with unconsolidated sediment is the additional hazards of liquefaction, which
occurs when saturated sediment is shaken (Fig. 3). Water trapped in pore space rises to the surface, and as it
accumulates, the sediment become less stable and flows like a fluid.
Figure 3. Liquefaction causes apartment buildings to sink into the ground during an
earthquake in Japan, 1964.
99
III. Volcanoes
The driving mechanism for the vast majority of volcanic eruptions is volcanic gases that are trying to escape
from the magma. At depth, these gases are dissolved in the magma. But as the magma rises, the pressure that
confines the gases in the magma is reduced (decompresses), allowing the gases to form bubbles. As the magma
rises, decompression allows more bubbles to form and existing bubbles to expand, which in turn drives the
magma to rise and so forth. This positive feedback loop can sometimes lead to an volcanic eruption.
There are two major factors that control

decompression of magmatic gases. The first is
the amount of gas present in the magma. If a
magma has a lot of gas, it would be more likely
to have an explosive eruption. The second
controlling factor is the how fast magma is able
to rise and how easily bubbles are able to rise
within the magma. The formation of bubbles is
controlled by the thickness, or viscosity, of the
magma (see Lab #2). Highly viscous magma
is very thick and difficult for bubbles to move
through, and gases become trapped. Low
viscosity magmas are runny and bubbles have
an easier time migrating through the liquid-
rock. Viscosity in magma is controlled by the
composition and the temperature of the magma.
Felsic magma is much more viscous than mafic
magma due to high silica contents and cooler
temperatures. Therefore felsic eruptions are
more violent than mafic eruptions (e.g. Kilauea
vs. Mount St. Helens).
Figure 4: The most common volcanic hazards (by USGS).
Volcanic Hazards
Volcanoes pose many hazards such as lahars (volcanic mudflows; Fig. 5) and volcanic ash (tephra) fall (bits
of pulverized rock and glass that are expelled during a volcanic eruption; Fig. 4).
Lahars are a mixture of water and loose ash that flow down stream valleys very quickly. Because streams are
an important source of water, agriculture, and transportation in most regions of the world, the banks of most
streams are densely populated. For this reason lahars are responsible for the most volcano-related fatalities
worldwide.
Lahars are a common geologic occurrence, and form when loose

volcanic material on the flanks of the volcano is washed downstream
by a sudden pulse of water. During an explosive volcanic eruption, hot
ash causes snow to melt and generate large quantities of water. Once
in a river valley, the water is incorporated in the lahar and it is able
to pick up more sediment and rock, often until it has the consistency
of wet cement. This flood of thick, muddy water (which can travel at
speeds exceeding 30 mph) contains much more mass than a normal
flood, so it can easily wipe out structures near rivers, like bridges or
dams. Lahars can flow great distances, sometimes up to 40 miles, but
usually travel less than 25 miles.
Figure 5. Mount St. Helens lahar after a small
eruption.
100
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Angle of Repose

1. Predict the stability of the materials in your experiment by determining which sediment is most stable and
which sediment is least stable.
Stability Reason
Sediment #1 __________________ ________________________________________________
Sediment #2 __________________ ________________________________________________
2. Measure the steepest angle you can create with each sediment.
a. On your sheet of wax paper, hold the protractor with the bottom edge flat along the bottom of the wax paper
so you can read the centimeter scale along the top of the protractor.
b. Place the lip of the sample cup on the 3 cm mark of the protractor and gently pour the sediment onto the
protractor. You should be making a pile of sediment that is split in half by the protractor.
c. Continue pouring the sediment until the slope of the pile reaches the focus point on the protractor (the point
from which all the angled lines are radiating).
d. Measure the angle of the pile from horizontal and record it below.
e. Pour the sediment back into the cup.
f. Repeat the above steps for attempts 2 and 3.
Sediment #1: Angle of repose for attempt 1 ________ o

Angle of repose for attempt 2 ________ o
Average angle of repose for sediment #1: ________o
Sediment #2: Angle of repose for attempt 1 ________ o

Average angle of repose for sediment #2: ________o
3. Which sediment had the greatest angle of repose? How do the results compare to your prediction? _________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Use the hand lens to examine each type of sediment. Write down two characteristics about each of the
sediments below:
Sediment #1: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Sediment #2: ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
5. Consider the differences between the sediments. What sediment characteristics control the angle of repose?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
101
6. Repeat the experiment for Sediment #3.
a. Measure the angle of repose for sediment #3 (dry): _____________________________________________
b. Measure the angle of repose for sediment #3(damp): ____________________________________________
c. Stir the cup containing the saturated sediment. Measure the angle of repose for sediment #3 (saturated): __
________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What role does water play in slope stability? ___________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK ______________
Activity 2: Earthquake
1. Creating earthquakes in dry sediment.
a. In the cup with dry sediment #3, place the eraser (bulding) on top of the sand with just a little bit of the base
buried so it remains stable.
b. Below the sediment level, tap the side of the cup with a pencil while rotating the paper (so that the cup spins
around while you are tapping). Keep tapping until the eraser falls over.
c. Keep track of how many times you tap the cup and write the result below.
_________________________ Taps
2. Creating earthquakes in saturated sediment.

a. In the cup with saturated sediment #3, bury the cork (underground storage tank) on its side under about 2-3
centimeters of sand.
Tip: You might need to add a little bit of water to the sand and stir it up. If standing water is still present on top
of the sand after you’ve stirred the sand, pour off the water and stir it up again.
b. Place the eraser (building) as you did before, but to the side of the buried cork.
c. Repeat the tapping process and carefully observe what happens.
_________________________ Taps
2. What happens to the saturated sediment at the surface? ___________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In the saturated cup, why did the building fall over or sink? Did it take more or fewer taps than in dry sediment?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What happened to the underground storage tank? Why? __________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you think this would happen if the building were on a more solid rock (e.g. granite)? Why or why not?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
102
6. Consider your results for the slope stability and the liquefaction experiments. How might earthquakes trigger
landslides? ________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Look at the figures below. The top figure is a photograph of the Bellingham waterfront in 1912. The bottom
figure is a photograph of the same area in 2010, after the area has been built up. Notice the difference in the
location of the shoreline between the two images. Natural sedimentation is too slow to produce such dramatic
affects, so this was a man-made change. Sand and mud was dredged from the bottom of Bellingham Bay and
placed on the shore to extend the waterfront area. The sediment was not compacted before it was developed into
what we see today.
a. You have shown that there are hazards associated with building on unconsolidated sediment. Which hazard
has the greater risk for the waterfront area of Bellingham, landslide or liquefaction? Why? ________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK ______________
railroad track
downtown
streets
103
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Mass Wasting
1. What would happen to houses built on slopes made of unconsolidated sediments during periods of heavy or
prolonged rain? _____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Vegetation is often used to stabilize slopes prone to failure, and has had mixed results. How does vegetation
help stabilize the slope? How might it make the slope more unstable? ________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Earthquakes
1. The Bellingham Waterfront.
Go to Canvas and open Lab7_2-2_BellinghamWaterfront.kmz. Two placemarks are noted in this file, one for
the waterfront itself and one for a Bellingham home. Fly around and try to identify the original coastline.
Hint: It might help if you increase the vertical exaggeration. You can do so by going to Tools 1 Options 1 3D View
tab 1 Terrain 1 Elevation Exaggeration (0.1 - 3, 3 being the highest).
a. Which feature helps identify original coastline? ______________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. What street may have been under water in the 1920’s? __________________________________________
Hint: If the road names are not shown, select the Roads checkbox in the Layers panel to the left.
c. Which street would have been parallel to the beach in the 1920’s? _________________________________
d. Now look at the Bellingham Waterfront home. This home was for sale for quite some time. The original
asking price was $1.2 million. It eventually sold for less than half that price. Although there were likely several
reasons for this, describe some possible geologically-based reasons. ________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Volcanoes
1. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-1_MtRuapehu.kmz. This placemark is at the seam between two images, one
taken on January 31, 2005 (green) and May 22, 2007 (grayish brown). Notice the differences in the stream valley
between these two times.
a. What happened during the 28 months between these images? ___________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. The deposits from this event are what was left behind when a lahar traveled down Mt. Ruapehu. Given the
distribution of the deposits, which path do lahars take (what topographic features control the path of lahars)?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. This lahar was moderate in size, but traveled a considerable distance. There was enough force in the lahar
to destroy the bridge on Highway 49 (placemarked). How far did the lahar travel before destroying the bridge?
Hint: Use the Ruler tool and select Path. Start at the peak and measure the stream path by following the channel
as closely as you can.
_____________________________ Kilometers
d. Lahars are a mix of water, ash, mud, and debris. On a volcano such as Ruapehu, where does the water come
from? __________________________________________________________________________________
104
2. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-2_MSHLahars.kmz and Lab7_3-2_MSHLavas.kmz.
a. How does a lahar deposit differ from a lava flow in terms of shape and size? ________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Which do you think moves faster, a lava flow or a lahar? Why? ________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Trace the lahar deposits as far as you can. Where do these lahars terminate? _________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
d. Use the Ruler tool to measure how far these lahars travelled.
_____________________ Kilometers
3. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-3_Orting.kmz. Look at the area surrounding the town of Orting. Notice that
both rivers pass Orting, joining into one river a few miles downstream (north) along highway 162.
a. Trace both rivers upstream back to their source. Which mountain do the two rivers originate from? _____
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. If that mountain were to erupt, what would happen to the town of Orting? ___________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Based on your answer to the previous question, what is the lahar risk level for Orting: low, moderate, or high
(circle one)? Explain. ______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-4_Carbonado.kmz. Look at the town of Carbonado, WA, which is upstream
along the Carbon River that flows through Orting.
a. Is Carbonado further or closer to Mt. Rainier than Orting? _______________________________________
b. Is Carbonado higher or lower elevation than Orting? ____________________________________________
c. What is the lahar risk level for Carbonado: low, moderate, or high (circle one)? Explain. ______________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-5_MtBaker.kmz. Examine the area around the volcano.
a. If an eruption of Mt. Baker generated a lahar on the northern or western slopes of the mountain, what major
highway would the lahar likely damage? _______________________________________________________
b. In which direction would a lahar have to travel to reach Baker Lake? ______________________________
c. If a large lahar were to flow into Baker Lake, what two secondary hazards might exist?
Hint: Be sure to examine the south end of Baker Lake. ___________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
d. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-5_WhatcomCities.kmz. Assess the lahar risk for each of the cities below
(high, moderate, or low) and explain your reasoning.

Risk level Reasoning
Bellingham: ____________ ______________________________________________________
Ferndale: ____________ ______________________________________________________
Mt. Vernon:
____________ ______________________________________________________
Hamilton: ____________ ______________________________________________________
105
106
Lab #8: Geology of Washington
_____________________________ ________________________ TA: ____________________________
_____________________________ ________________________ Day: ___________ Time: __________
Objectives:
1) Learn about the geologic history of Washington State.
2) Understand how various geologic formation amalgamate.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook

Pre-lab activity below

Activity 1: Geologic time
Activity 2: Washington in cross-section
Activity 3: Rocks of Washington

Activities on page 116
Pre-Lab Activity: Key Events in Washington’s Geologic History

The activity below replaces this week’s WarmUp Quiz and ConcepTest. In order to receive credit, this
activity must be completed before lab. After reading the pre-lab material, list the rock(s) commonly found in each
geologic region.
Rodinia: __________________________________________________________________________________
Kootenay Arc: _____________________________________________________________________________

Intermontane Superterrane: ___________________________________________________________________
North Cascades Superterrane: _________________________________________________________________
Successor Basins: ___________________________________________________________________________
Olympic Subduction Complex & Crescent Terrane: ________________________________________________
Columbia River Region: ______________________________________________________________________
Cascade Volcanic & Plutonic Arc: ______________________________________________________________
Region formerly covered by Cordilleran Ice Sheet: _________________________________________________
107
Geologic History of Washington State
Region 1: Rodinia
Only the northeastern part of Washington State has been around long enough to be called a native part of
North America, all of the rest of Washington consists of foreign imports that formed some place else and were
added to North America during the past 200 million years. The eastern part of Washington State is a remnant of a
supercontinent called Rodinia that formed ~1.1 billion years, and began to split up by ~750 million years ago. The
separate fragments of Rodinia are now dispersed throughout the world. Reconstructions are a bit uncertain but
during the Late Precambrian it seems that Washington State was connected to either Siberia or Antarctica (Fig. 1).
The remnants of Rodinia that make up northeastern Washington is continental crust, which is generally composed
of granite.
Pacific
Northwest
Figure 1. World map showing one possible reconstruction

of the Rodinia Supercontinent (750 Ma).
Region 2: Kootenay Arc
The Kootenay Arc is a thick wedge of sedimentary and volcanic rocks that accumulated near the continental
margin of North America between ~550-250 million years ago. It consists of sandstones, conglomerates, lava
flows, and pyroclastic rocks that are typically formed along subduction zones (Fig. 2). The arc formed very
close to the margin of North America, and was swept up to become part of the continent by the Intermontane
Superterrane (Region 3) as it collided with North America about 160 million years ago.
Volcanic arc
Subduction zone Fore arc
Farallon Plate North American Plate
Figure 2. An illustration of a subduction zone.
108
Region 3: Intermontane Superterrane
The Intermontane Superterrane is a huge block of rock that accreted to (“docked with”) the western margin
of North America ~160 million years ago. In Washington, these rocks include the Kootenay Arc and extend to
about the middle of the state, which would have been the Pacific coastline at that time. This superterrane consisted
of a volcanic island arc (with andesitic magma) and marine sedimentary rocks (limestone) with fossils from the
Tethyan Ocean. The Tethyan Ocean is an ancient ocean near Asia, which means that some terranes found in the
Pacific Northwest travelled great distances. The Intermontane Superterrane also includes serpentinized ultramafic
rocks brought up from the mantle (serpentine), as well as granitic plutons. After the various terranes joined to
form the superterrane, they were covered with sediments that became conglomerate, sandstone and shale.
Region 4: North Cascades Superterrane

The North Cascades Superterrane extends from the Methow Valley to the San Juan Islands and includes
at least 10 separate terranes (crustal fragments from tectonic plates; Fig. 3). Some of these terranes represented
volcanic island arcs, others were submarine fans consisting of sandstone, conglomerate, and shale, and other
terranes were formed of ocean-floor basalt. This block of terranes docked with North America ~90 million years
ago producing deformation, metamorphism, and igneous intrusions throughout the North Cascades. The increased
pressure and temperature due to the collision caused parent rocks within the terranes to metamorphose to phyllite,
schist, and gneiss (depending on the location and the parent rock). Granite plutons intruded the region between
90-65 Ma.
Figure 3. A map showing the different terranes that make up the North Cascades Superterrane. Image
source: Geology of the Noth Cascades, A Mountain Mosaic by Tabor and Haugerud.
109
Region 5: Successor Basin
Roughly 60 million years ago, after the major terranes had been added to the margin of North America, the
landscape was gradually leveled to a broad flat plain by erosion (similar to Mississippi today). Big river systems
flowed westward across this plain, which was gradually sinking, depositing layers of river cobbles/gravel, sand,
mud, and abundant plant material (Fig. 4). The total thickness of these deposits exceeded thousands of meters and
were eventually lithified into conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, shales, and coal. The rocks that make up the
Chuckanut Mountains near Bellingham, the Peshastin Pinnacles in the Wenatchee Valley, and the fossil-rich rocks
around Republic are good examples of these rocks. This deposition continued until ~50 million years ago.
Dawn Redwood
Tree Fern
Cinnamon Tree
Sassafras Sycamore Swamp Cypress
Palm trunk Palm fronds

Figure 4. Fossils commonly found in the Chuckanut Formation near Bellingham, WA. Think about
what the presence of plants such as palm trees indicates about the climate at the time of deposition.
110
Region 6: Olympic Subduction Complex
During the deposition of the Successor
Basin sediments, a major segment of the outer coast
of Washington State was being rifted northward.
This resulted in a huge sinking basin along the
coastline that was filled with sediments, resulting
in feldspar-rich lithic sandstone and shales. Soon
thereafter an immense eruption of basaltic lava
created big volcanic islands that grew along the
coast of Washington and Oregon.
As the Cascadia subduction zone (the modern

subduction zone) developed, these rocks were
pushed up into a horseshoe shaped dome that
currently makes up the Olympic Mountains. Great
wedges of sea-floor sediments were scraped off
the descending plate to become the western part of
the Olympics. These rocks are called the Olympic
Subduction Complex (Fig. 5). The oceanic sediment
(limestone and shale) and ocean floor (basalt)
metamorphosed during continued subduction to
form marble, greenstone and slate.
Figure 5. Map of the Crescent basalts and Olympic Subduction
Complex.
Region 7: Columbia River Basalts

About 17 million years ago a series of rifts
appeared in southeastern Washington. From these
rifts an immense amount of basalt was erupted.
The source of this basalt may have been the
Yellowstone hotspot plume. Some of the flows
extended all the way from Central Washington
(Yakima) to the Washington coast (Astoria) (Fig.
6). In places these basalts accumulated and are
more than 3,000 meters thick, and cover an area
of more than 170,000 km2 . Most of the flows
(96%) were erupted between 17-14.5 million
years ago, but the youngest flows are only 6
million years old. The Columbia River Basalts
are one of the largest preserved outpourings of
lava in the history of the earth.
Figure 6. Distribution of the Columbia River Basalts (shown in gray).
111
Region 8: Cascades Volcanic and
Plutonic Arc
About 40 million years ago, the
Cascadia Subduction Zone developed off
the coast between Northern California
and British Columbia. Great magma
chambers formed as the sea floor of the
Juan de Fuca plate was subducted to
depths of 90-100 km beneath the western
margin of North America. As the magma
moved upward towards the surface, most
of it crystallized deep underground as
plutons of granitic rock. Some magma
made it all the way to the surface, Figure 7. Cascade Volcanic Arc and subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath
producing rhyolitic and andesitic lava the North America Plate.
and pyroclastic flows.
The Cascade Arc has been active for ~40 million years. Older mountains have since eroded, and new mountains
are being formed. The current Cascade range began uplift ~14 million years ago. Mt. Baker, Glacier Peak, Mt.
Rainier, Mt. Adams, and Mt. St. Helens are the youngest volcanic peaks in Washington State (formation started
~700 million years ago). More than a dozen major volcanic peaks in British Columbia, Oregon and California
also exist. Hundreds of deeply eroded, older volcanoes are still present.
Region 9: Cordilleran Ice Sheet and Glacial Lake Missoula
During the last 2 million years, continental glaciers have covered parts of Washington State at least 6
times. The most extensive ice sheet developed during the most recent event called Fraser Glaciation between
~20,000-11,000 years ago. The Cordilleran Ice Sheet map shows the maximum of this advance ~15,000 years
ago (Fig. 8). During this time the glacier covered the Puget Lowlands and most of the northern part of Eastern
Washington. The WWU campus was buried well over a mile deep in ice. These glaciers carried large quantities
of sediment within the ice. The glaciation also eroded and carved much of the landscape in the Puget Sound Area.
In western Montana, on several occasions, a lobe of ice created a temporary dam on the Clark Fork River that
produced temporary lakes up to 1000 feet deep.
Location of ice dam
The ice sheet began to rapidly melt

about 13,000 years ago, depositing
the unsorted glacial till sediment that
the glaciers once carried. In eastern
Washington, a series of colossal floods
occurred as water trapped by the ice
dams broke and ancient Lake Missoula
was periodically released. There is
evidence that walls of water as much
as 900 feet high surged across Eastern
Washington, eroding the landscape all
the way down to the basalt bedrock.
Figure 8. Map of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet and the Missoula floods.
112
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Geologic Timeline of Washington

The purpose of this activity is to reconstruct Washington’s geologic history step by step using the
information provided in this lab and your flip book. It is customary to list geologic events with the oldest event at
the bottom and the most recent (youngest) at the top. More events have occurred in Washington’s geologic history
than are discussed in this lab, but you only need to list the events included in this lab
13,000 yrs ago: _________________________________________

15,000 yrs ago: _________________________________________
20,000-11,000 yrs ago: ___________________________________
1.8 700,000 yrs ago: ________________________________________
2 mya: continental glaciation begins, covering parts of WA ~6 times
17-6 mya: ______________________________________________
14 mya: Current Cascade range begins to be uplifted
40 mya: Cascadia subduction zone forms & Cascade Arc becomes active
60-50 mya: ___________________________________________ &

____________________________________________
90 mya: _______________________________________________
160 mya: _____________________ & ______________________
collide into North America (terrane accretion)
550-250 mya: ________________________________________
750 mya: ______________________________________________

1100 mya: _____________________________________________
TA CHECK_________________
113
Activity 2: Cross-Section of Washington
In this activity you will use the geographical locations provided by your flip book, as well as the historical
order of events from Activity 1, to create a cross-section of Washington.
1. Fill in the blanks for each terrane, volcanic arc, or depositional basin using the names in your lab manual.
Think of the geographic distribution on your map and principles of relative dating when making decisions about
where each piece belongs.
GEOLOGIC CROSS-SECTION OF WASHINGTON

W E
North Cascades
Olympic Mts.
Pacific
Ocean Puget Sound
CRUST
Present day subducting
Juan de Fuca plate
MANTLE
2. What rock type erupted in flows in the Columbia River region about 17 million years ago? ______________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Does this rock type make sense based on our tectonic setting? What type of volcanic rock or magma usually
forms in a continental-oceanic subduction zone such as ours? Explain. __________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. According to the lab manual, what is a possible explanation for the eruptions of mafic magma that formed 17
million years ago in the Columbia River region? __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK_________________
114
Activity 3: Rocks of Washington
This activity will provide an excellent review of the rocks for the final exam as well as helping you learn
to recognize the rocks you will see around our state. Each tray of rocks you identify will represent the rocks found
in one of the terranes, arcs, basin or other geologic features of Washington. For each tray, identify each of the
rocks, list the rock name(s) associated with each tectonic setting or depositional environment, and list the geologic
region to which that rock assemblage belongs.
Hint: As you are identifying the rocks, recall the processes you went through in the Igneous, Sedimentary, and
Metamorphic Rock Labs.
• Distinguish between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks using their characteristic textures.
• Use the rock identification charts to name the rock samples based on their composition and texture.
Rock Rock Identification Geologic Region of

Tray What rocks are commonly found in this geologic region? Washington
Volcanic islands on the coast:

A
Sediments deposited in offshore basin:
Subduction-related metamorphic rocks:
Ancient continental crust (craton):

B
Sediments eroded from mountains after

C
terrane accretion stopped:
Collision-related metamorphic rocks:

D
Intruded plutons:
Submarine fan sediments:
Igneous flows from rifts:

E
Subduction-related volcanic rocks:
F
Sediments derived from volcanic arc:
Arc volcanic rocks:

G
Intruded plutons:
Sediment deposited:
H
Bedrock exposed by erosion:
Volcanic island arc:

I
Marine sediments:
Metamorphosed mantle rocks:
Intruded plutons:
Sediments that covered terrane:
TA CHECK_________________
115
Homework Activities
Understanding Geologic Maps

The different rocks of the various terranes you have explored in today’s lab are spread out around Wash-
ington State. To create a geologic map of Washington, geologists explored the entire state and determined the
location, type, and age of all the rocks, as well as other significant geologic features. Instead of having to go out
and find the rocks ourselves, we can use this geologic map to interpret where those different terranes and rocks
are found today.
Activity 1: Basic Map Reading

Colors are used to differentiate rock units on geologic maps, and each map has a slightly different color
scheme. Refer to the map legend to determine the name and age of each rock unit.
Hint: Notice that there are five major groups. Each group uses a different color to distinguish it from the others,
and the units within each group use different shades of that base color.
1. Name the major groups. ____________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What do the labels mean (e.g. Tertiary, Mesozoic, etc.)? ___________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Within each group, can you tell which rocks are older and which are younger? Use the geologic time scale to in-
terpret the relative age. _______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Using the Legend and Locating Rocks

1. a. From the legend, what is the abbreviation for the Columbia River Basalts? ____________________________
b. What does each letter in that abbreviation stand for? ____________________________________________
c. Which quadrant of the map (NW, NE, SW, or SE) is dominated by this rock type? ____________________
2. a. What is the abbreviation for the other rock type that also commonly occurs in this area? ________________
Hint: Its map unit color is beige.
b. Which is older, the beige unit or the Columbia River Basalts? Explain your reasoning. _________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Look at the description of the beige unit in the legend. This unit is associated with the terrane discussed on
page 112. What event do you think deposited this unit? Explain. ___________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In which region (W-SW, N-NE, or S-SE) are the oldest rocks (Precambrian and Paleozoic) found? _____________
4. Find the pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks (light purple) and Mesozoic intrusive rocks (pink).
a. There are two solid black lines running through these units. Which tectonic feature do these lines represent?
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. To which terrane do the these unit belong? Use their age as well as their rock type to decide. ____________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Two geologic processes have combined to help expose these old rocks at the surface. What are they? ______
________________________________________________________________________________________

116
Lab #9: Comprehensive Lab Quiz
Lab #1: Plate Tectonics
• Understand how the plates move relative to one another.
• Know how to draw the 3 different plate boundary types and all associated geologic features.
• For each boundary type, be able to describe the patterns of earthquakes, volcanoes, sea floor ages, and topographic
features a on a map (review specialty maps in Lab #1).
• Be able to calculate how many kilometers a plate has moved in a give number of years (given a rate).
Rock Cycle
• Understand the processes that can change one rock type into another.

• Be able to identify important igneous minerals.
• Be able to use rock texture and composition to identify igneous rocks.
• Understand how grain-size relates to cooling rate in an igneous rock.
• Understand which igneous rocks form at different tectonic settings (mantle, hot spot, convergent boundaries,
divergent boundaries, etc.).

• Be able to identify important sedimentary minerals.
• Be able to use rock texture and composition to identify sedimentary rocks.
• Be able to determine the possible depositional environments of various sedimentary rocks.
• Be able to write a basic geologic history based on a sequence of sedimentary rocks.

• Be able to identify important metamorphic minerals.
• Be able to use rock texture and composition to identify metamorphic rocks.
• Be able to identify an appropriate parent rock (protolith) for a given metamorphic rock.
• Know the different types of metamorphism and their pressure/temperature conditions.
• Know how to draw isotherms.
• Be able to calculate a geothermal gradient.
Lab #5: Campus Tour

• Know the rock types and depositional environment of the Chuckanut Formation.
Lab #6: Streams, Coastlines and Groundwater

• Be able to recognize and name stream and coastal features.
• Know the difference between permeability and porosity.
• Know the difference between an aquifer and an aquitard.
• Be able to show and describe groundwater flow direction and contamination paths on a given diagram.

• Be able to explain the difference between risk and hazard.
• Understand mitigation and its importance.
• Understand how the angle of repose and water contents affect slope stability.
• Understand the relationship between earthquakes, liquefaction, and mass wasting.
• Understand lahars and their implications.
Lab 8: Geology of Washington

• Know what kind of events (terrane accretion/mountain building, flood basalts, glaciation, volcanism, etc.) shaped
the geology and topography of Washington.
• Be able to name at least 5 different rocks that you might find in Washington.
• Be able to read and interpret a geologic map.
117
118
Rock Identification Charts
Figure 1. Igneous rocks ID chart.
Figure 2. Metamorphic rocks ID chart.
often grayish-green,
aligned minerals,
Non-Granular
(Massive)
119
Figure 3. Sedimentary rocks ID chart.
Clastic rocks can have fossils!

(i.e. fossiliferous sandstone or
fossiliferous shale)
120
Mineral Identification Tables
Important Igneous Minerals
Mineral Diagnostic Mineral Properties Composition
Many colors (often dull, sometimes translucent), hard (scratches glass),

Quartz Felsic
conchoidal fracture (can break in smooth curves), no cleavage
Brown/translucent, soft (scratches with fingernail),
Mica
1 good cleavage (flakes off into thin sheets)
White/pink/tan, hard (scratches glass),
Feldspar
good cleavage in 2 directions
Amphibole/ Dark (black or greenish gray), hard (scratches glass),
Pyroxene good cleavage
Olivine Green (weathers to orange), hard (scratches glass), no cleavage Mafic
Important Sedimentary Minerals
Mineral Diagnostic Mineral Properties

Many colors (often dull, sometimes translucent), hard (scratches glass), conchoidal fracture
Quartz
(can break in smooth curves), no cleavage
White (can be almost clear), soft (can be easily scratched with a fingernail),
Gypsum
good cleavage in 2 directions (but not at 90o)
White, crystals can be rhombic, reacts (fizzes) with dilutes acid (HCl),
Calcite
soft (scratched with a glass but not with a fingernail)
White or translucent, soft, 3 cleavage planes (cubic crystals),
Halite
salty taste (taste at your own risk!)
Limonite Yellow-orange, soft, amorphous (no constant or regular shape)
Feldspar White/pink/tan, hard (scratches glass), good cleavage in 2 directions
Important Metamorphic Minerals
Mineral Diagnostic Mineral Properties Metamorphic Grade

Many colors (often dull, sometimes translucent), hard (scratches
Quartz glass), conchoidal fracture (can break in smooth curves), Any
no cleavage
Often dark red, hard (scratches glass), can have conchoidal frac-
Garnet Medium-high or higher
ture (break in smooth curves), no cleavage, crystal is 12-sided
White, soft (scratched with a knife but not with a fingernail),
Calcite Any
cleavage in 3 directions (rhombic), reacts (fizzes) with dilute acid
Brown/translucent, soft (scratches with fingernail), 1 good
Mica Medium-low or higher
cleavage (flakes off into thin sheets)
Light to dark green, hard, good cleavage, needle-shaped crystals.
Actinolite Medium-high or higher
A type of amphibole
White/pink/tan, hard (scratches glass), good cleavage in
Feldspar High
2 directions
121

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Geology 101

Introduction and Important Information 3

How to Use Google Earth 7

Lab #1: Plate Tectonics 11

Introduction to Rock Cycle 27

Lab #2: Igneous Rocks 31

Lab #3: Sedimentary Rocks and Depositional Environments 47

Lab #4: Metamorphic Rocks 67

Lab #5: Rock Quiz and Campus Field Trip 79

Lab #6: Streams, Coastlines & Groundwater 85

Lab #7: Geologic Hazards in Whatcom County 97

Lab #8: Geology of Washington 107

Lab #9: Comprehensive Lab Quiz Study Guide 117

Rocks Identification Charts 119

Mineral Identification Tables 121

Revised continuously through September, 2013

• Examine plate tectonics and Earth’s features. Plate

Each lab exercise follows this format:

Objectives: A list of concepts and skills to learn and master.

Materials: What you will need to bring to lab.

Background information: Information necessary to complete the lab.

Lab Activities: Hands-on activities and questions designed to help you to

• Organize this lab manual and your lab notes in a 3-ring

Before each lab of the quarter:

A important note about the time required to complete lab activities:

Tools Menu: where the Places Panel: where downloaded

Layers Panel: also

Small Group Answers Additional comments/answers

Small Group Answers Additional comments/answers

What aspects of this lab were the most confusing to you?

Other comments about the lab?

In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today, requires a TA check)

Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)

Divergent (move apart) Convergent (move together) Transform (slide sideways)

Activity 1: Tectonics Research Group

2. Each member of your group picks a location. Choose from:

Activity 2: Find Your Location

GEOGRAPHY GEOCHRONOLOGY What type of plate

Why is there no oceanic crust

San Andreas Fault in

Activity 1: Plate Boundaries

1. Oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary questions

a. In which plate do earthquakes occur (subducting/overriding/both)? ________________________________

d. Why do volcanoes occur there? Describe in detail. _____________________________________________

a. At these boundaries, are earthquakes shallow, deep or both? ____________________________________

II. Divergent Boundaries (Oceanic-Oceanic)

III. Transform Boundaries

1. Fly to the Atlantic ocean (use the search box).

a. Name two plates that support your answer. ______________________ _________________________

-100 0 km 100 200 300 -100 0 km 100 200 300

4. Find India on the plate boundary and scientific specialty maps.

5. Find California on the plate boundary and scientific specialty maps.

Small Group Answers Additional comments/answers

Small Group Answers Additional comments/answers

What aspects of this lab were the most confusing to you?

Other comments about the lab?

The Rock Cycle

Rock type: General processes

Figure 1. The Rock Cycle.

Key rock-identifying observations:

Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Textures

Interlocking crystals Particles cemented together Banded minerals

Rock crystallized from Lithification of sediment Rock subjected to increased

a. Name two plates that support your answer. ___

1. (2 samples) _ 2. (2 samples) ___

Texture: Sample #: Sample #: Sample #: RARE

Texture: Sample #: Sample #: Sample #: Sample #:

___(rock name) (composition)

___(rock name) (composition)

___(rock name) (composition)

___(rock name) (composition)