ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY II

THE BODY SYSTEMS

LESSON 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE BODY

1.1 Maintaining Life

1.1.1 Life Processes
1.1.2 Homeostasis
1.1.3 Metabolism
1.2 Levels of Organisation
1.3 Overview of the Cells
1.3.1 Cell membrane
1.3.2 Organelles
1.3.3 Nucleus
1.3.4 Cytoplasm
1.4 Overview of the Tissues
1.4.1 Epithelial Tissue
1.4.2 Connective Tissue
1.4.3 Muscular Tissue
1.4.4 Nervous Tissue

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1.1 MAINTAINING LIFE

1.1.1 LIFE PROCESSES

There are many processes that are involved in maintaining life. These are common to all
organisms, big and small, in both the plant and animal kingdoms.

Some of them may spring immediately to mind, others you may not have considered. Now
is the time to think a little about each and how they relate to your own life.

 Maintaining boundaries – all organisms have an outer covering, be it skin, scales,

tree bark something else. It helps us to maintain our structure, keeping everything
inside in its right place. It also helps to keep out anything that is not welcome.
 Digestion – the process of taking on board all the nutrients we need.
 Metabolism – the use of those nutrients to create energy and carry out all other
functions.
 Waste elimination – this inevitably follows digestion, getting rid of all those
unwanted substances.
 Responsiveness – the ability to notice and respond to our environment to keep
ourselves safe from harm.
 Movement - movement is so useful. Without it we would not be able to gather or
hunt food, neither would we be able to escape from danger.
 Growth – an increase in size of a body or body part by increasing the number of cells.
This enables us to develop and become independent as we grow.
 Reproduction – ensures the survival of the species, because none of us will live for
ever.

1.1.2 HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis means a state of balance. Maintaining balance within the body is one huge
juggling act. Allow one aspect of the body to get out of balance and we come tumbling
down. There are so many aspects that are involved, including:

 Acid/base (pH level)

 Glucose
 Fluid
 Electrolytes
 Temperature
 Blood pressure
 Oxygen/carbon dioxide

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So how do we maintain this balance? This is done by something called feedback. The body
has two types of feedback mechanisms – negative and positive.

 Negative feedback is the most common. This involves taking action to reverse the
effect of the stimulus and bring everything back into balance. An example of this
would be the production of insulin to counteract high levels of sugar in the blood.

 Positive feedback is much more rare. This involves provoking an extreme reaction in
the body. There are only a few examples and these include activities such as
sneezing and childbirth. You may be able to think of others.

1.1.3 METABOLISM
Metabolism is the name given to all the chemical reactions in the body. These reactions are
going on all the time. Some involve breaking substances down, and others involve creating
new substances. Our metabolism is controlled by our hormones and is vital to our very
existence.

The two main types of reaction are classified as:

 Catabolism – the breaking down of substances into simpler parts so that it is easier
for our body to process and use them.
 Anabolism – the process of taking the individual components and building them up
into new structures and substances.

Both of these processes involve energy. Catabolism releases energy. As it destroys things,
the energy that was contained within them is released and can be used elsewhere.
Anabolism on the other hand requires energy in order to happen. The process of acquiring
and using energy is known as cellular respiration.

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1.2 LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
Within the body, as within the world and the universe in general, everything is structured
and organised on many different levels. The levels of organisation within the body are:

Organism
 Organism
 Organ systems Organ systems
 Organs
 Tissues Organs
 Cells
 Chemicals
Tissues

Cells

Chemicals

1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE CELLS

Our bodies are made up of millions and millions of tiny cells which together make up all the
tissues, organs and structures of our bodies. While our cells may vary greatly in their design
and function, they all share the same general characteristics.

So what are our cells made of? The main structures that make up the cell are:

 Cell membrane
 Organelles Nucleus Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm

Organelles
Cytoplasm

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1.3.1 CELL MEMBRANE
Like the skin of our body, this surrounds the cell and keeps all the contents inside. The
membrane is selectively permeable, which means that it protects the cell by controlling
what can enter and leave.

Structure

The membrane of the cell is made from a

phospholid bilayer. This term sounds
complicated. Bilayer means that the membrane
consists of two layers. Phospholipid means that
each layer is made up of two parts – a
phosphorous head and a lipid tail. These two
layers sit back to back.

The significance of this is that lipids are

hydrophobic – that is they repel water, so water
or water-soluble substances cannot pass easily
through the membrane.

Since only some substances can pass through easily, we say the membrane is semi-
permeable.

Permeability

There are two main ways in which substances pass through the membrane. These are
called passive transport and active transport.

Cell
Membrane

Passive Active
Transport Transport

Simple Facilitated
Diffusion Diffusion

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Passive Transport

Passive transport involves the natural movement of substances from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. This is known as diffusion.

Small substances can easily pass through the cell membrane. This is known as simple
diffusion. Larger substances cannot pass through so easily. They need special channels to
help them pass through, which are created by proteins in the cell membrane. This known as
facilitated diffusion.

Diffusion does not require any energy so it is called passive transport.

Active Transport

Substances that need to pass from an area of low concentration to high concentration
cannot do so by diffusion. They need help. They need to go through special channels in the
cell membrane. They also need another substance to help them get through.

This process of moving substances against the pressure gradient requires energy and so it is
called active transport.

Energy in cells comes from a substance called ATP. The production of ATP is a complicated
process which you will learn about in further studies.

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1.3.2 ORGANELLES
These are the working parts of the cell. Just like the organs in our body all have different
functions, so the organelles all play different roles in the functioning of the cell.

1.3.3 NUCLEUS
The control centre of the cell. The nucleus contains the DNA which is needed for the cell to
reproduce itself and also determines the function of the cell.

Red blood cells are unique within the body. They do not have a nucleus, so they cannot
replicate themselves.

1.3.4 CYTOPLASM
This is the fluid of the cell and also everything that is floating in it including organelles and
other substances. The fluid on its own is called cytosol. Cytosol is mainly comprised of
water but also includes proteins, enzymes, electrolytes and nutrients.

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1.4 OVERVIEW OF THE TISSUES
There are four main types of tissues within the body. Each one has its own unique
characteristics and functions. The types of tissues are:

 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue
 Nerve tissue

1.4.1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Epithelial tissue is what our skin and mucous membranes are made from. Our whole body is
covered in epithelium. It covers the surfaces of our body and lines our internal cavities.

Skin covers the outside of the body. It has a number of important functions including
protection, waterproofing, temperature regulation and sensation.

Membranes are what cover the internal surfaces. The mucous is produced by specialised
goblet cells situated in the membrane. Just like a drinking goblet might contain wine, so
goblet cells contain fluid.

There are three main types of membrane:

 Mucous membranes cover the body cavities which connect to the outside world.
These include the lungs and the digestive tract.
 Serous membranes cover cavities that are not open to the outside. These include
the peritoneal cavity (surrounding the abdominal organs), the pericardium
(surrounding the heart) and the pleura (surrounding the lungs).
 Synovial membranes cover cavities that contain joints. They contain fluid around the
joints to help them move freely.

We will cover all of these in more depth as we go through the course. Look out for the
membranes as we explore each of the body systems in turn.

1.4.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue provides the structure and support for the body. There are many
different types, and you will have heard of them all before.

 Bone provides the framework and structure of the body. It also provides protection
for the vulnerable internal organs.
 Cartilage is softer than bone. It also gives structure to the body as well as providing
shock absorption and articulation in joints.

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  Tendons are strong. They connect our muscles to our bones and muscles to other
muscles.
 Ligaments join bone to bone. They provide strength and stability in our joints.
 Fascia wraps round the muscles like a sleeve keeping them in the correct shape and
allowing them to slide more smoothly against each other.
 Adipose tissue is also known as fat. We all have it, although some would rather not.
It has an important role to play in providing nutrients, energy, insulation and shock
absorption.
 Blood is the final connective tissue. While it does not contribute to the physical
structure of the body it is still classed as connective tissue due to the way it connects
different parts of the body together, carrying oxygen and nutrients around to
support our body needs.

1.4.3 MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue is the main focus of Anatomy & Physiology I. You will learn about the
different muscles in depth in that course. There are three types of muscle tissue:

 Skeletal muscle is the type we know best. This is what moves our limbs and joints. It
is known as voluntary muscle because we can consciously control our body
movements. It is also known as striated muscle because it has a striped appearance
under a microscope.
 Smooth muscle is also known as involuntary muscle, because it controls the
automatic processes of the body. Smooth muscle lines our blood vessels, airways
and digestive system. We will learn how it functions in each of these systems as we
examine them in turn.
 Cardiac muscle is what our heart is made of. It is both striated and involuntary.
Lucky for us, it is very slow to fatigue so it keeps on working for the whole of our life.

1.4.4 NERVOUS TISSUE

Nervous tissue makes up our brain, spinal cord and all the nerves in the body. It provides
the means of communication between the brain and the rest of the body. It receives signals
from stimuli which are transmitted to the brain, and also sends instructions from the brain
to all parts of the body. We will spend some time looking at the nervous system later in this
course.

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