Aerosol Science and Technology

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Ozone Generation by Indoor, Electrostatic Air

Cleaners

Kimberly J. Boelter & Jane H. Davidson

To cite this article: Kimberly J. Boelter & Jane H. Davidson (1997) Ozone Generation by
Indoor, Electrostatic Air Cleaners, Aerosol Science and Technology, 27:6, 689-708, DOI:
10.1080/02786829708965505

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 Ozone Generation by Indoor, Electrostatic
Air Cleaners
Kimberly J. Boelter and Jane H. Dauidson*
PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MN 55455

ABSTRACT. This experimental study extends prior studies to consider the influ-
ences of discharge polarity, current, relative humidity, air temperature, and wire
diameter and material on ozone generation rate in two-stage, wire-plate indoor air
cleaners. Promising methods of decreasing the quantity of ozone released into living
and work spaces are identified. Use of positive corona discharge is imperative since
ozone generation rates are nearly an order of magnitude higher with negative
discharge. For a specific precipitator design, the most important parameter in
predicting ozone generation rate is current level. Changes in temperature and
relative humidity of the inlet air stream over the range of ambient conditions
expected in typical homes have less impact. In the commercial air cleaner studied, a
40% reduction in current from 1.08 to 0.60 mA, reduces ozone generation rate by
nearly 50% from 0.005 to 0.0025 mg s-'. This reduction in current reduces particle
collection efficiency by 20%. An increase in relative humidity from 17 to 55%
decreases ozone generation rate 17%. An increase in air temperature from 293 to
301K decreases ozone generation rate by 6%. Ozone production can be controlled
by the selection of wire diameter and material. At a fixed voltage, use of 0.10 mm
rather than 0.20 mm tungsten discharge wires reduces ozone generation rate by
40%. The accompanying reduction in current does not cause a reduction in
collection efficiency as long as the voltage in the collection stage is held constant.
The benefit of controlling ozone generation rate by selection of wire material is that
the electrical characteristics of the air cleaner are not affected. With a positive
corona discharge, ozone generation rate is decreased by 30% with copper wires and
by 50% with silver wires as compared to the rate with standard tungsten wires.
AEROSOLSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 27:689-708 (1997) O 1997 American Associ-
ation for Aerosol Research

INTRODUCTION also used for control of light, industrial

Indoor electrostatic precipitators are com-
monly used in homes as well as in restau-
rants to remove allergens and tobacco
smoke from the ambient air, protect heat-
ing and cooling coils, and reduce soiling of
interior surfaces and furnishings. They are
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Aerosol Science and Technology 27:689-708 (1997)
0 1997 American Association for Aerosol Research
Published by Elsevicr Science Inc.
pollutants such as welding smoke, oil, and
cooling mists. Designed as either stand-
alone units for use in single rooms or as
whole house units installed in the heating
and air conditioning ductwork, indoor air
cleaners are typically two-stage devices with
an ionizing wire-plate section followed by a
plate-to-plate collection section. Normally
690 K J. Boelter and J. H. Davidson
the wires in the ionizing section are oper-
ated with a positive corona discharge to
limit production of ozone.
Ozone is a powerful oxidant that, when
inhaled, reacts with the body's internal tis-
sues. The American Lung Association
(1996) reports that short-term exposure to
ozone may cause shortness of breath, chest
pain, and coughing. hng-term exposure
may lead to severe respiratory discomfort.
Exposure to ozone may also result in lung
cancer (Reiser et al. 1987; and Witschi,
1988).
For an electrostatic precipitator to be
used as an indoor air cleaner in the United
States, it must adhere to the Food and
Drug Administration specification 21 CFR
(1985) which states that ozone concentra-
tion in occupied areas may not exceed 0.050
parts-per-million (ppm) by volume of air
circulating through the device. There are
also restrictions on the amount of ozone in
industrial settings as well as on the concen-
tration of ozone outdoors. The Occupa-
tional Safety and Hazards Administration
(OSHA) restricts ozone concentration to
0.100 ppm per 8-h work day (29 Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR) OSHA, 1996)
and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency limits outdoor ozone concentration
to 0.120 ppm (Clean Air Act Amendment,
42 United States Code 85, 1990).
Although there are prior studies on ozone
generation in corona discharges, none pro-
vides sufficient information to characterize
the effects of various design and operating
parameters suspected to affect ozone gen-
eration rate by two-stage air cleaners. Pa-
rameters identified as most likely to affect
ozone generation rate are discharge polar-
ity (Awad and Castle, 1975; Nashimoto,
1988; Ohkubo et al., 1990; Viner et al.,
19921, current level (Castle et al., 1969;
Nashimoto, 1988, Viner et al., 19921, ion-
izer wire diameter (Castle et al., 1969;
Nashimoto, 19881, ionizer wire material
(Nashimoto, 1988) and relative humidity of
the air stream (Benson and Axworthy,
1965).
Although ozone generation in an air-fed
corona discharge is extremely complex, the
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
principal mechanism of ozone (0,)forma-
tion is a two-step process (Yagi and Tanaka,
1979),
An electron must possess an internal 'en-
ergy of approximately 6 eV for the dissocia-
tion of molecular oxygen to occur (Kirk and
Othmer, 1996). Atomic oxygen combines
with an oxygen molecule according to reac-
tion 2 to form ozone. In indoor air clean-
ers, ozone is continuously swept from the
reaction zone.
Ozone dissociates according to
Yagi and Tanaka (1979) demonstrated that
the rate of reaction 1 is greater than that of
reaction (4). Thus, for a given electric field
strength, more ozone is created than de-
stroyed by the electron bombardment
mechanism. As the temperature of the gas
in the corona discharge increases, the reac-
tion rate of reaction 3 increases while the
rate of reaction 2 decreases. Taking advan-
tage of this fact, several attempts were made
to reduce ozone generation rates by heat-
ing ionizer wires. In a wire-cylinder geome-
try, Makin and Inculet (1973) and Awad
and Castle (1975) found that heating the
wires could reduce ozone concentration, but
it was necessary to heat the wires to 500°C.
Ohkubo et al. (1990) heated a Ni-Cr wire in
a wire-plate arrangement to 200°C and ob-
tained an 80% reduction in ozone concen-
tration. Unfortunately, operation at such
high temperatures raises safety and flam-
mability issues that preclude this method of
ozone reduction from commercial use.
Another possible dissociation mechanism
is due to water vapor in the inlet air stream,
OH* + 0, -,HO, +0 , (6)
H 0 2 + O3 -+ OH* + 202 (7)
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
where OH* is a highly unstable intermedi-
ate species (Benson and Axworthy, 1965).
It is well established that negative-polar-
ity corona discharges produce more ozone
than do positive-polarity coronas. Experi-
mental studies in wire-cylinder and wire-
plate geometries found a five- to nine-fold
increase of ozone concentration (ppm) us-
ing negative polarity as opposed to positive
polarity (Awad and Castle, 1975; Nashimo-
to, 1988; Ohkubo et al., 1990; Viner et al.,
1992). Little information is provided in the
literature to explain this phenomenon. Two
plausible explanations are there are more
electrons present in the corona discharge
to form atomic oxygen and/or the elec-
trons in the negative discharge possess more
energy than in a positive discharge. Nashi-
moto (1988) suggests that the corona dis-
charge surrounding the discharge electrode
is larger for negative polarity than it is for
positive polarity.
Based on reaction 1, it is not surprising
that several studies showed ozone genera-
tion rate to be linearly proportional to cur-
rent when all other parameters are held
constant (Castle et al., 1969; Nashimoto,
1988, Viner et al., 1992). Castle et al. used
a positive-polarity, wire-cylinder electro-
static precipitator to demonstrate the ef-
fects of ionizer current and wire diameter
on ozone concentration. Nashimoto's work
was aimed at characterizing ozone genera-
tion for the copier industry but also was
applied to electrostatic precipitators. Viner
and co-workers tested a single-stage, wire-
plate precipitator.
Viner et al. (1992) suggested a simple,
empirical model of ozone generation that
combines the influence of constructive ele-
ments and destructive elements,
where k , and k , are empirically derived
constants representing, respectively, the
production per unit current, and the de-
struction due to water vapor in the inlet air
stream. The unipolar model neglects the
possible effects of wire diameter and mate-
rial. Viner and co-workers were unable to
Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 691
determine a value for k , . For positive po-
larity, their experimental results with vary-
ing humidity levels conflicted with the ex-
pected destructive mechanism described by
Eqs. 5-7 and for negative polarity, the data
are scattered.
Castle et al. (1969) and Nashimoto (1988)
studied the effect of wire diameter on ozone
concentration in wire-cylinder electrode ge-
ometries. Castle et al. experimented with
six positive-polarity copper wires with diam-
eters ranging from 0.13 to 0.81 mm. They
found that for a given ionizer current, ozone
concentration is linearly proportional to di-
ameter for wire diameters up to 0.50 mm.
Ozone concentration for the largest wire
diameter falls below a linear projection.
Nashimoto tested eight tungsten wires
ranging in diameter from 0.01 to 0.13 mm.
With smaller wires, he found a linear rela-
tionship between ozone generation rate
normalized with respect to current and wire
diameter for both positive and negative-
polarity coronas. Although Viner et al.
(1992) also tested various wire sizes, the
study confounded the effects of wire diam-
eter and wire material.
Castle and co-workers (1969) also looked
at the effect of wire material, but the data
were limited. With positive polarity, they
found little difference in ozone concentra-
tion with copper, tungsten, platinum, and
stainless steel wires. Castle (1969) sug-
gested that ozone production increased with
the growth of a porous oxide film on the
wires. A more recent study by Dorsey and
Davidson (1994) indicates that surface oxi-
dation is not a good indicator of ozone
generation rate.
Nashimoto (1988) experimented with
gold, silver, palladium, copper, nickel,
molybdenum, tungsten, and tantalum wire
electrodes and found that for positive dis-
charges, ozone generation rate is linked to
electrode material by the rate of formation
of a metal oxide film quantified by the
maximum standard heat (or enthalpy) of
formation of an oxide per oxygen atom for
exothermic reactions (I - A Hal). However,
for a negative-polarity corona, ozone gener-
ation rate was not found to depend on wire
692 K J. Boelter and J. H. Dauidson
material. Gold, which oxidizes in an en-
dothermic reaction, did not produce ozone
at a rate that correlated with lAHo 1. Ozone
production with gold wires was higher than
with silver wires.
Although indoor electrostatic air clean-
ers are almost exclusively two-stage, wire-
plate devices, prior studies have not ad-
dressed the effects of various design
parameters on ozone generation by these
devices. In this paper, we present measure-
ment of ozone generation rates in a com-
mercially available, electronic air cleaner.
Experiments were performed to evaluate
the effects of discharge polarity, current,
relative humidity, air temperature, and ion-
izer wire diameter and material on ozone
generation rate.
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
AND METHODOLOGY
Facility
A schematic of the air cleaner is shown in
Fig. 1. Common to most indoor, electronic
air cleaners, the unit is divided into two
stages: a charging (ionizing) stage and a
collecting stage. Particle laden air entering
the air cleaner first flows through the
charging section. In its commercial config-
Ionizer Wire
4
'
Corona
Discharge 7 , ,
Plates
Particle
Laden I
Air , Clean Air
Charging Collector
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
uration, the charging section consists of
nine positive-polarity, tungsten wire elec-
trodes that are 0.20 mm in diameter and
470 mm in length placed midway between
electrically grounded, aluminum plates. The
plates are 25 mm long in the air stream
direction and are spaced 40 mm apart. Op-
erated with the manufacturer's direct-cur-
rent power supply, the nominal operating
voltage in the charging section is +8.2 kV.
The collecting section consists of alter-
nately polarized, parallel plates spaced at
4.5 mm increments and 76 mm long. Nomi-
nal voltage in the collection section is 4.3
kV.
During testing, the original power supply
was replaced with a 1-kW, reversible-polar-
ity, direct-current power supply (HWS)
with 2% maximum root mean square rip-
ple. Using this power supply, it was possible
to measure the voltage-current (V-I) char-
acteristics of the charging section of the air
cleaner operated with both positive and
negative polarity and to operate at any point
along the V-I curves. Voltage and current
were measured with a Fluke, Model 80K-40,
high voltage probe (+ 2%) connected to a
Fluke, Model 85 multimeter and a Triplett
ammeter placed in-line with the high side
of the charging stage (+ 0.01 mA).
FIGURE 1. Schematic of a commer-
cia1 air cleaner (not to scale).
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
Experiments to determine ozone genera-
tion rate were conducted in the horizontal,
single-pass wind tunnel shown in Fig. 2. To
remove background ozone, room air is
drawn through an agglomerated carbon fil-
ter sandwiched between two activated char-
coal filters (30 pores per inch). The effec-
tiveness of the carbon filters was tested at
the beginning and conclusion of each test.
Filter efficiency was always greater than
90% and was factored into the test uncer-
tainty. Filtered air passes through the com-
mercial air cleaner and then through a 30"
stainless steel transition to a 15.24 cm inner
diameter glass pipe. Ozone is sampled
through a single port located 170 cm down-
stream of the air cleaner exit. At the sam-
pling location, the ozonated air stream is
thoroughly mixed so that the single air
sample accurately represents the ozone
generated by the air cleaner. During initial
experiments, ozone concentration was mea-
sured at 2 cm intervals along the diameter
TOP VIEW
Air
Flow
3
Filter
SIDE VIEW
FIGURE Air cleaner wind tunnel facility.
Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 693
of the pipe to confirm thorough mixing of
the air stream. Air velocity is measured just
downstream of the ozone sampling port.
Air flow rate is controlled with a manual
damper. Ozonated air is exhausted out-
doors through a 1.5 hp blower.
Measured values include ozone concen-
tration, operating current and voltage, air
stream velocity, ambient room tempera-
ture, and relative humidity. Ozone concen-
tration was measured with a Dasibi, Model
1003-AH, ozone analyzer which functions
on an ultraviolet light absorption principle.
The unit has a range of zero to 3.000 ppm
but the analog output restricts the maxi-
mum measurement to 0.999 ppm. Accuracy
of the analyzer is k0.001 ppm. Ozone con-
centration, in units of ppm, is converted to
mass concentration by
assuming standard temperature and pres-
sure. Maximum error due to this assump-
1 Pitot Tube & 1
1 Pressure Transducer / I I
a
dl Exhaust
/Manuall
Damper
694 K J. Boelter and J. H. Davidson
tion is 2%. Ozone generation rate (mg s-l)
defined as the product of ozone concentra-
tion (mg m-3) and volumetric flow rate (m3
s-'1,
'ozone = [ 0 3IQ. (10)
Voltage and current were determined
from 0 to 10 V signals at the power supply
calibrated to the voltage and current in the
ionizing section of the air cleaner. Room
temperature ( rfr 0.2%) and relative humid-
ity ( rt 2%) were measured with an Omega,
Model RH70, digital hygrometer/ther-
mometer. The device uses a thin-film sen-
sor to measure relative humidity and a
platinum, 100 R resistance temperature
detector (RTD) to measure temperature.
Air velocity was determined with a Pitot-
static tube and electronic pressure trans-
ducer ( rtr 1.12 X Pa).
A computer aided data-acquisition pro-
gram was used with a Keithley, Model
DAS-8PGA, software selectable range, 12-
bit analog-to-digital converter and a per-
sonal computer to gather data at 5 min
sampling intervals. Resolution for the ozone
measurement is 0.0002 ppm, for voltage, 4
mV, for current, 0.001 mA, for tempera-
ture, 0.5"C, for relative humidity, 0.1%, and
for velocity, 0.08 m s-' at 298 K. Each data
point is an average of 600 sample conver-
sions.
Methodology
The effects of discharge polarity, ionizer
current, relative humidity, air temperature,
wire diameter, and wire material were as-
TABLE 1. Range of Experimental Parameters
Variable Ionizer Polarity
Wind tunnel velocity Positive
Negative
Relative humidity Positive
Negativc
Air temperature Positive and negative
Current Positive
Negative
Ionizer wire diameter Positive and negative
Ionizer wire material Positive and negative
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
sessed in 68 tests. Table 1 summarizes the
experimental variables and ranges of the
tests. To assure a valid mean value for
ozone generation rate at a specified operat-
ing condition, tests were conducted for a
minimum of 4 h.
An initial set of tests was conducted to
determine the effects of discharge polar-
ity, ionizer current, relative humidity, and
temperature on ozone generation rate.
Throughout this test series, the standard
0.20 mm diameter tungsten wires were used.
Air temperature and relative humidity var-
ied with ambient conditions.
In a second test series, the effect of wire
diameter on ozone generation rate was
evaluated by replacing the original 0.20 mm
diameter wires with 0.10 and 0.25 mm di-
ameter, tungsten wires. During these tests,
relative humidity and air temperature were
controlled with a room air-conditioning
unit. Tests were conducted for both polari-
ties at current levels of 0.30. 0.60, and 1.20
mA. These values are considered reason-
able for commercial air cleaner operation.
In a third test series, the effect of wire
material on ozone generation rate was eval-
uated for both polarities at the same three
current levels with 0.25 mm diameter tung-
sten, silver, copper, and titanium ionizer
wires. Once again relative humidity and air
temperature were stable throughout test-
ing.
Over the range of conditions encoun-
tered, it was necessary to vary air speed to
remain within the range of the ozone ana-
lyzer. Viner et al. (1992) previously inves-
tigated the effect of air flow rate on gen-
Range
0.2-1.10 m s-'
0.7-6.2 m s-'
17-55%
7-720/0
19.3-28.2"C
0.30-1.15 mA
0.30-1.40 mA
0.10,0.20, and 0.25 mm diameter tungsten
Silver, copper, tungsten, titanium 0.25 mm diameter
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
eration rate and found r,,,,, to be
independent of air flow rate. We conducted
a similar investigation to verify that ozone
generation rate was not influenced by
changes in air speed. Just as shown in Fig.
3, ozone concentration (mg m-3) normal-
ized with respect to ionizer current is linear
with respect to the inverse of average veloc-
ity for positive and negative coronas. Thus,
for the range of air speeds considered,
ozone generation rate is independent of air
flow rate.
RESULTS
Electrical Characteristics of the Commercial
Air Cleaner
Measured V-I curves are plotted in Fig. 4
along with the electrical characteristics of
the commercial, positive-polarity power
supply. The commercial power supply was
evaluated by connecting a variable resistive
"dummy" load across the charging section
of the air cleaner. For positive polarity,
0 1
FIGURE 3. Ozone concentration per unit current versus the inverse of average velocity. The air cleaner is in its
commercially available configuration. The average ambient temperature varied between 19 and 28°C. The ambient
relative humidity varied between 17 and 55%.
Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 695
corona onset occurs at approximately 6.7
kV while, for negative polarity, corona on-
set occurs at approximately 5.6 kV. Once
the voltage is increased beyond 7.2 kV,
current increases linearly with voltage. The
voltage at which sparkover occurs was not
measured. The normal, air-cleaner operat-
ing point is defined by the intersection of
the commercial dc power supply curve and
the positive-polarity V-I curve, 8.2 kV and
1.08 mA.
Effect of Current, Relative Humidity, and
Room Temperature on Ozone Generation Rate
A multivariable, linear regression analysis
between the response ozone generation rate
( r ) and the independent variables current
(I),temperature ( T ) , and relative humidity
(RH) was conducted on the data collected
from 34 initial ozone tests; 17 of these tests
used a positive-polarity power source while
the other 17 tests used a negative-polarity
power source. The environmental condi-
tions encountered during testing represent
48 Hour Tests
2 3 4 5 6 7
11Average Velocity (dm)
696 K J. Boelter and J. H. Dauidson Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997

Ff I -Commercial Power Supply 1 \

V.. I +Positive
-Negative
Polarity
Polarity I \
5 Data Symbol Encompasses Measurement Error

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Current (mA)

FIGURE 4. Electrical characteristics of the commercial electronic air cleaner. The ambient room temperature and
relative humidity were 24°C and 51%, respectively.

the extremes expected in most homes. The
results of the regression analysis are pre-
sented, for positive polarity, in Table 2 and,
for negative polarity, in Table 3. The coef-
ficient of determination, R', signifies the
TABLE 2. Multivariable Linear Regression Analysis
for Positive Polarity Operation of the Two-Stage Air
Cleaner with Nine 0.20 mm Diameter Tungsten Ion-
izer Wiresa
Positive Polarity Regression Model
0.947
~ozo,,(mg s ' )
-
- (0.29 + 0.04) - (0.25 & 0.04)* I
- (0.009 I f - 0.001)* RH
- (0.00097 + 0.00001)* T
adequacy of the fit of the regression model
to the data. Each parameter in the model is
statistically significant.
First consider the positive-polarity model
presented in Table 2. For nominal operat-
ing conditions of 35% relative humidity and
air temperature of 292K, the model sug-
TABLE 3. Multivariable Linear Regression Analysis
R~
for Negative Polarity Operation of the Two-Stage Air
Cleaner with Nine 0.20 mm Diameter Tungsten Ion-
izer Wiresa
Negative Polarity Regression Model R~
rouone(mg S- ) 0.929
= (-1.3 & 0.1) + (1.2 k O.l)*I

+ (0.00085 + 0.0001)* I* T +
+ (0.033 0.002)* RH
+
+ (0.0045 0.0003)* T
+ (0.008 + 0.001)* I* RH - (0.0040 If- O.OOO3)*I* T
- (0.027 + 0.002)* I* RH
+ (0.00003 0.00003)* T* RH - (0.000110 + 0.000006)* T* RH
- (0.00028 &0.00003)* I* T* RH +
+ (0.000090 O.OOOOO6)*I* T* RH
where I is in mA, T in Kelvin, RH in %. where I is in mA, T in Kelvin, RN in %.
Uncertainties of the regression coefficients Uncertainties of the regression coefficients
are reported at the 95% confidence level. are reported at the 95% confidence level.
Ionizer current ranged from 0.29 to 1.15 mA. The ambient tem- lonizer current ranged from 0.27 to 1.37 mA. The ambient tem-
perature ranged from 19 to 26°C and the relative humidity ranged perature ranged from 19 to 26°C and the relative humidity ranged
from 17 to 55%. from 7 to 72%.
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
gests that a reduction in current from the
nominal current of 1.08 to 0.6 mA halves
ozone generation rate from 0.0049 to 0.0023
mg s-l. Changes in room temperature and
relative humidity have less impact on ozone
generation rate. At 1.08 mA, an increase in
relative humidity from 17 to 55% reduces
generation rate by 17%. With a positive
corona discharge, the V-I curve was insen-
sitive to changes in relative humidity over
the range considered. An increase in tem-
perature from 292 to 301K reduces gener-
ation rate by 6%. The experimental un-
certainty for the measured value of ozone
generation rate ranges from 5 to 15%.
The negative polarity regression model
indicates similar trends. For nominal oper-
ating conditions of 35% relative humidity
and air temperature of 292K, a reduction in
current from 1.08 to 0.6 mA reduces ozone
generation rate 36% from 0.0342 to 0.0219
mg s p l . A rise in air temperature from 292
to 301K, decreases ozone production by
6.6%. An increase in relative humidity from
7 to 72% reduces ozone generation rate by
9%. These changes in temperature and rel-
ative humidity are of minor engineering
Relative Humidity
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Ionizer Current (m.4)
FIGURE 5. Effect of relative humidity on electrical characteristics of the commercial air cleaner operated with a
negative polarity corona discharge. The ambient room temperature was 20°C.
Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 697
significance for fixed current level. How-
ever, the electrical characteristics of a neg-
ative-polarity air cleaner are affected by
relative humidity. The V-I curves for the
air cleaner with negative polarity at relative
humidities of 27, 55, and 76% are shown in
Fig. 5. In addition to a decrease in corona
onset voltage, ionizer current increases with
increasing relative humidity up to a voltage
of approximately 8.5 kV. Thus, for operat-
ing voltages less than 8.5 kV, an increase in
relative humidity would create more ozone.
The V-I curves, with positive polarity, are
not shown because at relative humidities of
27, 55, and 76%, the electrical characteris-
tics of the air cleaner are nearly identical.
Effect of Discharge Polarity on Ozone
Generation Rate
To demonstrate the dominant effect of dis-
charge polarity, data were reduced to an
average value for each test. Ozone genera-
tion rate is plotted with respect to ionizer
current for positive polarity in Fig. 6 and
for negative polarity in Fig. 7. The rela-
tively large uncertainties in ozone genera-
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
698 K J. Boelter and J. H. Davidson Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997

1 .48
/
Hour Tests
4 Hour Tests
1

Ionizer Current (mA)

FIGURE 6. Ozone generation rate versus current for the commercial air cleaner with positive polarity. The
average ambient room temperature varied from 19 to 28°C. The average ambient relative humidity varied between
17 and 55%.

tion rate for the 48-h tests are attributed to
using a single measurement of velocity to
calculate r,,,,,, for the entire data set. This
error was significantly reduced in the 4-h
tests by continuous monitoring of air veloc-
ity. The data are fit with a linear regression
line that compares well to the (more accu-
rate) regression models listed in Tables 2
and 3. Comparing the slope of the line in
Fig. 6 to that in Fig. 7, the ozone generated
by the air cleaner with negative polarity is
almost six-fold greater than that generated
with positive polarity.
Effect of Wire Diameter on Ozone
Generation Rate
The effect of wire diameter on ozone gen-
eration rate was determined for 0.10, 0.20,
and 0.25 mm diameter tungsten wires. As
shown in Figs. 8 and 9, electrical character-

0.040 1.48 Hour Tests I

FIGURE 7. Ozone generation versus

current for the commercial air cleaner
with negative polarity. The average
ambient room temperature varied
from 19 to 27°C. The average ambient
relative humivity varied between 7
and 72%.

Ionizer Current (mA)

Aerosol Science and Technology Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 699
27:6 December 1997

Ionizer Current (mA)

FIGURE 8. Effect of wire diameter on the electrical characteristics with positive polarity. Wires were tungsten.
The room temperature was 25'C and ambient relative humidity ranged from 45 to 55%.

istics are affected by wire diameter for both
polarities. With decreasing wire diameter,
corona onset voltage decreases and the V-I
curve shifts to higher current for a given
voltage. These results agree with data pre-
sented by White (1963).
Just as shown in Figs. 10 and 11, for fixed
wire diameter, ozone generation rate is lin-
early proportional to current. For both po-
larities, the data indicate reduced ozone
generation with smaller wires. This trend
agrees with prior studies (Castle et al., 1969;

9.5

9
8.5 easwemen

8
9 7.5
C
& 7
*
6.5
6
5.5 +0.25 mm wire diameter

5
4.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Ionizer Current (mA)

FIGURE 9. Effect of wire diameter on the electrical characteristics with negative polarity. Wires were tungsten.
The room temperature was 25°C and ambient relative humidity ranged from 45 to 58%.
700 K J. Boelter and J. H. Dauidson Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997

0.0000~ , ; , ; , , ; , : ; , I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Ionizer Current (mA)

FIGURE 10. Ozone generation rate versus ionizer current with a positive-polarity discharge for three tungsten
wires 0.10, 0.20, and 0.25 mm in diameter. The average ambient room temperature ranged from 21 to 24°C. The
average ambient relative humidity ranged from 42 to 52%.

Nashimoto, 1988). With positive polarity,
there is virtually no difference in the ozone
produced by the 0.20 mm diameter wires
and that produced by the 0.25 mm diameter
wires, and thus a single linear regression
line was calculated using both data series.
The 0.10 mm diameter ionizer wires pro-
duce approximately 40% less ozone than
the 0.20 and 0.25 mm diameter wires. With
negative polarity, the 0.25 mm diameter
wires produce 1-12% more ozone that the
original 0.20 mm diameter wires. The 0.10

Ionizer Current (mA)

FIGURE 11. Ozone generation rate versus ionizer current wivh a negative-polarity discharge for three tungsten
wires 0.10, 0.20, and 0.25 mm in diameter. The average ambient room temperature was 23°C. The average ambient
relative humidity ranged from 44 to 56%.
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
mm diameter wires produce 23-32% less
ozone than the original wires.
To assess the effect of wire diameter on
the overall performance of the air cleaner,
the change in electrical characteristics must
also be considered. For example, if the
standard 0.20 mm diameter tungsten wires
are operated at 8.2 kV and 1.08 mA, the
ozone generation rate is 0.0043 mg s-'
with positive polarity and 0.0343 mg s-'
with negative polarity. When 0.10 mm di-
ameter tungsten wires are substituted, the
operating point shifts to 6.95 kV and 1.16
mA with positive polarity and 6.62 kV and
1.18 mA with negative polarity. In this case,
the ozone generation rate, with positive
polarity, is 0.0027 mg s-'; an overall de-
crease of 37% as compared to ozone gener-
ation rate with the larger wires. The ozone
generation rate with negative polarity, is
0.0266 mg s-'; an overall decrease of 23%.
Eflect of Wire Material on Ozone
Generation Rate
One potentially promising method of con-
trolling ozone generation is the use of al-
ternative metals for the ionizer wires.
To determine if Nashimoto's hypothesis
Ionizer Current (mA)
FIGURE 12. Ozone generation rate versus ionizer current for four ionizer materials with positive polarity. Wire
diameter is 0.25 mm. The average ambient room temperature varied from 21 to 2 4 T . The average ambient relative
humidity varied from 41 to 52%.
Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 701
that ozone production is proportional to
I - Ai\H,l applies to the wire-plate geome-
try, ozone generation rates of four wire
materials are compared. Silver and copper
wires were selected because of their low
values of 1 - A Hal and thus, potential to
reduce ozone generation. Although, the I -
AH,I of titanium is higher than that of
tungsten, it was selected for testing because
of its high tensile strength and good resis-
tance to corrosion. All wires were 0.25 mm
in diameter.
The V-I curves for the four wires are not
shown since they are nearly identical. Not
surprisingly, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13,
ozone generation rate is linearly propor-
tional to ionizer current for all materials.
The order of increasing ozone generation
rate with respect to material is independent
of polarity. The air cleaner produced the
least amount of ozone with silver wires,
followed in increasing order by copper,
tungsten, and titanium wires. For positive
polarity, the air cleaner produced 22% more
ozone with titanium wires as compared to
that produced with tungsten wires while the
air cleaner produced 32 and 56% less ozone
with copper and silver wires, respectively.
For negative polarity, titanium wires pro-
702 K J. Boelter and J. H. Dauidson Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997

Ionizer Current (mA)

FIGURE 13. Ozone generation rate versus ionizer current for four ionizer materials with negative polarity. Wire
diameter is 0.25 mm. The average ambient room temperature was 23°C. The average ambient relative humidity
varied from 43 to 52%.

duced approximately 18% more ozone than
the tungsten wires while copper and silver
produced 6 and 9% less ozone, respectively.
The enthalpy of formation of an oxide
coating per oxygen atom, - A Ho, is a good
predictor of the relative effect of wire ma-
terial on ozone generation rate per unit
current for both polarities. In Fig. 14, the
positive-polarity data shown in Fig. 12 were
normalized with respect to current and the
average value plotted versus - A Ho. The
same technique was used to reduce the

-
I .
Boelter and Davidson
Nashimoto (1988)
I

-AH, (kcal/mol-0 atom)

FIGURE 14. Correlation, for positive polarity, of ozone generation rate with -AHo with four ionizer wire
materials. Wire diameter is 0.25 mm. Data for a wire cylinder with 0.03 mm diameter wires are shown for
comparison (Nashimoto, 1988).
Aerosol Science and Technology Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 703
27:6 December 1997

negative-polarity data shown in Fig. 13 and polarity,

create Fig. 15. The data for a wire cylinder,
read from graphs presented by Nashimoto
r,,,,, x= (3.2+ 1x l o p 2 )
(1988), are also included in these figures. A x(IEAHo)
difference in ionizer wire diameters be-
tween the two studies is the most likely
+ (8.4 X +5X
explanation for the difference in ozone x (I)(d)
generation rates for positive polarity. For 4 3 x 10-4 + I x 1 0 - ~ ) ( 1 )
negative polarity, there is a variance in the with R2 = 0.944, (11)
slope of ozone generation rate per - AHo and for negative polarity,
between the two studies that cannot be
explained by this difference. Ozone genera- r,,,,,, = (6.1 x 10-5 +4 x
tion rates for the Nashimoto data are fairly x ( I ) ( - AHo)
flat, leading to his conclusion that wire
material has little affect on ozone genera- +(9.2 X l o p 2+ 3 X
tion. In this study, ozone generation de- x (I)(d)
pends on wire material for both positive +(9.i x 1 0 - 3 rt 7 x 10-4)(1)
and negative corona discharges.
Models of ozone generation rate, for pos- + (1.3 x lop3 + 2 x
itive and negative polarity, were formulated with R2 = 0.980. (12)
from the data collected during the wire These models show that, for each polarity,
diameter and wire material ozone tests. A the most important parameter affecting
multivariable linear regression analysis, us- ozone generation rate is ionizer current.
ing approximately 1000 data points yields Generation rate may be reduced without
the models of Eqs. L1 and 12. For positive reducing current, by using smaller diameter

II .Boelter and Davidson I

//
Nashimoto (1988)

-AH0 (kcaVmol-0 atom)

FIGURE 15. Correlation, for negative polarity, of ozone generation rate with -AHo with four ionizer wire
materials. Wire diameter is 0.25 mm. Data for a wire cylinder with 0.03 mm diameter wires are shown for
comparison (Nashimoto, 1988).
704 K J. Boelter and J. H. Dauidson Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997

wires and materials with lower values of
I - AHo].
Eflect of Parameters on Particle
Collection Eficiency
Modification of operating or design speci-
fications of any electronic air cleaner must
be appraised in terms of particle collection
efficiency as well as ozone production. For
the following analysis, values of ozone pro-
duction are measured and particle collec-
tion efficiency is predicted by a numerical
simulation of particle charging and collec-
tion developed by the manufacturer of the
commercial air cleaner (McKinney, 1996).
Particle collection efficiency is the fraction
of particles of a given diameter removed
from the air stream. The inlet air stream
particle distribution is assumed equal to
the measured ambient air distribution ob-
tained by Clark and Whitby (1967) in Min-
neapolis for particles ranging from 0.01 to 2
pm. Their measured distribution is plotted
in Fig. 16. Number concentrations of parti-
cles from 2 to 10 p m are assumed equal to
the measured concentration of 2 p m parti-
cles. The corona discharge is assumed to be
positive and uniformly distributed on the
wires. It is clear from this study as well as
from prior work, that use of a negative
corona discharge cannot be justified be-
cause of the substantial increase in ozone
generation. Only the electric field in the
charging section of the two-stage precipita-
tor was modified; the average electric field
in the collection section was held at 9.85
kV cm-'.
Any reduction in current reduces ozone
generation rate, but may adversely affect
particle charging. The competing effects are
considered for reductions in ionizer current
from the nominal value of 1.08 to 0.6 and
0.3 mA. With the standard 0.20 mm diame-
ter tungsten wires, the lower current levels
must be achieved by lowering voltage in the
charging section from 8.2 to 7.8 and 7.4 kV,
respectively. The new operating points are
well within the linear range of the V-I
curves and are high enough to maintain a
uniform corona discharge along the wires.

Particle Diameter (pin)

FIGURE 16. Assumed particle distribution at the inlet of the air cleaner. This ambient-air particle distribution was
measured in Minneapolis by Clark and Wbitby (1967). Measured particle diameter ranged from 0.005 to 2 pm. For
particle diameters ranging from 2 to 10 pm, a number count of 1 number cm-3 p m was assumed.
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
0.01 0.1 1
Particle Diameter (pm)
Simulated particle collection efficiency is
plotted in Fig. 17 as a function of particle
diameter for current levels of 0.30, 0.60,
and 1.08 mA. As expected, reducing cur-
rent reduces particle collection efficiency.
Efficiency of collection of particles smaller
than 0.3 pm is affected slightly more than
efficiency of collection of larger particles.
The effects of changing the operating cur-
rent on measured on ozone generation rate
FIGURE 18. The effect of reduced current on air cleaner efficiency and ozone generation rate with positive
polarity, 0.20 mm diameter, tungsten ionizer wires.
Ozone Generation by Air Cleaners 705
FIGURE 17. Simulated fractional
particle removal efficiency as a func-
tion of particle diameter (McKinney,
1996).
as well as overall particle collection effi-
ciency are shown in the bar graph of Fig.
18. Results are normalized with respect to
the values at the nominal operating current
of 1.08 mA. With a 40% reduction in cur-
rent to 0.6 mA, ozone generation rate would
be reduced by nearly 50% with only a 20%
reduction in particle collection efficiency. A
more extreme reduction in current, to 0.3
mA, would have the benefit of reducing
Fii Efficiency
706 K J. Boelter and J. H. Dauidson
ozone 75% but the detrimental effect of
reducing particle collection efficiency by
40%.
A reduction in wire diameter lowers op-
erating current at a fixed voltage level in
addition to lowering ozone generation rate.
In this analysis, nominal operating current
was held at 1.08 mA and voltage adjusted
in accordance with the measured V-I curves
shown in Fig. 8 for 0.10, 0.20, and 0.25 mm
diameter tungsten ionizer wires. Ozone
generation rate was determined from the
linear curve fits shown in Fig. 10. The ef-
fects of reducing wire diameter are illus-
trated in Fig. 19. Since collection efficiency
is not affected by lowering operating volt-
age in the charging section from 8.7 to 6.9
kV, there is no detrimental effect of reduc-
ing wire diameter assuming current and the
operating voltage in the collection section
are unchanged. Use of 0.10 mm diameter
wires results in a 40% reduction in ozone
generation. The slight increase in collec-
tion efficiency with the 0.10 mm wires as
compared to the standard 0.20 mm wires
is a consequence of increases in simulated
efficiency for fine particles from 0.01 to
Efficiency
0.98
FIGURE 19. The effect of wire diameter on air cleaner efficiencyand ozone generation rate with positive polarity,
tungsten ionizer wires.
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
One of the benefits of controlling ozone
generation rate by selection of wire mate-
rial is that the electrical characteristics of
the air cleaner are not affected. Thus, wire
material may be chosen to reduce ozone
without regard to its effect on particle col-
lection. Ozone generation rate decreased
by 30% with copper wires and 50% with
silver wires as compared to that generated
by the standard tungsten wires.
CONCLUSION
This experimental study of ozone genera-
tion rate in an electrostatic precipitator
extends previous studies to consider the
influences of discharge polarity, current,
relative humidity, air temperature, dis-
charge electrode diameter, and material for
the two-stage, wire-plate geometry. A com-
mercial air cleaner, intended for use in a
heating/air-conditioning duct, was used
throughout the study. The amount of ozone
released into living and work spaces are
reduced if:
a positive-polarity discharge is used in-
stead of negative polarity,
'.OO
Aerosol Science and Technology
27:6 December 1997
the air cleaner is operated at the lowest
current level that produces an acceptable
air cleaner efficiency,
the ionizer wire diameter is reduced as
much as possible without compromising
durability and
the ionizer wire is constructed from a
material with as small a value of I - A HOI
as possible without compromising dura-
bility.
Over the ranges expected in homes, changes
in relative humidity, and air temperature
do not strongly affect ozone production.
Future work should explore the use of
plated metals and metal alloys with a
greater strength than the pure copper and
silver wires considered here.
This project was supported by the Industrial Filtration
Consortium of the Particle Technology Laboratory at the
University of Minnesota.
NOMENCLATURE:
d wire diameter (mm)
AHO minimum standard heat (or enthalpy) of
formation of a metal oxide (kcal molp'
0-atomp1)
I current (mA)
k , empirically derived constant (mg rnAp'
s-I) Eq. 8
k , empirically derived constant (m3 s p l
%RH- '1 ~ q 8 .
M element or molecule to supply energy
for reaction 2 to proceed
[ 0 3 ] ozone concentration (mg mp3)
r,, ozone generation rate (mg s p ' )
Q volumetric air flow rate (m3 s-') Eq. 10
R 2 coefficient of determination (0 < R~ I 1)
RH relative humidity (%)
T room temperature PC)
V voltage (kV)
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