Professional Documents
Culture Documents
123
SB Nelson et al.
123 2012; Simberloff et al. 2013). Dengan demikian, maka tidak
ada sintesis saat ini ada mekanisme bawah- penting
untuk menilai sejauh mana mereka mengancam
dampak berbohong tanaman invasif pada burung.
keanekaragaman hayati dan mekanisme degradasi (Vila`
Kami mengatasi kesenjangan pengetahuan melalui
sistem-et al. a 2011). Dari sekian banyak taksa dipengaruhi oleh invasi,
review ATIC. Kami pertama kali menyajikan frekuensi
negatif, beberapa telah menerima banyak perhatian sebagai burung.Avian
Hubungannetral, dan positif antara distribusi invasif dan
kebugaran mungkin sensitif terhadaptanaman
tanamandan banyak metrik ekologi burung (misalnya
abun- invasi karena struktur vegetasi sering menengahi
tari, kekayaan spesies, hidup sarang, induk parasitisme,
pemilihan habitat dan sarang predasi ( MacArthur dan
kondisi tubuh), dan mendiskusikan pola tambahan
associ- MacArthur 1961; Rotenberry dan Wiens 1980; Martin
diciptakan dengan jenis tertentu habitat, bentuk
pertumbuhan tanaman, dan 1993). Tanaman invasif juga dapat mempengaruhi burung melalui
musim. Kami kemudian meninjau dan mengevaluasi
dukungan untuk jalur trofik jika mereka berbeda dalam kualitas gizi dari
mekanisme yang diusulkan untuk menjelaskan hubungan
ini, tanaman asli (Ingold dan Craycraft 1983) atau dukungan
dan akhirnya mendiskusikan keterbatasan dan implikasi
dari komunitas arthropoda yang berbeda (Flanders et al.
Data , serta isu-isu kunci membutuhkan penelitian lebih
lanjut. 2006).
Sebagai penulis telah semakin mempelajari dampak ini, tubuh mengumpulkan literatur telah memungkinkan
penyelidikan Metode tren luas. Sebagai contoh, sebuah
meta-analisis ini menyajikan bukti bahwa tanaman invasif
Pasal seleksi cenderung mengurangi kelimpahan burung,
keragaman, dan kebugaran, memberikan informasi berharga tentang ancaman yang ditimbulkan oleh
Kami mengidentifikasi artikel peer-review yang relevan
pub-invasions (Schirmel et al. 2016 ). Namun, karena
likasikan melalui 2014. Untuk memberikan artikel hanya
dimasukkan baik yang luas dan analisis ini memberikan
kajian mendalam literatur, kami membatasi informasi
yang cukup untuk menghitung ukuran efek (29burung
lingkupke Amerika Utara (yaitu Kanada, Amerika
Serikat, studi;. Schirmel et al 2016, Lampiran S1) mereka bermain imbang
dan Meksiko; tidak termasuk pulau-pulau). Karena
kebanyakan perti- pada sebagian yang relatif kecil dariyang ada
studi nenmenyelidiki sistem Amerika Utara, sastra.
memeriksa data ini memberikan yang luas, meskipun tren
yang berbeda mungkin muncul ketika literatur
gambarantidaklengkap, pengetahuan yang ada. Kami
diperiksa melalui lensa yang lebih luas. Memang, meskipun
mencari ISI Web of Science database menggunakan
laporan dampak negatif dari invasi yangumum
kata kunciinvasif, eksotis, atau * asli DAN tanaman atau
(misalnya Schmidt dan Whelan 1999; Flanders et al 2006;.
Vegetasi DAN burung atau * burung . Kami meninjau
relevan Ortega et al 2006;. Rodewald et al 2011), beberapatambahan..
kertas dan diperiksa kutipan dalam mengidentifikasi
tanaman invasif memiliki efek minimal pada burung sementara
studi Studi desain bervariasi, tetapi yang lain bahkan
muncul untuk menguntungkan mereka (misalnya Rosenstock
kita dianggap artikel relevan jika penulis terkait dan van
Riper 2001; Chapman et al 2004;. Van Riper
metrik kuantitatif ekologi burung untuk kehadiran et al
2008;. McCusker et al 2010;. Gleditsch dan Carlo
atau prevalensi tanaman invasif 2011).. Meskipun
berfokus pada efek arah tidak
Kami didefinisikan sebagai tanaman invasif jika
mereka memiliki Kerja membentuk menangkap besarnya efek, menentukan
populasi likasikan luar rentang asli mereka dan frekuensi
relatif negatif, positif, dan netral
daerah luar di mana manusia telah sengaja ditanam
dampak pada burung dapat memperjelas risiko yang ditimbulkan oleh pabrik
mereka (Davis 2009). Kita lakukan, namun, review studi
invasi, baik dari segi kemungkinan
negatifpopulasi spesies eksotik ditanam oleh manusia
jika dampak yang terjadi dan aspek ekologi burung
spesies yang bersangkutan diketahui secara independen
bahwa invasi cenderung mempengaruhi. Selain itu, ini
menyerang daerah ditanami. Selain itu, kami termasuk
pendekatan memungkinkan untuk review understudied
studi-komponentanaman asli melanggar pada habitat dari
komponen-ekologi burung, seperti preferensi habitat,
yang mereka secara historis telah dikeluarkan. kondisi
tubuh, dan tingkat penyediaan.
Selain memahami pola efek,
Menentukan pola dampak tanaman invasif
mengidentifikasi variabel tertentu mengemudi pola ini penting untuk pengambilan keputusan dalamkonservatisme
burung
Pasaldilaporkan hubungan antara tanaman inva- tion.
Meskipun volume tinggi sastra yang bersangkutan,
diskusi-dan array yang luas dari metrik burung. Untuk setiap
Pola dan mekanisme dampak tanaman invasif pada burung Amerika Utara
melaporkan uji statistik kami mencatat arah
adalah bahwa beberapa tes mungkin akan lebih mungkin
untuk menunjukkan respon metrik untuk invasi-khusus, apakah
negatif, netral, atau positif hasil berdasarkan bawah -
tanaman invasif memiliki negatif, netral, atau positif
elemen berbaring dari artikel di mana mereka dampak
sesuai dengan signifikansi yang dipilih penulis
melaporkan. Kami meneliti pengaruh tiga kriteria faktor.
Jika beberapa artikel yang diterbitkan menggunakan
padalikelihood ini: (1) ukuran sampel uji, (2) dampak
data yang sama (yaitu spesies yang sama, lokasi, dan tahun), kami
faktor jurnal mana tes diterbitkan, dan (3) dihitung
tumpang tindih tes hanya dari artikel
pub-tingkatintensitas invasi dalam sistem studi. likasikan
pertama. Beberapa artikel yang dilakukan beberapa tes
Kami fokus secara khusus pada bagaimana faktor-faktor
influ- membandingkan metrik burung ke beberapa pabrikinvasif
enced tesmemeriksa dampak invasi pada spesies abun-,
atau diukur sama metrik dalam beberapa
tarian atau kepadatan spesies burung individu (jauh
musim atau lokasi. Kami menghitung setiap ujian secara terpisah.
paling sering diperiksa metrik). Dalam beberapa kasus,
tanggapan burung invasi berada
Untuk menilai pengaruh ukuran sampel, kita
didokumentasikan tidak sepenuhnya negatif atau sepenuhnya positif. Untuk
jumlah situs studi mereplikasi atau menghitung stasiun
digunakan misalnya, arah respon kadang-kadang bervariasi
untuk setiap tes. Kami kemudian dibangun linear umum
antara tahun atau dengan intensitas invasi. Selain itu,
model campuran (GLMM) dengan respon relatif
unordered multinomial burung untukvegetasi invasif
distribusidi SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary,
kadang-kadang berbeda bila dibandingkan dengan jenis yang berbeda
NC) menggunakan PROC GLIMMIX. Ukuran sampel
adalah vegetasi asli. Kami diklasifikasikan tanggapan seperti
variabel penjelas, dan hasil dari setiap tes kondisional
negatif, kondisional positif, atau con-
(negatif, netral, atau positif) adalah respon. Kami
ditionally positif negatif-atau-.
dikecualikan tiga kategori respon bersyarat dari Untuk
memberikan pandangan yang luas dari literatur, kita
analisis ini karena kelangkaan mereka. Kami termasuk
artikel di hasil Ulasan terlepas dari kriteria statistik
yang setiap tes dilaporkan (ArticleID) sebagai bekas acak
untuk menentukan signifikansi dampak (misalnya p-
variabel untuk mengontrol non-kemerdekaan tes dalam
nilai-nilai, skor AIC, korelasi dengan sumbu dalammulti.
studi individu Kami bertekad pentingnya pentahbisan
variate). Namun, kriteria seperti bisa
model hubungan yang didasarkan pada o = 0,05.
Pengaruh kemungkinan tes mencapai signifi-
Untuk menilai apakah hasil tes terkait dengan jurnal
cance. Untuk menilai apakah keputusan ini dipengaruhikami
faktor dampak(Murtaugh 2002), kami
mendokumentasikan interpretasi literatur, kami mendokumentasikan
faktor dampak terbaru dari jurnal diwakili dalam kriteria
yang digunakan untuk setiap tes dan grafis dibandingkan
review dan membandingkan mereka dengan arah dari
menguji frekuensi efek arah yang berbeda antara
diterbitkan di setiap. Kami lagi dibangun sebuah
unordered (1) semua tes, dan (2) hanya tes dievaluasi menggunakan
GLMM multinomial, termasuk ArticleID sebagai o
random = 0.05-kriteria yang paling umum.
efek, dan dinilai hubungan di o = 0,05.
Akhirnya, kami memeriksa apakah burung
menunjukkan Variasi stron- dampak di seluruhkonteksekologi
tanggapangerinvasi sebagai tanaman invasif prevalensi meningkat. Pertama, ketika kuantitatif dilaporkan, Untuk
setiap tes dilaporkan, kami didokumentasikan (a) habitat
kitamengambil data dari setiap artikel di kedua jenis di
mana penelitian ini dilakukan (misalnya padang rumput,
tutup persen dari tanaman invasif atau persen dari total
hutan); (b) spesies tanaman invasif di bawah
vegetasi terdiri oleh tanaman invasif di setiap
pertimbangan studi, dan apakah spesies yang berkayu atau
sistem. Untuk artikel yang dibandingkan burung antara
kelompok-kelompok herba; dan (c) musim di mana data yang
situs kualitatif dikategorikan oleh tingkat invasi,
dikumpulkan (yaitu breeding, jatuh migrasi, musim dingin, atau
kami mencatat intensitas invasi sebagai migrasi musim
semi rata-rata persen). Kami menyoroti beberapacon penting
invasidalam kategori yang paling diserbu. Untuk artikel
yang pola teks tertentu.
burung dibandingkan di situs mewakili invasi gradien terus menerus, kami mencatat intensitas invasi sebagai
Pengaruh dari ukuran sampel, faktor dampak,
rata-rata persen invasi di seluruh situs (atau dan invasi
besaran
midpoint, jika rata-rata tidak dilaporkan). Kami con- structed sebuah GLMM multinomial unordered dan eval-
Kelemahan menilai pola dalam literatur
uated hubungan antara intensitas invasi dan dengan
menghitung frekuensi efek arah yang berbeda
tanggapan burung di o = 0,05.
123
SB Nelson et al.
Hasil
pada artikel
Kami mengidentifikasi 128 artikel yang memenuhi kriteria kami review (Lampiran A, Tabel A1 di Electronic Bahan
Tambahan). Artikel paling awal diterbitkan pada tahun 1980, dan tingkat publikasi telah meningkat sejak tahun 1994
(Lampiran B di Electronic Bahan Tambahan). Penelitian dilakukan di 8 provinsi Kanada, 41 negara bagian AS, dan
3 negara bagian Meksiko. Artikel ini melaporkan efek dari tanaman sive inva- 219 jenis burung (Lampiran A, Tabel
A2 di Electronic Bahan Tambahan). Spesies tanaman invasif termasuk 26 graminoid, 13 forb, dan 33 spesies kayu.
Penelitian dilakukan di padang rumput (n = 46), hutan (n = 25), hutan riparian (n = 23), lahan basah (n = 11),
shrublands (n = 10), dan sabana (n = 5). Lima artikel difokuskan pada beberapa tipe habitat dan tiga mencari makan
penelitian yang dilakukan di kandang burung.
Pola dampak tanaman invasif pada burung
Kelimpahan burung dan sarang burung
dampak yang paling umum diperiksa tanaman invasif pada kelimpahan, kepadatan, atau terjadinya spesies individu
burung (prevalensi single-spesies): 823 tes dilaporkan di 60 artikel (Gambar . 1a). Mayoritas (57,2%) menunjukkan
bahwa tanaman invasif tidak mempengaruhi prevalensi single-spesies, meskipun beberapa tes juga menunjukkan
penurunan (18,7%) dan meningkatkan (16,3%) prevalensi. Pola dalam penelitian sering dicerminkan ini distribusi
dasar, dengan prevalensi sebagian besar spesies tidak terpengaruh oleh invasi, tetapi beberapa spesies meningkat dan
beberapa penurunan (misalnya Coppedge et al 2001;. Bakker dan Higgins 2009; Gifford dan ARMACOST 2012;
Schneider dan Miller 2014). Namun, beberapa penelitian bukannya melaporkan didominasi negatif atau positif
(misalnya Rosenstock dan van Riper 2001.; McCusker et al 2010) (misalnya Flanders et al 2006.) Efek.
Selain dampak pada spesies individu, 45 tes di 30 artikel diperiksa efek pada kelimpahan total atau kepadatan
masyarakat burung (Gbr. 1b). Paling sering, tes terdeteksi ada efek invasi pada metrik ini (48,9%). Penurunan
kelimpahan atau kepadatan yang relatif jarang (23,4%), dan meningkat jarang (10,6%).
Akhirnya, 7 studi (19 tes) meneliti efek pada kelimpahan sarang spesies burung individu atau seluruh
123
masyarakat (Fig.1c). Kebanyakan tes menemukan efek netral (57,9%), sedangkan yang lebih sedikit ditemukan
berkurang (26,3%) atau meningkat (10,5%) kelimpahan sarang.
Kekayaan burung, kemerataan, dan keragaman
Beberapa penelitian melaporkan efek pada kemerataan masyarakat burung (3 netral, 2 negatif) atau keanekaragaman
(3 netral, 4 negatif, 1 kondisional positif). Sebaliknya, 33 artikel dilaporkan 46 tes memeriksa efek invasi pada
kekayaan spesies (Gambar. 1d). Meskipun efek netral adalah hasil yang paling umum (47,8%), banyak tes
menunjukkan baik efek negatif (26,1%) atau kondisional negatif (15,2%) pada kekayaan. Sebagai contoh, kekayaan
menurun di lahan basah diserang oleh umum buluh (Phragmites australis; Benoit dan Askins 1999), dan lebih rendah
pada saltcedar invasif (Tamarix ramo- sissima) monokultur dibandingkan kapuk alami hutan (Keller dan Avery
2014) (Populus spp.) .
Preferensi habitat
kesetiaan Site, distribusi burung yang dominan, dan waktu penyelesaian dapat menunjukkan preferensi habitat
burung antara vegetasi asli dan invasif (anak Robert-dan Hutto 2006). Sementara burung pipit Botteri ini (Aimophila
botteri) memiliki situs sebanding kesetiaan dalam lovegrass eksotis (Eragrostis spp.) Dan padang rumput rumput
asli, menunjukkan tidak ada preferensi (Jones dan Bock 2005), chipping burung pipit (Spizella Passerina) exhib- ited
rendah situs kesetiaan di daerah diserbu oleh melihat knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), menunjukkan selisih pref-
untuk habitat uninvaded (Ortega et al. 2006).
Demikian pula, meskipun dominan laki-laki chipping baris spar- dikecualikan bawahan muda dari patch
uninvaded, menunjukkan preferensi untuk daerah uninvaded (Ortega et al 2006.), Kardinal utara dominan
(Cardinalis cardinalis) wilayah disukai dengan berlimpah Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii; Rodewald et al.
2011). Pola pemukiman menegaskan bahwa kardinal disukai wilayah menginvasi karena mereka memilih mereka di
awal musim (Rodewald et al. 2011). Sebaliknya, cokelat-berkerah longspurs (Cal- carius ornatus) menetap padang
rumput asli dan jambul Wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) monokultur pada saat yang sama, menunjukkan tidak ada
preferensi (Lloyd dan Martin 2005). Preferensi burung untuk menginvasi dibandingkan habitat vaded unin- muncul
kasus tertentu, meskipun bukti saat ini jarang.
Pola dan mekanisme dampak tanaman invasif pada burung Amerika Utara
abc
def
Gambar 1 Frekuensi netral (tidak berpengaruh), negatif, positif,negatif.
seleksi terjadi ketika burung lebih suka bersarang di efek
invasif dan variabel (kondisional negatif, kondisional
vegetasi (efek mewakili penghindaran). untuk semua positif
lainnya, dan kondisional negatif-atau-positif) dariinvasif,
metrik efek positif menunjukkan peningkatan, efek vegetasi
negatif pada enam metrik ekologi burung di Amerika Utara. Y
menunjukkan penurunan, dan efek netral menunjukkan tidak
ada perubahan skala sumbu berbeda antara panel. Efek positif padasarang-situs
123
SB Nelson et al.
Kelangsungan hidup Nest, kelangsungan hidup bibit, ukuran kopling, dan fekunditas
Lima puluh tujuh tes di 26 studi efek diperiksa tanaman invasi pada kelangsungan hidup sarang (Gambar. 1f).
Beberapa tes dibandingkan kelangsungan hidup sarang di invasif dibandingkan substrat asli, sementara yang lain
dibandingkan bertahan hidup di menginvasi dibandingkan microsites uninvaded atau lokasi penelitian. Tes diperiksa
baik jenis burung individu (n = 48) atau mengumpulkan data dari beberapa spesies (n = 9). Kebanyakan tes
menemukan efek netral (57,9%), seperti Kolibri hitam berdagu (Archilochus alexandri) expe- riencing hidup sarang
yang sama dalam saltcedar (Tamarix spp.), Zaitun Rusia (Elaeagnus angustifolia), dan tanaman asli (Smith et al.
2009 ). Namun, invasi kadang-kadang berkurang (14,0%), meningkat (12,3%), atau memiliki efek bersyarat (15,8%)
pada kelangsungan hidup sarang.
Studi dampak pada kelangsungan hidup pemula yang Quent infre-, dengan tiga studi melaporkan tiga efek netral
dan satu efek negatif. Studi ukuran kopling dan fekunditas musiman (keturunan matang per pasang) sama-sama
jarang, dengan hanya lima tes dilaporkan pada ukuran kopling (4 netral, 1 negatif) dan tujuh melaporkan pada
fekunditas musiman (4 netral, 3 negatif). Efek pada fekunditas bervariasi di antara spesies (misalnya merek dan
Noon 2011).
Brood parasitisme
Brood parasitisme oleh cowbirds coklat berkepala (Molo- thrus ater) dapat mengurangi kebugaran burung karena
cowbirds bersaing dengan anak ayam tuan rumah untuk makanan, mengurangi tuan rumah bertahan hidup remaja,
dan meningkatkan biaya energi orangtua (Hoover dan Reetz 2006). Tiga studi telah exam- INED apakah invasi
mempengaruhi tingkat parasitisme, dengan kesimpulan campuran. Meskipun parasitisme pada sikatan Acadian
meningkat dengan cover honeysuckle (Rode- wald 2009), sikatan willow barat daya (Empi- donax trailii extimus)
bersarang di zaitun Rusia hanya dialami parasitisme tinggi dalam beberapa tahun (Sto- Leson dan Finch 2001).
Selain itu, zaitun dan Eurasia rumput Rusia tidak mempengaruhi kuning-breasted chatting (Icteria virens) atau
belalang burung gereja (Ammodramus savannarum) parasitisme, masing-masing (Stoleson dan Finch 2001; Hovick
dan Miller 2013).
Offspring provisioning dan kondisi tubuh
Hanya satu studi meneliti efek pada penyediaan tarif: catbirds abu-abu disampaikan makanan lebih sering ke
123
mereka muda sebagai honeysuckle invasi meningkat (Gled- itsch dan Carlo 2014). Dalam hal ini, peningkatan
sioning provi- menyebabkan kualitas meringkuk catbird tinggi (high mass-to-tarsus rasio panjang; Gleditsch dan
Carlo 2014). Sebaliknya, cokelat-berkerah nestlings longspur di monokultur wheatgrass jambul memperoleh massa
lebih lambat, matang di massa yang lebih rendah, dan mengambil satu hari lebih lama untuk menjadi dewasa
dibandingkan anak-anak burung di padang rumput asli (Lloyd dan Martin 2005). Massa Meringkuk spesies lain
muncul terpengaruh oleh penutup invasif (Jones dan Bock 2005;. Kennedy et al 2009).
Kondisi tubuh orang dewasa dan kelangsungan hidup
Meskipun kondisi tubuh burung dewasa memiliki efek yang kuat pada migrasi dan reproduksi (Smith dan Moore
2003), hanya dua artikel melaporkan apakah invasi tanaman mempengaruhi kondisi dewasa. Warblers dewasa
Wilson (Cardellina pusilla) menempati tribun saltcedar tidak berbeda dari orang dewasa di pohon asli singkatan
beberapa metrik kondisi tubuh (misalnya massa tubuh, skor lemak), tetapi tingkat trigliserida lebih besar pada orang
dewasa di saltcedar berdiri, sementara tingkat gliserol lebih besar di vegetasi asli (Owen et al 2005;. Cerasale dan
Guglielmo 2010).
Hanya satu studi telah meneliti apakah tanaman invasif mempengaruhi kelangsungan hidup dewasa: merebut
kembali tingkat kardinal utara pria dan wanita antara tahun yang tidak terpengaruh oleh honeysuckle invasi (Leston
dan Rodewald 2006). Namun, tanaman invasif dapat menyebabkan kematian orang dewasa baik secara langsung,
seperti ketika burung kecil (misalnya Kolibri ruby-tenggorokan Archilochus colu- bris) menjadi terjerat dalam
burdock (arctium spp .; Hinam et al. 2004), atau tidak langsung, seperti ketika cyanobacteria (order: Stigonematales)
yang tumbuh di invasif Hydrilla verticillata penyebab wabah Avian vakuolar Myelinopathy (Wilde et al 2005.).
Variasi dalam dampak antara habitat, bentuk pertumbuhan tanaman, dan musim
Meneliti bagaimana dampak dari invasi tanaman ekologi burung bervariasi di seluruh teks con ekologi yang berbeda
mengungkapkan beberapa pola yang patut dicatat (Lampiran C di Electronic Bahan Tambahan). Salah satu yang
paling menonjol adalah bahwa dampak negatif pada nity Total-tual kelimpahan burung lebih umum pada lahan
rumput daripada di hutan dan hutan riparian (Gambar. C3 di Electronic Bahan Tambahan).
Pola dan mekanisme dampak tanaman invasif pada burung Amerika Utara
Di seluruh habitat, sebagian besar efek pada kelimpahan total
Kami juga menilai apakah ukuran sampel uji, jurnal
netral (48,9%), sedangkan efek negatif
faktor dampak, atau tingkat invasi dalam sistem studi
komparatif jarang (23,4%). Di padang rumput,
mempengaruhi kemungkinan bahwa tes pemeriksaan
invasi Namun, efek negatif dan netral sama-sama
berdampak pada prevalensi jenis burung individu umum
(45% masing-masing), sedangkan efek negatif yang
akan mengungkapkan tanggapan negatif, netral, atau
positif. langkadalam hutan (0%) dan hutan riparian
responTak satu pun dari faktor-faktor ini secara
signifikan dipengaruhi (10%). Demikian pula, efek negatif totalkelimpahan
arah(ukuran GLMMs-sampel: F
2625
= 1,46, dan
kekayaan spesies yang lebih umum terkait
p = 0,23; jurnal faktor dampak: F
2641
= 0,64,
dengan tanaman herba invasif dibandingkan dengan kayu
p = 0,53; intensitas invasi: F
2527
= 1,42,
tanaman (Gambar C8, C9.)0,24)..
p = Menariknya, bagaimanapun, efek negatif dan
kondisional negatif pada kelangsungan hidup sarang yang proporsional
Mekanisme dampak tanaman invasif pada burung lebih
umum di hutan daripada di padang rumput dan hutan riparian (54,6 vs 13,8 dan 25%, dilakukan masing
Sebagaimana ditunjukkan, tanaman invasif dapat
berdampak banyak tively;. Gambar C5 di Electronic Bahan Tambahan).
pola dan proses dalam komunitas burung. Ini Mengingat
bahwa burung-burung di hutan di sebagian casespreferredto
efek nyata melalui suite yang luas dari sarang ekologi
pada tanaman invasif (87,5%;. Gambar C6 dielektronik,
jalur termasuk perubahan struktur habitat, Bahan
Tambahan), pola ini sangat
berisiko predasi, dan ketersediaan pangan (Gambar. 3).
Banyak yang luar biasa. Sebaliknya, sementara burung-burung di shrublands juga
penelitian telah mengevaluasi mekanisme khusus,
penumpahan sering lebih suka bersarang di tanaman invasif, mereka sering
dibutuhkan cahaya pada proses dibentuk oleh
ditingkatkan sukses sarang berpengalaman invasif ada (Gambar C5,
C6;..Tanaman Kami meninjau ini mekanisme di sini, dan
ukuran sampel terbatas quan- catatan). Ini menggarisbawahi lain
tifikasi jumlah artikel yang mendukung atau
bertentangan pola: tanaman berkayu, tidak herba, menyumbang
mereka (Tabel 1). kebanyakan kasus burung lebih
memilih untuk bersarang di tanaman invasif (Gambar. C11 di Electronic Bahan Tambahan),
tanaman invasif mempengaruhi distribusi burung dengan
mengubah serta secara tidak proporsional lebih positif dan
efeknegatifstruktur habitat pada kelangsungan hidup
sarang (Gambar. C10 di Electronic Bahan Tambahan ).
Tanggapan Avian untuk invasi tanaman sering timbul dari
Meneliti pola di musim, negatif dan
perubahan struktur habitat, yang memediasi sarang-situs
dampak positif dari invasi pada single-spesiespreva-,
ketersediaan perlindungan dari predasi, dan kemudahan
lence lebih umum di musim dingin dibandingkan musim lainnya
mencari makan. Tanggapan Avian perubahan struktural
harus (Gambar. C12 di Electronic Bahan Tambahan).
tergantung pada require- ekologis spesies individu Juga,
sebagian besar efek negatif pada spesieskekayaan,
KASIH dan penulis sering memanggil spesies-spesifik
terjadi selama musim kawin, meskipun ada
habitat perlu menjelaskan tanggapan terhadap invasi
(misalnya beberapa tes dilaporkan dalam musim lainnya ( Gambar C14 di1999;.
Davis dan Duncan Rosenstock dan van Riper Elektronik
Bahan Tambahan)
2001;.Gifford dan ARMACOST 2012; Keller dan Avery 2014). Namun, sebagian besar penulis hanya menilai
Pengaruh korelasi yang kriteria penting, ukuran sampel,
tions antara perubahan dalam distribusi unggas dan
faktor dampak, dan invasi besaran
perubahan struktur habitat tanpa secara eksplisit assess- ing mengapa burung merespon dengan cara yang mereka
lakukan. Studi ini Untuk menilai apakah pilihan kami untuk meninjau hasil yang diperoleh
memberikan kesimpulan mekanistik terbatas.
Sebaliknya, dengan menggunakan berbagai kriteria penting dipengaruhikami
studiyang menilai proses yang mendasari hasil burung,
kita membandingkan efek invasi tanaman pada
tanggapan terhadap perubahan struktural yang
informatif. enam metrik burung sementara (1) termasuk tes terlepas
Misalnya, beberapa penulis telah meneliti apakah
kriteria signifikansi yang digunakan, dan (2) hanya termasuk
kelimpahan burung menurun ketika tanaman asli bahwa
tes dievaluasi berdasarkan o = 0,05 (Gambar. 2). Ini
memberikan situs sarang mengungsi oleh tanaman
invasif. Untuk distribusi mengungkapkan pola kualitatif serupa,puncak-,
misalnya burung cavity- dan kanopi-bersarang di cating
selatan- bahwa pilihan ini tidak Bias penafsiran kita tentang
hutan riparian Barat bergantung pada cottonwoods asli
literatur.
dan willow (Salix spp.) untuk bersarang, sedangkan
123
SB Nelson et al.
Single-spesies prevalensi b Jumlah burung kelimpahan
c Nest kelimpahan
1
n = 823 n = 480 n = 45 n = 37
1
n = 19 n = 19
0,8
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0
Semua kriteria a = 0,05
d Avian kekayaan spesies e Nest-pemilihan lokasi f Nest hidup
n = 59 n = 38
0
0 Semua kriteria a = 0,05
123
Semua kriteria a = 0,05
Semua kriteria a = 0,05
1
n = 46 n = 41
1 n = 40 n = 20 0,8
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
Semua kriteria a = 0,05 Semua kriteria a = 0,05 Gambar. 2 Diterbitkan frekuensi relatif negatif netral,
kriteria,signifikansi yang digunakan, dan (2) tes diterbitkan
dievaluasi positif, dan efek variabel (conditionally negatif, menderita penyakit
dengan menggunakan signifikansi kriteria o = 0,05. Frekuensi
efek tionally positif, dan kondisional negatif-atau-positif) dari
arah ditunjukkan sebagai proporsi, tetapi distribusi ini vegetasi
invasif pada enam metrik ekologi burung, dibandingkan
berdasarkan nomor yang tidak sama dari tes (n) antara dua
kelompok: (1) semua tes yang diterbitkan, terlepas dari
saltcedar homogen dan zaitun Rusia berdiri hanya mendukung subca nopy- dan semak-nesters (Taylor 2003; Smith
dan Finch 2014). Demikian pula, burung semak-semak tergantung menghindari bersarang di patch di mana semak
langka karena invasi rumput (Reynolds dan Trost 1980), dan beberapa burung lahan basah tergantung muncul dapat
bersarang di loosestrife ungu (Lythrum salicaria) monokultur (Maddox dan Wiedenmann 2005 ). Atau, tanaman
invasif dapat memberikan struktur bersarang tidak disediakan oleh vegetasi asli, seperti wheatgrass jambul
memungkinkan burung-burung bertanduk (Eremophila alpestris) bersarang di shrublands semak-semak (Reynolds
dan Trost 1980). Situs sarang Novel juga dapat menjelaskan mengapa beberapa spesies burung memperluas rentang
mereka ke daerah-daerah saltcedar-menginvasi yang secara historis tidak memiliki pohon dewasa (Hunter et al.
1988).
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
Meskipun struktur tanaman sering menentukan kesesuaian bersarang, perubahan struktur dalam musim sesuai
dengan fenologi pertumbuhan tanaman. Tanaman invasif yang daun awal relatif terhadap tanaman asli mungkin
menarik bagi burung-bersarang hipotesis didukung dalam beberapa kasus (honeysuckle Amur; Rodewald et al
2010.), Tetapi tidak yang lain (jambul Wheatgrass; Lloyd dan Martin 2005). Sebaliknya, jika tanaman invasif
tumbuh di akhir musim, burung mungkin mengalami penurunan kesuburan karena tertunda bersarang (Maddox dan
Wiedenmann 2005).
Selain mempengaruhi bersarang, perubahan struktur habitat dapat mengubah efisiensi mencari makan burung.
Pertumbuhan tanaman padat dapat menghambat akses ke arthropoda, secara potensial mengurangi kelimpahan
burung (Osborne et al. 2012) atau pergeseran komposisi diet (et al. Kennedy 2009). Alternatively, when invasive
plants increase
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Patterns and mechanisms of invasive plant impacts on North American birds
Invasive Plant Spread
ALTERS
INTRODUCES PRODUCES
ALTERS ALTERS INCREASES DECREASES
Plant phenology Novel resources Defensive compounds Habitat architecture Habitat heterogeneity
Habitat patch area
eg early
eg alkaloids
eg woody shrub
leaf-out
reduce insect
encroachment
EARLIER LATER
MORE
HIGHER
LOWER
herbivory
ALTERS ALTERS
MORE FEWER HIGHER LOWER
in grasslands
eg insect
Avian se lement
found on Fruits or leaves
invasive plant
Physical barriers
Visibility
Nest sites
Niche diversity eg thorns,
eg patchiness,
eg addi onal
EARLIER LATER
MORE LESS
stem density
stem density
vegeta on strata
MORE LESS MORE LESS
Nest ini a on
Nutri on
Arthropod abundance
AFFECTS
Avian
Predator foraging
foraging
eg effort or efficiency
HIGHER LOWER
HIGHER LOWER HIGHER LOWER HIGHER LOWER HIGHER LOWER HIGHER LOWER
Avian
Avian abundance
Avian abundance
Nest abundance
Avian a bundance
Fig. 3 A conceptual diagram depicting many of the mecha- nisms by which invasive plants can influence birds. Invasions can
alter key habitat characteristics such as vegetation architecture, heterogeneity, patch size, and phenology, which in turn affect
avian settlement timing, the ability of bird species to nest and forage, and the ability of predators to detect and
123 Avian diversity
Avian
abundance
Avian
Avian abundance
Avian
abundance
abundance
Nest ini a on date
Nest-site
diversity
Avian
Nest
Nest-site selec on
Adult and juvenile body condi on Fledgling
Nest abundance
selec on
Nest
diversity
abundance
Avian diet composi on
Nest
abundance
Fledgling
Avian survival
Fledgling
produc on
diversity
produc on
Juvenile body condi on
produc on
access nests and fledglings. Invasive plants may also mediate food availability directly or by altering arthropod abundance.
Effects on resource availability and habitat characteristics lead to increases or decreases in avian abundance, richness, body
condition, fledgling production, and more
vegetation patchiness, foraging opportunities for birds
(Johnson and Igl 2001). As such, if a bird cannot use
may improve as physical barriers decrease and visi-
invasive vegetation it may even avoid uninvaded bility
increases (Walker 2008).
remnants if remaining patches are too small. In Invasive
plants may also affect richness by altering
contrast, as invaded patches expand, birds unable to
structural habitat heterogeneity, since patchiness often
use native vegetation may increase in occupancy.
corresponds to niche availability (MacArthur and
These mechanisms are illustrated in Great Plains avian
MacArthur 1961; Rotenberry and Wiens 1980). Sup-
communities: grassland birds have disappeared locally
porting this, some studies have found that avian richness
as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) encroach-
peaks at moderate invasion levels in association with
ment has reduced the size of contiguous grassland
increased structural heterogeneity (McAdoo et al. 1989;
patches, but woodland species have recently colonized
Van Riper et al. 2008; Fischer et al. 2012). Moreover,
expanding tracts of woody vegetation (Coppedge et al.
when invasive grass monocultures are more structurally
2001). homogeneous than native prairies, grassland bird
rich- ness and abundance are often lower (Wilson and Belcher
Invasive plants alter predator communities 1989; George
et al. 2013), whereas invasion may have
and foraging efficiency few effects when structural
heterogeneity is comparable (Sutter and Brigham 1998; Chapman et al. 2004).
Because vegetation structure can augment or inhibit Many
birds also respond to habitat patch size, often
predator foraging and nest detection (Martin 1993), only
occupying patches of a minimum threshold area
authors commonly propose that changes in vegetation
SB Nelson et al.
Table 1 Mechanisms proposed to explain the impacts (or lack of impacts) of invasive plants on North American birds, and the
number of reviewed articles that support or contradict each proposed hypothesis
Pattern and mechanism DS IS DC IC
Mechanisms related to avian distributions Changes in avian species richness and abundance are dependent on the effects of
invasions on habitat structure (eg stem density, plant architecture, total vegetation cover, litter depth, litter and bare ground cover,
vegetation height)
123
21 18 4 4
Changes in avian species richness and abundance are dependent on the effects of invasions on floristic composition 3 1 0 0
Changes in avian species richness and abundance are dependent on the effects of invasions on habitat heterogeneity 6 7 0 0
Abundances of area-sensitive species change because invasions reduce the size of uninvaded habitat patches but
increase the size of invaded habitat patches
2 0 0 0
Impacts of invasive plants on avian species richness and nes t abundance are mediated through their effects on nest-site
availability
7 7 1 0
Mechanisms related to nest-site selection and avian fitness Some species of birds appear to prefer nesting in invasive plants
because other species competitively exclude them
from nesting in native plants
0 0 0 1
Birds prefer nesting in plants and habitats that grow leaves and accumulate biomass early in the breeding season 2 1 1 0 Changes
in nest survival and parasitism are affected by invasion because high vegetation densities indicate to predators
a high probability of areas containing nests, and predators thus increase their foraging efforts
0 2 0 0
Nests in monocultures of invasive plants tend to be placed in similar strata, increasing predator search efficiency 0 1 0 0 Birds
prefer or avoid nesting in invasive plants because they select nest sites on the basis of vegetation density and
concealment, and nest predation risk is mediated by these factors
2 5 1 1
When nests must be placed lower and fledgl ings must perch lower in the canopy because of invasions, accessibility by
predators increases; this effect may be mediated by nest substrate structure
1 2 4 1
Invasions by thorny plants influence the survival of nests placed in them because thorns deter nest predators 2 0 2 0 Nests
experience similar mortality rates when placed in invaded and uninvaded patches because invasions create
functionally redundant habitats
0 2 0 0
Invasive plants create ecological and evolutionary traps 3 1 2 1 Invasion effects on nest and fledgling predation depend on
predator responses to accompanying changes to habitat
structure and composition; these responses may depend on the spatial scale of invasions
4 3 0 0
Mechanisms related to food and foraging Invasions change avian abundance, richness, body condition, and diets because invasive
plants structurally inhibit birds
from foraging on arthropods
0 2 0 1
Birds prefer to eat fruits and arthropods found on invasive plants 1 0 3 1 Birds prefer to eat fruits, leaves, and arthropods found
on native plants 6 1 3 1 Invasive fruits are low in nutrition 3 0 1 1 Fruits and arthropods on invasive plants provide sufficient
nutrients for birds to maintain normal or improved body
condition
3 1 0 0
Consuming invasive fruits alters avian plumage coloration because nutritional content of invasive fruits differs from
native fruits
3 0 0 0
Birds are more abundant in invaded habitats, expand their ranges to include invaded areas, and track seasonal availability of fruits
because invasive plants increase the abundance of food available to herbivorous birds.
2 5 1 2
Avian abundance and species richness decrease with invasion because invasions reduce abundance of arthropods that
insectivores require
1 8 0 4
Avian abundance and species richness increase with invasion because invasions increase abundance of arthropods or
supply novel arthropods
0 5 0 1
Support and contradiction were classified as direct if all the variables involved in the mechanism were explicitly compared.
Support and contradiction were classified as indirect if the variables involved were not all explicitly compared, but observations
reported in the study were consistent (or inconsistent) with the mechanism. Citations for the articles examining these mechanisms
are listed in Appendix D in Electronic Supplementary Material DS articles directly supporting, IS articles indirectly supporting,
DC articles directly contradicting, IC articles indirectly contradicting
Patterns and mechanisms of invasive plant impacts on North American birds
structure accompanying invasions alter predation
13-lined ground squirrels (Spermophilus tridecemlin-
rates, though evidence for these hypotheses is mixed
eatus) is high in exotic-grass-dominated fields relative
(eg Cook and Toft 2005; Leston and Rodewald 2006;
to native grasslands (Fisher and Davis 2011), yet Fisher
and Davis 2011).
predation by ground squirrels decreases as invasive Several
structural components may affect nest
tree cover expands (Grant et al. 2006). This example
predation. Presence of thorns could mediate the
complements other studies suggesting that predator-
relative protection provided by plants against preda-
specific habitat use mediates effects of invasion on tion,
but although nests in thorny shrubs sometimes
nest survival (Lyons et al. 2015) and cowbird experience
high survival (Schmidt and Whelan 1999)
parasitism (Rodewald 2009). this effect is not ubiquitous
(Borgmann and Rodewald 2004; Schlossberg and King 2010). Invasion may also
Invasive plants alter food availability and nutritional
mediate predation through nest concealment. Indeed,
quality greater stem density sometimes reduces nest
predation (Grant et al. 2006; Smith et al. 2009), but this effect
Invasions can impact birds by altering food supplies. has
not manifested in all cases (Borgmann and
For instance, invasions may impoverish arthropod
Rodewald 2004). Finally, nests built in short invasive
abundance and diversity if herbivorous arthropods plants
(or fledglings perching in such plants) may be
cannot tolerate the defensive secondary compounds
situated relatively close to the ground, potentially
produced by invasive plants (Litt et al. 2014). While
increasing their detectability. This hypothesis is
no studies have experimentally tested effects of
supported in some cases (Schmidt and Whelan 1999)
reduced arthropod abundances on birds following but not
others (Borgmann and Rodewald 2004;
invasions, observational studies indicate a linkage.
Rodewald et al. 2010; Ausprey and Rodewald 2011).
Relatively low arthropod abundance and biomass in In
contrast, invasive plants enable some birds to nest
invaded habitats often coincides with low avian off the
ground, reducing predation by ground-dwelling
richness (Hickman et al. 2006; George et al. 2013)
predators (eg white-footed mice Peromyscus leuco-
and abundance (Flanders et al. 2006; Hickman et al. pus;
Schmidt et al. 2005).
2006; Cerasale and Guglielmo 2010). Reduced arthro-
Invasion may also alter predator foraging effort and
pod numbers could also impact fitness if food limita-
efficiency. Some authors propose that foraging effi-
tion reduces offspring body condition—a hypothesis
ciency may be low in densely-invaded stands due to
indirectly supported by Lloyd and Martin (2005). the
large number of potential nest sites that predators
Moreover, birds that delay nesting because invaded must
examine (Martin 1993; Schlossberg and King
patches support relatively few arthropods may be less
2010). Alternatively, predators may increase search
likely to double brood, and thus produce fewer effort if
high vegetation density indicates a greater
fledglings (Ortega et al. 2006). probability that patches
will contain nests (Schmidt
It is important to note though that invasive plants do
and Whelan 1999; Rodewald 2009). Moreover, birds
not always suppress arthropods (eg Kennedy et al. in
monocultures may be forced to nest in a single
2009), and may even support more, increasing avian
vegetation stratum, increasing predator foraging effi-
abundance (Walker 2008). Moreover, when arthropod
ciency (Borgmann and Rodewald 2004). None of
and avian abundances are lower in invaded areas, adult
these hypotheses have been experimentally tested in
birds occupying those areas may still achieve excellent
an invasion context, and only the latter has observa-
body condition—perhaps as a result of relatively low
tional support. Specifically, early in the breeding
competition for food (Cerasale and Guglielmo 2010).
season northern cardinals overwhelmingly place nests
In addition to affecting total arthropod numbers, in
honeysuckle due to its early leaf-out, but nests in
invasive plants may provide novel foods such as fruits
honeysuckle are depredated at very high rates until
(Ingold and Craycraft 1983), foliage (Baldwin and
cardinals nest in more substrate species later in the
Lovvorn 1994), or arthropods associated with invasive
summer (Rodewald et al. 2010).
plants (Yard et al. 2004; Ortega et al. 2014b). New
Interestingly, invasion effects on nest survival may
food sources may allow species to increase in abun-
depend on the identity of predators and invading
dance or expand their ranges, as evidenced by plants. For
instance, predation of fledglings by
populations of frugivorous birds (eg gray catbirds,
123
SB Nelson et al.
123 northern cardinals, northern mockingbirds Mimus
are most frequently neutral, while invasive plants
polyglottos) increasing with fruit-bearing shrub inva-
often reduce or conditionally reduce species richness
sions (Stiles 1982; Leston and Rodewald 2006;
and are regularly preferred as nest substrates (Fig. 1).
McCusker et al. 2010; Gleditsch and Carlo 2011). In
These patterns sometimes vary across habitats, sea- some
cases birds even appear to prefer eating invasive
sons, and with the growth form of invading plants fruits
(Lafleur et al. 2007; but see Whelan and Willson
(Appendix C in Electronic Supplementary Material).
1994; Smith et al. 2013), even though those fruits
Although we could not control for the effects of
sometimes provide relatively poor nutrition (Ingold
potential confounds within studies, such as landscape
and Craycraft 1983; Smith et al. 2013; but see
contexts and study-site sizes, we do not expect these
Greenberg and Walter 2010). Despite this, few studies
factors to bias our results given the large number of
assess whether consuming invasive fruits impacts
articles reviewed. Moreover, we have demonstrated
avian body condition, and those that do have not
that low sample sizes are not responsible for the large
shown detrimental effects (Witmer 1996; Gleditsch
number of reported neutral results, since sample sizes
and Carlo 2014). It may be that the sheer abundance of
did not predict test outcomes. invasive fruits allows birds
to overcome nutritional
The high frequency of neutral effects on species,
deficits, or that invasive fruits improve body condition
whole-community, and nest abundances suggests that by
providing useful secondary compounds and nutri-
invasive plants do not consistently alter resource ents
(Gleditsch and Carlo 2014). These hypotheses
availability or habitat preferences for birds. This may
have not been tested.
indicate that invasive plants can be functionally Secondary
compounds in invasive fruits are known,
equivalent to native vegetation, providing similar
however, to affect adult plumage in some species.
habitat structure and food supplies and thus having
Witmer (1996) demonstrated experimentally that
minimal effects on avian habitat selection. The cedar
waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum) fed with
preponderance of neutral effects of invasions on nest
honeysuckle berries develop red-tipped rather than
survival could also arise from functional equivalence,
yellow-tipped rectrices—an increase in erythrism
or if habitat alterations that increase predation are
resulting directly from high concentrations of the
counteracted by changes in predator communities or
carotenoid rhodoxanthin in honeysuckle fruits. Subse-
foraging behavior. For instance, dense shrub thickets
quently, studies have linked honeysuckle fruits to
may impede predator mobility, but predators might
increased erythrism in northern cardinals (Jones et al.
increase foraging effort within them if nest density is
2010) and Baltimore orioles (Icterus galbula; Hudon
higher. Regrettably, few studies have directly exam- et
al. 2013). Erythrism has historically acted as an
ined how invasions influence predators (but see Grant
honest signal of male quality, with higher quality males
et al. 2006; Fisher and Davis 2011; Lyons et al. 2015).
being better able to acquire high-carotenoid foods and
Though neutral relationships are very common for
incorporate the pigments into their feathers. However,
many avian metrics, both positive and negative the easy
availability of carotenoids in invasive fruits
impacts certainly arise, and these directional effects
could reduce the usefulness of this cue for avian mate
can have strong impacts on avian communities when
selection, potentially decreasing sexual selection and
they occur. Positive impacts show that invasive plants
leading to poor mate choices (Jones et al. 2010).
can serve valuable ecological functions (Schlaepfer et al. 2011), acting as superior nest substrates (Schlossberg and
King 2010), providing abundant Discussion
foods (Baldwin and Lovvorn 1994; Gleditsch and Carlo 2011), or creating high-quality habitats for at- Awareness
that invasive species are not categorically
risk species (Cook and Toft 2005; Jones and Bock
harmful is growing in conservation and management
2005). Importantly though, avian fitness must be
communities (Shackelford et al. 2013). Our review
monitored in invaded areas since they sometimes act
supports this perspective, showing that invasive plants
as ecological traps (Lloyd and Martin 2005; Nordby in
North America have varied effects on birds. In
et al. 2009; Rodewald et al. 2010). particular, effects on
single-species prevalence, total
Negative impacts reveal the challenges that inva-
avian abundance, nest abundance, and nest survival
sions pose for avian conservation. Though relatively
Patterns and mechanisms of invasive plant impacts on North American birds
uncommon, reduced avian abundances and nest sur-
systems may be attributable to factors other than vival
increase vulnerability of populations to local
degree of invasion. extirpations. More frequently,
invasions reduce avian
Variability across systems should compel scientists
species richness (eg Hickman et al. 2006; Klaus and
to discern the conditions under which different effects
Keyes 2007; Brand et al. 2008), which is especially
arise. Our review reveals that some of the patterns we
concerning since declines or losses of even a few
have highlighted change depending on ecological species
can have outsized effects on plant and
context. For instance, invasions reduce whole-com-
invertebrate communities by reducing pollination,
munity avian abundances much more often in grass- seed
dispersal, or arthropod numbers (Caves et al.
lands than in woodlands and riparian woodlands, even
2013; Karp et al. 2013).
though negative impacts on nest survival have been A
recent meta-analysis highlighted the negative
more common in woodlands than in other habitats.
impacts of plant invasions, finding that, on average,
Our findings also indicate that negative effects of
invasive plants significantly reduce avian richness,
invasions on species richness arise more often during
abundance, and fitness (Schirmel et al. 2016). Our
the breeding season than other seasons, but both review
provides a different perspective. Although our
positive and negative effects on avian abundance are
results align somewhat regarding effects on richness,
more common during winter. This seasonal variation we
found that negative impacts on abundance and
could exist because birds garner different resources
fitness were uncommon. Why might this be? First, we
from plants through the year. For instance, invasive note
that the meta-analysis included studies from
plants may primarily affect breeding birds via changes
islands, where avian populations are often dispropor-
in nest-site and arthropod availability (Maddox and
tionately vulnerable (Szabo et al. 2012). Since our
Wiedenmann 2005; George et al. 2013), whereas review
was restricted to continental regions, we may
nonbreeding-season effects might depend more on have
considered fewer high-risk systems, thus detect-
fruit and seed availability (McCusker et al. 2010). ing
fewer negative effects. Differences in methodol-
Impacts on individual bird species could also vary ogy
could also contribute. Since meta-analyses only
with autecology, with some species being inherently
consider studies from which effect sizes are calcula-
more sensitive to habitat changes due to specialized ble,
we reviewed a larger pool of studies, exposing a
diets or nesting requirements (eg Schneider and greater
variety of relationships. To illustrate this point
Miller 2014; Smith and Finch 2014). Finally, effects
clearly, Schirmel et al. analyzed 29 articles studying
may vary as a function of time-since-invasion, since
birds across the globe (Schirmel et al. 2016, Appendix
avian communities sometimes differ between patches
S1), whereas we reviewed 128 articles from North
of contrasting maturity (Gifford and Armacost 2012).
America, including 16 included in the meta-analysis.
Investigating the long-term dynamics of invasions Our
methods thus counted many of the effects
could reveal whether some birds will learn to use novel
assimilated in Schirmel et al. However, since our
resources, potentially increasing richness in invaded
assessment was not based on effect sizes, our diver-
sites over time. gent findings could be explained in part
if most of the
In addition to highlighting variability in invasion
neutral effects that we reviewed in fact represented
impacts, our review reveals critical knowledge gaps.
negative trends too weak to achieve statistical signif-
Few studies have examined how invasions affect icance.
We do not believe that the disparities can be
parental provisioning, juvenile body condition, or
ascribed to publication bias given our finding that
fledgling survival, even though the post-fledging stage
journal impact factors were not related to the direc-
represents a bottleneck in many populations and tions of
reported effects.
habitat composition frequently affects juvenile sur-
Surprisingly, we found that the likelihood of
vival (Cox et al. 2014). Moreover, since several
observing negative, neutral, or positive effects of
studies have indicated links between invasions, food
invasions on avian abundance does not differ across
supplies, and changes in avian communities (eg Yard
studies as a function of invasion intensity. This result
et al. 2004; Flanders et al. 2006; George et al. 2013),
runs counter to the expectation that negative effects
experiments and mechanistic observational studies are
should intensify with increasing invasion, and sug-
needed to test these links across study systems gests that
in many cases variability in impacts between
(McCary et al. 2016). Another issue that warrants
123
SB Nelson et al.
123 greater attention is how invasions alter avian assem-
article. Appendix A also includes a list of the bird blages
at continental scales. Invasive plants providing
species studied in reviewed articles, and citations for
reliable food sources and nesting sites may be
articles examining each species. A histogram is
reshaping migration pathways (McCusker et al.
available showing publication years of reviewed 2010;
Gleditsch and Carlo 2011) or expanding
articles (Appendix B), as well as figures showing the
species' ranges (Stiles 1982; Hunter et al. 1988).
distributions of effect directions among different
Conversely, invasions could contribute to avian
habitats, invasive plant growth forms, and seasons
declines if they eliminate unique habitats required by
are available for five avian metrics (Appendix C). avian
specialists (Brand et al. 2008). Examining
Lastly, Appendix D shows which of the studies we
impacts at broad spatial scales requires high-quality
reviewed have supported or contradicted various data on
invasive plant distributions, so investigators
mechanisms proposed to explain invasive plant might
consider using resources such as the USDA's
impacts. National Invasive Species Data Center to
address these questions.
It is clear that the effects of invasive plants on North American birds are neither simple nor uniform. The
Acknowledgements Foremost, we would like to thank the many investigators whose investments of time and energy in collecting
and publishing the reviewed data made this manuscript possible. Thank you to TJ Benson for statistical fact that invasions often
appear not to change avian
advice, to CR Maresh for assistance with literature
review, and distributions and reproduction, and may in some cases benefit birds, suggests that we should not
presume that removing invasive plants will universally advance
to the ''Bird Lab'' avian discussion group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for suggestions. E. Jongejans and two
anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments to improve the manuscript. This material is based upon work that avian
conservation (Davis et al. 2011). Yet these
is partially supported by the National Institute of Food
and patterns should not engender complacency about invasions, particularly given the negative effects
Agriculture, US Department of Agriculture, under Award No. ILLU-875-918.
reviewed here and the habitat-specific patterns we
Author contributions SBN wrote the manuscript, created have
reviewed (Simberloff et al. 2011). Furthermore,
online supplements, and conducted statistical analyses;
SBN different trends could prevail in other continents, and we emphasize that our results are solely applicable to
avian communities and may not speak to impacts on
and JJC created the figures; SCS, SBN, CJD, JDF, CMP, and JRM designed the study; SBN, JJC, CJD, JDF, SJH, AJK, CMP,
SCS, and TMS reviewed articles; SBN, JRM, JJC, TMS, CJD, AJK, and SJH edited the manuscript. other taxa or ecosystem
processes (Vitousek et al. 1996; Pyšek et al. 2012; Simberloff et al. 2013; Litt et al. 2014; Schirmel et al. 2016). Overall, because
Compliance with ethical standards responses to invasion
are inconsistent, it is incumbent upon scientists and practitioners to monitor birds in
Conflict of interest None.
invaded habitats on a case-by-case basis (Appendix C in Electronic Supplementary Material). However,
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