EQ1: How does the carbon cycle operate to maintain 

planetary health 
The biogeochemical carbon cycle 
 
Why is carbon important? 
● Main constituent of all living cells 
● Component of fuel 
● Required for decomposition 
 
● The biogeochemical cycle is the transfer of carbon 
from one store to another. It acts as a closed system 
made up of inputs, transfers and outputs.  
 
● Carbon is present in the: 
○ Atmosphere - e.g. CO​2​ and CH​4 
■ 560 PgC - smallest store 
○ Hydrosphere - e.g. as dissolved CO​2 
■ 38000 PgC 
○ Lithosphere - e.g as carbonates in limestone 
and fossil fuels 
■ 100,000,000 PgC in crustal geology 
○ Biosphere - e.g. in plants 
■ 1500 PgC  
● The size of the store can be 
measured used PgC or GtC 
(Gigatonnes of Carbon) 
● Processes such as 
photosynthesis drive the 
fluxes 
● Fluxes refer to the 
movement of organic 
compounds between the 
stores, measured in PgC yr​-1  - 
Petagrams of Carbon per 
year or Gt 
● Most of the Earth’s carbon is 
geological, resulting in the 
formation of sedimentary 
carbonate rock (limestone) 
and biologically derived 
carbon - e.g. coal  
● Sequestration refers to the 
storage/uptake of carbon 
from one store to another through processes - e.g. photosynthesis 
 
 

Geological Carbon Cycle 

 
● The slow part of the cycle is centred on the carbon stores 
in rocks and sediments  
● Resoruvier turnover (rate at which carbon enters and 
leaves a stores) is at least 100000 years 
● Organic matter takes millions of years to turn into fossil 
fuel 
● Carbon is exchanged with the fast component through 
volcanic emissions of CO​2​, chemical weathering etc. 
● Chemical weathering - rain water can dissolve CO​2​ to form weak carbonic acid which can break 
own carbonate rocks 
○ This break down can release ions of Mg or Ca. The Ca ions are transported by rivers into 
oceans and can combine with bicarbonate ions to form Calcium Carbonate.  
● Calcium carbonate is the largest reservoir of carbon on the plant 
○ It forms through the compression (heat and pressure) of various shells and skeletons (e.g. 
of molluscs) 
○ They turn from loose material into hard rock through a processes called D ​ iagenesis. ​The 
compression dissolved the calcium carbonate at the points of contact, which goes into 
surrounding pore spaces and turns into cement. Limestone forms as a result of this 
cement 
● Volcanoes - Partial melting from subduction can release CO​2​ through a process named Contact 
metamorphism. The melting of limestone occurs at the subduction zone, and this melting 
releases CO​2  
○ Some of this carbon rises to the surface within magma. Volcanoes then shoot the CO​2 
into the stratosphere e.g. as volcanic gas, through pyroclastic flows 
○ Volcanoes are thought to release 300 million tonnes of CO​2​ each year 
○ Some of this carbon espcaptes at a mid ocean ridge. Mid ocean ridges are associated 
with high carbon guessing activity. In Iceland, the CO​2​ emitted is over 88 million tonnes. 
Hotspots can also contribute significant CO​2​ into the atmosphere 
● Coal mainly consists of carbon and other constituents including sulfur and phosphorus. 
○ It formed when swampy forests died and fell into swamp waters. Water and dirt 
accumulated and the decaying process was stopped due to restricted oxygen content for 
decomposers. 
○ Meanwhile, other plants continue to grow up but formed separate layers when they died. 
When this process was repeated, the eight of plant matter produces pressure on the 
layers below and combined with head, chemical and physical changes occurred to the 
plant which forced out Oxygen and left rich carbon deposits (called coal 
 
 
   
 

Biological processes sequester carbon on land and in oceans on a shorter timescale 

 
Ocean Sequestration  
 

 
 
● The carbonate cycle pump is made of three parts: 
○ The biological pump 
■ This is the organic sequestration of CO​2​ into the ocean by phytoplankton 
■ They absorb sunlight and through photosynthesis, convert CO​2​ into O​2 
■ Carbon is then passed up the food chain by consumer fish and zooplankton which 
in turn releases CO​2​ back into the water and atmosphere 
■ Phytoplankton sequester over 2 billion metric tonnes of CO​2​ annually to the deep 
ocean 
○ The carbonate pump 
■ This relies on inorganic carbon sedimentation 
■ Maine organisms (such as molluscs) use calcium carbonate to make hard outer 
shells and inner skeletons 
■ When organisms die and sink, their shells dissolve before reaching the sea flood 
sediments which are transported by deep ocean currents 
■ Shells that do not dissolve build up slowly on the seafloor, and through 
diagenesis, form limestone sediments 
○ The physical pump 
■ The phytoplankton require nutrients 
which the thermohaline circulation 
provides 
■ The thermohaline circulation refers 
to the global system of surface and 
deep water ocean currents driven 
by temperature and salinity 
differences between areas of 
oceans 
■ The colder the air the more potential for CO​2 ​ to be absorbed (there is also more 
phytoplankton here), Warm tropical waters tend to release CO​2​ into the 
atmosphere. As major ocean currents such as the North Atlantic Drift moves 
water from the tropics to the poles, the water cools and can absorb more 
atmosphere CO​2​. 
 

■ Warm ocean waters are depleted of nutrients and CO​2​ but are enriched again as 
they travel through the conveyor belt.  
● The balance of the total carbon uptake (92 PgC) and carbon loss (90 PgC) from the ocean is 
dependent on the biological, carbonate and physical pumps  
 
 
Biological/Physical Carbon Cycle 
 
● Fast component of the carbon cycle 
● Rapid reserve turnovers 
● Main processes include photosynthesis, respiration 
and decomposition 
● Huge interaction between atmosphere, ocean, ocean 
sediments and on land in vegetation, soil and 
freshwater 
● Carbon enters the the atmosphere as CO​2​ through 
respiration and combustion 
● Vegetation photosynthesis this CO​2​ to produce O​2 , ​
storing the carbon as carbohydrates 
● Animals feel on plant passing carbon compounds 
along the chain 
● The most productive biomes are tropical forests, 
savannah and grassland.  
○ Rainforests are one of the largest organic 
stores of carbon on Earth 
○ The Amazon rainforest sequests 17% of all 
terriotitral carbon. 
● Carbon fluxes vary: 
○ Durinally - during the day as the fluxes are 
positive and at the night when the flux is 
negative 
○ Seasonally - in the Northern Hemisphere winter, when few land plants are growing and 
many are decaying, atmospheric CO​2​ concentrations rise 
● When the plants and animals die they decompose. As the bacteria decompose the dead 
organism, they return CO​2​ into the atmosphere 
● Decomposition is faster in tropical climates with high rainfall, temperatures and oxygen levels. 
● The capacity of soil to store organic carbon is determined by: 
○ Climate - dictates plant growth and microbial activity. (high rainfall, high temperature 
levels) 
■ Arid soils store only 30 tonnes per hectare compared 800 tonnes per hectare in 
cold regions 
○ Soil type - Clay rich soils have a higher carbon content than sandy soils 
○ Management and use of soils - Carbon can be lost through cultivation and disturbance 
● In some circumstances, the process of decomposition is fossilisation.  
Why is the carbon cycle important? 
● Regulates global temperature and climate by controlling the CO​2​ levels in the atmosphere 
○ This affects the hydrological cycle as precipitation patterns rates can be altered 
● Ecosystem and agriculture depend on the carbon cycle 
 

 
How has the carbon cycle been altered? 
● Depleted stores of carbon 
● Sped up the fluxes 
● Not created any new store of Carbon 
 
The natural greenhouse effect 
 
● The concentration of greenhouse gases such 
as methane and carbon dioxide influence the natural 
greenhouse effect 
● The sun’s waves are mostly absorbed (69%) 
heating up the Earth 
● Some of the radiation is reflected by the 
atmosphere and Earth’s Surface 
● Whilst some of the infrared radiation passes 
through the atmosphere some is absorbed and 
reemitted by greenhouse gases. This leads to the 
warming of the Earth’s surface  
●  
 
Atmosphere plants and soils 
 
● Photosynthesising plants play a key role in helping to keep CO​2​ levels constant, helping to 
regulate Earth’s average temperature 
● Climat and nutrients play a key role in the size of carbon sink. Highest productivity occurs: 
○ On land: in areas that are wet and warm 
■ Deserts have little biomass above ground 
■ Forests store the largest amount of carbon collectively. The Amazon is called the 
lungs of the Earth 
■ Tundra has the highest density of carbon storage in its permafrost 
○ In the oceans, in shallower water, allowing higher photosynthesis in places receiving high 
nutrient inputs 
 
Soil health 
● Soil health depends on the amount of organic 
carbon stores in the soil 
● This depends on inputs (plants and animal 
residues( and outputs (decomposition, erosion)  
● Carbon gives soil its water-retention capacity, its 
structure and its fertility 
● Organic carbon is concentrated in the surface soil 
layer and is easily eroded so soil erosion is a major 
threat to carbon storage and soil health 
 
Fossil Fuel combustion 
 
 

● Fossil fuel consumptions has increased since the industrial revolution as it has been the primary 
energy source driving modern civilisation 
● Anthropogenic Greenhouse gas emissions have increased. Before the Industrial REvolution 
concentration in the atmosphere was 180 ppm. In 2016, the concentration passed 400 ppm 
● Implications for the c​ limate 
○ On average the Earth will become warmer, causing more evaporation and precipitation 
○ More extreme, intense frequent events such as floods, droughts. 
○ Dry regions will become dries whilst wet regions will become wetter. 
○ Storm surges may increase 
○ Melting ice caps decreases the salinity, and so the thermohaline circulation may weaken, 
altering the transfer of heat meaning harsher winters for the UK. 
○ Tropical cyclones will become more intense as well as stronger mid latitude westerly 
winds 
○ Droughts and floods drived by ENSO cycles may become more intense and increase in 
frequency because of a warming atmosphere and ocean surface 
● Implications for ecosystems 
○ Rising sea levels 
○ Rates of extinction may increase to 15 and 50% of all species, especially in high risk polar 
regions such as polar bears and emperor penguins 
○ Species may be forced to migrate poleward or into deeper ocean waters. 
○ 80% of ecosystems could be bleached due to the acidification of seawater, which will 
threatened corals and the shells of creators will get smaller and thinner. 
○ Plants species will face pests and diseases as there is less cold weather to kill them 
● Implications for the hydrological cycle 
○ Increased evaporation rates, trigger more moisture circulating throughout the cycle, 
increasing precipitation events 
○ Increased surface permafrost temperatures 
○ Rivers may dry up elsewhere if precipitation is reduced or less effective due to higher 
evaporation rates 
○ Likely that flash flooding will become more likely due to more intense precipitation 
○ Reduced sea ice, icecap and glacier storage 
 
Arctic amplification 
 
● The arctic region is warming at twice the rate as the global average 
● Permafrost stores over 155.6 GtC 
● Melting will release methane and carbon dioxide, increasing the concentration of greenhouse 
gases, increases global temperatures, leading to more melting - forming a positive feedback loop 
● As the ice melts, there is a decreased albedo, meaning more or the sun's rays are absorbed, 
leading to more warming, more melting etc. 
● Shrubs and boreal trees have started to establish themselves where they previously couldn’t 
 

EQ2: What are the consequences for people and the 

environment of our increasing demand for energy? 
 
Energy security refers to extent to which a ​reliable, affordable​ and s​ table​ access to energy 
 
Why is energy important? 
 
● Powers transform 
● Lighting 
● Warming/cooling oh homes 
● Modern communication 
● Drives manufacturing 
 
Energy consumption is usually measured in per capita terms as 
 
● Gigajoules per year GJ/yr 
● Megawatt hours per year MWh/yh 
 
● Total energy consumption has increased exponentially 
● Coal and Oil are the biggest consumption methods 
● This increases has been driven by development, rising 
living standards and population growth 
 
Energy mix refers to the combination of different available energy sources used to meet a country’s total 
energy demand.  
 
● Fossil fuels account for 80% of global energy mix 
● Energy can be primary and secondary energy 
○ Primary energy refers to raw materials and natural 
energy resources that haven’t been converted to 
another form of energy 
○ Secondary energy refers to primary sources that have 
been converted into electricity 
● Energy can be from newnable sources or non renewable 
sources 
○ Non-Renewable sources are finite such as fossil fuels 
○ Renewables sources provide an infinite supply of 
energy - e.g. solar power 
● Energy may be produced within the country (domestic) or 
imported 
 
   
 

Factors affecting the energy mix and consumption of energy 

 
● Physical Availability 
○ If energy resources have to be imported they add to the overall cost of energy to the 
consumer. Rising costs deter demand  
○ Acccessibility can be an issues if explitioation is difficult and expensive 
○ Stocks of the North Sea oil and gas are declining, forcing the UK to import more 
● Cost 
○ Cost of physical exfoliation 
○ Processing the primary resource into the secondary resource 
○ Process of delivering to the consumer 
○ Some sources become uneconomical when global prices fall 
○ High labour costs as well as environmental legislation prevent extraction of the 150 years 
worth of coal reserves left in the UK 
● Technology 
○ Deposits of oil and gas require deep drilling so technology can help exploitation of energy 
resources that are not so readily accessible 
○ Energy consumption will rise as everyday technology becomes more energy intensive 
● Public Perception 
○ Concerns over carbon emissions 
● Economic Development 
○ The higher the energy development the less sensitive to energy costs 
● Environmental Priorities 
○ Some governments may prioritise economic growth over environmentally friendly policies 
○ The UK committed to a 40% reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 
compared to 1990 levels 
 
The USA vs FRANCE in energy consumption 
 
● The US is the 2nd highest energy consumer; France is the 10th largest 
energy consumer 
● Total french consumption is only a 10th of that of the US which can be 
attributed to the differences in population 
● Climate may also be another factor as the US is a high country experience great extremes of 
heat and cold.. COunteracting these extremes require large inputs of energy into heating and 
lighting as well as air conditioning in other places 
● Energy consumption per capita is still twice that of France 
● Carbon fuels provide 82% of 
energy consumed in the USA. Only 
10% comes from renewables 
● In France, 50% comes from fossil 
fuels, 41% from nuclear energy, 
and 10% from renewables 

Energy players have different roles in securing pathways and energy supplies 
 
 

Energy pathway refers to the flow of energy from producer to consumer. This can be primary energy 
(gas/oil pipelines) or secondary energy (e.g. electricity through power lines) 
 
● TNCs 
○ State Owned - e.g. Gazprom 
○ Russia in the past have used its natural gas reserves as a political weapon. Russia 
supply 25% of the EU’s gas - 80% of which goes through pipelines in Ukraine, Russia cut 
off supplies through Ukraine in 2006 after accusing it of keeping the gas to itself. 18 EU 
countries experienced shortages of gas and exposed the vulnerability to both supply 
chain and political pressure on their economies 
○ Privately owned TNCs - e.g. BP 
○ Involved in exploring, extraction, transportation and refining 
○ They own supply lines and invest in destruction and processing of raw materials 
● OPEC - Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 
○ 14 member countries who own ⅔ of the world’s oil reserves 
○ Controls the oil entering and leaving a market as well as global prices 
○ Produce a steady income for producers 
○ HAve been accused of decreasing production to drive up oil and gas prices 
○ Power has arguably been diminishing as the US increased oil production through 
fracking, causing a collapse in global oil prices 
● Consumers 
○ Arguably most influential are transport, industry and domestic users as they create the 
demand   
○ However quite passive players when it comes to fixing energy prices. Although they 
purchase choices based on price - leading to petrol prices being price checked between 
supermarkets 
○ Pressure groups can protest against fracking, nuclear power plants which can affect 
energy security 
● Governments 
○ Control national energy security whilst also supporting the country’s economic growth 
■ Providing subsidies to encourage uptake of renewable source such as solar 
panels 
■ Signing Up to Climate Change Laws e.g. Paris 2015 
■ Danish government made agreements with Norway Sweden and Germany to 
secure energy through pathways from different countries. The Danish 
government aim for independence from oil, coal and gas by 2050. 
○ Influence the sourcing of energy  
○ Regulating the role of private companies and setting environmental priorities 
 
   
 

Mismatch between fossil fuel supply and demand 

 
The Physical mismatch of natural resources 
 
● Coal, oil and natural gas formed under past geological conditions which determine where in the 
world they are found 
● Most of the coal was formed during the Carboniferous period when Western Europe and North 
America were a part within the tropics, 
● Successive layers of rainforest trees accumulated as they fell and were transformed under the 
pressure of voveryling strate into seams of coal 
● Oil and natural gas are younger than coal. Like coal, there are organic in origin resulting from 
fossil remains of plants and animals that died and were buried under alternate layers of mud and 
sand on ocean floors. HEat and pressure converted the fossil remains into oil and natural gas, 
 
● Coal 
○ China is the largest producer and consumer of coal, followed by the US 
○ This reflects the high transport costs relative to its low energy density 
● Oil 
○ OPEC and North America contribute 60% of 
world’s oil 
○ All four BRIC nations are among the world’s 
greatest producers 
○ The big consumers are all industrialised countries 
in either Asia or Europe 
○ Oil is an inelastic good as there are few 
alternatives 
● Gas 
○ Global gas production dominates by the USA, Russia, Iran, Canada and Qatar 
○ The biggest consumers include Germany, Japan, Italy and the UK 
○ Gas can flow in two ways: through pipelines or in liquid form (LNG) moved by tanker 
ships 
 
How Energy pathways can become disrupted 
 
● Natural obstacles include: 
○ Vast distances and difficult terrain (eg tundra in Alaska)  
■ The Trans-Alaska pipeline cost over $8 million at the time 
○ Natural Disasters 
■ Hurricane Maria meant 80% of transmission power lines were wiped out in 
Puerto Rico as the majority of power plants were located on south coast which 
was hit hardest by the storm 
○ Extracting oil from deep water in the Gulf of Mexico especially in hurricane season brings 
challenges. Pipeline leaks can also disrupt pathways 
■ In 2013, the UK’s gas reserves decreased to 6 hours worth as a storm destroyed 
an import pipeline 
○ Supplies may run out such as in the North Sea 
● Human obstacles include: 
 

○ Political tensions and disagreements may lead to pathways being blocked at choke 
points - e.g. Iraq War, Somali Pirates 
■ Uncertainty over maritime security can lead to oil prices increase 
● Oil prices increased in March 2015 after Saudi Arabia began its military 
operations against Yemen, 3.8 million barrels of oil pass through the Bab 
el Mandeb chokepoint  
■ Embargoes and sanctions can also disrupt production 
● The US placed embargoes on Iran for its involvement with nuclear 
weapons. 
● 30% of world’s oil is shipped through the Strait of Hormuz 
■ Piracy and terrorist groups can undermine energy security by disrupting 
pathways. 
● The Strait of Malacca was hit by piracy attacks in December 2015. This 
chokepoint is curual as it's the second largest choke point for oil and gas 
transit by tanker 
■ Governments may nationalise oil supplies and become more protectionist 
● Chavez nationalized oil suppliers in Venezuela.  
● The state owned company PDVSA gave the government more access to 
its profits but chronic underinvestment llet to a 15 year slide in crude oil 
output 
● Chavez even threatened to stop selling its crude oil to the USA 
 
RUSSIA CASE STUDY 
Russia is the world’s second largest producer of natural gas 
Most of it is exported to Europe via a network of pipelines through Ukraine 
 
● Russia used its gas monopoly as a geopolitical weapon 
● Russia cut of supplies to Ukraine meaning 
● 18 EU countries experienced shortages of gas  
● exposed the vulnerability to both supply chain and political pressure on their economies 
● In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine. 
● Heavy reliance on any imported energy carries the potential of being involved in various forms 
of political blamail.  
● Nonetheless, the UK has agreed to double its imports of Russian tgas by 2021 to offset 
declining output from the UK’s North SEa gas fields 
 
   
 

Unconventional Fossil Fuels costs and benefits, implications for carbon cycle and consequences for the 
resilience of fragile environments 
 
● Have the potential to meet future energy needs 
● Widespread distribution can increase energy security of countries by reducing dependence on 
imports 
● However, these are still all fossil fuels so expliation will continue to disrupt the carbon cycle and 
contribute to global warming 
● Many forested areas have to first be stripped, releasing large amounts of CO​2 
● Extraction is costs and requires a high input of complex technology, energy and water 
 
● Tar Sands 
○ Tar sands are a mixture of clay, sand and water and bitumen 
○ Boreal forests are stripped, removing their trees. 
○ Tar sands are mined and refined 
○ They are injected with steam to separate the tar from sand and to make it less viscous so 
it can be be pumped out 
○  
Canadian Tar Sands 
 
○ Athabasca deposits contain 1.75 billion barrels  
○ Tar sands produce 40% of Canada’s oil output 
○ Projected economic benefits of $2.1 trillion 
○ 90000 jobs made from the oil sands industry 
○ Ruining the way of life for First Nation people 
in Fort McMurray 
○ Growing house market crises as thousands of migrants have moved in 
○ Expensive process of extraction - $10-$20 a barrel to extract bitumen 
from tar sands compared to $2 from conventional sources 
○ Open pit mining destroys the scenic beautiful boreal forests 
○ It adds to greenhouse gas emissions 
○ It produces large amount of wastes - 2 tonnes of tar sands are required 
for every barrel of oil 
○ University of Michigan found that air around Fort McMurray had 
carcinogenic pollutants 
 
● Oil Shale 
○ Oil bearing rocks that are permeable enough to allow oil the be pumped out. 
○ The shale is ignited so that oil fractions can be pumped out 
● Shale Gas 
○ Natural gas that is trapped in fine grained sedimentary rocks are extracted through 
fracking. 
○ This involved pumping in water and chemicals which forces out the gas 
○  
USA Fracking 
● In 2015, shale gas provided 25% of USA’s gas supply 
● Fracking for oil in the USA has become a kay part of US oil 
security and has an increasing influence on global oil price 
 

● Growing concerns over the contamination of groundwater from chemicals used 

in the fracking process. Fracking does produce pollutants such as benzene, 
sulfur dioxide 
● Disposal of waste is inefficient 0 over 1 tonne of waste rock for every barrel of 
oil 
● Disturbance of land and vegetation cover 
 
● Deepwater oil 
○ Oil and gas that is found well offshore and at considerable oceanic depths 
○ Drilong takes places at ocean rigs 
○  
Brazilian Deepwater Oil 
 
● By 2020, Petrobras (State oil company) aims to raise 
production to 500,000 barrels of oil a day 
● The scenic coast between Rio and Sao Paulo has been 
disfigured by refiners 
● There is also the pollution of coastal waters 
● The nature of the operation is risk and are too far for 
helicopter ranges 
● The oil and gas reservoirs contain huge amounts of toxic, flammable and 
explosive gases.  
● Petrobras was $100 billion in debt due to lower global oil prices 
 
Range of players involved 
 
● Governments 
○ Canada’s government promotes tar sands as it increases Canada's energy security and 
economic development 
● Oil Companies 
○ Shell Exxon and BP are all involved in exploration, exploitation, transportation and 
refining 
○ They bear the financial risk associated with finding and opening up new energy reserves 
● Environmental pressure groups 
○ Greenpeace have called for an end to industrialization of indigenous territories, forests 
and wetlands in North Alberta 
● Local Communities 
○ New jobs and business 
○ Fear over pollution e.g. in the Athabasca river 
○ Disruption to the way of life 
 
   
 

Alternatives to fossil fuels - Renewable and recyclable energy sources 

 
● Renewable and recyclable energy could help decouple fossil fuel from economic growth 
 
Energy Type  Benefits  Costs  Place Related Details 

Solar​ - Use  ● Low maintenance  ● PV require rare earth  ● Chapel Lane 

photovoltaic cells  costs  materials that are  Farm - UK’s 
to convert sunlight  ● Safe; Clean; No  polluting to extract  largest 
into electricity    pollution once  ● Difficulties in storage  ● $50 million to 
installed  ● Dictated by availability  build 
● Flexible and  of sunshine  ● Serves 60,000 
modular  ● Not viable unless there  homes 
is a high spike price 
● Land needed consumes 
productive farmland - 
could have been used 
for food 

Wind​ - Generate  ● Pollution free  ● Visually unappealing to  ● Hornsea 

energy by  ● Costs are reducing  some  project - 121 
harnessing the  quickly  ● Can affect the wildlife  km of 
power of the wind  ● Construction jobs  as the turbines can kill  Yorkshire 
to propel the blades  can be created  birds  Coast 
of wind turbines.  ● Noisy  ● Can power 1 
These turbines spin  ● Land required is  million homes 
a generator which  expensive and costly  by 2020 
generates  ● Unreliable if there is  ● Created 2000 
electricity  lack of wind  Construction 
jobs 

Nuclear​ - Heat is  ● 88,000,000 Mj per  ● Power plant accidents  ● Explosion in 
produced by the  kg - very high  acn leave radiation into  Chernobyl 
reaction of Uranium  energy density  the sea, land and air  spread 
inside a nuclear  ● Low carbon  ● Radioactive Waste  radiation 
reactor, where the  emissions  storage is not fully  across Europe 
atoms are split by  ● Newer practises are  understood  in 1986 
nuclear fission,  more safe  ● Technology be used to  ● Hinkley Point 
releasing a large  develop nuclear  C cost £18 
amount of energy  weapons in rogue or  billion creating 
terrorist states  25000 jobs 
● Mining uranium is dirty 
and polluting 
 
Hydroelectric Power - ​Large areas of useful land will be flooded; Silt is deposited upstream, making 
farmers use more fertilizers. Rivers in the UK are too small to be viable 
Geothermal Energy​ - Generally limited to volcanic areas, such as Iceland 
Tidal Power - Tidal barrages may have significant impact on regional environment, as they are often in 
estuaries of high ecological value 
 
 
 
 
   
 

 
The UK’s energy mix 
 
● Until the 1960s, UK’s main source was coal as there 
were rich deposits in the North East, Midlands and 
South Wales 
● Coal becomes less profitable.  
○ Released lots of CO​2 
○ Declining reserves of coal 
○ Low energy density 
○ Deindustrialization of industry to Asian 
countries decreased demand - industry uses 
60% less energy than in the 1970s 
○ Unions started to demand higher wages 
● In the 1980s, Thatcher oversaw an industrial holocaust where she privatised several industries 
● The current government has planned to phase out all coal power plants by 2025 
● Oil exploration continued in more politically stable areas (unlike the Middle East) leading to the 
discovery of oil and natural gas in the North Sea 
● Oil and gas have higher energy densities - 47 and 50 MJ per kg respectively as is much more 
cleaner 
● Fossil Fuels account for over 80% of UK's energy mix 
● TRansport contribution has not changed much which may because its highly dependent on 
the burning of petroleum and diesel. However, the UK is still using the same amount of energy 
as it did in the e1970s, attributed to increases in efficiency. Houses now use 12% less energy  
● In 1956, the first nuclear power plant opened in the UK 
● Now accounts for 18.5% of UK’s energy due to its high energy density (88 million MJ per kg) 
● In October, the Conservatives approved the construction of 8 new nuclear power plants 
● The UK is still energy insecure - 60% of its energy is imported 
● The UK has great potential for wind power as it received 40% of Europe's wind, making wind 
farms viable. (see Hornsea project) 
● 7% currently comes from renewable source. The UK has set itself a target of 15% by 2020 
● Less potential for geothermal and hydroelectric power 
(due to small size of rivers) 
● In 2012,, unconventional sources started to help meet 
energy demands after the Conservative government lifted  a 
ban on fracking. 
● Radical technology has been attempted - e.g the first 
hydrogen fueled taxis were put into service in time for the 
summer 2012 Olympic Games 
 
Biofuels as an energy source 
 
● Biofuels are produced from biological raw materials 
● There are primary biofuels, including fuelwood, wood chips etc and 
other organic materials used for heating, cooking or electricity 
generation 
 

● Secondary biofuels are derived from biomass and include liquid biofuels - e.g. ethanol or 
biodiesel used mainly as a vehicle fuel 
● Energy density of 6-17 MJ per kg - less than coal 
● In Brazil , bio refineries produce 930,000 barrels of oil per day, worth over $50 million a year for 
BRazil 
 
Strengths  Weaknesses 

● Fuel Flex engines (work on combination of  ● Extreme weather can can impact crop 
petrol and sugarcane ethanol) have  yield and destroy harvest, driving up the 
decrease greenhouse emissions  price of biofuels 
● Cars on ethanol emit 80% less CO​2  ● The supply chain can be costly, making 
them uncompetitive with traditional fossil 
● The use of bioethanol has reduced Brazil;s 
fuels 
CO​2​ emissions by 350 million tons. 
● Farming may encourage intense use of 
● Biodiesel can be produced, distributed  pesticides and fertiliser, which use fossil 
and used within existing fuel  fuels in their production and may lead to 
infrastructure  eutrophication of water supplies 
● Renewable energy source as the crops  ● Encourage large scale deforestation 
can be replanted again and again  cancelling out reduction in CO​2​ emissions 
● Provide rural inward investment which  ● Hectare of space used to grow energy 
can have multiplier effects - eg jobs,  crops is a hectare less for growing food - 
especially where hunger is an issue 
improvements in infrastructure 
○ Food shortages can occur, leading 
 
to higher food prices, enforcing 
rural inequalities 
●  
 
● Biofuels are climate dependent, and future temperature and rainfall changes are not fully know 
with much certainty and so biofuels may not be the best method for a country to achieve energy 
security or reduce carbon emissions 
 
Radical Energy Sources 
 
These can help reduce carbon emissions but there is uncertainty as to how far this is possible 
 
● Carbon Capture and Storage 
○ Captures CO​2​ from coal fired power plants.  
○ The gas is transported, compressed and stored deep into the 
suitable geological reservoirs as a liquid 800m below ground 
○ The storage is closely minutes to ensure safety and no releases 
into the atmosphere 
○ IT does not allow the carbon flux to occur as it captures the 
carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels 
○ CSS can reduce CO​2​ emissions by up to 19%. Leading to 
climate benefits and lower pollution 
○ It is incredibly expensive process due to the complex technology involved - (unavailable 
for developing countries as ideally every power plant would need this) 
 

○ No one is certain whether the CO​2​ will stay trapped underground of it will leak to the 
surface. The leakage could damage human health 
○ Could extend the use of fossil fuels by allowing for a business as usual approach as it 
won't decrease actual carbon emission 
● Hydrogen Fuel Cells 
○ Hydrogen reacts with oxygen releasing energy use to generate electricity, used to drive 
an electric motor with pure water as a by product 
○ Hydrogen fuel cells do not generate carbon dioxide when 
burnt 
○ Hydrogen is not found in its pure form and has to be 
separated, Separation of hydrogen from other elements 
requires energy 
○ Very few filling stations currently sell hydrogen 
○ Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.  
○ It is high in energy and an engine would produce almost no pollution 
● Electrical Vehicles 
○ USe electricity stores in a battery pack to power an electric motor to turn the wheels 
○ The batteries can be recharged using grid electricity 
○ Electric cars do not produce tailpipe pollution  
○ The greenhouse gases associated with the product depends on an individual country’s 
energy mix. So electric cars are friendly in Iceland (geothermal) less so In India (mainly 
coal) 
○ Distances in purely electric vehicles are still short before lengthy recharging is needed 
○ There are few public charging points 
○ Virtually no noise pollution 
○ They are currently more expensive to buy 
 
   
 

EQ3: How are the carbon and water cycles linked to the 
global climate system? 
Growing demand for food, fuel and other resources globally has led to contrasting regional trends in 
land use cover  
 
● Between 1990-2015, world energy use increased by 54%, driven mainly by economic 
development 
● The UN estimates the population to increase to 9.2 billion by 2050. The implications include 
more demand for food, fuel and resources. 
● 1.4 billion suffered from hunger in 2015 and so there is a need to increase food production in 
some world regions 
● The IPCC estimates 24% of greenhouse gas emissions came from agriculture and land use 
change 
 
● Deforestation 
○ 30% of the Earth’s land area is covered by forests. 
■ 30% of all global forest cover has been completely 
cleared. 
○ The main driving force of deforestation is demand for 
production for exchange in the market as well from construction 
of dams and reservoirs 
○ 50% of all deforestation is for soy, palm oil, beef and paper 
production. 
○ Developing countries rely on fuelwood creating pressures on 
forests and impact on human health. 
○ In Madagascar, tropical forests have been cleared (⅔ of it has been lost) due to demand 
for tropical hardwood, expanding population, and debt repayments. The government 
encouraged farmers to clear more land to grow cash crops to earn money to help repay 
country’s debt 
○ Effect on water cycle: 
■ Reduced infiltration and so runoff and erosion increased 
■ Flood peaks higher and lag times shorter 
■ Increased discharge leads to flooding 
○ Effects on soil health 
■ Biomass is lose due to reduce plant growth 
■ Rapid soil erosion leads to a losee on nutrients 
○ Impacts on the Atmosphere 
■ Oxygen content is lower  
■ transpiration rates decrease making the air less humid and dryer 
■ Turbulence is increases as the heated ground individuals convectional air currents 
○ Impacts on the biosphere: 
■ Less absorption of CO​2​ leads to reduced carbon store 
■ Species diversity is reduced if temperatures increase 
● Afforestation 
○ Beneficial for CO​2​ sequestration through photosynthesis 
 

○ EU Afforestation Grant Scheme encourage planting of forests for their value as carbon 
stores and for ecosystem services they provide 
○ Under poor management they can result in a reduction of biodiversity due to 
monocultures - e.g. of palm oil plantations - and non indigenous species. These store less 
carbon, use more water and are more disease prone 
○  
● Conversion of Grassland to croplands 
○ Increasing meat production could increase methane 
emissions in India and China 
○ Degraded soil lose organic matter and moisture, and so 
are not very capable of storing carbon 
○ Soils store 3x more carbon than vegetation and so when 
soils dry out, the emit carbon rather than store it 
○ Peat rich soils cover 3% of the world’s land area bt store 
25% of the global soil carbon store 
○ Grasslands that are too intensively used for animals or when ploughed are disrupting the 
carbon and water cycle 
○ During 2007-2015, farms were encouraged to grow corn and sugarcane as biofuel rush 
swept the Midwest of America 
○ Over 5.5 million hectares of natural grassland disappeared across the American midwest 
○ Grasslands trap moisture and flood water. They absorb toxins from the soil and maintain 
healthy soils, They ensure a maintenance of natural habitats 
○ GRasslands act as a carbon sink, absorbing CO​2​ and releasing O​2​ all year round - acting 
as a terrestrial carbon store 
○ Biofuels use carbon based nitrogen fertilizers and chemical pesticides, producing a net 
increase in CO​2​ emissions, 
○ Biofuels are a heavy consumer of water too, requiring irrigation 
 
Ocean acidification 
 
● World’s oceans play an important role in the sequestration of carbon 
● 30% of CO​2​ produced by humans are absorbed humans 
● CO​2​ combines with water to form carbonic acid and as the levels of dissolved CO​2​ increased, the 
oceans pH decreases, becoming more acidic -known as ocean acidification 
● It is suggested that acidification will reduce ecosystem resilience and increase the risk of marine 
ecosystems reaching a critical threshold of permanent damage 
○ However higher acidity may affect marine organisms to build shells and skeletons 
○ The reduced carbonate ions in the water means corals spend more energy building 
shells, resulting in thinner or smaller shells in molluscs reducing coral reef building ability 
○ Corals rely on algae to provide food to the corals through carbohydrates produced during 
photosynthesis 
■ If the water becomes too warm, he algae are ejected and the coral turns white 
which is known as coral bleaching 
○ Coral reefs support 35% of marine species, protect shorelines from erosion, supporting 
fishing industries and provide tourism income 
○ Acidification means that ecosystems are affected such as the complex food web. If corals 
die, this may reduce habitats for other marine life in the ecosystem, leading to a decline in 
biodiversity and ecosystem productivity 
 

 
Increasing frequency of drought 
 
● There are 30 different climate zones on Earth - simplified to desert, temperate, tropical and 
polar. These are not static 
● A warming of 2​o​C could lead to 5% of the EArth’s land area shifting to a new climate zone 
● Climate belts have begun to shift 
○ Semi-arid and arid areas have started to expand into continental areas of Asia  
○ Poleward movement of stormy wet weather into the mid latitudes 
○ More frequent hot summers in many places 
○ Coldest climate zones will reduce in size 
● Droughts are periods of below average precipitation in a given region 
 
What is the role of forests in climate regulation - Amazon 
● Control climate at local, regional and global scale 
○ Trees sequester and store large amounts of carbon. The Amazon basin holds over 17% 
of the terrestrial vegetation carbon store 
■ Rising temperatures have caused widespread drought which has caused forests 
to degrade and release stored carbon 
■ CO​2​ emissions have increased due to more frequent wildfires and decomposing 
dead wood as more trees died 
■ The Amazon, during the 2005 drought, emitted 5 billion tonnes of CO​2​ - far more 
than the carbon absorbed 
○ They absorb and store rainfall 
■ The Amazon rainforest pumps over 20 billion metric tonnes of water into the 
atmosphere daily 
■ They add to the atmosphere humidity through transpiration 
■ Humidity lowers the pressure, allowing moisture from the Atlantic Ocean to reach 
further inland than areas without forest cover 
■ Rainfall has decreased downwinfd of deforested areas 
■ Precipitation extremes however cause flooding, resulting in soil erosion 
● The IPCC warn that droughts could become more frequent in the Amazon region in the future 
● Species which prefer it wet all year around are going to be challenged 
● Deforestation can decrease rainfall locally, which dries out rainforest and causes it to die back - 
i.e. a positive feedback loop is formed 
● Ultimately the Amazon rainforest could change from a carbon sink to a carbon source 
 
   
 

Implications for human well being  

 
Forests are essential for human well being for their services  
 
Supporting (keep  Provisioning (Products  Regulating (regulate  Cultural (non material 
ecosystems healthy by  from the ecosystem  global cycles)   benefits) 
providing other 
services) 

● Water Cycling  ● Food  ● Air quality  ● SPiritual well 

● Photosynthesis  ● Fuel  ● Climate  being 
● Nutrient Cycling  ● Pharmaceuticals  ● Water Cycle  ● Recreating - 
● Medicines  ecotourism 
● Education 
 
Attitudes to environmental issues 
 
● The environmental Kuznets curve suggests that as a 
country develops, damage to the environment will 
increase, until a tipping point is reached, after which 
pollution levels fall. 
● This is due to more efficient technology, fewer 
resources, stricter regulation  
● In many developed countries, afforestation schemes are 
occurring 
 
Factors that affect timing of attitudinal change 
● Wealth of a country 
○ Development of sufficient technology (e.g to limit emissions) 
○ Money to invest in rehabilitation - e..g afforestation schemes 
○ Can afford to commit to global agreements 
○ Sustainable management may be enticed by funding from the UN - e.g. Indonesia's 
declared a forest moratorium to reduce deforestation where $1 billion was invested from 
the UN and Norway which stopped issuing of permits of clearing of primary forests 
● Rising knowledge of the role that environment plays in well being 
○ Education increases awareness 
● Political systems that enforce environmental laws 
○ Regulation and rule become stricter 
○ May set up regulating bodies pivotal for forest recovery - e.g. the Forestry commision in 
the UK planned fast growing exoitic condifers at Lake District 
○ Governments may be less strict and suffer from corruption for TNCs to exploit loopholes 
○ Join climate deals - e.g. Kyoto 
● Participant of locals 
○ May protest for conservation of national parks 
○ Greenpeace blocked a palm oil refinery in Rotterdam as they accused the IOI group of 
human right abuses and linked the company’s supplies of palm oil to deforestation and 
forest fires 
● The power of TNCs 
 

○ Unilever and NEstle cancelled their contracts with IOI but it can be questioned whether 
the group have actually changed their practises 
 
Precipitation patterns, river regimes and (the cryosphere and drainage basin) water stores  
 
Increased concentration of greenhouse gases will  
 
● Increase the earth’s average temperature 
● Change amount and pattern of precipitation levels 
● Increase sea level 
● Decrease ice and snow cover and permafrost 
● Increase acidity of the oceans 
● Increase frequency and intensity of extreme weather events 
 
There is uncertainty of global projections over precipitation patterns, river regimes as well cryosphere 
and drainage basin water stores. The cryosphere refers to the frozen part of the Earth’s surface 
 
 
ARCTIC CASE STUDY 
 
● The Arctic plays a large role in global climate as its sea ice regulates evaporation and 
precipitation 
● The ARctic is very sensitive to climate change as its stores far more carbon but is also very 
vulnerable to global warming, making predictions difficult 
● Thawing permafrost is released methane and carbon dioxide as well as CO​2​ being released to 
increased forest fires as boreal forests dry out 
● Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast as global averages - 3-4 degrees in Alaska 
● Arctic Ocean could be ice free by 2037 
● The ARctic is considered as the barometer of the world 
● High risk of irreversible feedback as there is a loss of the Arctic Albedo. Increased greenhouse 
gases releases, increases the temperature leading to melting o f ice. Ice high reflective index 
means reflection of the sun's rays, instead the rays will be absorbed if there is less ice cover, 
causing more melting, creating a positive feedback loop. 
 
● Precipitation Patterns 
○ Increase temps, lead to increased evaporation and atmospheric water vapour 
○ Across Yukon, precipitation will increase by between 5% and 20% by 2100 
○ Greater proportion fall as rain in spring and less as snow 
● River Regimes 
○ Warm water will flow into the Arctic from the PAcific and Atlantic 
○ Ablation of glacial ice, such as in Greenland which will alter runoff and create more 
river ice floods 
■ Since 2000, inflows to the Yukon River have increased by 29% due to 
increased temperature and precipitation 
○ Runoff of fresh, cold water will later marine ecosystems and saline water dependent 
food chains 
● Cryosphere and drainage basin water Stores 
○ Arctic sea ice and spring snow cover have continued to decrease in extent and 
thickness - averages only 3m thickness 
○ Total ice area in Yukon decreased by 22% 
 

○ Glaciers are receding and stream flow is decreasing 

○ Higher temperatures are drying up Arctic ponds 
 
Implications 
 
● Carbon uptake by terrestrial plants may increase due to longer growing seasons and 
northward migration of boreal forests 
● Buildings and structure may collapse due to permafrost thawing 
● Stress of wildlife ma lead to food insecurity as ecosystems change and hunting areas move 
● Alaskan people may be required to relocate oe be trapped by extreme hazards - eg avalanches 
ore river floods 
●  
 
 
Threats to ocean health pose threats to human wellbeing 
 
● Ocean health is being affected by increase temperatures, acidity, salinity and changes to the 
ocean currents 
● CLimate change is therefore affecting, supply of nutrients, food chains and extreme events such 
as cyclones to developing and developed countries 
● Oceans act as source of food supplies for developing countries 
○ Fish is a cultural choice of wealthy countries (e.g. Japan 
○ Necessity to well being for poorer countries 
○ 520 million of the poorest people rely on fisheries for food and income 
○ Human health is being affected as warmer seawater leads to fish eating toxic algae, 
posing the humans that eat the fish 
● Effects to food chains and income 
○ Warming water in the North Atlantic is killing cold water plankton starving North 
ATlantic cod 
○ Coral reefs shelter 25% of marine animals but acidification and warming has led to coral 
bleaching, affecting food sources and income for those in coastal areas 
○ Coral Reefs are worth $9.6 billion according to the PCC. In the Maldives 220,000 are 
reliant on coral atolls attracting 1 million tourists 
○ 6^ of the Maldives GDP comes from fish and provides essential protein 
○ In Fiji, coral reef degradation will cause $5-14 million a year by 2050, due to reduced 
fisheries, habitats and tourism 
● Effects on extreme events 
○ Coastal areas are protected from waves by fringing reefs. Many developing countries rely 
on protection from storms that reefs offer as they can’t afford hard engineering defences 
○ Mangrove forests produce benefits such as stabilizing coastlines against erosion, collect 
nutrient rich sediments trapped between roots providing protection against extreme 
weather (storm surges and tsunamis) as well as providing nurseries for coastal fish away 
from predators. 
○ However half of mangroves have been lost since 1950 as they have cleared for coastal 
tourist development 
 
There may be conflict between different players if MArine protection areas end up in the wrong places 
due to poleward shift of fish species 
 

 
Uncertainty over future emissions 
 
○ Representative Concentration PAthways are scenarios that 
describe the trajectories for CO​2​ emissions, They consider a 
wide range of possible climate policy outcomes 
○ The Highest emission pathway (RCP 8.5) provides the 
nightmare scenarios where emissions grow at a rapid rate. 
Population growth is at the high end at 12 billion by 2100 
○ The lowest emissions pathway (RCP 2.6) suggests the best case scenario for limiting 
anthropogenic climate change, requiring a huge turnaround in climate policies. Oil use 
declines and fossil fuel increase is offset by carbon capture and storage. Renewable 
Energy source use increases.  
○ Surface temperature will continue to increase and rise by 2-6 degrees between 2000 
and 2100 
 
Why is the future uncertain 
 
● Natural Factors 
○ The role of carbon sinks 
■ Terrestrial Stores 
● The stores will convert to a source of CO​2 
○ Tundra permafrost with thaw in the Arctic 
○ Shift of Boreal forests may be able to store more nutrients 
○ Tropical rainforests may reduce their storage especially after 
drought 
■ Oceanic stores 
● Increase store in algae 
● Decrease overall as a sink due to tropical oceans storing less carbon - 
colder water stores more carbon 
● Decreased efficiency and slowing down of the biological pump taking 
nutrients and dissolved inorganic carbon 
● Human Factors 
○ Economic Growth 
■ Economic slowdowns reduce manufacturing emissions 
■ This also slows down investment into greener alternatives to fossil fuels 
especially if new resources are found (US fracking) 
■ Difficult to predict the rate countries may develop and industrialise 
○ Population 
■ Increased globalised world drives demand on resources and creates greater 
carbon emissions 
■ Increased affluence in emerging countries means extra 1 billion consumers by 
2050 
○ Energy Sources 
● Feedback mechanism 
○ Carbon released from peatlands and permafrost 
○ Tipping points (Forest dieback and thermohaline circulation) 
■ Feedback mechanisms are processes that lead to further consequences 
 

■ They can be positive - lead to additional and enhanced changes in that system 
■ Or they can be negative - dampen original process 
■ In 2014, the IPCC initiatives 7 tipping points - i.e. point that are abrupt and 
possible irreversible 
● Atlantic thermohaline circulation collapses - salty water may not sink in 
the north if there is increased volumes of freshwater from melting ice in 
the Arctic. 
● Seabed methane release - methane gas may become released from 
seabed sediments 
● Dieback of tropical rainforests - Drought and fires may decrease the ability 
of rainforests to store carbon. If the water cycle (precipitation) is affected, 
trees will die back during droughts leading to a positive feedback loop 
● Dieback of boreal forests - arctic ecosystems are vulnerable to thawing 
permafrost, shrubs spreading into the tundra, increased number of pests 
and fires in the boreal forests 
● Arctic ocean free of ice in summer 
● Long term droughts - especially in the subtropical dry zones that move 
poleward which modifies the Hadley cell over a long timescale 
● Collapse of monsoon climate circulation  
 
Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for a changed climate 
 
Adaptation: New ways of doing things in order to live with the effects of climate change 
Mitigation: Rebalancing the carbon cycle and reducing any impacts of climate change 
 
Adaptation Strategy  Key Points 

Water Conservation and  ● Planning, developing and distributing water resources under 
Management  defined water policies and regulations 
● Less resources are used which less ground abstraction 
● Efficiency and conservation can’t match increased demands 
for water 
● Requires promotion and enforcement of government  
● Israel managed its supplies of freshwater using smart 
irrigation (water plants through an automated programmed 
schedule), recycle sewage water for agriculture use, importing 
water in food as virtual water which relieves the pressure on 
domestic water resources. Manage demand for charging real 
value prices for water to reflect the cost of supply of an 
ecosystem management 

Resilient Agricultural Systems  ● Use of higher tech, drought tolerant species help resistance to 
climate change and increased diseases 
● Better practises generate healthier soil and help water 
storage as well as CO​2​ sequestration - e.g reduced ploughing 
● Increased yield reduce the food insecurity. 
● Increased income for farmers plus improved soil structure 
● Can be more expensive, making it viable in developing 
countries 
● Genetic modification brings ethical issues 
 

Land use planning  ● Building restrictions are placed in areas vulnerable to flooding 
and low lying coasts 
● Land use resettling may be feasible (e.g. in megacities such as 
Dhaka, Bangladesh) 
● Needs strong governance, enforcement and compensation 

Flood risk management  ● Use of localised flood defenses  

● In Australian, homes are fitted with raised floors, stronger 
foundation, and water resistant materials, use of permeable 
tarmac 
● Afforestation upstream may absorb water and reduce 
downstream flood risk 
● High cost of relocating people and may not be feasible  
● Local may contest the changes 

Solar radiation management  ● Geoengineering includes ideas and plants for writing 
sate;ot;es to reflect some inward radiation back into space 
● Would offset the effects of greenhouse gases 
● Untried and untested 
● It would not alter acidification effects 
● May have unintended consequences  
 
Re-balancing the carbon cycle could be achieved through mitigation but this requires global scale 
agreement and national actions both of which have proved to be problematic. 
 
Mitigation Strategy  Key Points 

Carbon Taxation  ● Tax for free paid by companies of fossil fuels, which is linked 
to carbon dioxide emissions that the fuel produces 
● Aims to encourage cleaner forms of energy sources 
● Farming can have high taxes on fertilizers that have pollutants 
such as nitrogen  
● Cars currently pay a flat rate, regardless on carbon emissions 
● Raises revenue which can be spent on mitigation pollution 
● Encourages firms to look for alternatives 
● Firms may change production to countries that don’t tax 
● May discourage investment and economic growth 

Renewable Switching  ● Change a country’s energy mix - Encourage the uptake of 
renewable energy sources, away from fossil fuels 
● UK has set itself a target of 15% from renewable sources by 
2020 
● Provides a greener outlook for the future as well economic 
growth in new industries 
● Fossil fuels will be still be required for current infrastructure as 
renewable suffer from storage and reliability issues a 

Energy Efficiency  ● Energy efficiency involved technological improvements so that 

energy use becomes more efficient 
● MEthods include: insulation for buildings, changed to LED 
light bulbs, improve aerodynamics of cars to reduce fuel 
waste 
 

● Reduces energy insecurity as countries have to import less 

from other nations 
● Cost effective as they have reduced maintenance and last 
longer though there are initial setup costs 

Afforestation  ● Afforestation involves restoration of degraded environments, 

the prevention of soil erosion and the provision of forests 
sinks and stores CO​2  
● ⅔ of South Korea is now forested 
● Provides habitats 
● Opportunity costs - less area for food and housing 
● It can affect local diversity if a monoculture of non-indigenous 
plants are grown e..g palm oil trees which use more water, are 
more disease prone and store less carbon 

Carbon Capture and Storage  *see notes* 

 
Players and Attitudes  
 
● Mitigation requires global scale agreement and national actions 
● Players involved include: 
○ Governments 
■ May disagree about the best way to achieve progress believe climate deals can 
hinder economic growth - e.g. USA 
■ Some believe they are being unfairly penalised given the damage has been done 
by existing industrialized nations  
■ Governments that introduce energy levies or taxes to cut energy consumption are 
wary of losing votes 
○ IGOs 
○ Groups of countries 
■ The UN has set up goals and plans called roadmaps, setting stantdardsd for TNCs 
and how to mould public behaaviour 
■ The EU has set emission standards for its member states 
○ TNCs 
■ Companies such as Shell lead market research into renewable technology 
○ Pressure Groups  
■ Greenpeace can protest and lobby for changes in attitude and action - see 
Rotterdam palm oil notes notes 
○ Individual 
■ The public, as consumers, are important 
■ Online e-petitioning is growing e.g. for more renewable energy and to stop 
fracking 
 
   
 

Paris Climate Conference  

 
● The 2015 PAris CLimate Conference united 195 countries to tackle climate change under one 
agreement, aiming to keep global temperature below 2 degrees above pre industrial times. 
● The accord is meant to add structure and momentum to efforts that already underway - rather 
than act as quick fix solution.  
● Developing countries have been promised $100 billion a year by 2020 as financial support to 
cope with climate change. 
● Trump recently withdrew from the PAris Climate Deal. Although former vice president Al Gore 
argued that the UK will meet Paris goals without trump given cities are moving towards 
renewable energy sources which are becoming more and more cheap 
● To assess whether PAris is a success or not depends upon what the aim as and the perception 
of whether Paris was a step in a longer process or a means to bring radical and solve 
unprecedented levels of global warming