Polish J. of Environ. Stud. Vol. 16, No.

6 (2007), 867-873

Original Research
Characterization of Leather Industry Wastes
H. Ozgunay*, S. Colak, M.M. Mutlu, F. Akyuz
Department of Leather Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

Received: November 14, 2006

Accepted: June 13, 2007

Abstract

In this research samples from solid wastes coming out from various process steps during manufacturing
of garment sheep skins, shoe upper goat skins, shoe upper hides and sole leathers have been collected. These
samples have been classified among themselves and their characteristics have been determined by various
chemical analysis. By characterization of solid wastes which state problems for the environment and costs
for treatment; data have been obtained which can be used for new management and evaluation methods.

Keywords: leather, hide, skin, solid waste, environment

Introduction ferent types of leather – producing tanneries, i.e. garment,

The principal aim of the leather industry, which plays a
significant role in today’s global economy, is to transform
animal hides/skins into a physically and chemically stable
material by subjecting them to chemical and mechanical
sequential processes, and therefore to obtain products for
meeting various needs of people. The leather industry gen-
erally uses hides and skins as raw materials, which are the
by-products of meat and meat products industry. In this
respect, the leather industry could have easily been distin-
guished as an environmentally friendly industry, since it
processes waste products from meat production [1]. How-
ever, the leather industry has commonly been associated
with high pollution due to the bad smell, organic wastes
and high water consumption caused during traditional
manufacturing processes [2]. Different forms of waste in
quality and quantity, which emerge during the transfor-
mation of hides and skins into leathers in thousands of
leather factories, from primitive to modern all around the
world, have negative impacts on the environment.
Although the characterization of solid wastes from the
tanning industry is well documented, our study investi-
gates the properties of the solid wastes generated from dif-
*Corresponding author; e-mail: hasan.ozgunay@ege.edu.tr
shoe upper, sole, etc. As it is known, producing different
types of leather requires different types of processes and
chemical usage. Consequently, leather wastes generated
from each type of leather and process have different char-
acteristics. According to us, for the utilization of these
wastes in various fields, having more specific information
about their characteristics has great importance. In this di-
rection, in this research an overview of leather processing
is mentioned and wastes coming out of various factories
and process steps are characterized with the aim of obtain-
ing data for evaluating them.
According to the data received from the studies of sev-
eral researchers, approximately 200 kg of leather is manu-
factured from 1 tone of wet-salted hide [1-3]. This amount
constitutes about 20% of rawhide weight. More than 600
kg of solid waste is generated during the transformation of
rawhide into leather. That is to say, solid wastes contain-
ing protein and fat that constitute more than 60% of raw-
hide weight are disposed to the environment by leather
factories without turning them to good use (Table 1).
In other words, besides the 30-35m3 waste water dis-
posed to environment during the processing of every 1 ton
of rawhide in world leather industry, the data from FAO
reveals that approximately 8.5 million tons of solid waste
is generated during the production of 11 million tons of
rawhide processed in the world [4].
868 Ozgunay H. et al.

Table 1: Estimated amount of solid (protein, tanned and un- removal of unwanted proteins from the hide. Follow-
tanned) waste during the processing of 1 ton of salted hides ac- ing the bating process, a degreasing process is applied
cording to various authors to hides for removing the excess natural fat in their
structure and providing a homogeneous distribution of
Püntener Alexander Buljan the fat in it.
Untanned waste: ii. Tanning Processes:
shavings The hides at this stage are first treated with pickle pro-
subepidermal Tissue 530 kg 120 kg 100 kg cess in a solution composed of salt and acids so as to
trimmings 135 kg 70-230 kg 300kg obtain a homogeneous distribution of tanning materi-
Tanned Waste: als through the cut. After the hides are conditioned as
shavings 145 kg 100 kg 99 kg above, the tanning process is applied with various tan-
split 115 107 ning materials (materials able to form stable bonds with
Dyed and finished waste: collagen) in order to provide the leather with a stable
shavings 10 kg 32 kg 10 kg
form and high thermal stability. Tanning materials such
fluff 2 kg 1 kg
as vegetable tannins, mineral tanning materials and
Total 870 kg 439-599 kg 637 kg syntans (synthetic organic tanning materials) are used
in tannage. Among mineral tanning materials, chrome
is the most widely used in leather production due to its
unique features that it gives to the leather. Aluminium
and vegetable tanning materials are also widely used in
leather production.
Before the leathers are treated with further processes,
the setting out and samming process is applied, and
shaving is done to obtain the desired thickness of the
leather.
iii. Post-Tanning Processes:
The next step for the leathers, which are tanned and
standardized to a desired thickness, is retannage pro-
cess with various retanning agents improving the re-
quested characteristics of products. In this process,
structural differences within leathers are compensated
Fig. 1. Amounts of leather industry raw material input and solid to obtain uniform structure. The Fatliquoring process
waste output. is applied by using a combination of various fatliquor-
ing agents in order to allow the leather to be more
supple and softer. In the dyeing process leathers are
It is possible to divide leather industry processes of dyed to the desired color. After this stage, leathers are
transforming rawhide into leather into four main stages: hanged and dried, and they are prepared for the fin-
i. Beamhouse processes: ishing process through certain mechanical operations.
The conserved hides are first subjected to a trim- The unwanted parts are trimmed and removed.
ming process for removing the unwanted parts, and iv. Finishing Processes:
then they are soaked to restore the lost water and to After the leathers are fatliquored and dyed following
remove substances like dirt, blood and conservation the tanning process, they are processed with a series
salt. After the wetted hides are fleshed to remove the of coatings on the surface in order to improve their
excess flesh and fat adhering to the hide (hypoder- resistance and produce appealing and uniform surface
mis), they are treated with an intense alkali solution of effects. After this process, leathers are trimmed for a
lime (Ca(OH)2) and sodium sulphide (Na2S) to ensure final form and sent to confection.
hair and wool removal (unhairing process). Later the
hides are swelled up in liming process by immersing Solid wastes generated by the leather industry in these
them in a strong alkaline bath so as to open up the stages of processes may be classified as follows:
collagen structure. The hides may be treated with a i. wastes from untanned hides/skins (trimmings, flesh-
second fleshing process after liming in order to clean ing wastes)
the flesh. At this stage, hides are treated with splitting ii. wastes from tanned leather (shaving wastes, buffing
process and split into two or three layers. Deliming is dust)
then performed to decrease the pH level in order to iii. wastes from dyed and finished leather (trimmings
remove the lime and to make the hide more receptive from leather)
to the chemicals that will be used in further stages. Data obtained from research reveals that 80% of solid
Through bating process, hides are exposed to an enzy- wastes are generated during pre-tanning processes, while
matic effect for both opening up the structures, and the 20% of the wastes are caused by post-tanning processes
Characterization of Leather...
[5]. Due to the bad smell they produce during their pu-
trefaction and their harmful chemical content, untanned
hide/skin wastes have negative effects on the soil and/or
water resources of the environment where they are dis-
charged, in other words on the local plant flora and animal
fauna. Therefore, uncontrolled discharge of such wastes
should be prevented without taking adequate precautions.
Legal arrangements gradually gaining speed all over the
world enforce the leather industry to apply innovations
in terms of reusing solid wastes generated during leather
production processes such as fleshing, shaving, trimming
and splits.
The most significant approach in preventing environ-
mental pollution is the idea that prevention is better than
reuse, reuse is better than recycling, and recycling is better
than disposing of the wastes [6]. In other words, cleaner
production. On this account, in order to provide cleaner
production, the producers are supposed to prevent or re-
duce waste formation by using clean technology during
production processes, and transform the inevitable small
amounts of waste into environmentally friendly materials.
Solid wastes create a major problem for leather in-
dustry in terms of both their variety and quantity. A high
amount of reusable waste is generated in the leather in-
dustry. It is possible to recycle these products and even
use them as raw materials for different industries [7]. The
variety and quantity of solid wastes depends on animal
species, breeding conditions, slaughterhouse practices,
conservation conditions, leather process stages, mechani-
cal operations, qualification of the personnel, and chemi-
cals used in processes. Yet this fact causes uncertainties in
reusing the generated wastes.
First of all, solid wastes should be characterized so
that they can be reused. In this study, wastes from differ-
ent companies have been analyzed with various chemical
and instrumental analysis methods, and their characteris-
tics have been defined. This data is thought to be useful
in terms of preventing both environmental pollution and
waste of resources by putting solid wastes into good use
as secondary raw material in different industries rather
than transferring them to disposal areas.
Materials and Methods
Materials
Samples of wastes from pre-fleshing, lime fleshing,
shaving, buffing and trimming, which were examined
within the scope of the study, had been obtained from var-
ious factories producing different leather types (clothing
sheep skin, shoe upper goat skin, shoe upper hide and sole
cattle hide). Samples are coded as follows:
A: Sheep skin
B: Goat skin
C: Hide (shoe upper)
D: Hide (sole)
1: Pre-fleshing waste
869
2: Lime fleshing waste
3: Shaving waste
4: Buffing waste
5: Leather trimmings
Example: A1: Sheep skin pre-fleshing waste.
Method
Solid waste samples examined for the study were ran-
domly selected among piles in 2 different leather factories
manufacturing products for each leather type. Pre-fleshing
and lime fleshing wastes, which are defined as untanned
wastes, were scrapped after the water in their structure was
removed (to a certain extent) in airy conditions, and then
they were equally mixed and dried at 50-55°C. Shaving,
buffing and leather trimmings from tanned leather wastes
were ground and mixed before they were dried at 102°C ±
2°C and prepared for chemical analyses. All other analy-
ses (excluding water content measurement) were done by
taking sufficient amounts from these samples.
The analysis were carried out using the following
standard methods: The amount of water content (volatile
components) according to IUC 5 [8], pH according to
SLC 13 [8], Substances (fats and other substances) solu-
ble in dichloromethane according to SLC 4 [8], Nitrogen
content according to Kjeldahl Method, Sodium chloride
content according to SLC 402 [8], Sulphide content ac-
cording to Monier-Williams Method.
Thermal value of the samples were measured in Ber-
tholet calorimeter under 23-30 atmosphere pressure by
burning with electric current in an aerobic environment
and monitoring the temperature increase of a certain
amount of water by the generated heat.
In order to determine Cr, Fe, Na, and Ca in waste sam-
ples using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, the
samples were first treated with an acid digestion process.
Sample solutions were filled up to 100 ml with pure water
after they reached room temperature (it may be filtered
through filter paper if necessary). Desired measurements
were later done in these obtained solutions by using atom-
ic absorption.
Cr, Fe, Na and Ca amounts of wastes were detected
with Perkin-Elmer 2380 Atomic Absorption Spectropho-
tometer. Cr was measured at 357.9nm with 0.7 slit in-
tervals by using air+C2H2 mixture, Fe was measured at
248.3nm with 0.2 slit intervals by using air+C2H2 mixture,
Na was measured at 589.6nm with 1.4 slit intervals by us-
ing air+propane mixture and Ca was measured at 422.7nm
with 1.4 slit intervals by using air+C2H2 mixture.
Results and Discussion
Water Content
According to the results of water content determi-
nation in solid waste, water content was found to be
870 Ozgunay H. et al.

Table 2. Mean values of some characteristics of leather industry waste.

Water Content Fat&Oils Nitrogen Salt Suphur SO2 Calorific Value

Type of Waste pH
% % % % (ppm) kcal/kg
A1 58.99 7.29 58.5 14.7 1.41 n.d. 7953
B1 44.40 7.23 53.5 5.9 1.71 n.d. 7375
C1 45.77 7.4 56 34.6 2.56 n.d. 5345
D1 45.77 7.44 56 17.1 2.52 n.d. 5642
A2 61.65 12.37 53 13.1 1.77 439 4852
B2 83.72 10.06 25 25 0.87 243 4916
C2 57.13 12.43 6 31.3 2.82 65 5753
D2 57.13 12.49 7 18.2 2.86 n.d. 5146
A3 66.01 3.93 2.4 60.3 4.65 n.d. 3884
B3 63.99 4.28 0.85 61.2 3.95 n.d. 3912
C3 46.61 4.17 2.15 64.1 4.68 n.d. 4354
D3 45.86 5.24 2.1 31.7 1.72 n.d. 4552
A4 14.58 4.3 4.05 35.4 2.00 n.d. 4820
B4 8.57 5.81 3.5 46.5 1.60 n.d. 4902
C4 6.97 6.01 3.9 47.7 1.66 n.d. 4056
D4 9.26 4.26 4.1 26.4 1.37 n.d. 4544
A5 7.24 5.47 6.95 49.4 1.49 n.d. 4685
B5 6.39 4.46 4.35 48.6 1.48 n.d. 4929
C5 8.83 4.75 7.05 46.7 2.21 n.d. 4744
D5 8.83 4 4.25 28.7 2.08 n.d. 4541

45-59% in pre-fleshing waste, 57-83% in lime flesh-
ing waste, 45-66% in shaving waste, 7-14% in buffing
waste, and 6-9% in leather wastes. Sempere et al. [9]
have observed that water content of leather waste (18-
25%) is lower than the water content of shaving waste
(45-57%).
The obtained data reveal that fleshing and shaving
wastes include higher amounts of water in comparison
to other waste types. This result is due to the fact that
fleshing and shaving wastes are generated during leath-
er process steps called beamhouse processes, in which
leathers are processed in watery environments. Water
content of solid wastes like buffing and trimming are
lower, since they are generated during the stages of dry
processes.
Water content of solid wastes differs to a great extent
in accordance with how and where they are collected,
storage conditions, and climate. Yet there is always an ob-
vious water content difference between the wastes gener-
ated during wet and dry processes. Water content of solid
wastes is of great significance at the time of storage and
use.
Due to the high amount of water in leather wastes, or
natural factors like rain or snow, infusion of the chemi-
cals in leather waste into soil and surface/ground waters
causes the deterioration of the natural structures of these
receiver environments. Especially in the case of wastes
including chrome, researchers have reported the infusion
of chrome into plants and ground waters [9].
pH
It has been observed that solid wastes show similari-
ties in parallel with the process stages disclosing the pH
values of solid wastes, and the pH values at which these
processes are carried out; and it was found that liming
fleshing waste has the highest pH value, since the liming
process is done at around pH 11-12.
Acid-base reactions are among the most important
matters regarding the environment. Most of the living
organisms are very sensitive to environmental pH. An-
other situation is that, when pH is forced to extreme lim-
its, chemical balance reactions slide to the left or right,
causing the occurrence of undesired sediments or gases.
Hence, in order to protect the current ecosystem, wastes
should be subjected to a neutralization process before they
are disposed to the environment.
Characterization of Leather...
The Amount of Substances (Fats and Other
Solubles) Soluble in Dichloromethane
Unless the fat in rawhide structure is removed, it af-
fects other processes in a negative way by prohibiting
the penetration of chemicals into the hide in further pro-
cesses, and may also cause a strong smell, an increase in
micro-organism activity and defects like spew on leathers.
For this reason, vast amounts of fat in hides are removed
before tanning by applying a degreasing process. Bienkie-
wicz [10] noted that fat content varies between 0.5% and
4% in cattle and horse hides, 3% and 30% in sheep skin,
4% and 40% in pig skin, and 3% and 10% in goat skin
over dry weights.
Another fat source in solid wastes is the natural or
synthetic fats used in the fatliquoring process in order
to provide the leather with features like softness, elastic-
ity and resistance, and to allow the leather fibers to slide
easily over one another according to the leather type and
purpose of use. The fat content of leathers consists of the
remaining natural fat after degreasing process, and the fat
used in fatliquoring process. Due to this reason, different
fat proportions may be detected in leather wastes.
In the research, it has been observed that pre-fleshing
and lime fleshing wastes from the processes before de-
greasing include higher amounts of fat compared to other
waste samples (40-70%). In addition, it should be kept in
mind that wastes were generated at the end of the flesh-
ing process that was applied to remove the hypodermis
layer of the hide, which is the layer including the highest
amount of fat. It should also be taken into consideration
that flesh and fat layers left on hides may differ greatly,
depending on slaughter and flaying techniques, which in
turn directly affects the fat amount in waste. This high
amount of fat in fleshing waste may be evaluated in differ-
ent fields such as the chemical industry, soap production,
biodiesel production, and the production of fatliquors [7].
The fat obtained from lime fleshing waste is generally re-
garded to be of low quality due to its dirty colour and bad
smell resulting from sulphide contact.
Nitrogen Amount in Wastes
Determination of nitrogen in solid wastes gives an
idea about proteins as the main component of leather,
and therefore about the effect of leather processes on pro-
teins.
The results obtained from nitrogen determination
analysis conducted with the Kjeldahl method in waste
samples have revealed that fleshing wastes with 6-34%
nitrogen have the lowest amount of nitrogen, and there-
fore the minimum protein content. As mentioned before,
this result stems from the fact that fleshing wastes are the
ones generated by the removal of a hypodermis layer,
which is rich in fat and poor in protein.
Shaving wastes include the highest amount of nitrogen
(64%). Chrome in these shaving wastes may be removed
871
to a great extent by treating the samples with alkali or
with the help of enzymes, and thus protein hydrolysates
without chrome may be obtained (<5ppm). Therefore, it
is possible to put shaving wastes into commercial use due
to its wide area of use such as leatherboard, fertilizer or
hydrolysate production [11, 12].
When other data were examined, nitrogen content of
the wastes from sole leather measuring 26-31% was found
to be lower than the nitrogen contents of other waste types.
Since the rate of vegetable tanning substance in the waste
(polyphenolic substance) increased, the nitrogen amount
detected in leather decreased accordingly.
Sodium Chloride Content
When the salt contents of solid wastes were examined,
it was found that salt proportions in most samples vary be-
tween 1% and 2.5%. As a matter of fact, it is remarkable
that salt contents of shaving wastes from all skin types
are higher than the average values of other samples, and
this difference is thought to stem from the high rate of
alkali salts used especially in basification at the end of the
chrome tanning process; since this parallelism detected in
shaving wastes is not observed in the shaving wastes from
sole leather treated with vegetable tanning process.
The high content of salt in solid wastes causes an in-
crease in the salt amount of the soil where these wastes
are stored. Soluble salts have negative effects on plant
growth, because the intake of nutritional elements by
the plant is prohibited due to ion competition when the
soil contains high amounts of cation and anions. This salt
damage emerges because of the insufficiency of nutrition-
al elements. Additionally, high salinity or total dissolved
salts in water causes high osmotic pressure, which results
in reduced water availability to plants and retarded plant
growth of crops which are not salt tolerant [13].
Sulphide Content
As mentioned before, in beamhouse processes, ac-
cording to the type of desired leather products, hides/
skins are treated with an intense alkali solution and so-
dium sulphide for hair and wool removal and opening up
the structure. In this step, disulphide bonds are destroyed
by reduction under alkali conditions. Therefore, as is also
seen from the results, the wastes coming out from these
stages are distinguished from others by their high sulphide
content. The highest amount of sulphide was detected in
sheepskins (439 ppm), because these raw materials are
generally used in production of garment-like soft leather
types and in order to obtain required properties, intensive
liming and unhairing is applied. Goat skins and hides used
for production of shoe upper leathers are generally treated
with less lime and sulphide in order to obtain firmer leath-
ers, and so wastes occurring at these stages have less sul-
phide content.
872 Ozgunay H. et al.

Thermal Values On the other hand, about 90% of hides/skins in the

world are still tanned with chrome, because other tanning
As presented in the graphics, due to their high content materials fail to give the leather a high hydrothermal sta-
of fat, fleshing wastes with an average of 5872 kcal/kg bility and other use properties that chrome provides.
thermal value have higher thermal values than that of oth- Iron amounts in waste are generally not very high,
er wastes with an average of 4493 kcal/kg. and vary according to the iron content of the water used
The thermal values belonging to some urban wastes in processing, and the process after which the waste is
were determined to be 2770 and 4450 kcal/kg in paper, generated. For example, the iron dust appearing during
6660-8885 kcal/kg in plastic, 3600-4440 kcal/kg in tex- the sharpening of knives used in the fleshing process to
tile, 4990-6660 kcal/kg in rubber, and 3600-4730 kcal/kg remove the flesh side called hypodermis layer, or the iron
in leather [14]. In some cases, leather wastes are exter- dust generating from buffing paper during the buffing pro-
minated by incineration due to their high calorific values cess may cause changes in determined values.
(4500-5000 kcal/kg) [15]. Thermal treatment of leather In the results concerning calcium (Ca) content, the
scrap must be justified not only by its high calorific value, high amount of calcium determined especially in fleshing
but by taking into account as much as possible of the con- wastes is caused by the lime used in the liming process
sequences of it, namely (i) pollutants and their levels in applied for opening up the structure and conveying ad-
the released gasses; (ii) characteristics of the ashes and ditional functional groups.
factors that influence changes in the chromium oxidation Sodium content in the wastes can be formed from
state during the burning process as well as in some of the many sources. It can either originated from sodium chlo-
further ash treatment options. These considerations must ride or sodium sulphate. The amount of salts used in the
always be directed to useful ends [16]. production of various kinds of leather types and various
processes differs in a wide range. For example, tanning
procesess carried out at low pH values or strong acidic
Determination of Cr, Fe, Na, Ca Ions in Leather
Wastes
Table 3. Mean Values of Cr, Fe, Na and Ca Contents of Leather
Some Ion amounts detected in solid wastes generated Industry Wastes (ppm).
by the leather industry are introduced in the table below.
As displayed in the table, chrome was detected to be Type of Waste Cr Fe Na Ca
high in waste samples which are treated with chrome in
A1 n.d. 1206 27496 6972
the tanning process. The indicated Cr+3 content is the re-
sult of chrome used in tanning. B1 n.d. 667 4014 19310
Chromium traces found in sole leather shaving and C1 n.d. 915 14612 12185
buffing wastes were associated with the contamination
of wastes, since chrome is not used as the main tanning D1 n.d. 1407 27217 16424
substance in sole leather production. An increase was A2 n.d. 894 9000 76000
observed in chrome contents of sole leather wastes, and
B2 n.d. 1835 15000 87000
therefore it was considered that waste samples treated
with chrome retannage in the final stage for a specific C2 n.d. 4272 45384 11799
purpose during sole leather production were evaluated D2 n.d. 626 29679 42399
among the samples. Naturally, Cr ion was not detected in
fleshing wastes. A3 14500 11 15000 700
Chromium has two important oxidation states: triva- B3 14493 27 10243 745
lent (Cr+3) and hexavalent (Cr+6). Trivalent chromium is of
C3 17943 282 14234 711
low toxicity and is an essential trace ion necessary for sev-
eral biological activities, whereas hexavalent chromium is D3 43 378 5919 1566
of high toxicity [17, 18].Tannery wastes normally contain
A4 11783 1467 49350 4632
only trivalent chromium [10, 19, 20]. The production of
chromium-containing solid wastes (including chrome B4 23747 77 707 1516
shavings) in a tannery has been recognized as a problem C4 15000 521 11000 6200
for many years but recently pressure from environmental
authorities has given the problem increasing urgency. As a D4 28 992 14894 2780
result, many scientific groups have oriented their research A5 14989 34 2100 900
to find a process to recycle these wastes. The chemical
B5 18360 123 1504 701
composition of chrome shavings make them suitable for
processing to recover their constituents but the economics C5 13530 29 997 897
of the process is very important for industrial implemen- D5 1492 452 19083 1094
tation [21]
Characterization of Leather...
conditions, require pickling and more buffer salts. Simi-
larly, in neutralization and basification procceses vari-
ous Na-based buffing salts and alkali salts are also used.
These salts cannot be completely washed out and remain
in leather. High concentrations of sodium ions in irriga-
tion water adversely affect soil structure by causing dis-
persion of clay. Problems with soil permeability can occur
depending on sodium, calcium and magnesium ion con-
centrations in soil [13].
Conclusion
Leather products are manufactured using various
processes and chemicals which may show variations de-
pending on the desired the leather characteristics. Con-
sidering this particular fact about the leather industry, we
have carried out this study on the solid wastes of different
tanneries that produce leather for different purposes and
therefore use various processes and chemicals. The results
of this study have revealed that the leather industry gener-
ates waste with different characteristics according to the
process step at which it is generated. The obtained data
clearly reveals that the contents (both protein and fat) of
almost all the fleshing, shaving and trimming wastes, etc.,
which constitute a great amount of the generated wastes
in general, may be reused in other different fields for eco-
nomic purposes. For example, pre-fleshing wastes can be
used in the production of fatliquoring oils and biodiesel,
limed fleshings can be used in production of methane gas,
grease and protein recovery and fertilizer after compost-
ing, shaving wastes can be used in production of leather-
board or retanning agent and gelatine after enzyme/alkali
digestion and also shavings and trimmings can be used in
the production of activated carbon, etc.
Consequently, in order to determine the most appro-
priate method for reusing and disposing of these wastes, it
is highly important to acquire the information concerning
the process steps, during which these wastes are gener-
ated, the target product desired to be produced through
these processes, and the characteristics of wastes depen-
dent on these factors.
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