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Special Issue

Local Progression Kinetics of Geographic Atrophy in Age-


Related Macular Degeneration Are Associated With
Atrophy Border Morphology
Moritz Lindner,1–3 Sebastian Kosanetzky,1 Maximilian Pfau,1 Jennifer Nadal,4 Lukas A. Gördt,1
Steffen Schmitz-Valckenberg,1 Matthias Schmid,4 Frank G. Holz,1 and Monika Fleckenstein1; for
the FAM-Study Group
1
Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
2
The Nuffield Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience Institute, Nuffield Department of Clinical
Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
3
Oxford Eye Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
4
Institute for Medical Biometry, Informatics and Epidemiology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany

Correspondence: Monika Flecken- PURPOSE. To assess the impact of distinct atrophy border characteristics based on spectral-
stein, Department of Ophthalmolo- domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) imaging on local atrophy progression.
gy, University of Bonn,
Ernst-Abbe-Str. 2, 53127 Bonn, Ger- METHODS. Patients with geographic atrophy (GA) secondary to AMD were recruited in the
many; context of the Longitudinal Fundus Autofluorescence in Age-related Macular Degeneration
Monika.Fleckenstein@ukbonn.de. and Directional Spread in Geographic Atrophy studies (NCT00393692, NCT02051998).
Horizontal and vertical SD-OCT scans were acquired at sequential visits using a device
See the appendix for the members of allowing for anatomically accurate registration of follow-up to baseline scans. For
the FAM-Study Group. quantification of local atrophy progression, the lateral spread of GA (LSGA) was measured.
Submitted: October 22, 2017 Further, border types were independently graded. Comparison of LSGA between the different
Accepted: January 29, 2018 border types was performed using linear mixed-effects models.
Citation: Lindner M, Kosanetzky S, RESULTS. Seventy-two eyes of 49 patients (27 female) aged 74.0 years (Inter quartile range
Pfau M, et al.; for the FAM-Study [IQR], 68.1–79.0) were included into this analysis. A total of 258 border sections were
Group. Local progression kinetics of analyzed longitudinally over a median period of 1.2 years (IQR, 0.9–1.6). At baseline, 17.1%
geographic atrophy in age-related borders were classified as ‘regular’, 47.7% as ‘irregular’, and 35.3% as ‘splitting’. Sixty-two
macular degeneration are associated
with atrophy border morphology.
percent of the eyes exhibited more than one border type. LSGA was slowest in ‘regular’
Invest. Ophthalmol Vis Sci. borders (62.85 6 25.29 lm/y), followed by ‘irregular’ borders (91.15 6 15.05 lm/y) and
2018;59:AMD12–AMD18. https:// fastest in ‘splitting’ borders (183.15 6 18.17 lm/y). Differences between the ‘splitting’ and
doi.org/10.1167/iovs.17-23203 each other border type were statistically significant (P < 0.001).
CONCLUSIONS. The results indicate that SD-OCT–based assessment of local GA border
morphology can serve as a predictor for local atrophy progression. These observations help
to better understand the natural history and potential pathogenetic factors of GA
development and progression.
Keywords: optical coherence tomography, geographic atrophy, age-related macular degener-
ation

eographic atrophy (GA) represents the late-stage of Histologically, areas of GA are characterized by degeneration
G nonexudative AMD.1–3 It is present in 3.5% of people over
75 years 4,5 and becomes the predominant type of late AMD in
of the RPE, of outer layers of the neurosensory retina, and the
choriocapillaris.11,12 Cross-sectional in vivo visualization of the
the population of 85 years and older.6 In industrial countries, morphology of the retina and the RPE–Bruch’s membrane (BM)
late stage neovascular or dry AMD is the leading cause of legal complex has become possible by the advent of spectral-domain
blindness in the elderly.7–9 Although the exact pathogenetic optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT).13–15 The border zone
mechanisms leading to GA are still poorly understood, chronic of atrophy represents the area where pathologic processes
inflammatory processes, excessive lipofuscin accumulation in promote atrophy progression and has, therefore, recently
the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) lysosomal compartment, received major attention.16–21 Brar et al.19 originally identified
complement system dysregulation, and vascular factors have two distinct types of atrophy border: type 1 (also termed
been implicated in the development of AMD (reviewed in Ref. ‘regular’ according to Fleckenstein et al.,18 Fig. 1A) shows
10). In contrast to neovascular AMD, there is yet no therapy smooth margins and no alterations of the outer retina while
available for patients with GA. Therapeutic trials for GA type 2 (also termed ‘irregular’,18 Fig. 1B) exhibits severe
currently emerge. The capacity of future therapeutic trials to alterations in the outer retinal layers and irregular margins
detect drug efficacy depends on sensitive and reliable outcome occasionally with increased optical reflectivity of the RPE.
measures as well as on refined cohort stratification. Subsequently, we have identified a third atrophy border type,

Copyright 2018 The Authors


iovs.arvojournals.org j ISSN: 1552-5783 AMD12

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Atrophy Border Morphology and Local Progression IOVS j Special Issue j Vol. 59 j No. 4 j AMD13

FIGURE 1. Different types of borders as visualized by SD-OCT. (A, B) The assumed RPE–BM complex (band 4) narrows, and an outer layer remains
throughout the atrophic area (assumed BM). The margin depicted in (A) represents a ‘regular’18 or ‘type 1’18,19 border with smooth margins and no
alterations of the outer retina. The margin in (B) represents an ‘irregular’18 or ‘type 2’19 border with severe alterations in the outer retinal layers and
irregular margins. (C) The ‘splitting’ border18 characterized by splitting of the RPE–BM complex in inner and outer regions. Image obtained from
Ref. 18. INL, inner nuclear layer; ONL, outer nuclear layer; band 1, external limiting membrane; band 2, ellipsoid zone; band 4, RPE–BM complex.

termed ‘splitting’ (Fig. 1C).18 This border type is characterized current substudy if they exhibited unifocal or multifocal GA in
by an obvious separation of the RPE–BM complex. It has been at least one eye and SD-OCT imaging had been performed (n ¼
speculated that the origin of this separation is an excessive 121). Exclusion criteria were past or present neovascular
diffuse accumulation of extracellular material.18 Though the changes, any history of retinal surgery, laser photocoagulation,
‘splitting’ border type has originally been identified in the radiation therapy, or other retinal diseases in the study eye. If
context of a particularly fast progressing atrophy phenotype, both eyes of a patient met the inclusion criteria, both were
termed ‘diffuse-trickling’,18,22 it is also observed in other included in this substudy.
phenotypes of GA.23 The ‘splitting’ border type has already The study followed the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki
been shown to be associated with overall more rapid atrophy and was approved by the local institutional review boards and
progression.23 the local Ethics Committees at the participating study centers.
Studies addressing local atrophy progression are limit- Informed consent was obtained from each patient after
ed.21,24,25 Yet, prediction of local atrophy progression is of explanation of the nature and possible consequences of the
particular interest to predict future involvement of distinct study.
retinal areas, particularly the fovea. Thus, assessment of local
atrophy progression could be a more meaningful predictor for Image Acquisition
visual acuity loss than overall atrophy progression. In the
present substudy, we aim to analyze the prognostic value of Pupils were dilated with 1.0% tropicamide and 2.5% phenyl-
different atrophy border types as visualized by SD-OCT imaging ephrine before acquisition of retinal images. High-resolution
on local GA progression. imaging was performed using a combined instrument (Spec-
tralis HRAþOCT; Heidelberg Engineering, Heidelberg, Ger-
many) that allows for simultaneous recording of confocal laser
METHODS scanning ophthalmoscopy (cSLO) and SD-OCT images as
previously described.29,30 In all patients included in this
Patients substudy, a minimum standardized imaging protocol was
performed, which included acquisition of 488-nm fundus
All subjects presented in this substudy were prospectively autofluorescence (FAF) and near-infrared reflectance (k ¼ 830
recruited at the Department of Ophthalmology, University of nm; field of view, 308 3 308; image resolution, 768 3 768
Bonn in the context of the Fundus Autofluorescence in Age- pixels) and simultaneous SD-OCT scanning using a second,
Related Macular Degeneration (FAM) study and its extension independent pair of scanning mirrors (k ¼ 870 nm; acquisition
trial Directional Spread in Geographic Atrophy (DSGA) speed, 40,000 A-scans per seconds; scan depth, 1.8 mm; digital
(NCT00393692, NCT02051998), both longitudinal natural depth resolution, ~3.5 lm per pixel).16 This allows for real-
history studies in patients with AMD. The FAM study was a time registration and compensation of eye movements. In each
multicenter observational study with a total of 625 patients study eye, 308 vertical and horizontal SD-OCT-scans consisting
recruited at the following centers: Department of Ophthalmol- of 768 A-scans were obtained in high-speed mode. The
ogy, University of Aachen, Germany; Department of Ophthal- automatic real time (ART) mean function was usually set to
mology, University of Bonn, Germany; Department of 100. At follow-up visits all scans were obtained using the
Ophthalmology, University of Heidelberg, Germany; Depart- software’s ‘follow-up mode’ that allows for anatomically
ment of Ophthalmology, University of Leipzig, Germany; St. registration of follow-up SD-OCT scans to the position of the
Franziskus Hospital Münster, Germany; and Department of scans acquired at baseline with high precision.17,30 Only eyes
Ophthalmology, University of Würzburg, Germany. In 2007, with at least two examinations with good quality horizontal
high-resolution SD-OCT (Spectralis HRAþOCT; Heidelberg and vertical SD-OCT scans were included in the analysis.
Engineering, Hedielberg, Germany) became available during
the course of the study at the Department of Ophthalmology,
Image Analysis
University of Bonn and was incorporated into the study
protocol. The site’s ethics committee approved this protocol For each atrophic border, two independent graders analyzed
amendment. two paired SD-OCT scans: one from baseline and one from the
The DSGA study represents the extension of the FAM study latest follow-up visit. Before evaluation of retinal changes over
at the Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn. time, the alignment of the follow-up SD-OCT scans with the
Compared with FAM, DSGA comprise additional imaging baseline images was verified by comparing the position of
techniques as well as image analysis strategies. The inclusion blood vessels. Individual bands below the hyporeflective band
and exclusion criteria for these studies have been described in of the outer nuclear layer14 were identified. For quantitative
detail previously.26–28 Patients participating in FAM/DSGA at analyses, four GA borders (superior, nasal, temporal, inferior)
the Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn (n ¼ per eye were analyzed at baseline and at latest follow-up. These
141 at time of data analysis) were assessed for eligibility for the were the nasal and temporal borders of the horizontal B-scan

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Atrophy Border Morphology and Local Progression IOVS j Special Issue j Vol. 59 j No. 4 j AMD14

and the inferior and superior borders of the vertical B-scan,


respectively. The site of the GA border was identified at
baseline and follow-up. The exact position of the border was
defined as the point with an abrupt beginning of choroidal
hypertransmission on the SD-OCT scan—that is, a change of
the normal hyporeflective to an abnormal hyperreflective
signal at the level of the choroid below BM. This hyper-
reflective area has been shown to spatially correlate with the
severe reduction of the FAF signal over atrophy in the
corresponding cSLO.31 Furthermore, the GA phenotype was
classified as ‘diffuse-trickling’ or ‘non-diffuse-trickling’ based
on the perilesional FAF patterns according to Holz et al.22,32
SD-OCT scans and FAF images were analyzed using the
commercially available SD-OCT viewer and analysis software
(Eye Explorer; Heidelberg Engineering).
Atrophy border types for each of the four GA border
locations (superior, nasal, temporal, inferior) were classified as
previously described by two independent readers.18,19 A single
GA lesion could harbor distinct GA border types, but only one
single border type could be assigned per border location.
Border types were classified as follows: the ‘regular’ border
(corresponding to type 1 by Brar et al.19) shows smooth
margins and no alterations of the outer retina; the ‘irregular’
border (type 2 according to Brar et al.19) exhibits severe
alterations in the outer retinal layers and irregular margins with
or without increased optical reflectivity of the RPE; the
‘splitting’ border is characterized by a splitting of the RPE–
BM complex into two hyperreflective bands. Representative
examples for each border type are given in Figure 1. Grading of FIGURE 2. Flowchart summarizing the dropouts as a result of applying
local atrophy progression and of the border type of a single eye the distinct inclusion and exclusion criteria. *Number of eyes is higher
performed on different days. than two times the number of patients because in several instances
only one eye of a patient was excluded. So this patient would remain
For the purpose of this substudy, the GA border as study participant with his other eye being included into the analysis.
visualized on SD-OCT-scans was defined as the site where #In three eyes, both these exclusion criteria apply and they therefore
choroidal hypertransmission started. Local GA progression appear twice.
(lateral spread of GA [LSGA]) was quantified as previously
described.17 In brief, this was realized using the green vertical
line provided as location marker by the software that was eye-specific characteristics. The model was designed in analog
positioned at the atrophy border at baseline. After switching to to previous descriptions.17,34 To analyze mean differences in
the last follow-up scan, the distance (in lm) between the green LSGA between different border types, mixed-effects modeling
line and the position of the GA border was measured using the was followed by the application of Tukey’s honest significant
distance tool of the software and LSGA, defined as change in difference (HSD) post hoc tests. Estimated LSGA values
border position over time, was calculated. Noteworthy, the obtained from mixed-effects model analysis are presented as
angle of incidence by which the SD-OCT scan crosses the mean 6 standard error (SE). All further results are presented as
atrophy border has a notable influence on the measured value median (interquartile range [IQR]). P < 0.05 was considered
for LSGA (see Supplementary Fig. S1 illustrating of this effect), significant.
and thereby adds variability to the data presented herein.
Eyes with valid values for border type and LSGA from less
than three borders were excluded from the entire analysis (63 RESULTS
eyes). Invalid values for atrophy border type occurred when
At time of data analysis for the current substudy, of the 141
classification failed, for example, due to insufficient scan
patients participating in the FAM and/or DSGA study at the
quality, or because the border type could not be univocally
grouped into one of the three categories (99 borders, causing Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn, a total of
exclusion of 28 eyes), or a border was located outside the 121 patients exhibited unifocal or multifocal GA in at least one
image frame (84 borders, causing exclusion of 36 eyes). In two eye and SD-OCT imaging had been performed. These patients
eyes, a combination of the above caused exclusion and for were assessed for eligibility for the current analysis. Of these,
three eyes both exclusion criteria applied. A summary of the 49 patients (72 eyes) were included (27 female [55.1%] and 22
eyes excluded from analysis is presented in Figure 2. male [44.9%]; median age at baseline: 74.01 years [IQR, 68.12–
78.98; minimum, 55.03; maximum, 90.46]). Figure 2 summa-
rizes the reasons for exclusion. In these patients, serial SD-OCT
Statistical Analysis imaging was performed over a median follow-up period of 1.19
Data were compiled into a spreadsheet application and years (IQR, 0.90–1.61; minimum, 0.50; maximum, 2.78,
analyzed using the R software for statistical computing (version Supplementary Table S1). Based on baseline FAF images, 18
3.3.0; Vienna, Austria).33 Dependencies between atrophy (25.0% eyes were graded as ‘diffuse-trickling’ GA while 54
border type and border location as well as FAF pattern were (75.0%) were grade as ‘non-diffuse-trickling’ GA. Overall, on
assessed using the v2 test. Interrater agreement for grading of SD-OCT 278 atrophy borders were analyzed at both, baseline
the border type was assessed using Cohen’s kappa. Effect of and follow-up images by two independent readers. Agreement
atrophy border type and FAF pattern on LSGA were analyzed between the two readers for grading of the border type was
using a linear mixed-effects model accounting for patient- and overall high (kappa ¼ 0.85). At baseline, 44 (17.1%) borders

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Atrophy Border Morphology and Local Progression IOVS j Special Issue j Vol. 59 j No. 4 j AMD15

TABLE. Atrophy Progression (lm/y) by Border Type

Border Type Estimated LSGA, lm/y SE P Value

Regular 62.85 22.14 <0.001


Irregular 91.15 15.05 <0.001
Splitting 183.15 18.17 <0.001
Results obtained from linear mixed-effects modeling.

were classified as ‘regular’, 123 (47.7%) as ‘irregular’, and 91


(35.2%) as ‘splitting’ (Supplementary Table S2). Forty-nine
percent of the eyes showed at least two distinct border types.
Distributions of the single border types did not differ
significantly between the four border locations (i.e. superior,
nasal, inferior, temporal; P ¼ 0.997). Yet, distribution of
atrophy borders differed significantly between eyes with
‘diffuse-trickling’ and ‘non-diffuse-trickling’ GA (P < 0.001).
Border types were highly inert over time. Of the borders
graded as ‘regular’ at baseline 84.4% received the same grading
at follow-up. In analog, 89.5% graded as ‘irregular’ and 91.0% of
the borders graded as splitting at baseline, received the same
grading at the follow-up visit.
Overall LSGA was 117.86 6 9.19 lm/y. According to the
results of the mixed-effects model, annual LSGA was slowest in
borders of the type ‘regular’ with 62.85 6 25.29 lm/y. LSGA
was faster by 28.29 6 15.05 lm/y in ‘irregular’-type borders
and by 120.29 6 22.76 lm/y in ‘splitting’-type borders. The
difference in LSGA between the three border types was
significant (P < 0.001). Obtained progression rates are
summarized in the Table. According to Tukey’s HSD post hoc
test, significant differences between the single border type
were present between ‘splitting’ and ‘irregular’ as well as the
‘splitting’ and ‘regular’ (P < 0.001 each) borders, but not
between ‘regular’ and ‘irregular’ (P ¼ 0.487) borders. As border
type distribution was significantly different between ‘diffuse-
trickling’ and ‘non-diffuse-trickling’ eyes, an additional model
was fitted including the FAF pattern as a fixed effect. Herein,
the OCT border type was still significantly associated with
LSGA (P < 0.001, Fig. 3).

DISCUSSION
The results demonstrate relevance of morphologically distinct
GA border types as visualized by SD-OCT imaging for local
atrophy enlargement over time. Difference in atrophy progres-
sion was assessed using a linear mixed-effects model particu- FIGURE 3. LSGA for the border types (‘regular’, ‘irregular’, and
larly showing that the presence of the ‘splitting’ border type ‘splitting’) as visualized using SD-OCT. Results are presented separately
was associated with a significantly faster lateral progression of for ‘diffuse-trickling’ and ‘non-diffuse-trickling’ lesions.
the atrophic lesion (LSGA). To account for the previously
reported faster overall atrophy progression and the high subsequently to RPE and photoreceptor degeneration (sum-
frequency of ‘splitting’ borders in the ‘diffuse-trickling’ FAF marized in Ref. 35). The high values for LSGA observed among
phenotype,18 an additional model with a term for the FAF
‘splitting’ borders would fit well into these hypotheses. Of
pattern was created. Herein, the ‘splitting’ border type still
note, BLamD are not exclusive to ‘diffuse-trickling’ GA, rather
accounted with a significantly faster LSGA.
they can be found in the majority of eyes with GA and even
The underlying biologic processes driving the distinct LSGA
at different border types remain unknown to date. It has been normal fundi.35 They may just be outstandingly thick at the
proposed that sub-RPE deposits, in particular basal laminar border of ‘diffuse-trickling’ GA so they become representable
deposits (BLamD), are the histologic correlate of the hyporre- by SD-OCT.18 If local differences in accumulation of sub-RPE
flective material observed between the two parts of RPE/BM- material were responsible for locally distinct local atrophy
complex on SD-OCT in the ‘splitting’ border type.18 In one progression kinetics this could represent a novel therapeutic
clinicopathological correlation study, Sarks et al.35 correlated target that should be addressed. Perspectively, under this
the excessive accumulation of BLamD with funduscopically assumption, it would be interesting to investigate if there is a
visible hyperpigmentation, which are key feature of the linear correlation between the thickness of those BLamD and
‘diffuse-trickling’ FAF phenotype with its high proportion of local atrophy progression in future.
‘splitting’ borders.18,36 Based on this observation, it has been Within this work a mean lateral progression of the
speculated that basal deposits lead by increasing thickening respective atrophic lesion (LSGA) of 117.86 6 9.19 lm/y
and separation of the RPE from the choroidal blood supply, and was observed. This value is within the range of findings

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Atrophy Border Morphology and Local Progression IOVS j Special Issue j Vol. 59 j No. 4 j AMD16

reported by Schatz and McDonald37 on fundus photography problem. Noteworthy, we used the ‘high-speed’ mode to
(mean: 139 lm/y range, 15–375 lm), and is in line with our acquire SD-OCT scans. Using the ‘high-resolution’ mode
recent data based on SD-OCT image analysis (median: 106.90 (doubling the lateral resolution) could have provided addition-
lm/y, IQR, 55.44–161.70).17 The particularly faster LSGA of al details, increasing the certainty when grading atrophy
‘splitting’ borders is also in accordance with previous borders.
observations: Moussa et al.23 revealed that the presence of In summary, the results indicate that SD-OCT–based
the ‘splitting’ at the nasal and/or temporal border of an assessment of local GA border morphology may serve as
atrophic lesion was associated with an faster overall atrophy predictor for local atrophy progression. In particular, an
progression as measured on FAF images. Of note, in that work atrophy border characterized by a splitting of the RPE–BM
only overall and not local progression was assessed. Yet, the complex is associated with significantly faster atrophy pro-
fact that the observation of a single atrophy border of the gression as compared with other border types. These data help
‘splitting’ type was already associated with a faster overall GA to better understand the natural history and pathogenetic
progression suggests that either border types must be highly factors of GA. Assessment of the SD-OCT border type will
homogeneous within a single eye or the ‘splitting’ border must allow for better prognostic assessment of the individual eye
exhibit a very robust effect on atrophy progression. The and identification of the ‘splitting’ border type as morphologic
present results showed that 49% of the eyes exhibited more risk characteristic may disclose a new therapeutic target.
than one border type. Yet, in a mixed-effects model that took
account for eye and patient specific factors, LSGA in ‘splitting’
borders was still 2- to 3-fold faster than in other border types. Acknowledgments
The ‘splitting’ border type has been initially described in a The authors thank Ulrich Mansmann and Christine Adrion for
particularly fast progressing GA phenotype, termed ‘diffuse- discussing the biostatistical workup.
trickling’.18 In accordance with previous publications23 these Supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG; Bonn,
data show that the ‘splitting’ type borders are by no means Germany), Grant No FL658/4-1 and FL658/4-2 (MF) and LI2846/1-1
exclusive to ‘diffuse-trickling’ GA. Yet, they are significantly (ML); and the BONFOR GEROK Program, Faculty of Medicine,
more frequent in ‘diffuse-trickling’ GA as compared with ‘non- University of Bonn, Grant No O-137.0022 and O-137.0025 (MP;
diffuse-trickling’ GA. Bonn, Germany); ML is the Knoop Junior Research Fellow at St.
It is of particular interest that the relationship between Cross College, Oxford, UK.
border type and LSGA maintained statistical significance even Disclosure: M. Lindner, Carl Zeiss Meditec (F, I), Genentech (F),
when including the FAF phenotype into the model. Although Heidelberg Engineering (F), Optos (F), Fresenius Medical Care (I),
further research and even higher case numbers will be Allergan (R), Alimera Sciences (R); S. Kosanetzky, Carl Zeiss
required to draw robust conclusions, this could mean that Meditec (F), Heidelberg Engineering (F), Optos (F); M. Pfau, Carl
much of the differences in atrophy progression observed Zeiss Meditec (F), Heidelberg Engineering (F), Optos (F), Bayer
between distinct FAF phenotypes can additionally be explained Healthcare (R); J. Nadal, None; L.A. Gördt, Carl Zeiss Meditec (F),
by distinct proportions of the different OCT border types. Heidelberg Engineering (F), Optos (F); S. Schmitz-Valckenberg,
Progression at four defined atrophy borders (superior, nasal, Novartis (C, F), Allergan (F), Bayer Healthcare (F, R), Carl Zeiss
inferior, and temporal) was assessed in horizontal and vertical Meditec (F), Formycon (F), Genentech (F), Heidelberg Engineering
high-resolution SD-OCT scans with improved signal-to-noise (F, R), Optos (F); M. Schmid, None; F.G. Holz, Acucela (C, F),
ratio obtained by averaging of multiple images. Obviously, Allergan (F, R), Bayer (C, F, R), Bioeq (C, F), Genentech/Roche (C, F,
these four borders may not be representative for the entire R), NightstarX (F), Novartis (C, F, R), Heidelberg Engineering (C, F,
lesion, which represents a limitation in this analysis. As the R), Optos (F), Pixium (F), Zeiss (F, R), Boehringer-Ingelheim, (C),
present work addresses the relationship between border type Merz (C), Thea (C); M. Fleckenstein, Carl Zeiss Meditec (F),
and atrophy progression at the very same location, a Genentech (F, R), Heidelberg Engineering (F, R), Optos (F), Merz
volumetric assessment is not necessary per se. Still, the impact (C), Bayer Healthcare (R), Novartis (R), P
of the observed differences for the overall function of an
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24. Lindner M, Boker A, Mauschitz MM, et al. Directional kinetics Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn, Germany:
of geographic atrophy progression in age-related macular Frank G. Holz, Steffen Schmitz-Valckenberg, Monika Flecken-
degeneration with foveal sparing. Ophthalmology. 2015;122: stein, Moritz Lindner, Julia Steinberg, Maximilian Pfau, Joanna
1356–1365. Czauderna.

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Atrophy Border Morphology and Local Progression IOVS j Special Issue j Vol. 59 j No. 4 j AMD18

Institute of Biostatistics, University of Bonn, Germany: Department of Ophthalmology, University of Leipzig,


Matthias Schmid, Rolf Fimmers, Jennifer Nadal. Germany: Peter Wiedemann, Andreas Mössner.
Department of Ophthalmology, University of Aachen, Department of Ophthalmology, St. Franziskus Hospital
Germany: Peter Walter, Andreas Weinberger. Münster, Germany: Daniel Pauleikhoff, Georg Spital.
Department of Ophthalmology, Inselspital, University of Institute of Human Genetics, University of Regensburg,
Bern, Switzerland: Sebastian Wolf, Ute Wolf-Schnurrbusch. Germany: Bernhard H. F. Weber.
Department of Ophthalmology, University of Heidelberg, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Würzburg,
Germany: Hans E. Völcker, Friederike Mackensen. Germany: Claudia von Strachwitz.

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