Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context

Issue 13, August 2006

Crime and Punishment

in Pre-Hispanic Philippine Society
Malcolm Mintz
1. Introduction

This paper is an attempt to reconstruct the legal system in place during the late sixteenth
and early seventeenth centuries, after the arrival of the Spanish in the Philippines, but
before their influence could greatly alter Philippine society. The focus is on Bikol, a region of
approximately five million people on the island of Luzon, south of the Tagalog speaking
areas around Manila. The six Bikol speaking provinces are Camarines Norte, Camarines
Sur, Albay, Sorsogon, Catanduanes and Masbate.

Data come primarily from the seventeenth century Marcos de Lisboa Vocabulario de la
Lengua Bicol compiled during his nine year residence in the region between 1602 and 1611.
[1] Supplementary data come from the accounts of those who visited or were resident in the
Philippines during the latter part of the sixteenth century or early part of the seventeenth
century who wrote accounts of what they observed in the country.

Father Marcos de Lisboa was born in Lisbon and joined the Franciscan order in 1582 in
Malacca. He was the Definidor y Ministro of the Bikol town of Nabua in 1602, administrator
of the town of Oas in 1605, and Vicario Provincial of the Province of Camarines from 1609
to 1611.[2] Lisboa remained in the Philippines until 1618 when he left for Mexico. He later
returned to Madrid in 1622. The date of his death is generally given as 1628. Mention is
made of an unpublished work by Lisboa in an anonymous manuscript of 1649.[3] This is
presumably his dictionary which remained unpublished until 1754.

Entries which are found only in Lisboa's Vocabulario are marked [MDL]. Entries in which the
usage in Lisboa and modern usage are basically the same are marked [+MDL]. Those in
which some part of the modern meaning is shared, but there is an additional component of
meaning in Lisboa are also marked [+MDL:] with the additional component of meaning
shown after the colon. Other abbreviations used in the dictionary entries are as follows: s/t
[something], s/o [someone], o/s [oneself] and (fig-) [figurative]. Stress is shown on all
modern Bikol entries, and those entries from Lisboa where stress can be determined, for
example, hukóm [judge]. Where stress cannot be determined, words are shown with no
stress marking; for example, batak [freeman].

Most of entries cited in this paper have been abridged so as to focus on the aspect of
meaning most relevant to the topic under discussion. Full entries can be found in the new
Bikol Dictionary.[4]
The paper begins with a brief examination of social stratification in early Philippine society.
Following this is a short discussion on the promulgation of laws and the jurisdiction over
which these laws applied.

Civil disputes and criminal cases form the two main sections of the paper. Among the civil
disputes are those arising from insults, adultery, deception and defaults on loans, while the
section on criminal cases includes piracy, theft, assaults and murder. The final sections
examine punishment and incarceration, the administration of justice, including trials and
mediation, oaths, witnesses, testimony and sentences, and the miscarriage of justice.

2. Social Stratification

In this section we will look briefly at social stratification in early Philippine society. This is
necessary as those who took responsibility for promulgating and administering laws within
society were what we might call the upper classes. The application of laws also differed
depending upon whether crimes were committed among those belonging to one class, or
crossed class boundaries. Penalties also involved payment of particular fines which, if
beyond the means of the guilty, would result in enslavement.

The judges who presided over any dispute or served as mediators between the aggrieved
parties were the high officials in the town.[5] Among the Tagalogs in Manila and the
surrounding areas, the richest of the 10-12 chiefs living in a particular town or barangay
was chosen to lead the group in legal deliberations.[6] Loarca comments that this was not
the case in Visayan areas to the south since none of the village chiefs was willing to
acknowledge the superiority of another. This primary leader was refereed to as a dáto' by
Plasencia, and the result of his investigations and any sentence imposed was declared in
the presence of those from his barangay.[7] The following entry is Bikol.
ukat MA- to be called (everyone, as to attend a meeting or hearing): Si makuríng mauukat si táwo
kaidtóng súgong hukóm A great many people were called by order of the magistrate [MDL]

In Bikol, as in a number of other Philippine languages, the specific term for judge is hukóm,
a term borrowed from Malay, which in turn borrowed it from Arabic. A judge was not a
unique position in society, but a term used to refer to a leader or leaders in the community
who held this position when mediating or passing judgement on particular crimes or
infringements. The official referred to in the entry, tungód, probably refers to anyone with a
specific responsibility, although Lisboa does refer to justice as one of these responsibilities.
hukóm judge; ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN: hukomán or hukmán or MAG-, PAG--AN: paghukomán or
paghukmán to judge s/o; to pass judgement on a person or on a sin; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pass
a particular sentence; to sentence s/o to a particular punishment] [MALAY hukum, from ARABIC]

tungód MANG-, PANG--AN to be used for s/t; to be meant for s/t; ...; KA--AN: katungdán duty,
obligation, role; standing, status; ... [+MDL: KA--AN: katungdán employee or official (such as of the
Ministry of Justice, Headmaster of a school); also: ownership, rights; ...]

We have a number of terms referring to leaders in a community. The most general of these
is gino'ó which refers to the rich and influential in Bikol society. If a single term were chosen
for a community leader, this would be dáto'. Village heads were referred to as púno' and
kagdulohan based on the root dulohan [village residents] and using the prefix kag- which
shows a form of possession. Bikol has the word hádi' [king], but it is difficult to see what
type of reference this would have had in the community given the village-based nature of
the society. Certainly kings could be referred to, but this referent was most likely not within
Bikol society.[8]
gino'ó a noble; a term used to refer to the rich and influential members of early Bikol society; MA-
noble, regal, royal [+MDL: MA- referring to both those who are rich and those who have high status in
a society; MA- or MAG- to have the status of a noble; to be one of the influential members in a society;
MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to name or regard s/o as a leader in a society; MAG- maggiró-gino'ó to
pretend to hold the status of a noble; MAKA-, MA- to make s/o rich; KA--AN a council of nobles; a
group of the rich and influential in society; PAGKA- nobility [MDL]

dáto' headman, chief [+MDL: one who is rich and a leader of the community; MAKA-, MA- to declare
s/o a headman or chief; to raise s/o's status to that of a headman; PAGKA- the powerful and influential
members of society; KA--AN governing council of chiefs]

púno' chief, head, headman, leader; an púno' sa banwá'an head of a village; PAKANG--ON:
pinakakangpúno' to have the status and respect of a leader; (fig-) Garó ka na binuno'án nin púno'
It's as if you have been killed by a headman (Said when one is sad and melancholy) [MDL]

dulohan the inhabitants of a particular village; tribe; MAG-, PAG--AN to govern or rule over a
particular municipality; KAG- ruler, the head of a village, town; KA- s/o from the same village [MDL]

hádi' king, ruler; MAG- to reign as a king; MAG-, -AN to rule; to reign or have dominion over an area;
PAGKA- reign; KA--AN realm, dominion, kingdom [+MDL: KA--AN a council of kings]

Leaders of a community held that position as long they maintained their status and their
wealth, with wealth being of particular importance. Changes which occurred as the use of
land and possessions passed from parents to children could result in the impoverishment of
the family and a subsequent loss of status and power. Property and the use of land tended
to be distributed equally among one's legitimate children,[9] resulting in smaller holdings
and a smaller share of individually held wealth. Lisboa has at least one full dictionary entry
expressing a general loss of power and respect, as well as a number of examples included
in other dictionary entries indicating the decline that could be experienced by a family. The
final entry below shows the reverse of this process of decline, where a family's fortunes are
once again restored.
pido' abject, mean, low; MA- or MAG- to fall from a position of power or respect; to lose status; to
become impoverished; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to treat s/o with no respect; to deprecate s/o;
MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to treat s/o in a particular demeaning way reflecting their loss of status or
wealth; also see mido' [MDL]

após ... Naapós na bága an pagkagino'ó niyá His estate is like burnt out coals (Meaning: It has
dwindled to nothing)] [MDL]

lutos ... Nalutos an pagharóng-hárong ni kuyán, harí-hári idtóng mga kaganak The household of
that person is burning less bright, not like that of his parents (Said when one's family is no longer seen
as leaders of the community) [MDL]
 gugóm ... Sagkód ta na iní sa panggugóm We have reached the point where we just have a fistful
(Said when one has become very poor) [MDL]

mákot ... Nagmamákot namán an pagharóng-hárong na kuyán Their house (family) is again in
ascendancy (after being down and out) [MDL]

The commoners in Bikol society were referred to as timáwa', a term in general use in the
Philippines. These were the freemen of the society, neither nobles nor slaves. Scott refers
to these as originally the descendants of a dáto's commoner wives or slave concubines.[10]
In Bikol timáwa' was one who was never a slave, or one who had freed him or herself from
slavery. A second term, batak refers to a freed slave, and it was this meaning that must
have originally distinguished it from timáwa'. With the broadening of the meaning of timáwa',
however, the meanings have fallen together.
timáwa' an ordinary resident or villager, neither a slave nor a noble; a freeman, a free slave; MA- to
free a slave; to declare oneself free (a slave); to become an ordinary citizen (one who was once richer
or of a higher rank) [MDL]

batak freeman, describing a person who is no longer a slave; MAG- to free o/s or declare o/s free;
MA-, -ON to set s/o free; MA-, -AN to set s/o free from a group of slaves [MDL]

Slaves were called urípon, although within this group Bikol had another term, gintúbo',
referring to slaves who were inherited from one's family or were the offspring of one's own
slaves [11]
urípon slave; ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to have slaves; to enslave s/o; MA-, -AN or
MAG-, PAG--AN to take s/o's child or relative as a slave; MAKA-, MA- to take s/o as a slave due to
indebtedness; PAGKA- slavery, bondage]

gintúbo' a slave born in one's own house or inherited from one's family; MA- or MAG- to possess
such a slave; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to turn s/o into such a slave; (PAG-)-AN to be served by
such a slave; PAGKA- slavery of this type [MDL]

Slavery did not have to be permanent. Just as the gino'ó could lose wealth and fall from a
position of status in the community, a slave could buy his or her freedom. In general they
could do this by paying off their financial obligations. Such a debt, as we will see in
subsequent sections, could be the only reason why a person was enslaved in the first place.
hiluwás MAKA- to free o/s from servitude by paying off one's debts or otherwise satisfying ones
obligations; MAKA-, IKA- to pay off one's debts and obtain one's freedom; MAKA-, MA--AN to settle
one's debts with s/o [MDL]

híwas free; MAGPA- to look to obtain one's freedom; to seek one's freedom (a slave or one with other
obligations); Mahíwas an bu'ót ko ta' nakabáyad na akóng si útang I feel free now that I have paid
my debts

3. Laws and Jurisdiction

Most laws were simply the reflection of traditions or the codification of very old customs.
New laws were made by a council of the village chiefs responding to a perceived or newly
arising need in society. To announce new laws to inhabitants in the Tagalog areas, a crier
would go from village to village ringing a bell. Once such an announcement was made to
the villagers, they would then become subject to the laws.[12] In Bikol, terms such as
aklihog and harubáy cover similar areas of meaning.
aklihog MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to promulgate a law; to proclaim s/t publically; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to proclaim s/t publically to a town, a community; MA-, -ON to MAG-, PAG--ON to make such
a proclamation for a particular reason [MDL]

harubáy public pronouncement, proclamation; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to announce s/t publicly;
MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to announce s/t to the public; PARA- town crier [MDL]

Laws were proclaimed in towns and it was the townspeople who were made aware of them
and were expected to obey. Terms for obeying laws were the same as those for obeying
individuals, or for believing or trusting in others. Terms for the breaking of laws were similar,
relating both to the flaunting of rules or the disobeying of individuals.
kúyog MAG-, -ON to obey s/o; to comply with s/t; ... kuyóg-kúyog MA--IN-: makinuyóg-kúyog
obedient, mindful, heedful [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to obey s/o; ... MAPA-, PA--ON or
MAGPA-, PAGPA--ON to entice, persuade or convince s/o; to insist s/o comply with s/t; MAPA-, IPA- or
MAGPA-, IPAGPA- to persuade s/o to do s/t; to use a particular means of persuasion; kuyóg-kuyóg
obedient]

lápas ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to break a law or commandment; to flaunt a rule or
regulation; MA-, -AN or MAG- PAG--AN to disobey s/o; PAG- or PAGKA- the breaking of laws]

likbás MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to fail to comply with s/o's wishes or commands; to transgress
laws; to violate an order or command; to break or fail to comply with the terms of a contract; MA-, -AN
or MAG-, PAG--AN to disobey s/o; to break a contract with s/o [MDL]

There were, however, large areas of the Bikol region which were outside the towns and
outside the reach of the law. These were tracts of forested areas, often rising up along the
slopes of mountains, not only far from the towns, but far from areas of cultivation. These
were areas which were home to the Agtá' [Negritos], and home as well to those who fled
the towns, often because they stood accused of criminal acts. Law enforcement did not
reach into the hills or mountains. One of these areas was the mountain range between the
towns of Quipayo and Naga City called Tungdól. Since fleeing to the mountains was to
move into the territory of the Negritos, a figurative meaning associated with the entry
Mangyán also makes this explicit. We also have a general term such as lu'ók and a
figurative meaning associated with the verb lasay.
Tungdól mountain range located between Quipayó and Nága, home to those who have fled the towns
[MDL]

Mangyán Negrito group, more primitive than the others; (fig-) MAG- to flee to the forest or mountains
[MDL]

lu'ók MA- or MAG- to flee; to hide; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to flee to the mountains; to hide at a
particular location [MDL]

lasay ... (fig-) Liminasay namán si kuyán kainíng súgo' nin hukóm That person has run off, afraid
of the sentence to be imposed by the judge [MDL]
Life in the mountains could not have been easy. Lacking social contact with friends and
family, forced into association with Negrito groups who could frequently be hostile, deprived
of a regular livelihood and compelled to continue with criminal behavior in order to survive, it
was not unusual for those in such a situation to return home.
buthó' MA- or MAG- to come to town (those who have fled to the mountains); MA-, -ON or MAG-,
PAG--ON to come to town for s/t or for a particular reason; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to bring s/t to town
[MDL]

gawa MA- to leave; to go out (of the house, a village); to leave the mountains where one has been
hiding and come to town; to appear or become visible at a particular location; ... [MDL]

tungá ... [+MDL: MA- or MAG- to come out into the open; to appear (as s/o hiding or s/t which was
beneath the water which suddenly breaks the surface); ... an ba'góng tungá referring to those who
have recently come out of hiding; Dumán kamí pakatungá sa banwá'an Let's go back to town
(referring to those who have been in hiding, probably in the mountains)]

Those who did live out of town, however, could be reached. Much as the bell brought laws
to the village people, an invitation could be extended to those outside of town by the playing
of musical instruments.
dápit ... [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to call on s/o for the purpose of inviting them to the
house for a meal, a drink or discussion; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to announce an invitation by passing
through an area playing a musical instrument, such as the kudyapí' or subing, or striking the sticks
called kalótan; to invite those who live out of town (resident there due to unacceptable social or
criminal behavior); -ON: an darapíton one invited many times or by many people; ...]

4. Civil Disputes and Criminal Cases

Legal infractions were many and varied. They ranged from insults, considered quite serious,
especially when directed against a village chief, to stealing, burglary, assault and murder.
The legal system could also be called upon to settle civil disputes, such as matters involving
trade, land, loans and disputed possession.

4.1 Civil Disputes

(i) Insults

Speaking disrespectfully or using insults or abusive language to a village chief in the

Tagalog areas brought a penalty of death against the perpetrator. The same would be true if
insulting a chief's wife or daughter. This penalty could be waived upon payment of a fine in
gold, with failure to pay leading to enslavement.[13]

Insult was also taken if anyone talked or was noisy during the burial of a chief. Dust falling
from the house of a timáwa' on the chief or his wife when passing through the street was
also taken as a grave insult, as was passing any area where the chief's wife was bathing .
[14]

An insult directed against someone having the same social rank, such as one timáwa'
insulting another, would lead to the imposition of a penalty which was decided by a judge or
arbiter. The greater the insult, the higher the fine. If the perpetrator could not pay a fine in
excess of five taels of gold, he became a slave to the injured party. If he was able to borrow
money from a relative, friend or chief, he then served the lender as a slave until the debt
was paid back.[15] A chief insulting a timáwa' received a light sentence, or none.

From the following Bikol entry we can see that not only did an insult have to directed at a
particular individual to cause offense, offense could also be taken by a relative of the one
being insulted. In the same entry we can also see that a fine could be paid by a friend or
relative.
hinalod MANG-, PANG--ON to take offence at what s/o has said; MANG-, PANG--AN to become
annoyed at s/o who has said s/t causing offence; MAPANG-: mapanhinalod na táwo one who takes
offence at what is said; also: to involve o/s on behalf of a friend or relative when an offence is
committed against them; to repay a debt for s/o who is unable to do so himself: Ta' daw ta'
nanhihinalod ka; iká an linalanghadán ko? - Ta' daw ta' da'í ko man hinalod na, linalanghadán
mo an sakóng áki'? Why are you taking offence; were you the one I insulted? - Why shouldn't I take
offence when you have insulted my child? ; Da'í kutá na akóng ibinabáyad kundí' pinanhinalod ni
amá idtóng útang ko I wouldn't have been able to pay, but my father repaid my debt [MDL]

An insult directed at one village chief by another in Pampanga was considered a particularly
serious offense which could lead to open warfare between the villages. It was important that
this be settled quickly and equitably. A chief of higher rank would be chosen to mediate. If
an agreement could not be reached, each of the chiefs involved in the dispute would host a
feast, the one presenting the most lavish affair would be judged the most honorable, and if
this was accepted by both parties, the dispute would be settled. If the injured party still did
not accept this result, warfare could indeed be the result.[16]

What were these insults that were taken so seriously and could have such serious
consequences? There are a number of terms which describe general categories of insults.
Insults were used to dishonor or defame someone, something which was particularly
offensive if done in front of others. People could be insulted when their wealth or status was
compared unfavorably to others, or offense could be taken by particular actions of a house
guest. There are also a number of terms which refer to the utterance of swear words or
curses. Examples of these appear below.
langhád ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to insult, dishonor or defame s/o (with biting words,
curses); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to say s/t as an insult, an affront; PAG- an insult, affront]

pura' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to deride s/o; to insult s/o, embarrassing them in front of others
[MDL]

taki MA-, -ON or MANG-, PANG--ON to insult or deprecate s/o by belittling their wealth or
possessions; to belittle s/o due to their lack of wealth or possessions; MA-, I- or MANG-, IPANG- to
disparage s/o's wealth or possessions [MDL]

tamay MA-, -ON or MANG-, PANG--ON to belittle, insult or deprecate s/o, comparing one's own status
 or wealth to their lack of it; MA-, I- or MANG-, IPANG- to disparage or belittle s/o's status or wealth
[MDL]

lápas MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take s/t done or said by a guest living in one's house as an
insult or affront (the host); (PAG-)-AN to feel insulted by the actions of a house guest (the host) [MDL]

ráway ... [+MDL: MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use curse words or swear words; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to swear at s/o; to curse s/o; MA-: maráway na táwo one who uses swear words]

sapa MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to curse or swear at s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to utter a
particular oath [MDL]

There were insults which applied to both men and women. Both, for example, could be
called liars or fools.
habot sky; (fig-) -ON a liar, hypocritical: Haboton ka You are a liar; MAPATAGU-, PATAGU--AN:
mapataguhabot, pataguhaboton to insult or dishonor s/o by saying this word to them [MDL]

tingdíl a woman's genitals; a woman's private parts; (fig-) Katingdílon na babáyi What a liar this
woman is; also used for men when calling them liars [MDL]

butandíng whale shark [+MDL: Butandíng nang iyán You're a whale shark (Said in anger as an
insult, equivalent to: Go to hell you big fool)]

Death could be wished on both men and women, including death arising from specific
events, such as being taken by a crocodile. Certain unfortunate occurrences, such as
blindness and injury, could also be wished upon them.
túlos MA- to suddenly die; MA--AN to have s/o or s/t suddenly die on you; PAGKA- a sudden death;
Natúlos ka May you suddenly die (Said as a curse) [MDL]

lundón MAKA-, MA--AN to get stuck in the throat (food); MA- to choke on s/t caught in the throat (a
person); ... Uyá an lulundón mo Here, choke on this (Said to s/o when angry) [MDL]

ra'ro MA- or MAG- to be taken suddenly ill (due to a serious wound); also used as a curse: Nara'ro
kang iyán I hope you die from that [MDL]

tigbák ... [+MDL: ... MAG-, PAG--ON to kill or fatally wound s/o in battle; MA- to be fatally wounded;
Natitigbák ka May you die (Said as a curse) ...]

ganga MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to bite s/t hard with the teeth to see if it can be cracked or
chewed (such as a betel nut mixture); to attempt to crack s/t with the teeth; ... (fig-) Ginangahan
bu'áya May you be chewed up by a crocodile (Said as a curse) [MDL]

matá eye; -ON or MA- to get hit in the eye; ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN to add eyes to an image or statue; ...
Namatá ka May your eyes be smashed (Said as a curse)]

babayó MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pound rice in a mortar; (fig-) Pinagbabayó ka May you be
pounded like rice (Said as a curse) [MDL]

In general, however, curses against men dealt with physical injury, while curses against
women were sexual in nature, involving poking, splitting or the implied opening up of the
sexual organs. The first examples are curses against men.
ánit animal skin, hide, pelt; leather ... [+MDL: ... MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to remove the skin from
an animal; ... Pinaganítan ka May you be skinned (Said as an insult to men)]

bá'ak crevice, fissure, rift; ... [+MDL: MAG-, PAG--ON to break up or divide a number of things; ...
MA-, -ON to split s/t; ... (fig-) Pinagbá'ak ka May you be split in two (used as a curse)]

duhang a large earthenware urn or spike used for trapping deer and wild boar; ... MA- to fall into such
an urn or impale themselves on such a spike and be injured (game); (fig-) Naduhangang iyán May
you be hurt in such a trap (Said as an insult to men) [MDL]

taruktók referring to the occurrence of many things stuck in the ground (such as spikes, posts or
stakes along a road); ... MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to drive in a large number of such spikes, posts; MA-,
-AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to drive such stakes or posts into the ground; (fig-) used as a curse or insult:
Pinagtaruktokán ka May you be impaled on many spikes; ... [MDL]

dukdók ... [+MDL: ... MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pound or crush s/t in a mortar; ... (fig-) used as a
curse for men: Pinagdudukdók ka May you be pounded in a mortar]

rupók MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to smash s/t to pieces or fragments; ... MAKA-, MA- to be
smashed to pieces; (fig-) Narupók an payó mo May your head be smashed to pieces (Said as a
curse) [MDL]

púgot ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut off the head, an arm, a leg; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to cut off s/o's head, arm or leg; Pinagpugótan ka May you be beheaded (Used as a curse
among men)]

saksák ... [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut s/t into small pieces; to dice taro, yam, fruit; also
used as an insult for men: Pinagsaksák ka May you be cut up into little pieces ...]

sára' ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to strain a liquid; ... also used as a curse: Pinagsára'
kang iyán May you be put through a strainer]

Examples of curses against women follow.

bali'at MA-, -ON or MAG--, PAG--ON to lift one of two posts or boards lying side-by-side by inserting a
pole in the space between the two, and levering one using the other as support; ... (fig-) Pinagbali'at
ka an expression considered demeaning and insulting when said to women [MDL]

baliskád ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG- PAG--ON to turn s/t over or turn s/t around; (fig-)
Pinagbaliskád ka Said as an insult to women]

bingat MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pull s/t open or apart with one's hands (as a split piece of
bamboo, a trap); (fig-) Pinagbingat ka Said as an insult to women [MDL]

biská MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to open s/t in the middle with the hands; to split s/t open into two
parts with the hands; (fig-) Pinagbiská ka An insult said to women [MDL]

dughól MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to thrust upward; to skewer or pierce s/t (as s/t on the roof, such
as a rat); to thrust through the interior of a length of bamboo, breaking the nodes so that it may be
used to channel water (see bungbóng); ... (fig-) Pinagdughól ka Said as an insult directed at women
[MDL]
 pálo ... [+MDL: MA-,-I--or MAG-, IPAG- to drive in a post or stake; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to
drive a post or stake into the ground; also used as a curse or insult directed toward women:
Pinagpalóhan ka May you have a stake driven into you]

ha'ot describing s/t so narrow as to prevent entry; constricted, tight; MA- or MAG- to grow narrow or
constricted; (PAG-)-AN to be narrow or constricted (as a doorway); to be stuck in a tight space; ... (fig-)
Pinagha'otan ka Said as a curse to women who cannot have children [MDL]

4.1 Civil Disputes

(ii) Adultery

Marriage, divorce and remarriage were common in Bikol society. When a marriage failed, an
agreement was generally reached between the families of the husband and wife as to the
custody of the children, commonly divided by gender, and to a redistribution of all or some
of the dowry paid by the man's family at the time of the marriage. Return of all of the dowry,
possibly with some additional remuneration, would result if the wife was seen to be at fault,
and retention of all of the dowry by the wife was the outcome if the husband was seen to be
the offending party. If both marriage partners shared blame for the marriage breakdown, a
portion of the dowry would be returned, and a portion retained. One of the main causes for
marriage breakdown was adultery. Two entries from Lisboa are presented below.
ta'o-ta'o MAG-, PAG--AN to accuse or suspect s/o of having an affair with one's husband or wife;
MAG-, IPAG- to accuse a husband or wife of having an affair with s/o; MA-: mata'o-ta'o or MAPAG-:
mapagta'o-ta'o suspicious (a husband, believing his wife is having an affair [MDL]

takpíl MAG-, PAG--ON to accuse two people of having an affair; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to accuse a
man of having an affair; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to accuse a man of having an affair with a
particular woman [MDL]

If the families could not agree on a settlement, then the case would go to arbitration (see
Section 6.1). While a sentence of death might be the outcome, particularly if the affair
involved the concubine of a chief, the result was most commonly a fine. If the adulterer fled
without paying the fine, a period of enmity would exist between the families of the adulterer
and the wife or husband until the fine was paid.[17]

4.1 Civil Disputes

(iii) Trade And Deception

Deception could take many forms. It could occur in trade, or be more general, describing
one's disposition when dealing with others. There are a number of examples of deception in
trade. I have chosen only two. In the first example we have an attempt to deceive in the sale
of gold, not only used for its monetary value, but also for its artistic value, being worked into
various forms of jewelry. In the second example we have deception regarding the mixture of
liquids which includes wine, referring usually to the alcoholic beverage tubá', widely drunk
and highly valued in ritual and social interaction. If a particular deception could not be
resolved by the parties involved, the dispute, as with other civil and criminal actions, would
go to arbitration involving a council of the village chiefs. A decision by such a council could
not be appealed or petitioned.[18]
daloy high quality gold which covers poor quality gold beneath it, forming a gold bar meant to deceive;
MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to cover poor quality gold with that of higher quality; MA-, I- or MAG-,
IPAG- to place high quality gold over that of low quality; (fig-) Daloy pa lámang an saímong bu'ót
You appear to be a good person, but in your heart you are different [MDL]

lahok referring to that which is mixed with a pure substance, such as wax, honey or wine, to increase
its bulk (done in an attempt to deceive, making s/t appear more than it really is); MA-, I- or MAG-,
IPAG- to add s/t for this purpose; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to mix s/t with a foreign substance for
this purpose [MDL]

There are a number of terms expressing deceit and duplicity in early Bikol society. Terms
indicating cheating, fraud and bribery reveal actions in a society that could be dealt with
socially or legally, depending on the course taken by those involved.
dáya' deceit, guile; ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to defraud or cheat s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-,
IPAG- to use a particular trick or guise in cheating]

hiphíp MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to bribe s/o; to coerce s/o; MA-, I- to offer a particular bribe [MDL]

kagod describing s/o who indulges excessively in a particular vice; ... MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to
steal s/t; MA-, -AN: kagoran or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagkagoran to be particularly unscrupulous in one's
dealings with others; to cheat or rob s/o [MDL]

kalit fraud, deceit; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to defraud or deceive s/o; to drive s/o out of a game
by raising the stakes so that they cannot win back what they have lost; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to raise
the stakes in a game by a particular amount; to deceive s/o with a particular trick or strategy [MDL]

amit MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to abscond with s/t; to obtain s/t by trickery or deceit; MA-, -AN or
MAG-, PAG--AN to steal from s/o in this way; syn- likam [MDL]

4.1 Civil Disputes

(iv) Defaulting On Loans

Bikol society, as was the case throughout much of the Philippines, survived on a series of
debt relationships. Someone always needed money, and there was always someone else
who was willing to lend it. There are numerous entries in Lisboa which make this clear. To
give some idea of how ingrained debt relationships were in the Bikol region, the following is
a section of the index dealing with debt from Mintz’ new Bikol Dictionary.[19]
DEBT útang, sambót, *bala; penalty or payment of extra interest imposed on an overdue account, ...
or loan, pátong; small payment made against a ... to reduce penalties which would be imposed if no
 payment were made at all, *patimamanghá'; the unpaid portion of a ..., *huriban; to be in ...,
abonádo; to cancel or forgive a ..., *tuklín; to change the basis of a ... allowing part payment in kind,
*gakan; to collect ...s, singíl; to fall due (a ...), *sungdó'; to forfeit a ..., losing what one has put up as
surety, *samit; to be free of ... or other obligations, *híwas; to free o/s from servitude by paying
one's ...s or otherwise satisfying one's obligations, *hiluwás; to insist on the repayment of a ..., *hiri';
to make the final payment on a ..., *hilubós, *tápos; to pay all of one's ...s, *tubtób; to pay off a ... in
small installments (refusing to pay all at once, the creditor's preferred option), *gutay-gutay; to pay off
one's ... in installments, *salawad; to pay one's ...s by working in the creditor's fields, *balos, *luyó-
luyó; to pay part of one's ...s, *ínot; to pay part of a ... with rice, *pároy; to pay part of a ... in kind, and
not completely with money or gold, *gisi'; to pay s/t to a creditor to whom one is greatly in ... to keep
him happy until one is able to pay in full, *malasmás; to reduce a ..., *gakan; to repay a ... for one
who is unable to do so, *hinalod; to request settlement of ...s from the children or heirs of an estate
after the death of the parents, *mulingáw; to settle a ... by taking s/t belonging to the debtor, *gu'on;
to speak rudely or gruffly to one who asks for payment of a ..., *ngasal-ngasal; to work together with
s/o who owes a full day's labor so that the ... can be paid by two people, each working for half a day,
*bari'

Those writing of their observations of the sixteenth century Philippines made it quite clear
that debts could be the beginning of a tragic decline for the borrower. Morga writes that
loans were seen as a means of making money,[20] and it was frequently the case that loans
were made available at exorbitant rates of interest, with penalties doubling and tripling the
original debt until the borrower had no more capital, lost his property and had to give his
children up as slaves to the lender. Chirino talks of a similar situation among the Visayans.
[21]

Loarca gives some specific examples. One borrowing rice would be expected to return an
equivalent amount the following year. If unable to do so, twice the borrowed amount would
have to be paid back the second year, and four times that amount in the third year, with
similar increases for subsequent years the rice was not repaid.

In the case of unpaid loans contracted across village boundaries, the creditor village had
the right to seize anyone from the debtor village and demand payment. In this case, the
amount asked to settle the debt was double the amount lent.[22] Loan relationships appear
to have been legal and binding, with recourse to the courts as they were known at the time,
that is appeal to a judge and subsequent mediation (see Section 6.1 in this paper) if the
debt obligation could not be met. Debts which remained unpaid or could not be paid would
inevitably end with slavery for the debtor.

The imposition of fines for theft, murder or other legal infringements could also lead to long
term debt relationships. A fine, generally in gold, had to be paid immediately. If this could not
be done, the convicted party would have to serve as a slave to the one who had won the
case. He would also forfeit one-half the produce from all his cultivated lands, although, as a
slave, all the food and clothing for his family would be provided by the successful litigant.
When the original fine was finally paid, the lender could then lay a claim for additional
payment based on his having supported the defaulter's family during this time. Failure to
pay this additional amount could end with the enslavement of the defaulter's children in a
relationship where freedom might never be achieved.[23]
4.2 Criminal Cases
(i) Piracy And Plunder

Whether piracy is considered a crime or not depends on whether one is a victim or

perpetrator. Certainly among the perpetrators, most of whom would have at some point in
their lives also been victims, the chance to obtain wealth from outside the village and from
people toward whom one had no responsibility, could be too tempting to pass up.[24] For
those perpetually victimised by robbery or raids, the following entry might be particularly apt.
sugsóg MA- describing s/t or s/o that continually causes harm or destruction in a particular area (as a
wild boar entering rice fields, pirates raiding a town or robbers returning over and over again to a
particular area): Masugsóg ka nang labí, alang-alang kang da'í masalagbát You continually cause
terrible trouble; it's not right that you have not yet been given a taste of your own medicine (Meaning:
You have not yet also been robbed or victimised); ... [MDL]

The Bikol region, essentially a long, narrow peninsula forming the southeastern extremity of
Luzon, had numerous coastal villages which were exposed not only to periodic Moslem
raids from the south,[25] but to raids which originated in the region itself. While there were
islands and areas with particularly bad reputations, raids could also simply be oportunistic.
Whatever the reason, it is clear that such raids were not uncommon.
kamukon referring to the inhabitants of a particular island who have turned to piracy and periodically
attack the other islands of the region [MDL]

salákay ... MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to embark for the purpose of getting s/t or bringing s/t back;
to disembark for the purpose of raiding a particular area; Bubuhí'on tang da'í masalákay iyán
banwá'an na iyán We can't pass up the chance to raid that town [MDL]

ngayaw MANG-, PANG--ON or MAGPANG-, PAGPANG--ON to engage in piracy; to rob, pillage or

plunder towns along the coast; MANG-, PANG--AN or MAGPANG-, PAGPANG--AN to attack or raid
coastal towns; MANG-, IPANG- or MAGPANG-, IPAGPANG- to carry particular arms in raiding coastal
towns [MDL]

Raids could be carried out by just one boat, or by a number. The owner of a boat could
assume financial responsibility for equipping a boat for the raid, or he could be joined by
another who shared the cost of supplying the expedition in return for part of the spoils.
mungsád a single boat that is taken out to steal or rob; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to steal s/t
(those in a single boat); MA-, -AN: mungsarán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagmungsarán to steal from s/o
or some place when going out in just one boat [MDL]

hampíl MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to embark on the boat of another for the purpose of piracy (see
ngayaw), providing one-half of the ship's stores in return for one-third of the bounty; MAG- to set off
on a mission of piracy (two people having come to such an arrangement) [MDL]

It was not only towns which could be attacked in a pirate raid, but boats traveling alone
could be scrutinised by other boats passing by to see if they were carrying anything
valuable which could be stolen.
úbay MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to follow a boat along a riverbank or seashore in order to board it
 or to see what cargo is being carried [MDL]

Boats used for piracy were camouflaged before going on a raiding expedition, and were
welcomed back with great fanfare if their mission turned out to be successful.
hagbóng referring to leaves or fronds used to camouflage the boats of pirates; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to camouflage pirate boats with such leaves; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use leaves or fronds
for such a purpose [MDL]

sibag MA- to sound a conch shell (hamugyóng) or trumpet together with ringing bells as a sign of joy
at the good luck of those who have returned from pirating; ... [MDL]

Not only material possessions would be taken on such raids, but villagers could also be
taken and held captive until such time as they were ransomed or an exchange could be
arranged for those previously taken hostage. If a village chief was captured among the
Visayans, all his kin contributed various amounts to the ransom depending on the degree of
kinship. If sufficient ransom could not be raised, the village chief remained captive.[26] The
following entries are Bikol.
daphág MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN ... to attack s/o (a person in order to get s/t or to take s/o
prisoner) [MDL]

sabo a person captured by highwaymen or pirates [MDL]

tubós ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON to recover one's bond or what one has left for surety; to ransom s/o; MA-,
-AN to recover one's bond from s/o; to ransom s/o from s/o else; MA-, I- to make a particular payment
to recover one's bond or surety; to pay a particular ransom; MAG- to exchange captives, prisoners;
MAG-, IPAG- to exchange one captive for another; MAG-, PAG--AN to ransom one captive with the
exchange of another]

Other acts of inter-village aggression involved the burning of one village or its crops by
another. If this act was carried out by a chief, he would be required to pay to cover the
damage in full. If the act was carried out by a timáwa' then he was killed and his goods
seized to cover the damage, his wife and children being sold into slavery if the amount of
his property was not enough.[27]

4.2 Criminal Cases

(ii) Theft

Robbery may not have been rife, but it existed and was referred to any number of times by
Lisboa in his Vocabulario. There are many references to both petty thieving and thefts that
were more serious.
dalikmatan a nimble thief; one who can steal s/t from right in front of your eyes without being noticed;
kadalikmatan na táwo sa panha'bón a person adept at stealing [MDL]

imít-imít MA- petty thief, kleptomaniac: Abong imít-imít ni kuyán What a little thief that person is;
also see simít-simít [MDL]
 salimbagat eagle (typ-); (fig-) si salimbagat na táwo sa panha'bón a cunning thief [MDL]

samok MA-: masamok na táwo a petty thief; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take s/t on the sly; to
take s/t when no one is looking, and if caught, say you were only joking; ... Abong samok mo doy
What a little thief you are [MDL]

simít ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take s/t with the fingers; ... MANG-, PANG--ON to
take a number of things with the hand; to gather together a number of things of little value with the
hand; ... MAKAPANG-, MAPANG--ON to steal food; to steal things of little value; simít-simít MA- a
thief: Si masimít-simít na táwo si kuyán What a thief that person is]

ganíb ... [MDL: a hunting dog; MA- or MAG- to develop into a hunting dog; ... (fig-) Si ganíb na táwo
si kuyán sa panha'bón That person is a great thief ... ]

pakot terrible (a robber, a worker): Pakot sa panha'bón What a terrible robber (one who steals a lot
or often); ... MA- or MAG- to become terrible [MDL]

The general word for stealing is ha'bón, but there are other words which relate to more
specific forms of stealing, such as the taking of a boat, stealing chickens and pigs, making
off with something on the sly, taking something just because it is exposed and available, or
laying claim to something that is not yours.
ha'bón MAG- to steal; ... MANG- to thieve; to go around stealing; PAG- stealing, theft, larceny; PARA-
burglar, crook, robber, thief [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to steal s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to steal s/t from s/o]

bugkót MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to steal a boat; to make off with a boat [MDL]

libon MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON ... to steal chickens, pigs; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN ... to steal
s/o's pigs, chickens; PARA- robber of pigs, chickens [MDL]

sisiríb MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to make off with s/t on the sly; to steal s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to steal s/t from s/o [MDL]

rapay MAPA-, PA--AN to take or grab whatever is in reach, being unable to get what one is really after
(as when one in unable to steal a valuable item and settles for s/t else); MAKA-, MA--AN to go after
one thing and end up with another [MDL]

hináko' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to claim s/t that rightfully belongs to another; ...; MA- or
MAPAG-: mapaghinákong táwo describing s/o who makes false claims ... [MDL]

raway MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take s/t without due process or good cause; ... Rinaway mo
lámang idtóng urípon ko You tried to take away my slave without just cause [MDL]

Specific entries also deal with taking something from a thief who had previously stolen it,
inciting someone to steal, knowing that person needs very little encouragement to carry out
such an act, or stealing something yourself knowing someone else will he blamed.
tungos MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to steal s/t which has previously been stolen; MA-, -AN or
MAG-, PAG--AN to steal s/t in this way from the original thief; MA- to be stolen a second time (an item)
[MDL]

saginunong MAPA-, PA--AN or MAGPA-, PAGPA--AN to incite, stir up or inflame the emotions of one
who is already angry with s/o else by saying s/t bad about that person; to encourage s/o to persist in
 some wrongdoing that they have already begun by saying that they won't be caught; MAPA-, IPA- or
MAGPA-, IPAGPA- to say s/t to incite s/o; to take s/t on the sly after being encouraged to do so [MDL]

rarasi' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON / MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to steal or damage s/t knowing there is
a good chance s/o else will get the blame; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to have the blame fall on
another for s/t you have stolen or damaged [MDL]

There are also two interesting entries which have come into modern Bikol meaning rape,
but are defined in Lisboa as the taking of something which has previously been refused or
the overpowering of someone in a robbery.
lúgos MAG-, -AN to rape s/o; MAKA-, MA-AN to get raped; PARA- rapist [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to take s/t which has previously been requested but refused]

lúpig MAG-, -ON to rape or molest s/o; PAG- rape [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take s/t by
force; to steal s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to overpower s/o; to rob s/o; PAG- robbery]

Thieves, if caught and tried by a single judge or a tribunal, were dealt with depending on the
seriousness or value of the theft. For petty thefts, those valued at less than four taels of
gold, the thief had to return the gold and pay a fine.
ulí' ... [MDL: MA-, I- to return s/t to its proper owner (s/t lent, stolen); MA-, -AN to return to the owner
s/t lost or stolen; to return to one's spouse (after a period of separation); ...]

duhit penalty, fine; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to give s/t in payment for a fine or penalty (such as gold or
silver); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to clear an infraction or infringement by payment of a penalty or
fine; MAKI-, PAKI--AN to impose a penalty or fine on s/o for some infraction; MAKI-, PAKI--ON to
request a particular payment as a fine or penalty [MDL]

sílot ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to make s/o bear a particular punishment for a sin or
wrongdoing; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to impose a particular fine or punishment; MA-, -ON or MAG-,
PAG--ON to undergo a particular punishment for a sin or crime]

suksók MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to submit o/s to punishment after doing s/t wrong; to accept
punishment for doing s/t wrong [MDL]

A fine which could not be paid could result in enslavement, although for minor fines it was
possible that a less severe type of punishment would be imposed, such as whipping or
confinement to the stocks (see Section 5). Serious thefts, defined as more than four but less
than 16 taels of gold, were treated more severely. The thief was still given the opportunity to
return the stolen goods and pay a fine, although the greater the amount, the less likely it
was that a timáwa' could afford to pay and the greater likelihood of enslavement rather than
whipping or confinement.

For a theft in excess of 16 taels of gold, the penalty was death, often commuted to
enslavement not only of the perpetrator, but of his children as well as those of his household
since they were assumed to have knowledge of the theft even if not being directly involved.
busong (PAG-)-ON to suffer a stiff penalty (even death) for one's crimes, sins or excesses; Sawa' ka
di' bubusonga kainíng pagkatampalásan mo May you be severely punished for your wickedness or
May you be punished by God for your sins [MDL]
A chief accused of theft would rarely end up as a slave since he could afford to pay the fine.
In the case of a theft committed by a slave, either restitution was made by the master, or the
slave was delivered by the owner to the aggrieved party to be soundly lashed.

There were also differences in sentences depending upon the number of times an offence
was committed. For a first offense among the Tagalogs the penalty was usually just a fine.
For a second, slavery, and for a third, death or enslavement of the thief, his children and
household.[28]

Death penalties, while often imposed, were not frequently carried out. The same was true
for exile and long periods of incarceration.[29] Communities would be chronically short of
labor, one of the reasons for slave-raiding, and individuals would also need help in running
their household or working their fields. The opportunity for someone to work as a slave was
a far more viable option than execution, incarceration or exile which not only reduced
available manpower, but deprived individuals and the community of such labor. Additionally,
land tenure was communal in nature. One's wealth was not determined by how much land
was owned, but by how many people could be mobilised to work such land.[30] The chance
to add to the workforce would have been a powerful incentive against a sentence of death.

How does one catch a thief? They could be caught in the act, or potential targets could be
warned so as prevent the theft from happening.
balantí' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to return to ambush s/o or to catch s/o in an act of robbery;
MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to return to a place for a second time in order to keep guard or watch
what is happening [MDL]

sulod MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to gather at or rush to a place where s/o is calling or where there
is a commotion (such as to catch a thief) [MDL]

tukyáw MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to yell or shout at a robber or other trouble-maker; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to yell a warning to others about the presence of a robber [MDL]

ngará'-ngára' MANG-, PANG--AN or MAGPANG-, PAGPANG--AN to shout to warn s/o of

approaching danger (such as when one sees a robber enter a neighbor's house at night); ... [MDL]

Each town had an official who served as an officer of the peace who could be called upon to
take a suspected culprit prisoner.
bilánggo' officer of the peace, constable, sheriff; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to imprison or
incarcerate s/o; to take s/o prisoner; an binibilánggo' prisoner, convict; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN
to put s/o in prison; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t for the purpose of incarceration (such as stocks);
-AN: bilanggó'an prison [MDL]

The general word for capture is dakóp, although more specific entries show that it was
common to handcuff or shackle a prisoner, calling for assistance where this was needed
(see Section 5 for specific forms of incarceration).
dakóp ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to seize or grasp s/t; to capture s/o; MA-, -AN: dakpán
or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagdakpán to seize s/t from s/o; to capture s/o from a particular place or remove
him from a particular family; MAKA-, MA- to be able to capture s/o; to catch another man with your
 wife; MAKA-, MA--AN to catch one's wife with another man]

balod MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to manacle, tie or handcuff the hands behind the back; MA-, I- or
MAG-, IPAG-- to use s/t for tying or manacling the hands [MDL]

gápos MAG-, -ON to manacle or shackle s/o; to tie s/o's hands or feet; ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-,
PAG--ON to tie s/o's hands or feet; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to tie s/o by the hands or feet]

dagon MAG- to help one another in subduing or manacling s/o who presents a great deal of
resistence (two people or many); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to come to the aid of s/o who is trying
to subdue or manacle another; MINA-: minadagon to come to s/o's aid in such circumstances [MDL]

Where a thief was unknown, it was always possible to resort to magic, charms or divination.
A suspected thief who suddenly dies vindicates the person holding such suspicions and
leaves little chance for the suspect to defend him or herself.
hinaw a charm created by the balyán capable of identifying a thief; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to divine
s/t by using such a charm; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to suspect s/o of thievery by such divination
[MDL]

pato' a root or charm which causes s/o who steals from you to fall ill or die; -AN one possessing such
a root or charm [MDL]

galínaw MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG-ON to see s/t beneath the surface of the water; ... (fig-)
Nagagalínaw ko iníng saímong bu'ót; lulong ka gayód ngápit. It is clear to me that you are not to
be trusted ; Nagagalínaw ko si kuyán; índa kundí iyóng himina'bón I can see through that person;
it's more than likely that he's the thief [MDL]

Villages, generally small and possessing individuals known to one another, could always
resort to gossip. After all, the next best thing to catching and proving someone a thief would
be to have that person tried and convicted by gossip and innuendo. There are numerous
entries in Lisboa dealing with the general process of gossip and vilification. Three of these
are presented below as examples.
bakwít innuendoes or rumors implying dishonesty or unacceptable behavior; MA-, -AN or MAG-,
PAG--AN to spread such rumors or innuendoes about s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to utter such
rumors, innuendoes [MDL]

palis false or unfounded rumors; also a gossip known for spreading such false rumors; MAGKA-,
PAGKA--AN to spread false rumors to s/o; Kapalis mong magbabaréta' You spread unfounded
rumors [MDL]

hatod-hatod MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to spread rumors about people, causing discord; MA-, -AN:
hatod-hatoran or MAG-, PAG--AN: paghatod-hatoran to tell a rumor to s/o; to cause discord among
people by spreading rumors or gossip; MA- rumor monger, a gossip [MDL]

The entries which follow have specific statements about someone suspected of being a
thief, or about denying such speculation. There would be little else one could do to halt such
conjecture.
tuntón MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to seal the seams of a boat; ... (fig-) Iká sanáng tinutuntonán
nin úlay kan mga táwo ta' subót iká an kagha'bón You're the one people are talking about because
they believe you're the thief ... [MDL]
 tungi' MA- or MAG- to become uneasy and touchy due to being overfull (an animal); ... (fig-)
Pinatungi' giráray nin pagkakán iníng urípon na iní, nanhaha'bón pa nang gayód This slave is
always fed more than he needs, and still it seems he goes around stealing [MDL]

aya' pa although, even though: Aya' pang lulóng an áki' ko, da'í siyá manha'bón Even though my
child might not be very smart, he is not a thief ; Aya' pang dukhá', da'í akó manha'bón Even though
I might be poor, I'm not a thief ; ... [MDL]

A thief, apprehended or not, would normally be known in a community, especially one who
has committed numerous acts of theft. The death of someone such as this would not be
mourned, but welcomed, as the figurative meaning of the following entry shows.
hídaw ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON or MAKA-, MA- to miss s/t or s/o who has gone, or s/o
who has died; ... (fig-) Garó na hinihídaw na maninibá' si kuyán na nada'í It is as if that person is
missed by crocodiles on the prowl (Said when a criminal or dangerous element in society dies)]

4.2 Criminal Cases

(iii) Assaults and Murder

Larger towns in the Bikol region at the time of arrival of the Spanish would have had 300 to
400 families. A town such as Naga, later chosen as the administrative center of the region
by the Spanish and renamed Nueva Cáceres, would probably have had an even larger
population.[31] Larger towns would be located along the coast or a major river. Each town
comprised smaller units called barangay which would spread out from the center abutting
the surrounding rice fields or forest. There were smaller towns as well comprising only a few
families and these could be quite isolated.

Transportation between major towns was by sea, following along the coast, or by river.
River transportation to lowland towns was frequently the only form of transportation during
the rainy season when a major river such as the Bikol could spread across swampy
lowlands outward to 15 kilometers from its main channel.[32]

Towns were also connected by land via trails which varied in width depending upon how
heavily they were traveled. Most land travel was by foot, although water buffalo pulling sleds
would traverse trails for shorter distances.

We have already seen that travel by sea could be interfered with by pirates (see Section 4.2
(i)). It was also possible for boats to be interfered with when traveling alone along a river.
Travel overland via trails presented particular dangers. These trails passed though isolated
areas that could be heavily wooded. Considering the often testy relationships between
towns, and the presence of criminal elements who had left the towns to take shelter in the
mountains and forest, even daytime travel could be dangerous. There are a number of
entries which deal with attacks and ambushes.
da'an MAPA-, PA--AN or MAGPA-, PAGPA--AN to wait in hiding for s/o; to ambush or waylay s/o;
MAPA-, IPA- or MAGPA-, IPAGPA- to ambush s/o with a particular weapon [MDL]
 hípa' ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG- PAG--ON to wait in ambush for s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to wait
with a particular weapon (to be used to cause injury or death); PARA- waylayer, ambusher,
highwayman]

libon MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to attack and kill s/o along a deserted stretch of road; ... MA-, -AN
or MAG-, PAG--AN to carry out an attack along a particular stretch of road; ... PARA- highwayman
[MDL]

salagbát MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to waylay s/o at a place they normally frequent in order to rob
or hurt them; to seize or grab s/o where they can normally be found in order to rob or hurt them [MDL]

Families who lived in houses at the edge of towns or those backing onto forested areas
were also susceptible to attack. It was the same with houses in small towns which were
isolated from larger population centers. What we might now call home invasions were
carried out by the same type of people who would wait in ambush to rob or kill those caught
unexpectedly on the roads. The entry umag refers to naked robbers. In general such
robbers went about naked with oiled bodies to make them more difficult to catch if an
attempt was made to apprehend them.[33] Lisboa, however, makes no mention of robbers
oiling their bodies.
maghát roving robbers or highwaymen who sneak into houses at night and kill the inhabitants;
(PAG-)-ON to be killed by such robbers; (PAG-)-AN to be entered by such robbers (a house); to have
members of one's family killed by such robbers [MDL]

umag describing those who go about naked, like robbers or highwaymen; (fig-) Garó na giráray
umag iníng áki' This child always seems to walk around naked, like a highwayman [MDL]

salákat ... [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to enter s/o's house to pick a quarrel, steal or for other
criminal purposes; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pick a quarrel with s/o; to go to steal s/t from s/o's
house; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG--- to carry arms in such a robbery attempt]

bighó' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to stab, wound or poke s/o with a lance or spear from beneath
the house [MDL]

iyaw-iyaw MAPA- or MAGPA- to shout in surprise (as when sensing there is a robber about at night,
or when coming across s/t lost or misplaced); MAPA-, IPA- or MAGPA-, IPAGPA- to shout out s/t in
surprise; MAPA-, PA--AN or MAGPA-, PAGPA--AN to shout a warning to s/o [MDL]

For the Tagalogs, Loarca describes a particularly harsh penalty for offenders entering the
house of a village chief at night. The offender was first tortured in an attempt to find out if
another chief had sent him. If he admitted that this was the case, he was enslaved and the
person who sent him condemned to death. Release from enslavement could be obtained by
payment of a fine.[34] The following entry is Bikol.
lúbag ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to torture the guilty into confessing their crimes; MA-, I-
or MAG-, IPAG- to inflict a particular torture on s/o]

There were also murders in the Bikol region. The general word for killing is gadán, although
other more specific words could also be used, such as budhí' for the killing of someone
from another town.
 gadán corpse, the deceased; gadán na dead; MAG-, -ON to kill or slay s/o; to assassinate, execute
or murder s/o; ... MA- to die, pass away, perish; to succumb; MA--AN to be bereaved; to have a death
in the family; KA--AN death, demise; PAGKA- the death of, the killing of [+MDL: MA-, -ON to kill s/o;
MAG-, PAG--ON to kill an animal; ...]

táwo MAKA-, MA- to end s/o's life; to kill s/o; MAKA-, IKA- to kill s/o with s/t [MDL]

budhí' MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to kill s/o from another town [MDL]

bu'ók ... MANG- to be an outlaw; to be wanted by the law; to become infamous due to indiscriminate
killing; MANG-, PANG--AN to kill indiscriminately [MDL]

One convicted of murder among the Tagalogs was condemned to death, although this
sentence could be commuted if the killer agreed to become the slave of the dead man's
father, children or nearest relative. If more than one person was involved in the killing, the
others paid the dead man's relatives the price of a slave. If they could not afford to do this,
they too became slaves. If a village chief was killed while in another town, all the residents
of the town became slaves with those most culpable in the killing being put to death.[35]
Grave crimes, such as murder, could be punished in other ways as well. The killer could
have all his slaves taken, or in more extreme circumstances, he could be killed along with
his sons, brothers, parents, relatives and slaves.[36]

If one chief was killed by another in Pampanga, the murdered chief's friends and relatives
would go to war against the offending town. If the chief committing the murder was himself
killed, hostilities would end and the matter would be considered settled. If this did not
happen, as many of the chief's followers as possible would be killed.

To end hostilities, chiefs of the other villages would attempt to reconcile the two sides,
usually asking that a large sum of money, between 70-100 taels of gold depending on the
prominence of the chief, be paid as a fine. Half of this would go to the murdered man's
relatives, and half to the chiefs who brokered the reconciliation to be shared with the
freemen (timáwa') of the murdered man's village.

If this agreement was rejected by the murdered man's children, then war would continue,
although in this case the chiefs brokering the failed agreement would take the side of the
murderer and continue to fight on their side until an agreement was forced upon the
murdered chief's family.[37]

Revenge was a significant factor motivating relatives when a death occurred through
violence. Those seeking revenge wore a band around their neck which they did not remove
until a previously determined number of people were killed. These would not only include
the murderer and his relatives, but also any number of innocent people. Only when these
lives were taken would mourning come to an end.[38] Two entries in Lisboa which deal with
revenge are presented below.
balós ... [+MDL: ... MAG- to take vengeance or retribution out on one another (two people or many);
MAG-, PAG--ON to take vengeance out on s/o (many people); MAG-, PAG--AN to give s/o a number
of things as retribution; MAG-, IPAG- to give a number of things as retribution]
 tukol an eye for an eye; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to respond in kind (good deeds for good and
bad deeds for bad); Tinukol kong pagratakan si tinanóm nindá I destroyed their crops since they
did the same to mine; Kada'í matukol ni kuyán kan maraháy na bu'ót ko saíya That person hasn't
responded in kind to the good will I have shown him [MDL]

If a chief or his child was killed by a freeman, the freeman would be killed along with his wife
and children and all their property seized. If the opposite was the case and a freeman was
killed by a chief, a fine of 10-20 taels of gold would be paid to the dead man's children. If
one freeman killed another, and was unable to pay a set fine to the bereaved family, the
children of the murdered man would kill him, or failing that, all of the chiefs of the village
would join together to kill the murderer. This was done by hanging him from a tree or house
post and stabbing him with a lance.[39]

While the above example is not specifically mentioned as occurring in Bikol, it is possible
that an entry such as the following indicates that the perpetrators of certain crimes were
made an example of to discourage others from criminal activity.
tawog MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to hang s/t up high for all to see (generally the hand, foot or torso of a
criminal or others accused of evil or wrongdoing); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to expose s/t at a
place where all can see it; (fig-) Nagtatawog ka na dihán sa pantáw You are exposed to the view of
everyone there on the porch [MDL]

5. Punishment and Incarceration

Clearly, the death penalty was available and used as the ultimate punishment for crimes
such as robbery and murder. This sentence could be carried out in a number of ways, such
as by stabbing, hanging and possibly beheading, although hanging was probably the most
common.
bítay ... PAG- a hanging; -AN: bibitáyan gallows [+MDL: MA- or MAG- to hang; to be hanging; MA-,
-ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to hang s/o or s/t; ...]

dagyó' MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to stamp on s/t with the feet, driving it into the ground or into
another material (as a spike into wood); to stamp down on s/o who is being hanged, making sure the
hanging is successful [MDL]

alang-alang ... Alang-alang na da'í bitáyon an parabúno' It is unreasonable not to hang a murderer;
... [MDL]

tungol MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut off the head; MA-, -AN: tunglán or MAG-, PAG--AN:
pagtunglán to behead s/o; to cut off s/o's head [MDL]

The death penalty was frequently commuted to enslavement or the imposition of a fine,
except in the case of witchcraft where the witch or sorcerer was killed.[40] There were other
forms of punishment available that could be imposed in addition to or in place of a fine. One
of the most common was the lash. There are numerous entries and countless references to
people being whipped as punishment. Just three of these are presented below.
bádas MAG-, -ON to whip s/o; to flog or lash s/o; PANG-: pamádas or pambádas a whip
 turo'-turo' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to treat everyone the same; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to give
everyone the same treatment (even with regard to the number of lashes given in punishment) [MDL]

timamlós MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take revenge on s/o who has been the cause of your
punishment or pain (as when a prisoner is whipped, and when released, whips those who accused
him); ...) [MDL]

There are a few references to prison, although if there were such buildings or parts of
buildings dedicated to such an end, these would have been in the larger towns. References
in the entries relating to gaining one's freedom refer equally to freeing oneself from shackles
or the stocks, as well as being freed from prison.
bilánggo' ... MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to imprison or incarcerate s/o; to take s/o prisoner; ... MA-,
-AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to put s/o in prison; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t for the purpose of
incarceration (such as stocks); -AN: bilanggó'an prison [MDL]

hayaw MAKA- to walk or roam free (one previously incarcerated); MAPA- to set s/o free (one who had
previously been incarcerated or restrained in some way); ... [MDL]

lagayaw free to move about; free to go anywhere one wishes; MAKA--to be free to move about, travel
or go anywhere (not being confined or locked up); ... [MDL]

taltál MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to release or set s/o free from prison or from their shackles; ...
[MDL]

tanan MA- or MAG- to escape from confinement (prisoners, animals, birds); ... [MDL]

Incarceration was more likely carried out by chaining prisoners, or placing them for a period
of time in a pillory or stocks. Prisoners could be handcuffed, their feet fettered, a collar
placed around their neck, or they could be trussed up on a length of bamboo.
talikala' a chain of gold, iron or other metals; MAG- ... to be in chains (as a prisoner); MAG-, PAG--AN
to put a prisoner in chains; ... [MDL]

palataw a hobble, a restraint attached to the feet with a chain to keep fugitives from absconding; ...;
MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to hobble or shackle a fugitive in this way; ... [MDL]

súno' ... [+MDL: ... MA-, -AN ... to use the same shackles, manacles or chains for two people's hands
or feet; ...; MAG- to share the same manacles; ...]

talang rattan collar placed around the neck of a dog or cat, a prisoner or robber, or worn when
mourning; MAG- to wear a rattan collar; ... [MDL]

tukog a length of bamboo, stretching from the neck to the hands, to which one is tied; to truss s/o up
in this way; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to tie one's hands and neck in this way; MA-, I- or MAG-,
IPAG- to use a length of bamboo for this purpose [MDL]

The pillory or stocks was a common form of punishment. It served not only to keep
prisoners confined, but also exposed them to the gaze of the community they had wronged.
It is easy to imagine that they could be jeered and ridiculed, as well as subjected to a certain
amount of physical abuse, although there are no entries in Lisboa which specifically
mention this. It was, however, also possible for those confined to be shielded from the public
by a wooden wall or screen as the entry for ariring shows. In the entry for pá'ot we see that
confinement in the stocks could be the punishment for nonpayment of one's debts. Such a
default need not only end up with the defaulter being enslaved.
sipit pillory, stocks (typ-) [MDL]

pandóg pillory, stocks; ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place one in a pillory or stocks; MA-,
I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a pillory or stocks for punishment]

ariring a wooden wall or screen extending from beneath the knees and completely covering one who
has been placed in the stocks; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place such a wall or screen around s/o;
MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to build such a wall or screen [MDL]

pá'ot MAG- to be kept in a pillory, stocks: Pa'anó akó makapagbáyad saímo kainíng nagpá'ot na
akó digdí sa pandóg? How am I going to be able to pay you if I'm stuck here in a pillory? [MDL]

purúpot ... [MDL: ... (fig-) Nagpurúpot na sa pandóg si kuyán That person is firmly locked in the
stocks]

sulbód MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to insert s/t into an opening where it is an exact or tight fit (such as the
foot into the stocks for punishment; [MDL]

tuwáng ... [+MDL: MAG- ... to be on either side of a pillory or stocks (prisoners); MAG-, PAG--ON to
place prisoners on either side of a pillory or stocks; ... KA-... a companion prisoner in a pillory or
stocks]

tunong a wedge used to lock or tighten a pillory or stocks (sipit, pandóg); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--
ON to lock a prisoner into a pillory or stocks; ... [MDL]

The last two entries in this section show the effects on those when confined to the stocks or
chained for too long a time.
pi'aw knock-kneed; MA--to walk or stand in this manner; to hobble (as one kept too long in the stocks
when first trying to walk) [MDL]

lulukón MA- to have one's feet go numb and have trouble walking; to have one's feet fall asleep (from
being confined or placed in irons, or after being ill for a long time) [MDL]

6. Administration of Justice
6.1 Trials

A freeman or timáwa' could hold particular suspicions about the actions of a particular
member of the community.
na'o-na'o MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to suspect s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to suspect s/o of s/t
[MDL]

tu'óm-tu'óm ... [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to suspect s/o; ... MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to
have particular suspicions; ... MA- suspicious; ...]

If these suspicions were strong enough, the freeman could approach the village chief with a
complaint.
The complainant would accuse the one suspected by name and a charge would be brought
against that person who would be summoned to appear before the judge.
sahót ... [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to blame or accuse s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to blame
or accuse s/o of s/t]

mulong MANG-, IPANG- or MAGPANG-, IPAGPANG- to accuse s/o of wrongdoing before a judge or
other high official of the town so that they can be punished; to bring a charge against s/o; MANG-,
PANG--AN or MAGPANG-, PAGPANG--AN to bring an accusation before a particular judge [MDL]

apód ... [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to call s/o by name; MAG-, PAG--ON to name s/o in a
legal suit or dispute]

If the village chief was unable to settle the matter brought before him, the matter would
move to arbitration. Each village had individuals known to be fair and impartial, and it is
these individuals who would be called upon to try to mediate the dispute.[41] Some of the
entries dealing with mediation in Lisboa are neutral, such as hátol. Other entries have
implications of taking the side of one of the litigants. Pintakási is fairly weak in this respect,
while suróg leaves no question that one of the parties will be favored, as does the figurative
entry for gapil. With an entry such as suli' we have a statement of initial neutrality leading
to favoritism of one of the parties as mediation progresses.
hátol advice, counsel, guidance; ... [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to bring people together to
settle their differences (an arbitrator or mediator); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to come to some agreement
on one's differences; MAPA-, or MAGPA- to approach s/o to act as an arbitrator or mediator]

pintakási mediator, defender; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to plead for s/o; to defend s/o; MA-, -AN
or MAG-, PAG--AN to mediate on behalf of s/o; to intercede on behalf of s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to
make a particular case; to put forth a particular plea; MAPA-, PA--ON to request that s/o intercede on
your behalf; to request help from a mediator; ... ] [MDL]

suróg ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON to aid s/o in a struggle; to take s/o's side in a legal case; to favor s/o in a
fight; MAG-, PAG--ON to favor one person over another; MAG-, PAG--AN to fight over s/t where one is
favored or aided over another; MAG-, IPAG- to choose one as a favorite to aid in a fight against
another; MANG-, PANG--ON to aid or defend s/o who has done no wrong; ...]

gapil MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to lean against the raised side of a boat in order to level it out; ...;
(fig-) to join or take sides with s/o: Gapil an bu'ót niyá ki kuyán She is on that person's side [MDL]

suli' MAPA-, PA--AN to do what is right, fitting or proper for s/o (such as defending one who deserves
to be defended, accusing one who is guilty or helping one who deserves your help); MAPA-, IPA- to
cast blame on one who is guilty; MAKA-, MA--AN to blame one who is innocent; MAKA-, IKA--to mete
out punishment to one who is innocent; ... [MDL]

If a compromise could not be reached through mediation, represented by entries such as

úlay, the matter would be returned to the village chief. He would ask each of the individuals
in the dispute to take an oath whereby they promised to abide by his judgement. This was
taken prior to the calling of witnesses.
úlay : urúlay agreement, compromise; ... MAGKA- to reach an agreement, compromise; ... [+MDL:
 MAG-, PAG--AN to come to an agreement about s/t; KA--AN an agreement; PARA- counselor (one
who tries to get others to agree)]

There were various oaths which could be sworn, ranging from a simple oath of allegiance to
those calling for some dire consequence or death if the oath were to be broken. Oaths could
also be taken on one's mother.
sambá MAG- to take a mutual oath; to swear allegiance to one another; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN
to take an oath on or about s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to swear s/t [MDL]

típan ... [MDL: a vow or pledge; MA-, I- to make a vow or promise to do s/t; to pledge s/t; to take an
oath MA-, -AN to make a vow or promise to s/o; to form a covenant with s/o; ...]

sumpá' oath; ... [+MDL: MA-, I- to take a particular oath, such as that one will die (see gadán, matáy
), that one will be split asunder (see si'sí' ); MA-, -AN to swear to do s/t or take an oath about s/t; ...]

gadán corpse, the deceased; ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON to kill s/o; ...; MA-: magadán may I die, on my life;
an oath taken where one utters these words; MAMA-, MAMA--AN or MAGMA-, PAGMA--AN to take
such an oath]

matáy may I die; an oath taken whereby s/o swears to take their own life if not telling the truth; MA- or
MAG- to take such an oath by repeating this word [MDL]

si'sí' ... [+MDL: sisí' MA- or MAG- to rip or split; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to rip or split s/t; ...
-UM-: simisí' uttered as an oath, indicating that one should be split apart if not telling the truth; -IMIN-:
Siminisí' ka used as curse when annoyed, indicating that one should be split asunder]

iná' mother; ... [+MDL: si iná' my mother; ... MASA- or MAGSA- to swear by your mother; MASA-,
SA--AN or MAGSA-, PAGSA--AN to swear s/t is true by your mother; to take an oath on your
mother; ...]

sulít an oath: Susulít pa May I be returned to the womb of my mother ; MA- or MAG- to take such an
oath; to be sworn in [MDL]

Plasencia also describes similar oaths among the Tagalogs.[42] The oaths he cites are:
May the rays of the sun split me in two; May I be carried away by crocodiles; May I be ripped apart by
a wild animal; May my wife no longer accept my advances and May my life be diminished like a
burning candle.

For the situation in Pampanga, Plasencia describes the calling of witnesses as follows.
Each of the litigants would be asked to call on witnesses who could testify on their behalf. If
each was able to call the same number of witnesses, then the judge would ask them to split
any amount claimed in the suit. The assumption was that a witness agreeing take one side
or the other would give testimony supporting the chosen side.

If the number of witnesses was unequal, the one with the greater number of witnesses
would be seen as having won the suit. In this case the defendant would either be released
from the claim, or would be asked to pay the full amount. Witnesses were paid, and since
they were paid only if their testimony was given on the winning side, this must have led to
some degree of favoritism and dishonesty. Any initial payment given to a witness on the
losing side had to be returned. Payment to witnesses was also based on their rank or social
status. In the case where a claimant won a large amount of money, witnesses would also
share in this settlement.[43]

While there is no record of the same or similar situation occurring in Bikol, Lisboa has a
number of entries dealing with witnesses. Entries referred to the simple giving of testimony,
such as saksí, taksí and tandá'. Other entries referred to the disagreement of witnesses
who gave contradictory evidence (saluhot, tumandá', ma'má') or those who deliberately
told a lie, thereby perjuring themselves (tugód-tugód, tu'óm-tu'óm, tu'óm). As mentioned
previously, oaths were taken by the litigants swearing to abide by the judge's decision.
There are no entries in Lisboa indicating that witnesses were also sworn to tell the truth,
although this was probably the case. Guido de Lavezaris states that those called to give
testimony could be made slaves if the testimony they gave could not later be proved correct.
[44]
saksí a witness; MAG-, -ON to witness s/t; MAG-, -AN to be a witness for s/o [MDL: MA- or MAG- to
testify; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to testify on behalf of s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to give a
particular testimony; to swear on the truth of a particular testimony; MAPA-, PA--ON to call s/o as a
witness]

taksí MA- or MAG- to testify; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to testify on behalf of s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-,
IPAG- to give a particular testimony; to swear that a particular testimony is true; MAPA-, PA--ON to call
s/o as a witness [MDL]

tandá' ... MAPA-, PA--ON to have s/o take responsibility for s/o; to have s/o testify to s/t or bear
witness to s/t; MAPA-, PA--AN to have s/o testify; MAPA-, IPA--to take an oath; to swear to s/t [MDL]

saluhot MA-, -AN to give testimony different from that given by another; MA-, -ON to disagree with
what has previously been said; to speak against s/t; MA-, I- to present contradictory evidence; MAG-
to hold contradictory positions or opinions (two people); MAG-, PAG--ON to present two differing
points of view, conflicting evidence or opinions; MAG-, PAG--AN to present such contradictory
evidence to s/o; MAG-, IPAG- to present support for ones testimony or point of view; MAGKA-,
PAGKA--AN to hold differing points of view (unaware of the opposing opinion); magkasaraluhot to all
be of differing opinions (many different people) [MDL]

tumandá' MAKI-, PAKI--ON to testify or give evidence contrary to that given by another; to counter
another's statement or claim; MAKI-, PAKI--AN to give particular evidence; to testify to s/t, making a
counter claim [MDL]

ma'má' ... MAPA-, PA--ON to place one thing on another; ... (fig-) Harí mú'na pama'má' ta an
pagtarám ni kuyán Let's not rush into affirming what that person has said ... [MDL]

tugód-túgod MAG-, -AN to slander, libel or slur s/o; MAG-, I- to say s/t libelous [+MDL: false
testimony, perjury; MA--libeler, slanderer; MA- or MAG- to perjure o/s; MA-, -AN: tugód-tugóran or
MAG-, PAG--AN: pagtugód-tugóran to give false testimony against s/o; to say s/t untrue about s/o;
MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to give false testimony; to knowingly say s/t which is untrue]

tu'óm-tu'óm ... [+MDL: MA-, -or MAG-, PAG--AN ... to bear false witness against s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-,
IPAG- ... to give false testimony; MA- ... one who bears false testimony]

tu'óm ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to imagine s/t; to do s/t from memory; to make s/t up;
to say s/t which is groundless; to give false testimony; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to bear false
witness against s/o; ... PAG- memorisation; false testimony]
Witness could presumably be questioned by the judge. Hapót is the general entry for
questioning. The stronger entry is tuksó which is the asking of probing questions, coming
into modern Bikol as 'to interrogate' or 'cross-examine'.
hapót question; inquiry, query; ... [+MDL: MA-, -or MAG-, PAG--ON to ask s/o a question; MA-, I- or
MAG-, IPAG- to ask a question; hapót-hápot MAG-, PAG--ON to repeatedly ask s/o s/t]

tuksó MAG-, -ON to cross-examine s/o; to interrogate s/o; MAG-, I--to ask particular questions in an
interrogation; PAG- cross-examination; interrogation; PARA--interrogator, cross-examiner; ... [MDL:
MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to sound s/o out (to see what they know, think or feel); to question s/o in
an attempt to find s/t out about them; to find s/t out about s/o by asking probing questions; MA-, I- or
MAG-, IPAG- to ask s/o s/t; to put probing questions to s/o; ... MA- matuksóng táwo one who asks
probing questions]

Once witnesses were called and all testimony heard, the judge would deliberate the matter
and pass judgement. If the defeated party refused to abide by the judgement, the judge
would move against him or her to force compliance (also see Section 3). It is possible that
an entry in Lisboa such as dangan was an attempt to discover the outcome of a case and
what a possible sentence might be so that the losing party could take proper measures to
protect him or herself.
dangan MAPA-, PA--ON or MAGPA-, PAGPA--ON / MAPA-, PA--AN or MAGPA-, PAGPA--AN to
spend a short time in a particular place; (fig-) to speak first to s/o to find out information before
speaking to the main person one has to deal with: Padangan mú'na kitá ki kuyán ta' ngáning
makasáyod kitá kon anó an túgon nin hukóm Let's speak to someone first so we know what
sentence the judge has passed [MDL]

Once a case was settled, those who had placed a wager on its outcome could also come to
a settlement.
taron MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to wager or bet on s/o involved in a case or dispute; MA-, I- or
MAG-, IPAG- to place a particular wager or bet on the outcome of a dispute or case [MDL]

There were costs involved in prosecuting a case. At least one village chief was involved
sitting as judge, although frequently there could be multiple village chiefs who were called
upon. There were mediators, and there were witnesses. None of these people expected to
contribute their services for free. We have seen how witnesses were paid. A judge was paid
in a similar way. Any fine which was imposed on the convicted party would be divided
equally between the successful litigant and the judge.[45] Where there were other chiefs
and mediators involved, we can assume that the half which would have gone to a single
judge, would be further divided among the other participants in the mediation or trial. If a
case were lost, there would be no fine and no payment. It is possible that an entry in Lisboa
such as the following which refers to court costs might be paid in such circumstances.
salap court costs or duties; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to offer s/t in payment for such costs; MA-, -AN or
MAG-, PAG--AN to pay such costs; to pay such costs to s/o [MDL]

6.2 Trial by Ordeal

Plasencia describes for Pampanga what might be called trial by ordeal.[46] When there is a
theft, suspects are first given a chance to return any stolen merchandise and walk away
without punishment. The suspects are asked to produce a package of cloth, leaves or other
material which is tied so that any contents it may hold cannot be seen. The packages are
then untied, and if the stolen item is found within the case proceeds no further. If, however,
the item is not found, the suspects are asked to undergo particular tests.

In one test, suspects are asked to go to the deepest part of river holding a staff. They are
then asked to hold their breath and go under the water. The first one to surface is taken to
be the thief since the lack of breath is seen as a sign of a guilty conscience. Plasencia
writes that there were numerous cases where innocent people drowned, afraid to surface
and be accused of a crime they did not commit.

A further test involves the placing of a stone in a container of boiling water. The suspects
are asked to place a hand in the boiling water to remove the stone. The one refusing to do
so is considered guilty and is asked to return the stolen item, or pay for its replacement.

In one further trial, each suspect is given a candle of the same size and weight. These
candles are lit. The person holding the candle which is first to go out is considered the guilty
party.

6.3 Miscarriage of Justice

The outcome of a trial did not necessarily have to be just. There could also be confusion
where more than one person was implicated in a crime. A criminal could easily have an
accomplice, and in this case it was in the interest of both to conceal a wrongdoing.
hunungan MA-, -ON to make s/o an accessory to your crime; to ask s/o to conceal a crime or
wrongdoing; MAG- to conspire to keep a crime secret (two people); MAG-, PAG--ON to hush s/t up; to
conceal a crime [MDL]

In many cases the accused would try to deflect blame from him or herself, unjustly blaming
another for the crime.
narumbabá' MANG-, PANG--ON to blame s/o else (the person who is at fault); MANG-, IPANG- to
blame s/o else for a particular wrongdoing [MDL]

raway MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON ... to frame s/o; to try to implicate s/o in wrong-doing without just
cause; ... [MDL]

It was also possible to be implicated in another person's affairs quite inadvertently.

rapot MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG-ON to implicate s/o; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to involve or draw s/o into
another person's affairs; ... Irinarapot akó ki kuyán na hampakón I was implicated with that person
and was whipped; ... [MDL]

daráhig ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to involve or implicate another in your crime, or in
your business affairs, without their knowledge; MA- to be punished due to being implicated in s/o
 else's crime; ...]

hangyób MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to singe or sear s/t by passing it through a flame; ... (fig-)
Nahangyób kitá kainíng panha'bón ni kuyán We have been inadvertently implicated in that
person's crime [MDL]

The following entries may apply to those unjustly convicted of a crime and fined or
punished. The last entry is interesting, indicating that someone unjustly accused of a crime,
has then resorted to committing the offense he was accused of.
alang-alang unfair, unjust, unreasonable, iniquitous: Alang-alang na hampakón an da'íng kasa'lán
It is unjust to whip s/o who has done nothing wrong ... [MDL]

líwag MA- iniquitous, unjust; malicious, vicious; ... MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to treat s/o wrongly or
unjustly; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to carry out a particular iniquity or malicious action; ... KA--AN iniquity,
maliciousness, viciousness [MDL]

murangos MANGHING-, PANGHING--AN to take out anger on one who is blameless; to blame s/o
unjustly [MDL]

rabáy MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to blame or punish everyone for the misdeeds of a few; MA-, I- or
MAG-, IPAG- to blame and punish the innocent along with the guilty; MA--AN to be blamed or
punished in this way (the guilty and innocent); IKA- to be blamed or punished (the innocent); ... [MDL]

lugod-lugod MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON / MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to give s/o a name which suits
their looks, status or actions; ... also: to do s/t one has been falsely blamed for or accused of:
Malugod-lugod na akóng manha'bón ta' pinagtugód-tugorán akóng nanhaha'bón I've become a
thief because I have been falsely accused of stealing [MDL]

One who was either justly or unjustly punished for a crime could take revenge on those
responsible when released from confinement, as the following entry shows.
timamlós MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take revenge on s/o who has been the cause of your
punishment or pain (as when a prisoner is whipped, and when released, whips those who accused
him); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t to carry out your revenge (such as a lash or whip) [MDL]

7. Conclusion

The Spanish, arriving in the Philippines in the mid-sixteenth century, found indigenous
systems of law in place that functioned adequately in the towns and villages they very
quickly came to occupy and control. These laws were based on traditional beliefs and
customs and were enforced by a recognised ruling elite who retained their status and
control by maintaining a comparatively high level of wealth. New laws, when they were
needed, were encoded by these elite groups and then announced to their respective
communities. Those citizens who chose not to abide by a set of community laws, or who
had broken them and feared the consequences, could leave, their option being residence
outside of established villages, usually in the mountains. There they had little contact with
their families, were forced into association with the Negritos who could be antagonistic, and
often had little option but to continue or resort to criminal activity to derive some sort of
income.
Those involved in disputes did not necessarily need recourse to the legal system to settle
their differences. The law, however, was there and available if attempts at personal
negotiation failed. Accusations could be made to a village chief acting as a judge and a
case could be brought against an individual. If a judge could not settle the matter, it went to
mediation and subsequently to what we may call a trial. Oaths were taken by the litigants
that they would abide the judge’s decision, witnesses called, testimony heard, a decision
reached and a sentence subsequently brought down.

Cases coming before a village judge ranged from the civil to the criminal. Matters such as
insults, adultery, deception and defaults on loans were some of the civil cases heard.
Thefts, assaults, ambushes, and murder were some of the criminal cases.

Punishment varied depending on the severity of the crime and the person against whom it
was perpetrated. Death was a common sentence, although it may not have been commonly
carried out. It was frequently commuted to a fine which the guilty party had to pay within a
set period of time. Failure to pay would result in enslavement. The guilty could also be
incarcerated. This usually meant being chained or placed in a pillory or stocks, although
discrete rooms or buildings could have served as prisons in the larger towns.

The Spanish did not greatly alter this indigenous system of justice, although the system was
to change as the society around it changed. The royal audiencia was established in the
Philippines in 1583. This served as an overriding legal body, somewhat like a supreme
court, but having administrative as well as legal functions. It took the decision to follow the
traditional customs in place in the Philippines with regard to matters of slavery, inheritance,
marriage, and other civil matters. This was codified in 1599 by Juan de Plasencia when the
customary law of the Tagalogs was defined as the common law throughout the Philippines.
Spanish law applied in all criminal cases and civil disputes not covered by customary law.
[47]

The Spanish retained this system of justice throughout their occupation of the Philippines,
allowing the native population a substantial degree of autonomy in running their affairs.
Even by the mid-nineteenth century, each township in a province still had what was called a
gobernadorcillo [a petty governor] who was an elected magistrate for the town. He had a
number of alguaciles [assistants] in charge of the administration of justice. Each town was
also divided into a number of barangay lead by a cabeza de barangay [a village headman
or chief] replacing the earlier dáto' and in charge of the 40 to 50 families resident there. To
maintain law and order the gobernadorcillo also appointed officials called bilánggo for each
barangay .[48] The gobernadorcillo, as a magistrate, tried civil cases involving small sums
of money with appeals going to the alguaciles . For criminal cases and civil suits involving
large sums of money, the gobernadorcillo acted as a court of first instance with appeals
going to the audiencia .[49]

When the Spanish outlawed slavery in 1591, this meant that the Spanish in the Philippines
could not legally hold slaves. There were, however, inconsistencies in this policy. Negritos
and Moslems, for example, who did not recognise Spanish authority, could be kept as
slaves.[50] This policy at first had little effect on slavery as practiced by the native
population. By the end of the seventeenth century, however, the Spanish legislated against
the practice of inherited slavery. Children born to slaves (gintúbo') were now free. With
regard to debt slavery, the Spanish were less successful in eliminating this practice. It can
be argued that the existence of sharecropping in the present-day Philippines is really a
system that evolved from this earlier practice.[51]

Change also occurred with regard to the system of debts and loans. Usury was against a
Christian ideal and frowned upon by the missionaries as against the teachings of the
church.[52] While the greatest excesses of this system were mitigated, the practice
continued and was still very much a part of individual and business activity to the end of the
Spanish period in the Philippines.

A native system of justice not only survived under the Spanish, but was actually encouraged
by them. It was, however, a system that was to change. From being the only system of
justice, it became subsumed under a larger system of which it was only a part, just as the
towns where the system functioned changed from being unique administrative units to
become political units subsumed under a larger system in which they were parts of
provinces and, in turn, part of a nation.

Endnotes

[1] Marcos de Lisboa (1754), Vocabulario de la lengua Bicol, Pueblo de Sampaloc: Convento de Nuestra
Señora de Loreto; reprinted in 1865, Manila: Establecimiento Tipografico del Colegio de Santo Tomas.

[2] Eusebio Gomez Platero (1880), Catálogo Biográfico de los Religiosos Franciscanos de la Provincia de San
Gregorio Magno de Filipinas, Manila: Imprenta del Real Colegio de Santo Tomas, p. 53 as cited in Jose
Calleja-Reyes (1968), ‘Ibalón: An Ancient Bikol Epic,’ in Philippine Studies, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 318-47, p. 323.

[3] Entrada de la Seraphica Religión de Nuestro Padre San Francisco de las Islas Philipinas (1895), an
anonymous manuscript of 1649 held at the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, MSS No. 505, p. 51.

[4] Malcolm W. Mintz, (2005), Vol I: English-Bikol Index; Vol. II: Bikol-English Dictionary, Australia:
Indonesian/Malay Texts, incorporates the 17th century Marcos de Lisboa Vocabulario de la lengua Bicol.

[5] Miguel de Loarca (1582), Relación de las Islas Filipinas, in in Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander
Robertson (1903-1909), The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, 55 vols. Cleveland: AH Clark; CD-ROM version,
Bank of the Philippine Islands (henceforth B&R), vol. 5, chapter 8, p. 141 and Andres de San Nicholas (1664),
Historia general de las religiosos descalzos del orden de San Agustin, chapter VI, in B&R, vol. 21, pp. 140-41.

[6] Loarca, Relacion, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 175.

[7] Juan de Plasencia (1589), Customs of the Tagalogs, in B&R, vol. 7, p. 179.

[8] Also see Pedro Chirino, S.J. (1969), Relación de las Islas Filipinas (1604), Manila: Historical Conservation
Society, Chapter 9 for a description of the situation in the Visayas.

[9] Antonio de Morga (1971), Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609), Cambridge: The Hakluyt Society -
Cambridge University Press, p. 275.
[10] William Henry Scott (1994), Barangay , Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, p. 131.

[11] See Plasencia, Customs of the Tagalogs, in B&R, vol. 7, pp. 175-77 and Guido de Lavezaris (1572), in
B&R: vol. 3, pp. 286-88 for a description of slavery among the Tagalogs, and Loarca, Relación, Chapter 9 in
B&R, vol. 5, p. 143 for a description of slavery among the Visayans.

[12] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, pp. 175, 177.

[13] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, pp. 181-83.

[14] Francisco Colin (1663), Native Races and their Customs, in B&R, vol. 40, pp. 93-94.

[15] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, pp. 181-83; also Morga Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609),
p. 277).

[16] Plasencia, Customs of the Pampangas in their lawsuits, in B&R, vol. 16, pp. 326-27; also in Juan de San
Antonio (1738), Chronicas de las Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio de Religiosos Descalzos, Sampaloc:
Convento de Nuestra Señora de Loreto, Section 479, p. 162.

[17] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 187.

[18] See San Nicolas, Historia general, in B&R, vol. 21, p. 141 for a general statement on the workings of such
a council in Zambales.

[19] Mintz, Bikol Dictionary, vol. 1, p. 154.

[20] Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609), p. 276.

[21] Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas (1604), Chapter 46.

[22] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 10 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 161.

[23] Plasencia, Customs of the Tagalogs, in B&R, vol. 7, p. 180.

[24] Lavezaris, in B&R, vol 3, p. 287.

[25] Francisco Mallari, S.J. (1986), ‘Muslim Raids in Bicol: 1580-1792,’ Philippine Studies, vol 34, pp. 257-86.

[26] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 9 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 151.

[27] Plasencia, Customs of the Pampangas in their lawsuits, in B&R, vol. 16, p. 325.

[28] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 179 and Plasencia in B&R, vol. 16, pp. 325, 326.

[29] Scott, Barangay, p. 139.

[30] John Leddy Phelan (1959), The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses,
1565-1700, Filipiniana Reprint Series, 1985. Manila: Cacho Hermanos, p. 117.

[31] ‘Conquest of the Island of Luzón, Manila, April 20, 1572,’ in B&R, vol. 3, p. 171.

[32] Scott, Barangay, p. 181.

[33] Scott, Barangay, p. 139.

[34] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 185.

 [35] Loarca, Relación, Chapter 11 in B&R, vol. 5, p. 185.

[36] Lavezaris, in B&R, vol. 3, p. 287.

[37] Plasencia, Customs of the Pampangas in their lawsuits, in B&R, vol. 16, pp. 323-25.

[38] Colin, Native Races and their Customs, in B&R, vol. 40, p. 82.

[39] Plasencia, Customs of the Pampangas in their lawsuits, in B&R, vol. 16, pp. 323-25.

[40] Plasencia, Customs of the Tagalogs, in B&R, vol. 7, p. 179.

[41] Plasencia, Customs of the Tagalogs, in B&R, vol. 7, p. 179.

[42] Plasencia in San Antonio, Chronicas de las Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio de Religiosos Descalzos,
p. 157.

[43] Plasencia, Customs of the Pampangas in their lawsuits, in B&R, vol. 16, pp. 322-323; also see Section 4.2
(iii).

[44] Lavezaris, in B&R, vol. 3, p. 287.

[45] Plasencia, Customs of the Pampangas in their lawsuits, in B&R, vol. 16, p. 325.

[46] Plasencia in San Antonio, Chronicas de las Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio de Religiosos Descalzos,
pp. 162-64.

[47] B&R, vol. 11, p. 31 and Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino
Responses, 1565-1700, p. 129.

[48] Sinibaldo de Mas (1842), Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas, in B&R, vol. 17, pp. 322-28.

[49] Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565-1700, p. 129;
also see Greg Bankoff (1996), Crime, Society and the State in the Nineteenth Century Philippines, Quezon
City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, chapter 4 for a full discussion of crime in the 19th century.

[50] (Phelan 1959: 94)

[51] Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565-1700, pp. 114-
16.

[52] Plasencia, Customs of the Tagalogs, in B&R, vol. 7, p. 180.

http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue13/mintz.html

Friday, March 7, 2008

Philippine prehispanic writings
Does this mean we were not salvages before the Spanish came? Funny. My Swiss husband said
that in school they learned that Magellan was killed by savages. Correction then. Make that
savages who can read and write! The Spanish even noted when they "discovered" the Philippines
that "there is scarcely anybody who cannot read or write in letters proper to the island Manila."
(Pedro Chirino in 1602; source: A page for Philippine Prehistory). This script is called baybayin.
Unfortunately, no baybayin documents have survived from before the spanish era (Paul Morrow).
Through the years, a lot of fakes have surfaced and have been proven as hoaxes. Hopefully, a
few artifacts are standing scrutiny and are now starting to give us a glimpse of the thoughts
of prehispanic Filipinos.
Three of these artifacts that showcase early Filipino writings are: 1) The Laguna Copperplate; 2)
The Calatagan Pot; and 3) The Butuan Silver Strip. What is exciting is two of these three
artifacts have recently been deciphered.

Laguna Copperplate

Found in 1989 in the mouth of the

Lumbang river, a subsidiary of the Laguna de Bay, the Laguna copperplate is very exciting
because the text mentions dates, names of people and towns that still exist today. This crushes
arguments that the artifacts with writings are rare because they were just brought to the
Philippines during trade. Obviously, the Laguna Copperplate was made by the inhabitants of old
Philippines. It was determined that the date written in the text corresponds to Monday, April 21,
900 C.E.. The translation of the text was facilitated because the writing is related to an
ancient Indonesian script called kavi. The text itself is a mixture of Sanskrit, Old Malay
and Old Tagalog hinting to Hindu influences even before the muslims arrived. Obviously,
there is a lot of the Philippines prehispanic history that is not known.

The Laguna Copperplate was translated in 1990 by Antoon Postma, a Dutch expert in
ancient Philippine scripts and Mangyan writing, and Dr. Johann de Casparis, an expert in
ancient Indonesian scripts.
Long Live! Year of Siyaka 822, month of Waisaka, according to astronomy. The fourth day of the waning moon,
Monday. On this occasion, Lady Angkatan, and her brother whose name is Buka, the children of the Honourable
Namwaran, were awarded a document of complete pardon from the Commander in Chief of Tundun, represented by
the Lord Minister of Pailah, Jayadewa.
By this order, through the scribe, the Honourable Namwaran has been forgiven of all and is released from his debts
and arrears of 1 katî and 8 suwarna before the Honourable Lord Minister of Puliran, Ka Sumuran by the authority
of the Lord Minister of Pailah.
Because of his faithful service as a subject of the Chief, the Honourable and widely renowned Lord Minister of
Binwangan recognized all the living relatives of Namwaran who were claimed by the Chief of Dewata, represented
by the Chief of Medang.
Yes, therefore the living descendants of the Honourable Namwaran are forgiven, indeed, of any and all debts of the
Honourable Namwaran to the Chief of Dewata.
This, in any case, shall declare to whomever henceforth that on some future day should there be a man who claims
that no release from the debt of the Honourable...
If you want to read more about the Laguna Copperplate, visit A Philippine Leaf

Calatagan Pot

The Calatagan pot is the first pre-

hispanic artifact with writing to be found (Hector Santos, A Philippine Leaf). The authenticity of
the pot has been questioned ever since it was found in the 1960s in Calatagan, Batangas. Noone
had been able to decipher it for a long time, all they know is that it shows a similarity to older
scripts used in Indonesia, suggesting that Philippine scripts may have evolved earlier than what
was originally thought. Recently, the pot has been deciphered by Dr. Ramon Guillermo of UP
Diliman. This success is a significant step in understanding the Philippines vague prehispanic
history.
Calatagan Pot translation:
Sinikap sabihin ni ina
 Para sa iyo mahal kong anak
Kumain ka sa aking dulang
Dibdib ko ‘tong mabango
Doon ika’y mabasa
Tulad ng bulaklak

Click here if you want to read the paper of Dr. Ramon Guillermo and here if you want to read
more about the Calatagan pot.

Butuan Sliver Strip

Found in Butuan in the mid

seventies inside a wooden coffin by treasure hunters. The script is also similar to the ancient
Indonesian script, Kavi. Unlike the first two artifacts mentioned, the Butuan Silver Strip have not
yet been deciphered. But isn't it exciting to think that there were many different kinds of scripts
used before the spanish arrived suggestive of a rich prehispanic culture?

Click here if you want to read more about the Butuan Silver Strip.

Butuan Silver strip photo from www.bibingka.com

Laguna copperplate photo from Wikipedia
Catalagan pot photo from A page of Philippine Prehistory

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http://www.catswalks.com/2008/03/prehispanic-writings.html