L INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS OPERATION PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION INFORMATION GENERAL @@) ELECTRICFOREWORD “THits manual is design to give the reader a better understaning ofthe theory of operation and the aplication of instrument eransformers. Because textbooks, in general, do not adequately cover the practical aspects involved in using ine rumen esnaformeta ic wat fk hat sucha reatse would be sty Bla beh tote bracing per alto the ere "ine person eosaped inthe Bel Of poser pencraton, ranonston, sod apcaion fs Boel wih countless meets and elssing procs hat can be solved only by he correct application if insert trang forme. "The nenual ir writen with the snconon Of helping the vender app seandand teasformers fo his own needs eather than af making hin an accomplished designer of inaroment transformers. With ts sention in in, 2 general discussion Stpelcins that ate common fo istrument transformers i prescned. By making se ef ths information he feeder shod ge Beto tae fll svanage ofthe many cypes of transformers now sessile 3 senda tem, itis suggested tha the Fear otal for convenient reference a copy of USAST Sandaras for Instrument Transform. ers, USED CONTENTS: CHAPTER ONE—FUNDAMENTALS GENERAL TYPES. Indoor or Outdoor Senice ‘ACCURACY. « ee INSULATION no rouny. : TAPPED SECONDARY ARRANGEMENTS. | ‘Curent Transformers os Potential Teomstormers CHAPTER TWOPOTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS ASIC OPERATION. peceers Tens FOR ExRESSNG ERRORS! I EFFECT OF BUIDEN ON TRANSFORMER ERRORS. 2.7 ICoMPmisamonsceertecencerentrs SaresaToRE CHANGE... Wave FORM. a YOUAGE VAwATION.. FREQUENCY VARATION, 22! fae EFFECT OF ERRORS ON INSTRUMENT READINGS.» STANDARD. ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION. «== THERMAL BORON BATING. sess SECONDARY BURDENS. es CORRECTION FOR ERRORS, 222227 Fines. OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORNEKS. APPUCATIONS, ponerse ected Invlation CHAPTER THREECURRENT TRANSFORMERS PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION. : ‘Fetus. TOR EXPRESSING ERG. ‘OvERCURRENT ACCURACY, esr Erfect OF SECONDARY BURGE ON ACCURACY. TIT TTT EFFECT OF PRIMARY OR SECONDARY ‘CURRENT ON ACCURACY. 21.0. COMPENSATION erste sssirsetssssronesisrseconrsneesioce FReQUeNcy VawiaTion’ FWAvELPOMASTocteser eae MeqURN CONDUCTOR erreCT! 22220000002 EFFECT OF ERRORS ON INSTRUANT READINGS. STANDARD ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION. .»..- THERMAL AND MECHANICAL RATINGS SECONDARY BURDENS, : Interconecton of furdeni 09 Thras-phote Gravtt.- Vector Seaton for interconnection of Burdens.» CORRECTIONS FOR TRANSFORMER ERRORS. ‘rors trom Chorecteriae Cores Evron trom Yeo! Bates secrecy TPES OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS. .7 APPLICATIONS sven Gira, cos Tareas oestareen tection Inerconnechon of Secondaries on Pelyphave Gru Superimposed Diet Corents------ : Accrecy Petanty. Invlotion SRECTION INFORMATION, = eo 0 BIRUOGRAPHY.CHAPTER ONE € FUNDAMENTALS INSTRUMENT transformers are essential parts of many electrical measurement systems and, as such, their qualities will affect dircetly the over-all accuracy and performance of such systems. Their place in the system is thar of Auxiliary Means —Basic Elements that change the magnitwle, but nor the nature of a quantity being measural, to make it mote suitable for the Primary Detecror®. ‘Thus, primary volrages of € currents are transformed in magnitude to sccondary values that are suitable for use with relays, meters, oF other measuring devices that are Fated usually at values of 120 volts or 5 amperes. A second and cqually important function of an inserument transformer is to provide insulation be- tween the primary’ and secondary circuits, thus simpl fying the construction of the measuring devices and providing safety forthe personnel using those deviees. GENERAL TYPES There are evo general types of instrument trans- formers: instrument potential transformers, used in voltage measurements; and instrument current ¢rans- formers, used in curtent measurement. Both types _ serve a8 insulators berween the normally high-voltage primary and low-voltage sceondary circuits. The primary of potential transformers is con- nected either line to line or line to neutral, and the current that flows theough this winding produces a flux in the core. Since the core links both the primary and secondary windings, a voltage is induced in the secondary circuit. The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is roughly in proportion to the number of tuens in the primary and secondary windings and is usually that proportion which will produce 115 of 120 volts at the secondary terminals when rated voltage is applied to the primary. Fig. Tyee JCT-0 introns! corrent rontforer for indoor services c z "ered 600 vate The current transforiner differs from che potential transformer in that the primary winding is slesigned for connection in series with the fine. ‘The eat primary co scconlary current is, roughly, inversely proportional co the ratio of primary to secondary turns ancl ic will usually prealuce five amperes in the secondary when ate current is flowing in the primary of Fig. 2. Type IVW.S incre! potete! ansformr far outdoor tere, red TS be Fig. 2. Type £W-1200 cascode plana! transformer fer eudoor rice role 345 by ‘For farther information on classification of measrcment sytem sce Functioal Ava Dir of Meaveraments by IF Kina, AIEE Trontatnt, We 0, 1946, pp. S99Instrument Transformers INDOOR OR OUTDOOR SERVICE “To be suitable for use i a measurement system an instrumcar transformer snust aot vale be able to perform irs function in the system, i¢ must also fit the needs of the contlitions under which itis to be used. ‘As many tcansformers are use indoors, a large umber of transformers are male for this protcctul service. Many others, however, must be installed in the open; so an additional line of outsloor transformers is available In general, outdoor types for voltages of 69,000 for less are molded in_ specially compounded butyl called HY-BUTE¢603 insulation, "Transformers operating above che 69,000-vole level are normally Tiguidflled and enclosed in weatherproof casi Which also contain che insulating Aid. ACCURACY To be a useful part of a measurement system, instrument transformers must change the magnitude of the voltage or current that is being measured wich- cout introducing any unknown errors of measurement into the system. Their accuracy of transformation must, therefore, be cither of a known value so that the errors can be included in the computation of the over- all measurement, of the errors must be within the limits of a specified small value so chat they may be dis- regarded safely. ‘Three factors affect this accuracy: (1) the design and construction of the transformer itself; (2) the circuit conditions such as voltage, current, and fre- ‘quency; and (3) the burden imposcd on the secondary circuit of the transformer. Consequently, for any spe- cite transformer and circuit condition, the accuracy is dependent on the burden, and may be different for each burden. In general, the higher che burden, the greater the error; however, this relationship is often affected by the compensation, which will be described in later chapters. Tn order that instrument transformers can be classified for accuracy, the USASI Standards for In- strument Transformers, USASI Standard C57.13, has specified various accuracy classifications for each of several standard burdens that cover the range nor maily encountered in service. In this way, any trans- former or any particular types of transformers, all manufacrured to the same design specifications, can be classified for accuracy at each of the standard burdens; thus, 2 standardized means of comparing the accuracy of various designs is available. This system of classi fication will be described in greater detail in later chapters. INSULATION Te was stare before that an instrument transe former change the magnitude of an electrical quantity to a value which is suicable for the measuring device used ro measure chat quantity. Since normal meters, instruments, and relays are suitable only for lows voltage service. the instrument transformer, whether current or potential, muse insulate the high voltage and provide a secondary voltage above ground potential that is low cnowgh co suit the measuring device. A potential cransformer must accomplish this transforma tion accurately, but both potential and currene eran formers must insulate the Fad Device from the prima voltage. (An End Device can be defined as an assembly cof measurement components that responds quantica- tively to the quantity measured and performs the final measurement operation. An End Device performs the final conversion of Measurement Energy to an indica- tion, record, oF the initiation of control.) Insulation for instrument transformers usually takes one of two forms: dry-rype of liquid-filled. With dry-type designs, one method of construct ing insulation is to mold HY-BUTE¥60 butyl insula- tion around the core and windings. (Sce Fig. 4.) Buryl is a synthetic flexible material which is injected into a mold containing the steel and copper parts of the tcansformer. The butyl fills the space around and be- tween the windings, forming 2 homogeneous one- Piece. insulation and lending itself to a pleasing outside appearance. The use of HY-BUTE$60. insulation provides an insulation system suitable for operation under exposed outdoor conditions. Another method of dry-type construction is 10 encase the core and windings in a HY-BUTE60 in- sulation shell which is chen filled with epoxy resin. This method makes use of the optimum qualities of both materials: HY-BUTE#60 insulation for its out- standing qualities of non-shattering ruggedness, non- creep-tracking, flame-retarding, and time-proven weathering; epoxy for its impregnating casting quali- ties, and dielectric and mechanical strength. The join- ing of these two materials has allowed the extension of dry-type insulation into higher voltage classes, Previously requiring a liquid or gas insulation, Liquid-filled designs have an outer casing, usually of metal and porcelain, which serves as a housing for the transformer and a’ container for the oil. In many cases, Pyranol®, a non-inflammable Auid. is used in place of the oil. This general type of insulation is used primarily for high-voltage transformers.Fin 4. Type JKW3 biybmelded iarmant caret tmtormar fo nr torvicny rated 3 hv Several tests are employed to insure that the insulation is adequate to protect both the measuring devices in the secondary. circuit and the personnel using those devices. One of the most important of these is the impulse test whicn simulates the high- voltage surge condition encountered when a lightning stroke hits a power line and its associated equipment. Others include 60 Hz high-potential tests, ionization tests, and induced-voltage tests. The test values for low-frequency and impulse tests are specified by USASI Standard C57.13. A more complete discussion of this subject will be found in later chapters devoted to the subject of “Tests.” POLARITY One primary and one secondary terminal of each instrument transformer is marked to indicate the relative instantaneous direction of primary and second- ary currents. When current is flowing “in at the marked primary terminal, current is fowing “out” at the marked secondary terminal. (See Fig. 53.) Eicher the marked or unmarked terminal of the primary winding of the current transformer can be ‘connected to either the generator or load side of the Tine; likewise, either the marked or unmarked ter minal ofthe primary winding of a potential transformer ‘can be connected to either high-voltage line. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule such as single-bushing potential transformers that must be connected with the neveral-end terminal at ground potential. However, the relative polarities of the primary and secondary windings are important in all cases. Considering direc- tion of current only, connections can be made by asreminng Fundamentals Primary OBI fal veraialeisiale) Secondary | t . Fes Sa Rela of play mare deco of creat few ia tromant ‘renirmere cl Primary Secondary Fe. Sh. Simplibed ogra af relatin of palrty marks te deacon af that the marked secondary line is a continuation of the marked primary line. (See Fig. 5b.) ‘According to USASI Standards for power trans- formers, when marked primary and secondary termi- nals are connected together, the voltage between the unmarked leads is less than the voltage across the high-voltage winding. The same principle applies to instrument transformers; however, it must be remem- bered that “high voltage” refers to the voltage across the terminals of the winding, and in the case of current transformers, the secondary generally has a higher voltage becweon terminals than the primary. Yet the secondary is commonly called the low-voltage winding because, in speaking of the voltage of these windings, it is generally the voleage above ground that is involved.Instrument Transformers TAPPED SECONDARY ARRANGEMENTS Increasing use of tapped-secondary instrument transformers has developed considerable interest in the design details of these types. In general, GE butyl-molded designs with sec- ‘ondary taps conform to USASI Standard C$7.13 covering tapped instrument cransformers. This Stand- ard states: ‘When taps ate provided, each lead or termi- nal of an instrument transformer shall be marked with a letter and 2 number. The number shall be of the series 1, 2, 3, ete, the lowest and highest numbers indicating the fall winding, and mediate numbers indicating the taps in their rela- tive order. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS On General Electric butymolded current trans- formers with center-tapped secondaries and three sec- i ————— ondary terminals, such as Types JKM- and JKW-3, “4, and -5 and JKW-150 chrough -350, the higher ratio is usually obtained by using the full secondary winding X; and X, secondary terminals. The lower ratio is usually obtained by using the Xs and X, termi- nals. (See Fig. 62.) Due to the compensation required to meet meter- ing accuracy, the ratio correction factor of wound- primary-metering current transformers (Type JKM- 3, 4, and -5 rated 10 through 800 amperes) will de- crease about 0.0042 when using Xi to X- instead of the correct connection, X; to Xy. A similar change will occur using wound-primary switchgear current transformers (Types JKS-3 and -3) in 200/400- and 300/600-ampere ratings only. All other ratings of these types will have virtually no difference between the results obtained using cither section of the winding. PRIMARY CONDUCTOR SECONDARY WINDING Low RATIO HIGH RATIO Fie 60. Typed wound primary cures! rosormer with opoed “econdary end fre tcendery terminalst For greater ease of use, some manufacturers will provide four terminals and two separate terminal cov- crs on mid-tapped transformers such as Types JAD-O, and JCP-0 for 600-volt insulation class and Types JCM- and JCW2, +4, -5 and JCD- and JCB-3, -4, -5 for higher voltage. (See Fig. 6b.) With this construc- tion, selection of the desired pair of terminals is sim- plified, and the unused pair may be sealed against accidental use. (On window-type current transformers rated 1000 amperes and above, the number of turns between Xi and X; is usually the same as the turns between Xs and Xs, and the accuracy using either pair would be very similar. On lower-ratio window-rype units, there may be a significant difference in effective turns be- tween X; and Xs compared to Xs and X; due to the effect of compensation. For best accuracy, itis important that the correct pair of secondary terminals be used on metering-type current transformers. The correct terminals with re- spect to a particular ratio are invariably indicated on the transformer or the nameplate to eliminate any possible errors in making the correct connections. Fundamentals POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS On tapped versions of butyl potential transform= ers, the higher ratio is obrained by using Xz and Xs. (Gee Fig. 6c.) The lower ratio is obtained by using X; and Xs, the full secondary winding. A 2400/ 44800:120 JVM-3, for example, is actually a 4800:240, design with a secondary center-tap. On.most butyl potential transformers, the results using Xz and Xs will usually be very similar to results with X, and Xs, ‘as compensation is applied to the primary. (On ratios near or under 1:1, this may not always be true.) The facts discussed above refer to standard de- signs. Odd ratios or special designs may not conform to these patterns. 2400 OR_ 4800. VOLTS: PRIMARY WINDING SECONDARY| WINDING Xe 120 VOLTS, (4800-VOLT PRIMARY) |___120 vots (2400-VOLT PRIMARY) Fi be Typed potetl rowtormers with midtonped vecenderyCHAPTER. TWO POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS INSTRUMENT pocential transformers are de- signed for connection line-to-line or line-to-neutral in the same manner as ordinary voltmeters. The second- ary voltage bears a fited relation with the primary voltage so that any change in potential in the primary circuit will be accurately reflected in the meters or other devices connected across the secondary terminals. Potential transformers can be used with voltmeters for voltage measurements or they can be used in com- bination with current transformers for watemeter of watthour meter measurements. They are used also to. operate protective relays and devices, and for many other applications. BASIC OPERATION The user of a potential transformer normally seeks a safely isolated secondary voltage which is an exact proportionate representation of a higher primary voltage. The first of these objectives, isolation, is accomplished by well-designed and thoroughly tested insulation systems. The second objective of exact proportionality between input and output cannot be realized in practice. The degree to which this perfect state is approached is, however, a major factor in decermining the quality of che transformer. As stared on the preceding page, if standard polarity marks are observed, che secondaty is in effect an insulated reduced direct extension of the primary. Perfect transformation could be expressed by Vp= KXVs, or primary voltage equals marked ratio K times secondary voltage. Assuming K=1, phasor representation of this would be as in Fig. 7a. Ves as Fa. 7a. Pov rapreeiion Vips—Primary voltage referred co secondary Vs—Secondary voltage Any transformer, whether loaded or not, will draw core-magnetizing current from the primary line. ‘A constant error independent of burden results from this current flow, the magnitude of which depends directly on the quality of the core steel. The meas- ured value of this error is recorded on a certificate of test furnished with General Electric buty!-molded transformers. Phasor representation of exciting cur- rent ettor is shown in Fig. 7b. Fa. 7a. Pheer represeretion Symbols for Figures 7b and 7 ‘Vps—Primary voltage referred to.secondary \Vso—Secondary voltage with no burden Rps—Primary resistance referred to secondaty Xps—Primary reactance referred to secondary Jes—Exciting current referred to secondary e—Phase angle between Vso and les yo-Phase angle between Vps and Vso YEE ARCF, = Reto correction facor with no burden Vso" A variable ertor dependent on load or burden results from burden current flowing through the cotal effective transformer impedance. This burden error is independent of exciting current error. Phasor repre- sentation of these errors combined (Fig. 7c) derer- ‘mines the total error under any burden condition.& Potential Transformers Vso FROM FIG 78 Additional Symbols Va-Secondary voltage with burden Res—Toral resistance referred to secondary Xes—Toral leakage reactance of transformer referred to secondary Tp~Burden current =Is—Secondary current A-Phase angle between Vso and Vp @x—Power factor angle of burden Total error can now be expressed as the magnitude of Vp at an angle of 4e+A with respect co Vps. Measured error at stated burden unity power factor is recorded on the certificate of test furnished with Gen- eral Electric butyl-molded transformers. From cert jcate data, calculations* can be made to determine transformer accuracy for any other burden within the rated value. TERMS FOR EXPRESSING ERRORS The ratio error is usually expressed as a Retio Correction Factor (RCF) which is defined as the factor by which the marked ratio must be multiplied to obsain the true ratio. This is expressed as: True Ratio RCP Narked Ratio or: True Ratio= Marked Ratio X RCF. ‘The phase-angle error (y) isthe angle berween the primary voltage vector and the secondary voleage vector reversed. It is usually expressed in minutes of angle. This angle is conventionally considered as posi= tive when the reversed-secondary voltage vector leads the primary-voltage vector. Thus, the ratio correction factor takes the form of a number, such 2s 1.004 or 0.998. The phase-angle error (7) takes the form + 10 minutes or — + minutes as the case may be. EFFECT OF BURDEN ON TRANSFORMER ERRORS AAs shown in Fig. 7c, the error load or burden depends on both the magnirude of Ip and the angle between Vp and Ip. Therefore, the error is dependent on both the magnitude and power factor of Zp, the external burden in the secondary circuit. Any change in che number or type of devices that are placed in the secondary circuit of the transformer will change Rp cor iXa, oF both, and will affecr the magnitude of the error due to burden. If the power factor of Zp is held constant, the magnitude of errors due to burden will vary lineally with burden VA, as shown in Fig. 8. As secondary voltage is essentially constant for this curve. note that increasing volt-amperes corresponds to incteas- ing amperes and decreasing Z>. v0.05 r= oy 12.0.5 PF a Secondary burden in valom Fen 8 Typed pata ontormar characteris COMPENSATION ‘Most potential transformers are designed for the lowest practical exciting current and impedance of the windings. This means that the fundamental design is such that the errors are kept to a minimum. How- ever, since the ratio error increases wich an increase in the burden, the transformers are compensated to have the condition of zero ratio error with an average value of burden on the secondary, rather than mini- mum error at some extremely low burden. This is accomplished by making the actual turn ratio slightly “Details derived and dscuste in “Transmission & Diseibution Dec. 1959" article by F. R. D'Entremont entitled “How co use ecrifcate test valus to determigecomplece potential tansloemer accuracy charactevicsInstrument Transformers different from that which is marked on the nameplate. This is shown on Fig. 8 by the fat chat zero ratio error cccurs at approximately $0 vole-amperes TEMPERATURE CHANGE ‘The accuracy of potential transformers is affected slightly by changes in temperature of the windings because the resistance of these windings varies as 2 result of the cemperature change. This change in accuracy is usually under 0.1 percent for a $5 C change in temperature. WAVE FORM Voltage waves that contain third harmonics hav- ing a magnitude of as much as 25 of 30 percent of the fundamental will be reproduced in the secondary waves, ‘of most potential transformers with very little distor- tion, and the transformer errors will be changed very slightly. Waves that contain harmonics of a higher order than the third may not be generated as accurately because the amount of distortion increases as. the frequency and magnitude of the harmonies increase. However, higher harmonics are usvally of small mag- nitude, and in this instance, will cause little error. VOLTAGE VARIATION Potential-transformer errors are not affected by voltage variation unless the variation is of such magni: tude a5 to change the ratio of exciting current to line voltage. Thus, voltages that are lower than rated voltage (nameplate rating) will not affect the accuracy appreciably, but those voltages higher than rated may ‘cause saturation of the core—with resultant large ‘errors and excessive’ heating. Most transformers will operate satisfactorily at 10 percent overvoltage, but values higher than this may cause increased errors and excessive heating. FREQUENCY VARIATION Normally, potential transformers are rated for use at one frequency only, although many designs are suitable for use on both 50 and 60 Hz circuits. In general, an increase of as much 2s 100 percent above rated frequency will increase the errors only slightly, if at all. However, a decrease in frequency of more than 5 or 10 percent may lead to serious trans- former errors, as well as excessive heating. AAs the frequency is increased, the lux density in the core and the exciting current decreases, but the reactance of both the transformer windings and the burden increases. This increase in the reactance of the 10 burden decreases the load current in the windings. Thus the increased reactance of the windings tends co in- crease the voltage drop in the windings; bur at the same time, the decreased exciting current and load current tends to decrease the voltage drop. The net result depends on che design of the transformer in question and the circuit constants of the burden; buc in general, only a very small increase in ratio and phase-angle errors will result from a considerable in- crease in Frequency. A decrease in frequency increases the flux density, the exciting current, and the load current, while it de~ creases the reactance. However, again depending on the design of the transformer, saturation of the core may be reached with a relatively small reduction in frequency. At this point, very large errors and con- siderable heating will rake place. EFFECT OF ERRORS ON INSTRUMENT READINGS Both ratio errors and phase-angle errors are pres- ent in potential transformers. However, only the ratio error need be considered when potential transformers are used as part of a voltage measurement. The read- ing on the voltmeter will difer from the actual voltage to be measured by: 1, The ratio of the transformer. This is a desirable effect and is one of the principal reasons for using the transformer in che circuit. This ratio is marked on the transformer nameplate. 2. The ratio error, This is an undesirable effect. For high accuracy of measurement, this error rust be taken into account when determining the acrual primary voltage from the reading smade in the secondary circuit. However, most potential transformers have a ratio error that is so small that it need not be considered in the usual measurement of voltage. For measurements of power where the phase rela- tionship between the voltage and current vectors enter the measurement (such 25 wartmeter readings), the Phase-angle error must also be considered. Since an error in the voltage phase angle consticutes a shift in phase between the position of the voleage vector in the primary circuit and the corresponding voltage vector in the secondary circuit, the over-all result is to change the phase relationship between the voltage and current in the secondary circuit as compared to their relation- ship in the primary circuit. This will introduce an error in the wattmeter reading in addition co the ratio error. A graphical representation of this error is shown on Fig. 9. As with the ratio error, however, this phase-angle ¢ “or is normally so small that i can be neglected in all bx the most exacting measurements. In general terms, a Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) greater than |—for instance, 1.002—will ea 1¢ meters and instruments in the secondary’ circuit to read low (0.2 percent low for an RCF of 1.002). ‘A negative (lagging) phase-angle error will cause ‘a wattmeter in the secondary circuit of a potential transformer to read high (for the normal situation of lagging line power Factors). This results from the fact tha: + lagging potential phase-angle error decreases the power ‘actor angle of the secondary circuit, over what ic was in the primary circuit, by decreasing the angle by which the current lags the voltage as shown in Fig. 9. Since the watt reading results from the product of the voltage, current, and power factor (cosine of power-factor angle), a decreased angle gives an appar- ent higher power factor which makes the wattmeter read high. STANDARD ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION The USASI Standards for Instrument Trans- formers, USAS C57.13, has standardized on a method of classifying potential transformers as to accuracy. ‘As the accuracy is dependent on the burden, standard burdens have been designated, and these are the bur- dens at which the accuracy is to be classified. ‘The standard burdens have been chosen to cover the range normally encountered in service and are listed by the letters W, X, Y, Z, and ZZ, as follows: USASI STANDARD BURDENS FOR POTENTIAL ‘TRANSFORMERS Volt-amperes Burden Burden | “Ze'izo volts Power Factor w 125 0.10 oc 250 070 ¥ 750 oss Zz 2000 os zz. 400.0 os NOTE—USAS! Stonderde sndord burdens for otal ‘hall have the tame voll-ampere end. powertactor raquendon Ie should be pointed out that the burden of any specific meter of instrument may approximate, but seldom is the same as, any one of the standard burdens. The standa, burden serves merely as a standardized refer- ence point at which the accuracy of the transformer may be stated, The aces is as follows: cy classification as given by USASI Potential Transformer USAST ACCURACY CLASSES FOR POTENTIAL, ‘TRANSFORMERS TLimits of Ratio G: Accuracy ‘rection. Factor and) Class “Transformer Cor | Mfection Factor imits of Power Fac- or (Lagging) of Me- “ered Bower Load 12 | 1012-0988 sto oe | iowom | oer os | am-aoer oe “The Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) has been defined as the factor by which the marked ratio must be multiplied in order to obtain the true ratio. The Transformer Correction Factor (TCF) repre- sents a method of setting down in one number, the combined effect of the ratio error and the phase-angle error on wattmeter or similar measurements where the change in power factor from primary to secondary cir- cuits enters the measurement. TCF is defined 28 the factor by which a wartmerter reading must be multiplied to correct for the combined effect of the inserument transformer ratio correction factor and phase angle. The limits of TCF, as indicated in the table above, have been set up by USASI for the range of load power factor set forth in the table. If the power fuctor of the primary circuit is outside this range, che TCF of the transformer also may be outside the limits spec- iffed, even though the transformer is correctly listed as one which will meet a certain accuracy class. Since published data on potential-ransformer characteristics, as well 2s the data given on transformer calibration certificates, are usually given in the form of ratio correction factor and phase-angle error, it is necessary to have a means of interpreting these data im terms of the accuracy classification given in the roble. This is done as follows: For any known ratio correction factor of a given potential cransformer, the positive and negative limiting values of the phase-angle error (7) in minutes may be adequately expressed as follows: y= 2600 (TCF —RCF)t. {The formals—y = 1600(TCF-RCF) and che pacalelograms of Fi 1e'isel aw i ae Spronnate on he ere tral os(33.13"+7) #08 5EE, However, the approximate foemula ine trovlces ver cele ror at the ealesation ad iseticely adequate for normal purpons. :Instrement Transformers PHASE RELATIONS IN INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS ing diagrams show grephicaly the lvvcion ef the correcion factor for that ta tion of rotation of veer Ne Length of vectors for sffes- "Yor ond lpi should Se 0707 t of intontoneous valves er encnle, voltage inthe primaries of ‘of No.2. Phow No.2 ‘role feomert have. Sere’ ph (707, carrer apging. Oy she apparent power fotor ph 2oy) Potential Transformers 3 fete Coven Fc rset oe 1 ew 70 Fa. 10. Porllgrams showing graphical equivlet of USAS!eecroey slowes 0 ©. aud? fr potenti rnformers TCF is taken in turn as the maximum and minimum values of transformer correction factor specified in the table, and RCF is the ratio correction factor of the potential transformer under the conditions that are being checked. This relationship is plorted for the various accuracy classes on Fig. 10. By means of this USASI system, the accuracy of a potential transformer may be described by listing the best accuracy class which it meets for each burden. Thus, a potential transformer may be accurate ‘enough to be rated: 0.3 W, 0.3 X. 0.3 Y and 0.3 Z while another may be: 0.3 W, 0.3 X, 0.6 Y and 1.2Z or still another: 0.3 W, 0.6 X and 1.2 Y, In the last example, the omission of any reference to accuracy at the Z burden ins cates that the etror is steater than that specified for the poorest accuracy class at this high burden and, thus, no figure can be given. Te should be noted that the foregoing system pro vides a method of classifying transformers as to accu- racy, but it does not give the specif error for any given transformer beyond the fact that it is within a certain range. Thus, for accurate measurements, the actual ertor of the transformer must be known and taken into account in the measurement. For high- accuracy measurements, this information may be ob- tained from a calibration certificate or other calibra- tion result on the particular transformer in question. ‘A reasonable approximation of the accuracy may be obtained also from the characteristic accuracy curves listed in the descriptive literature for all types of po- tential transformers. THERMAL BURDEN RATING It is not the usual practice to apply burdens on Potential transformers in excess of theit volt-ampere rating, as good accuracy of transformation will not be maintained under these conditions. However, an occa sional application is encountered where some particular ratio or other feature of a potential transformer makesInstrument Transformers Power factor 40 € 40poy s9m0g 70 RANT) O ECE -EEEPER Cee PERC ENE AEN AIEEE [4 Ct TATA TRIATUD 130 140 150A 260 280 3008 120 240 at 0 220 i T 1 100 { =F} 90 160 180 200 70 80 140 30 20 10. 60 120 30 oo EEE BO0E 8% 09 OvZ OLE Goe OBI OM Ori Oz Col Of O09 OP vost Ori oct ozt OL COL 06 08 o£ 09 OS OF oF oz osadwo-yor (aa1jonpur) aa1;>094 10 2240/2001 1H, 30 40 60 80 Ohms effective resistance or active (non-induciive) voll-amperes of watts 20 40 16 20 Fa. Cher fr grpicl determination af burden chrctariics “e it desirable to use chis type of transformer for supply- ing power, rather than for measurement purposes. In such situations. iris usually possible to place burdens which are considerably higher than the vole-ampere rating on the secondary circuit, without encountering excessive heating that would shorten the life of the transformer. The limit of such burden is called the Thermal Burden Rating of the transformer and is given in yolt-amperes. Normally, this information may be fo: 4 in the descriptive literature concerning cach type of transformer. SECONDARY BURDENS Ic has been stated before that the burden on the secondary circuit of a potential eransformer affects the accuracy of that device. Therefore, to predict the per- formance of a particular transformer that is to be used in a certain circuit, che burden of the various meters and instruments in the secondary of this circuit must be known. Burden data for General Electric Company apparatus are listed in Publication GET-1725 as well as in the descriptive literature for each class of ap- paratus. Ie is often found desirable to connect several meters ot combinations of devices in parallel on the secondary of potential transformers. In these cases, i is necessary to compute the total burden of such a com bination of devices. For many purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to add arithmetically the volt-ampere burden of the indi- vidual devices involved. In case the impedance burden only is known, the volt-ampere burden can be calcu- lated from the relationship: where E is the voltage drop across the burden and Z, is the burden impedance. This method is followed, for example, in decer- mining wheth t of not a transformer will have exces- sive burden. In those cases where a calculation on this basis indicates too much total burden, ic is advisable +> recalculate, taking the power factor into account. For convenience in combining burdens in those cases where it is necessary to consider the power factor of the ‘mpedance, the chart shown in Fig. 11 has been constructed. Thus. itis possible to readily work out burden combinations graphically, without using a com- paratively complicated mathematical process. The chart consists of a quadrant laid off in polar co-ordinates, superposed of rectangular co-ordinates. The radii of che polar plot are drawn at angles that Potential Transformers correspond to even values of power factors. These radii are sufficient in number to permit che determina- tion of power factor with reasonable accuracy. The radii of the polar plot and the ordinates and abscissas of the reccangular plot are laid off in ohms and volt- amperes to a common scale, Thus, a certain value of impedance or volt-amperes at a certain power Factor determines a point in the polar plot. Reference to the same point on the rectangular plor gives the inductive component (reactance or reactive volt-amperes) as ordinate, and noninductive component (effective resist- ance or watts) as abscissa. Inductance in henrys equals reactance divided by 2*f, when f= frequency. Ie should be noted that the chart has two distiner sets of scale values, and care must be taken to use corresponding scales on the two different plots. The set of values should be used chat will locate the point farthest from zero. Also, it should be noted that the decimal point in the scales may be transposed co any desirable point, so long as it is moved correspondingly (on both the polar and rectangular plots. The chart can be used for the following purposes: 1, To determine the combined impedance and power factor of combinations of such devices (either Potential or current) as are listed in Publication GET- 1725, of other devices on which similar data are available. 2. To determine the components of an impedance for the purpose of determining the total (or equivalent) impedance of a combination. The power factor must be known, 3. To decermine the total output required by a combination of devices whose volt-amperes and watts are known values. 4. To determine the components of the output required by separate devices for the purpose of deter- mining the total output required by a combination. ‘An example of its application to the problem of combining poential-transformer burdens is as follows Required: To determine the tc-al volt-amperes and power factor of the burden on 2 potential transformer to which are connected: One Type I-50, 120-vole watthour meter, One Typ: AB-18, 150-vole voltmeter. and One Type AB-18, single-phase wattmerer. From Publication GI°T-1725, burden data may be found as follows: wares Vars Watthour Mecer nt 82 Volemeter 47 09 Warmercr 21 o Toral 79) 94 15Instrument Transformers Using scales A (by multiplying the above values by 10), locate a point in the rectangular plor by using 7.910 as an abscissa and 9.1% 10 as an ordinate. This point falls on the radius 0.66, which gives this value a5 the power factor of the total burden. Then, follow= ing the are (imaginary) on which the point is located to the radius marked in total velt-amperes, 12.0% 10 will be noted as the volt-ainpere burden. CORRECTION FOR ERRORS The USASI accuracy classification of all GF. po- tontial eransformers is listed in che descriptive litera- ture for this apparatus. Some designs have the accuracy listed directly on the nameplate. The accuracy classification indicates the perform- ance levels of the various types of transformers. For many measurements, the maximum errors thus indi- cated are s0 small that they can be neglected without seriously affecting the over-all accuracy of the meas- urement. In other measurements, high accuracy is required, and corrections for potentialcransformer terrors must be made. In such situations, the USASI classification of errors is not suitable for making these corrections, so characteristic curves or test data must be used. Procedure for obtaining complete accuracy ccharacteristies from certificate of test values furnished swith General Electric butyl-molded potential rrans- formers is contained in che Instrument Transformer Data Book Publication No. 220TD. DETERMINATION OF ERRORS FROM CHARACTERISTIC CURVES Characteristic curves for potential transformers ace published in the descriptive literature in a form similar to that shown on Fig. 8. This curve lists the ratio correction factor (RCF) and the phase-angle crror (7), from zero to rated burden in volt-amperes, for each of the several burden power factors speci fied by USASI In general, the accuracy of individual transformers of a given type will match the charac- teristic accuracy curves for that type within the fol- Towing limis: ratio correction factor may vary 0.002 and phase-angle error may vary 7 minutes from the curve values. Thus, an RCF of 1.004, as read from the curve, may be actually anywhere within the range of 1.002 to 1.006 for any specified transformer. A phase-angle crror of +12 minutes may be actually ++5 minutes or +19 minutes. OF course, this variation is for che general case: many designs have variations smaller than this, although very few individual trans formers will execed chis range. 6 DETERMINATION OF ERRORS FROM TEST DATA Correction data for potential-transtormer errors may be obtainal from test results on che particular transformer. as well as from characteristic accuracy curves. Such data are usually: raken at che same burden and voltage at which the final measurement is co be rade so that ealculation of errors under other condi- tions is usually unnecessary; however, the general methods ouriined in the Instrument Transformer Data Book 22071) may be cimployed. The accuracy with which the test data are taken will, of course, affect the accuracy of the corrected final measurement. Certificates of Test for potential tcansformers. issued by the General Electrie Company, guarantee the ratio correction factor to be within 0.001 of the figure given and che phase-angle ecror to be within 3 minutes. Correction of errors by this ‘means gives the best accuracy for the particular po- tential transformer used. RATIO ERROR If no errors were present, the voltage that exists in a particular circuit would be the voltage measured in the secondary of a potential transformer connected in that circuit, multiplied by the marked ratio of the transformer. However, two errors may be present in such a measurement—an error in voltage in the volt- ‘meter, and an error in ratio in the transformer. The ‘error in the voltmeter may be correcced by applying the proper correction factor from a calibration curve for other data for that device. (See General Electric Company Instructions GEJ-121 for further information on instrument corrections.) The error in ratio can be corrected by multiplying the marked ratio by the ratio correction factor to find the true ratio. The primary voleage, chus, equals: Primary voltage Corrected secondaty-voltage measurement X ratio X RCP. ‘The RCF may be found for the burden imposed on the transformer by reference to the characteristic curves ‘or test data for the transformer. PHASE-ANGLE ERROR Potential-cransformer phase-angle errors donot affect'the accuracy of ordinary voltage measurements, bur do introduce errors into wattmeters or other measurement devices where the power factor of the circuit to be measured enters into the measurement. This may be seen by reference to Fig. 9. For many purposes. these errors are oo small to warrant cor- rection. For other higher accuracy measurements, they must be considered to achieve the desired accuracy.For such high-accuracy measurements, several errors in phase angle must be considered, including thae introduced by che porential transformer. These errors are: (1) the phase-angle error of the potential trans- former, (2) the phase-angle error in the potential cir- cuit of the watemeter, if one is used in the measure- ment*; and (3) the phase-angle error of the current transformer, which is often used in wattmeter measure- ments. Of course, the watemeter scale correction, and ratio errors of both the potential transformer and ‘current transformer, must also be considered. TYPES OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS Potential transformers are, of course, made in many voleage ratings. In general, instrument trans- formers for use on circuits rated 25,000 volts and above are suitable for use out-of-doors. Transformers for circuits below chis voltage are usually molded of specially compounded butyl that is suitable for out- door service. Also, several specific indoor potential transformers are available zo fulfil the requirements of certain service conditions. Portable potential transformers are normally used for test purposes. They are equipped wich handles, for convenience in transport, and chey may be specially calibrated for high accuracy testing. Phasing transformers are also available for use with watometers of watthour meters. These trans- formers operate by shifting the phase of the voltage applied to these end devices so that they can be used for measuring vars (reactive volt-amperes). Potential Transformers a as 13 Type SVWA btyLmaled iran! pote tantamer for ‘order eve rated 87 Fe Outdoor potential transformers inthe higher voltage range (generally: 25,000 volts and above) are made in two distinct seyles. One has two high-volrage primary bushings and is suitable for either line-to-line or Jine-to-neutral applications. The other has only’ one igh-voltage primary bushing. The other end of the primary winding is brought out at 2 low-voltage bushing and grounded. Sce Fig. 14 and 15. ‘There is no corresponding eae ia 2 watthour meter Fa: 12. Type JVAL2 iaramart pote ronfermer fr indoor varices Fofove model eed § ev Fis 1h. Type JVT-200 SUPER BUTE! inraman potential amfeme for lvtdoor sare) red 34.3 Fv t Trademark of General Flere Company 7Instrument Transformers ig. 1S. Type IVS250 SUPERSUTE increment poratl ronalrmer for ‘video rervice ted 9 he Table I, below, lists the various standard ratings of potential transformers as set forth in USASI Stand- ard C57.13. APPLICATIONS Potential transformers are used in many different types of circuits and for many different purposes. A typical connection of a voltmeter and potential trans- former for the measurement of voltage is shown in Fig. 16. Ocher typical circuits, measured by various meters, instruments, and relays by the use of both po- tential and current transformers, are shown in Fig. 19 through 25 inclusive. ‘When applying potential transformers, consider- ation should be given to the particular type of system in which the transformer is to be placed to be sure that the transformer has the proper insulation for the system in question. Table I, reproduced from USASI Standard C57.13, lists the standard ratings for pocen- tial transformers and the types of circuits on which they can be used. Figure 26, reproduced from the same publication, gives typical examples of three phase systems and the manner in which various pozen- tial transformers may be connected in these systems. TABLE I NDARD INSULATION CLASSES, MARKED RATIOS, PRIMARY-VOLTAGE RATINGS, AND ‘DIELECTRIC TESTS FOR POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS Nameplave Marking 1 Dicieesrie Tests Brat, | pees | ircuit | missible | Low- Insu- Primarcrotage | Settage | misile | To Higa] Marka |g Ra former | quchey run aise) Nats pated Volta Sons" | SHE | crear | Min, Time vo| Wave we toe nection | Te | Seit! | Mifaanenes?| ae ams | “ge | Pantece | lS, GB | ae Group 11.2 to 15 Kv, full insulation, ¥ voltage mit equals Vi cimes A voltage lime oe TH TOY ro w aoe | Fen Ra 20/416 poHleaert |: al al = 1” ite | Peni. asa 300/520 ar) aoe | oa foe fH ” iso_|_fcn TF TT TORY To] -aorY | 10 |e 13 w xen | Ponty za 20/H16¥ xo.| ory | wo | 36 10 30 Ste | Pony asa 300/520 ar | aor | wo | 36 10 x0 am | Pong 41 480/832 480 Aor Y 10 36 1.0 30, ae | Penty sa éeoniosoy | wary | w | 36 10 x0 ro1oe | fen 5a] tor Tea Hoo} gor Y-| 1] iF w ite | Pate + These system voltages ace nor ltd in Standard Voleage Ratings for Av Systems, USAS C34. 18Potential Transformers S TABLE I (Cont) STANDARD INSULATION CLASSES, MARKED RATIOS, PRIMARY-VOLTAGE RATINGS, AN! DIELECTRIC TESTS FOR POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS Nameplawe Marking Dielectric Feats Usual . , dest, Impulse Tove imary-roltage | Flea Inas- naryeoyaee | Yoleage Chopped Wave lalon| = Marked Rated Voltage | Standard aces mnaerer es ee Cia Ratio Rated Voltage | Standard ‘Tent’ | Crest | Min. Time to] Wave “en fo Yates | gecton | tke | Sete: |Mefasnover”| “Ry nits) | ‘age | "Elltest” | cfeso a8 | Seas) . Group 1: 1.2 to 15 Ky, full Insulation, ¥ voltage limit equals V3 times A voltage limit (Cont.) a 700772007 Sar] eee 7 Peniy son 4800/8320 fo | ary | 26 | se | 16 5 sim | Fony oT THO TTOY Tao | a oY] a] Ie] 7 uae | Peniy 7oa 8400/14560¥ fm | sory | om | uo] 16 95 00 _|_ Peaiw TH) er THEO TTATOY 700-| Bor Y || || 00 | Pony rors _exooseo¥ mm | aory | a | vo | 20 | uo 0 | Peale Group 2: 04 co 161 Ey, full insulation, ¥ voltage limit equals 4 voltage limit 06 TH 120/120Y 120 Boy + 12 = 10 oe i 20/200 wo | ary | os] a] = 1b os #1 500/300¥ of aay] 4] a] = 10 - os 31 aeo/aso¥ aw] afer | 4] a] = io os 31 00/00 wo | fer] ¢] eB} = FY 5 I 2400/2400¥ noo | Serv | os | | is rH Fd t 200/28007 io | Zory | » | o fi @ a 1 Saoviaooy___|_omo0_|_Aoc¥_| 26 | #8 i : BE 170007120007 000} ear] | Tasooriewoy | iewo | Rory | de | tio | is TH 170007120007 Tza00-| ear ¥ [3 | oJ 2 Hs00/1as00¥ tio |_Aeey_|_ 32 | to |__ 30 B 71000 29000Y B00 |"Zer¥-| 30) 5-30 Shs 3as00/3es00¥ iso | Zork | 70 | 20 | 30 % ca00/4c000¥ stow | Zery_|__os_| 300 |__ 3.0 3 $7000 67000 wan _|~2-er¥—| 140 | 00] 3 2 92000/92000¥ wo| ery | ies | so) 30 us vio00/tiso00x _|_itio00 | Aeey_ [| 0 | 430 | 30 BE | Tao Tye0007138000Y —|—138000-| ae ¥ | 37s [730] 3.0 161 1400:1 161000/161000¥_ 161000, orY 325 865, 3.0 Group 3:25 Kr to MS Ev, reduced insulation at neutral end, Gré¥ application oaly - = | DE Ml | TOO br BUM | hao | GeVedy) me] e 5 - S| tsk Joon | roiasior Sesooceay | jasoo | Gaveay] 2 | = 2 2 & |_soe too | reco for scoooceey | sao00 | Gavou| 5 | 8 5 5 4 | taxso ter oreo |— on [Garou] & | & a in 2 $5200 for ozooceey | s200*| Gavouy| 2 | 2 2 g 8 9000 for uisoo0GeY |_11500 | Gavouy| 3 | 8 3 3 > | Sos00 Tor Devo Tsao | Garey] => | =| > > 3 S2o00 for 1sloooGeay | tela |Gec¥ ony | = | 2 3 2 115000 for 196000Gr¥_| 196000" | Grd¥ only | = 2 z el [138000 Tor 230000GraY | 210000~| Gra¥ only |“ z z é tinge fr wae | mor (Gavey| & | E| f | £ | tom & Som: | en fer Wiomcrey | Smo | Gavent | y | 3 : 2 _ (F500 a 3s0001 | Noe Exeablisned | 300000 ~I"Grd¥ onlv z 2 z ~ “These system voltage ate aot ted in Standard Voleage Ratings for Ave Syscems, USAS C84OE UC UNE. toad Fe. 16. Connaction diagram of vlimter with potent rntermer YY-CONNECTED Ik is often desirable to connect potential trans- formers with their primaries connected in Y and the secondaries connected cither in Y or broken delta. For a typical example, see Fig. 27. Such connections permit satisfactory operation on three-phase, four-wire, grounded-neutral systems, and on three-phase, three-wire systems if both the neutral of the circuit (the section to which the transformers are connected) and the neutral of the transformer pri= maties are solidly and permanently grounded. However, special consideration should be given to such connection of potential transformers on iso- lated-neurral systems or on systems grounded through a high impedance. Excessive voltage and neutral in- stability may occur as 2 result of circuit faults, grounded-neutral potential transformers are connected to such isolated-neutral systems. Most potential erans- formers are designed to withstand the higher voltage during emergency operation after circuit faults; how- ever, the insulation will deteriorate rapidly during such ‘operation. The neutral instability* may be avoided by the use of adequate noninductive secondary burdens. Thus the use of such circuits is possible, but special care is necessary. FUSING Ie is a general rule that fuses should be used in both the primary and secondary circuits of potential TNE T % toad Fa T7. Comacton darn ab « watmatr wih caren end pote! Irendaemars, transformers. This is done to protect these devices from high currents due to circuit faults and, conversely, to protect the circuits from faults thar may occur in the potential transformers or in the secondary circuits attached to them. However, there are several exceptions to this rule. Ie is general practice to omit the fuses in the connec. tions to grounded terminals of potential transformers. This practice is essential in the case of single-primary- bushing-type potential transformers. In addition, for certain applications involving regulators of protective relays, where the continuity of excitation to these de- vices is more important than the possibility of damage to the transformers, itis customary to omit the fuses. Primary Fuses Primary fuses must be so selected that they will perform the following functions: 1. Interrupt the maximum short-circuit current +h may occur at the point of fuse installation, 2. Open the circuit if a shore cireuit occurs at TF? rf FRONT hed ‘view Ko | | r- \- ig toao Fe 18. Comecion Sogron of wathow meter with urrent and patent ‘reformer “This geoeal subject is dgcussed in the paper enticed Coils fr Neatral Stability of WyeGrandd Primary Bovien Delt Siondery Tamsomer Giraats by H.'. Shoct and HA, Persons ALEE Tramsscton, Vol 0, 19, pp. SIO 20C & Acc bus Potential Transformers Bec control bus Gr bre ‘rout braoker i open Type IAVSIA lay [3 on iol Monsormer ff reas bre wn Goeconag Polaraing ca a Curent womlcrmers peice Function Number (7N—Direcnvel growed iy Th scr) Fe 20. Conaction dora a pani polriced rie wih core and ‘pout efor Gresit breaker (b) With PTs connected line-to-round (or electrically close to) the potential-transformer- secondary terminals. 3. Maintain the circuit unincerrupeed under the action of the inrush magnetizing current to the trans- formez, which occurs during switching operations. The maximum short-circuit current may be cal- cculated by assuming a zero impedance fault at the point of fuse installation. A currentclimiting fuse (such as the GE Types EJ-1 and EJO-1) which has a voltage rating equivalent to the line-to-line voltage of the cir cuit, and an interrupting rating equal to or greater than the calculated short-circuit current, will intezrupe this maximum current safely. However, other types of Fases are generally made with such low interruption ratings that they req the current to a value within the interrupting capaciey of the fuse. Faults which occur near the secondary terminals ‘cause a primary current to flow, and this current will usually blow the fuse if the fuse is properly selected. However, ifa fuse of too low a current rating is chosen, i will blow on the inrush current co the transformer during switching, which is, of course, undesirable. As the heating effcet (which actually meles the fuse link) of the maximum inrush current and of the Primary current due to secondary short circuit ar the 2Instrument Transformers une FRONT. " une FRONT view 1040 {el Type 150-4 toro (6) Type 150.8 Fe 21 Commetin Saran hee wath mtr he Swe slp ch shown nf Zora maar ow bei by mens of terminals are known quantities for any given trans- former, the manufacturer is able to apply primary fases to porential transformers. These fuses will give the maximum protection to both the circuit and the ‘wansformer, without causing unnecessary interruptions to the circuit. Thus the fuses supplied with fused potential transformers should be replaced, when neces- sary, with fuses of similar characteristics. In those situations where separately mounted fuses are em- ployed to carty the primary current of more than one = a rors ‘Corre ensermers (a) Two-phose,Sovine drei ced or unbolanced voltage or load (e) Twreesphase, Sovire eid Fe 22. Comcton dcorams fr «palohove warmater with crest ond potenti rnfermert 2© (ol Type V3, Potential Transformers une Af | tao, (0) Type v.83. Fe 23. Couctinndigra o wath mater fr are cect with crrnt cod patel taal transformer, special consideration should be given to the selection of fuses. Assistance in ordering the cor- rect fuse type may be requested from the nearest GE Sales Office. Secondary Fuses The selection of primary fuses represents, among other considerations, a current rating large enough to maintain the circuit during switching surges. There- fore, faults in the secondary circu that are electrically distane from the terminals may not cause sufficient primary current to blow the fuses, because of the impedance in the secondary circuie. Secondary fuses should be used to protect the ‘transformer from such shore circuits. The General Electric Company standard 10-ampere cartridge fuse may be used for such service, but special precaution and inspection should be employed to determine that the conracts between the fuse and its support do not in- troduce extra resistance into the circuit. This addi- tional resistance would affect the accuracy of secondary measurements. Errors Due to Fuses and Leads The resistance of fuses and secondary leads affects the accuracy of indication of secondary intsruments and meters. This is due to the voleage drop, which de- pends upon the current and the resistance of the fuses, exc. If GE fuses are used, the error due to the drop in them need cause no concern. These fuses are so de- signed as to keep the voltage drop in them less than O.1 percent up to rated output of the rransformer, Secondary-lead resistance, however, cannot be neg- lected because in many instances, where long leads and heavy burdens are unavoidable, the voltage drop in the leads may be relatively large. This can be checked easily by a simple calculation, if the lead resistance and secondary burdens are known. In those instances where corrections for ratio and Phase angle are to be applied from certified tests, ‘equivalent resistance should be included at the time of test. In other cases, these resistances will generally have only a negligible effect on the accuracy. However, 23Instrument Transformers Ee t it is best to check this point even when only approxi= ‘mate accuracies are involved, as the drop might deserve ‘consideration in some such cases. For example, if the transformer is operating at 200 volt-amperes, and the secondary-lead resistance is 0.5 ohm (550 feer of No. 10 Aw copper wire), there will be a voltage drop of 0.87 volt, which is 0.75 percent of rated voltage. le mast be remembered also chat not only the volt- age drop itself must be considered, but also the effect of this drop on the phase of the voltage applied ro the instruments and meters in the secondary circuit. In other words, cis only by vector solution that the effect of these resistances can be cared for correctly. TESTS Various tests are made on potential transformers by the manufacrurer to insure that the transformers meet the requisite specifications. Similar tests are made also by the user to insure that the devices continue to meet the specifications. A very brief outline of the various test methods that can be employed is explained in the following section. 24 ACCURACY Volemeter Method—This is the simplest method for decermining ratio. With suitably rated voltmeters con nected in the primary and secondary circuits, the ratio of the transformer is the ratio of the two voltages measured by these instruments. The range of this ‘method is very limited because voltmeters rated over 600 volts are not available ordinarily. However, the range can be extended by using a calibrated potential transformer in che test circuit. Resistance-potentiometer Method—This is the eatliese Precision method that was developed. A muli-rated resistance potentiometer, designed to minimize the effects of inductance and capacitance, is used to obtain a voltage—approximately 120 volts—which represents the voltage applied to the primary of he potential transformet undergoing test and which is compared with the secondary voltage through a suitable detector. ‘One method by which phase angle can be obtained is by comparing the same two voltages, using the (wo- wattmerer method with both instruments excited from the same source, so that the difference in deflection« Potential Transformers Ne ee TRON view toa (ol Type Vibssa (Wh Type V-65.5 Fe 28 Comaction gram of water meters fer Arce, phone cic with caret ond pata rember fepresents the difference in phase between the two voltages. Another method uses a mutual inductor and a vibration galvanometer. Capactance-potentiometer Method—By substituting car Pacitors for resistors, the same method as that of the resistance potentiometer can be employed. The Capacitance-potentiometer method provides a marked reduction in the floor space required and in cost because the resistances must be shielded and, thus, are large and expensive. The equipment operates like a Schering bridge and can be designed to be self-calibrating. Comparison Method—This is a modification of the basic “potentiometer” method. Instead of reading the pri- mary and secondary voltages, the secondary voltages of 2 calibrated “‘standard” transformer and the ¢rans- former undergoing test are compared with each other by using a null method. This null method is essentially the resistance-potentiometer method previously de scribed. The comparison method, of course, requires the use of a “standard” potential cransformer wich a tating which corresponds to that of cach potential transformer involved in calibrating. POLARITY Polarity is checked automatically in practically all ratio and phase-angle rest methods or it may be determined by any one of several methods described below. The choice of the method will depend generally ‘upon the apparatus available. However, it must be remembered that there is an element of danger in making polarity tests. This is dependent to some extent on the method used, the amount of potential applied, and the possiblity of making a wrong con- nection. Dee Test Connect a d-e permanent-magnet_moving-coil- type volemeter, preferably one with a 150-vole range, across the high-voltage terminals of the transformer, with the marked primary terminal of the transformer connected to the plus terminal of the voltmeter. Then connect rwo dry cells in series; the plus terminal of the battery to be attached to the marked secondary ter- minal of the transformer. Make an instantaneous con- tact berween the negative terminal of the battery and the unmarked secondary terminal of the transformer. 25Instrument Transformers A deflection or “kick” will be indicated on the volt- direction, the transformer leads are marked correctly. meter. If the inital “kick” (the one resulting from If the initial kick is downscale, che marking on the making, not breaking, the circuit) is in the upscale transformer is not correct. NOMINAL 3-PHASE SYSTEMS POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS Group 1—2400/4160 ¥ 2400-volt system— The obove trons- neutral formers may be grounded or connected line-to~ ungrounded Tine on 2 2400-volt system oR 4160-volt Lineto-nevtral ay fon @ 4160-volt neviral a grounded or wi Group 2—2400/2400 ¥ The above trans formers may be connected in 2400-volt eseelenie) pevitiay 2400-vlt system eee but ore tinted rounded or by ination ungrounded 7 a Une-tosneviral connection on the 1ome voltage (2400) 49,000-vat Group 3—40,250 For 69,000 Grd ¥ mnten— S One primary terminal neviral © of euch transformer grounded of Stevo fllyiasoted Ungrounded ard mat be con SE nected to ground 38,800V = woncapr cba neThe relations existing be- tween voltages, 2s explained in the USASI Standards, suggest another method for checking polarity; namely, to excite the transformer ata low voltage and compare the voltage across one winding with the voltage across both windings in series. For high ratios (say over 100:1), this method is not very practical because the difference between the two voltages being measured is too small to be observable with ordinary instruments. Furthermore, there is 2 potential hazard to be con- sidered; that is, the possibility of exciting a low-voltage winding instead of a high-voltage winding, chereby producing dangerous voltage on the transformer. Potential ranaform Ungrounded Prime Secondaries Fe. 27. Patented roatrmerscomeced Y-¥ with grounded nerd ‘whnrwse ungrounded rom Substitution Mechod—Another alcemative is to use a substitution method, provided thar a transformer of known polarity is available. One way of making this test is illustrated by Fig. 28. Connect the crans- former with known polarity into this circuit, then, in place of this transformer, substitute the transformer of unknown polarity. Ifthe wartmerer deflects inthe same direction in both cases, the polarities of the ewo trans formers are alike. Differential Method—In this method of making a polarity test, as illustrated by Fig. 29, the primaries of both the “scandard” and “test” transformers are excited simultaneously, and 2 voltmecer is used to make a differential measurement in the secondary cir- cuits. The voltmeter should read Vay and Vyq (atthe retical sum) when the polarities are in accordance with this illustration. INSULATION Both high-porential tests at 60 Hz and impulse tests are used to check the insulation of potential transformers. The test values specified by USASI for these tests are listed in Table I, page 18. A descrip- tion of the requirements and test methods may be found in USASI Standard C57.13 Potential Transformers The test values listed in Table I are for factory dielectric vests thar are designed to check the insulation and workmanship of individual cransformers. All di- electric tests impose a severe stress on the insulation teed As wooly Fie. 28. Conca dogrm of patent ranlomar ond the exact ee io deterine thn polry of The renter bythe ebuhaion method and, if applied frequently at a high value, may shorten the life of the insulation considerably. For this reason, the practice recommended by USASI for making periodic dielectric tests in the feld is to limit the vest values to 75 percent of the factory-test voltages listed in Table I. High-voltage d-c (kenotron) testing is often employed on cables and other gear. If the circuit to be tested contains potential transformers, these should be disconnected before the voltage is applied, because the sudden application of d-c may cause transient voltages in the windings of a very high value which would overstress the insulation. In addicion, such transformers are often connected with one primary terminal at ground potential. If 2 d-c voleage were imposed from the other line to ground, a very high current would tend to flow in the relatively Fe, 29. Coanectin degra of potential rmsarmart aad the enacted scveimen wed te datrmine the polar of one af the ‘renhrmors by the diferente method low-resistance (but high impedance) primary winding. Inall probability the test set would not have sufficient capacity to supply this current, bur if it did, the wind- ings might become damaged. 7Cee eee CHAPTER THREE CURRENT TRANSFORMERS INSTRUMENT current transformers are de- signed for connection in series ‘with the line in the same manner as that for ordinary ammeters. The secondary matear bears 2 known relation with the primary Serrene; consequently, any change in the primary cur- rent will be reflected in the meters or other devices Connected in series wich che secondary terminals of the transformer. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION In general, the secondary current is inversely proportional ro the ratio of curns as referred ro the primary current. Like 2 potendal transformer, this Heal transformation is never actually achieved. Small errors afe always present because the current re- Guired to magnetize the core, and to supply the core losses, is not available as secondary current. “The relationship berween the various voltages ‘and currents in a potential transformer, as shown in Fig. 72, 7b, and Te are also applicable to current trans- formers. However, the operation of a current trans~ former can be seen more easily from a simpler diagram, ive, Fig. 30. This illustration is for a 1:1 ratio trans- former, The primary current can be considered as being rade up of two components. One of these component: (the exciting current which magnetizes the core and rupplies the core losses) may be subtracted by phasor - Eynindvced see 1, SExcing cvrrent ite sh eeling cacent Fin 20. Vecrer diagram Henting the rattan bara curren vt, (ood axing 0 cere Woniormes 28 diagram from the primary current to find the amount remaining as secondary current. Therefore, on a Ul tum ratio basis, it is evident that the secondary cur~ ent will be less than the primary current (except in the extremely improbable case of a highly capacitive secondary burden). "Also, because of the differences in phase of the various quantities involved, the difference in phase between primary and secondary currents will be exactly 0 degrees only when the power factor of the total secondary burden (that is, the internal burden of the transformer itself plus external burden of meters, jeads, ete.) equals the power factor of the exciting current. For all other conditions, the angle will differ from 0 degrees by a small angle (8), which is called the phase-angle error of the current transformer. TERMS FOR EXPRESSING ERRORS Like the ratio error of a potential transformer, the ratio error ofa current transformer is usually expressed asa ratio correction factor. This equals True Ratio ROF= Marked Ratio of, True Ratio= Marked RatioXRCF. The phase-angle error (8) of 2 current trans- former is also similar to that of 2 porential crans- former. Tt is the angle between the primary current vector and the secondary current vector; his error usually expressed in minutes of angle. This angle is considered as positive when the secondary-current veeror leads the primary-current vector: ‘Since current transformers are often used with protective relays which must operate at high over- Eurrenes, transformer performance under these condi- tions must also be known. The terms in which this performance is normally expressed, and the meaning Of these rerms, are explained in the next section. OVERCURRENT ACCURACY Current transformers arc given standard accuracy class ratings which define the performance 2t over- Current values. These ratings are on the basis of the Standard secondary-terminal voltage a transformer will Jaliver without exceeding a standard percent ratio error. Thus, transformers may be classified as 25 (Hor L) 200 or, 10 (H or L) 200.‘The firs: term establishes a maximum percent ratio error; the second term (Hor L) is determined by characteristics that are explained later: the third teem is the secondary voltage which can be delivered at 20 times rated secondary current without exceeding the ratio error. Standard percent ratio-error classes are 2.5 per- cent and 10 percent. Standard secondary-voltage classes are: 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 volts. For normal S-ampere-secondary transformers, 20 times rated secondary current is 100 amperes; hence, the standard secondary voltage divided by 100 am- peres gives the secondary-burden ohms. In the first example, 2.5 (Hor L) 200, such a transformer could carry 2 2-ohm burden without exceeding a 2.5-pereent- ratio error from § amperes secondary to 100 amperes secondary. Similarly, in the second example, 10 (H or L) 200, the ratio error from normal to 20 times nor- mal secondary current would not exceed 10 percent. Burdens used for overcurrent accuracy rating have the same power factor 25 the corresponding burdens used for normal accuracy rating. Because of the steps in the classification seri the standard classes do not fully replace curves of transformer performance at overcurrent values. They do provide, however. a convenient means of specifying a desired level of performance within reasonable steps. Te should be recognized that the classifications specify only the minimum secondary voleage at which the specified ratio error will not be exceeded. Thus the classification, 10 (Hor L) 200, means that, at 200 volts, the ratio error is not more than 10 percent. By infer- ence, it also means that the ratio error, at the voltage which corresponds to the next higher standard voltage (400), is more than 10 percent: otherwise, the classification would have been 10 (H or L) 400. ‘While che classification of overcurrent perform- ance is primarily based on the ratio error at 20 cimes secondary current, itis often desirable co know some thing about the performance at lower values of current. Depending upon performance, current transformers can bbe broadly divided into two classes. The first class, designated by the letter H, will have a neatly constant. percentage ratio error when delivering a fixed second- ary voltage over a wide range of secondary current. ‘The other class, designated by che lecter L, will have a nearly constant magnitude error (and hence a variable- percentage error) under similar conditions. More precisely, the USASI Standards for Inseru- ‘ment Transformers defines an H-class cransformer as one that is capable of delivering a secondary-terminal voltage equal to its voltage class at any secondary cur- Current Transformers rent from 5 times rated secondary current ro 20 times rated secondary current without exceeding ies classified ratio error. [nother words, a cransformer rated 10H1200 would have a ratio error not exceeding 10 percent with 2 Z-ohm burden while ic is operating 2t any secondary current between rated value and 20 times raced value ‘The 10 percent ratio error would not be exceeded with cither a 4ohm burden becween normal and 10 cimes normal current or with an 8-ohm burden beeween normal and 5 times normal current. ‘An Leclass transformer cannot be used with proportionately higher burdens at lower secondary currents withour exceeding its classified ratio error. EFFECT OF SECONDARY BURDEN ON ACCURACY As is illustrated in Fig. 30, errors are present in current transformers because some of the primary cur- rent is required to magnetize the core and supply core losses and, thus, it is not available to contribute to the secondary current. The value of this exciting current (le), Fig. 30, depends upon the amount of fux (¢) ie must produce. The amount of flux depends, in turn, ‘upon the secondary voltage (E,) that is required to force the secondary current (I,) through the total secondary impedance. (Total secondary impedance comprises the impedance of the secondary of the transformer and the impedance of the secondary bur- den including leads.) Therefore, for any specific scc- ondary current on 2 particular transformer, the excit- ing current (and consequently the errors) will in- crease as the impedance, or volt-amperes, of the secondary burden increases (neglecting the effect of the burden power factor). The burden power factor will also affect the errors. As the power factor increases, the secondary current (I), Fig. 30, will be more nearly in phase with the voltage Ey; thus the phase-angle error (8) is increased, but the ratio error is decreased as T, will more nearly equal I,. Conversely, decreasing the burden power factor will decrease the phase-angle error, of even make it negative, but it will increase the ratio error. (The maximum ratio error will occur when I, is in phase wich I,. After this point, the ratio ertor will decrease.) ‘While the fandamencal errors of current trans formers will be affected by the change in burden as de- scribed, the observed change in errors may differ somewhat because of the influence of the transformer compensation. The errors at different burdens on 2 typical compensated current transformer are illustrated in Fig. 31. 29Instrument Transformers as: os 8 95 Ratio correction locoe si 20 00 90 100120 Percent eed primary erent Fi 31. Typical creat iatrmarcharctrities EFFECT OF PRIMARY OR SECONDARY CURRENT ON ACCURACY Te has been pointed out before that the value of the exciting current (I,), Fig. 30, depends upon the secondary voltage (E,) which is required to force the secondary current (I,) through the toral secondary impedance. As the primary current decreases from the rated value for a specific transformer with 2 conseant- impedance burden, the secondary current will decrease in approximately the same ratio, and the exciting cur- rent will also decrease. However, as current trans- formers are designed normally to operate at low flux densities in the core, below the point of maximum effective permeability, the exciting current will not decrease as rapidly as the secondary current. Since the errors ate dependent on the ratio of ex- citing current to secondary current, they will increase as the primary current, and thus the secondary current, decreases. However, through the use of compensation, such changes in error will be reduced. The change in errors with the change in current for a typical compensated current transformer is shown in Fig. 31. COMPENSATION: The general chatacteristié of a current trans- former is such that the secondary current multiplied 30 by the tum ratio will be less than the primary current by the amount of losses in the core, These losses are dependent on both the burden characteristics and the value of the secondary current. Therefore, the trans- former may be compensated to give zero ratio error at some particular value of current and burden by: making the tur ratio slightly larger than the marked ratio, thus increasing the secondary current the neces- sary amount. This compensation is usually accomplished by reducing the number of secondary turns and is known as “rum compensation.” The increment of change resulting per complete secondary turn removed is a small but inflexible quantity. More precise adjustment is possible by so called “'split-urn compensation” pro- viding fractional rurn effect from 20 to 80% of 2 full tum (see Fig. 32). Two wires in parallel with dif- ferent numbers of tums around the core constiture “split cura compensation.” Difference in the size of the two wires gives additional precision. Many other methods of compensation (such as D'ENTREMONT® Compensation) are possible de- pending on effects desired and complexity that can be justified. Detailed discussion of these methods may be found in material referenced in the bibliography. Fie 32 Corre roaarmer with pinturs companion FREQUENCY VARIATION Current transformers can be used over a relatively wide range of frequency without appreciable effect on the performance. In general, the errors increase 25 the fre, ency decreases; and the reactance and the self heating increase as the frequency increases. For this reason, the frequency limits that are stated for each design of current transformer should be followed. Because the errors increase with a decrease in frequency, most current transformers are given a separate accuracy classification for each of the several standard frequencies on which they may be used. Forinstance, 2 transformer designed primarily for opera- tion on 60 Hz may have a separate, and perhaps dif- ferent, accuracy rating for 25, 50, oF 400 Hz. WAVE FORM Current waves chat contain third harmonies, having a magnitude as much as 50 percent of the funda- mental, will be reproduced in the secondary wave of most current transformers with very little distortion, and the transformer errors will be changed very slightly—generally less than 0.1 percent. ‘Waves that contain higher frequency harmonics may not be reproduced as accurately, because the amount of distortion increases as the frequency and magnicude of the harmonics increase. However, higher harmonies are usually of small magnicude and, in this instance, will cause little error. RETURN CONDUCTOR EFFECT Conductors carrying large currents, such as those that might be used for rerum conductors on current transformers of 2000-ampere rating and above, pro- dace a relatively large field, or flux pattern, about their axis. Therefore, if such conductors are placed too neat to the current-transformer core, this flux may con- centrate in the core, causing local saruration and, con- sequently, large errors. EFFECT OF ERRORS ‘ON INSTRUMENT READINGS When current transformers are to be used in the measurement of current alone, only the ratio error need be considered. However, when wattmeter measure- ment or other measurements are made in which the phase relationship between the current and voltage is involved, the phase-angle error of the current trans- former also must be considered. This is necessary be- cause an error in the current phase angle constitutes a shift in phase berween the position of the current vector in the primary circuit and the current vector in the secondary circuit. The over-all result is to change the phase relationship between the current and the voltage in the secondary circuit, as compared with the current and voltage relationship in the primary cireuit, whien ineroduces an error in the measurement. However, both the ratio and phase-angle errors of current trans- formers are normally so small that they can be neg- Jected in all but the most accurate measurements. In general terms, a ratio correction factor greater than one will cause the meters and instruments in the secondzry circuit to read low. Current Transformers A positive (leading) phase-angle error will cause a wattmeter connected in the secondary circuit to read high (for the normal case of lazging-line power fac~ tors). This is just the opposite effect of a similar error in a potential cransformer. The effect of phase-angle errors of both current and potential transformers is shown in Fig. 9. STANDARD ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION ‘The USASI Standards for Instrument Transform= ers, USAS C57.13, has standardized on a method of classifying currens-transformer accuracy. As the ac- curacy is dependent upon the burden, standard burdens have also been designated. These are the burdens at which the accuracies are to be classified. ‘The standard burdens have been chosen to cover the range normally encountered in service and are listed in Table IL ‘The accuracy classifications for metering cur- rent transformers, as given by USASI, ate listed in Table Il. ‘Ratio correction factor (RC¥) has been defined as the factor by which the marked ratio must be multi- plied in order to obtain the true ratio. Transformer correction factor (TCF) takes into account the combined effect of the ratio error and phase-angle error on wattmeters or similar measure- ment devices. It is defined as the factor by which a wwattmeter reading must be multiplied to correct for the effect of instrumene transformer ratio correction factor and phase angle. The limits of TCF, as indicated in Table IIT, have been established by USAST wich the requirement that the power factor ofthe load being measured must be within the limits set forth in this rable. Ifthe power factor of the primary citcuit is out side this range, the TCF of the transformer may also bbe outside the range specified. For any known ratio correction Factor ofa specific ‘current transformer, the positive and negative limiting. values of the phase-angle error (8) in minutes may adequately be expressed as follow: 8=2600 (RCF-TCF)t. TCF is taken in tum as the maximum and minimum values of transformer correction factor specified in the table, and the RCF is the ratio correction factor of the current transformer under the conditions being checked. This relationship is plotted for the various burdens in Figs. 33 and 34. 1 The formula—3—2600 (RCF-TCF)—and the parllelograms of Fig. Shand which ar dxived from tar approximate aly ‘The comet formula is Cos (58.13°— BEE -However, the spprosimate formula introduces very little eror into the exleala- ton, and itis euiely adequate for aormal purpotes, 3Instrument Transformers By means of this USASI system, the accuracy of 4 current transformer may be described by listing the best accuracy class which ic meets for each burden, Thos, a current transformer may be accurate enough to be rated: 0.3 B0.1, 0.3 B-0.2, 0.3 B-0.5 and 0.3 B2 For another transformer the error may be such that it can only be classified a: 0.3 B-0.1, 0.3 B-0.2, 0.6 B-0.5 and 1.2 B-2 or even 0.6 B-0.1, 0.6 B-0.2 and 1.2 B05 In the third example, the omission of any refer- fence t0 accuracy at B-2 indicates that the error is greater than that specified for the poorest accuracy class at this high burden; hence no figure can be given, ————————— THERMAL AND MECHANICAL RATINGS Under conditions of cireuie faults, current trans- formers can be exposed to short-cireuit-current values Which are considerably in excess of cheir normal cur~ tent ratings. The maximum current in the circuit during faule conditions should be no greater than the ability of the current transformer to withstand this excessive current. Short-circuit faults are usually cleared in a very shore time, but extremely high currents may flow during chis petiod. The firs eycle is usually not only of the greatest magnitude, but ic is often offset by a component. As illustrated in Fig. 35, this d-e eom= Ponent may cause the first cycle to be fully offser. TABLE II USASI STANDARD BURDENS ‘Secondary Burden at 60 Burden Hz and S-Ampere Designation Characteristics Secondary Current of oe Resistance Inductance Impedance Vote Power (Ohm (llttthentye) (Ohms) Amperes Factor Bor 0.09 O16 on 25 09 Bo2 oe 0232 02 50 09 Bos oas 0.580 os Rs 09 Bi os 23 10 250 os Br 19 45 20 500 os Be 20 92 40 100.0 os Be 40 188 80 200.0 os TABLE Il USASI ACCURACY CLASSES FOR METERING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS LIMITS OF RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR AND TRANSFORMER CORRECTION FAGTOR ee ee Limits of Power Accuracy Factor (Lagging) ‘Gian 1009 Raced Current s Rated Current ot Stetered Fomer Min, Maz. Min, Mar. 12 098 Low 0976 Lor oto os 0.994 1006 098 voz ost0 03 0997 003 0994 006 06-10 32Current Transformers tov 1.012 40.6 accuracy cuass: a ee oso SE jeaaa i HH I | { {Tt 1.006 + PAC t 1.004 1,002 ! 1.000 im | 0.998 Cc 0.996 i 0.904 f Ratio correction factor 7 CT 0.990 LA 0.988 Ci 0.986 707 120208) 740121 30) 720 110) #0) 1020 9020 50 e=tco taro) Y Phase engle, logging Minutes Fe. 32. Pealaogrme showing sropicel euivaam of USAST acoracy late 0.9 amd .6 fr carrot rnsermart for metrng sevice 33Instrument Transformers ee 028 107 1020 hors hon 1.008 008 foto Covecion Fotoe 8 0976 0.972 150) 09) 30 Prove Angle, Logsing 30 109 150 Prose Angie, Leoding Fx. 34 Perlelorams showing gropical equivalent of USAS! acorey clot 1.2 fr eras! omlormas fc metering trvce The ability of a current transformer to withstand the initial current caused by 4 shore circuit is called its mechanical rating. By USASI definition, mechanical rating is expressed as the root-mean-square (RMS) value of che a-c component of a completely displaced primary-current wave which the transformer is capa- ble of withstanding with the secondary short-circuited. ‘Thus, a maximum completely displaced current within the rating of a transformer will not cause mechanical damage to the transformer—damage which is generally characterized by deformation of the windings. In addition to the mechanical effect, the heating effect of the short-circuit current also must be con- sidered. The ability of curren eransformers to with- stand such heating is called the thermal short-time rating of the device. This rating is given as the RMS value of a steady current which the transformer can 34 withstand without exceeding a maximum specified temperarure—250 C for most designs—for 2 cerrain period of time, usually less than $ seconds. ‘The mechanical and thermal ratings of various current transformers are listed in the published daca which describe those devices. Conceming thermal ratings, ic is usually given for one second, but it can be calculated for any period of time up to five seconds from the relation: ‘Thermal Rating for Time r= ‘Thermal Rating for One Second ve where tis expressed in seconds. Propet application of current transformers re- quires chat transformers be selected with mechanical and thermal ratings higher than che correspondingA Current Transformers eee Curve of Mojor Pooks Instomoneour Current RMS Total Current RMS of Ave Component Oc Component Envelope of A-c Component lara Da aT Sis” SSE CC Lt teers Ta |e | aaa I Minor Peoks ‘Acc Component Envelope of Ae Component Fe 35, Shercteut corre compares maxima currents reasonably expected on the circuit being measured. SECONDARY BURDENS As previously stated, the burden on the secondary circuit of a current transformer affects the accuracy of thar device. Therefore, to predict the performance of a particular transformer used in a certain circuit, the burden® of the various meters, inscraments, and relays in its secondary must be known. Ik is often found desirable co connect several meters or combinations of devices in series on the scc- ondary of current transformers. In these situations, it is necessary to compute the total burden of such 2 combination of de: ces. For many purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to add arithmetically the impedance burden of the indi- vidual devices involved. In case the vole-ampere burden alone is known, the impedance burden can be calculated from the relationship: 2a va where I is the current through the burden, and 7, is the burden impedance. This method is followed, for example, in decer- ure for etch cast of appara, mining whether or not a transformer will have exces- sive burden. In specific instances when calculation on this basis indicates too much rotal burden, it is advis- able to recalculate, taking the power factor inco account. For those siruations in which it is necessary co consider the power factor of che impedance, 2 graph, illustrated by Fig. 11, has been prepared for combining burdens in a convenient manner. From this curve, burden combinations can be readily worked out graph ically withour using a comparatively complicated mathematical process. The explanation of the chart and its use is given under section “Secondary Burdens,” page 15. An ‘example of its application co the problem of combining ‘currene-transformer burdens is as follows: Required: To determine the total impedance and power factor of the burden on a current transformer to which are connceted One Type I-50, 2.5-ampere watthour meter, One Type AB-14, 5-ampere ammeter, One Type AB-I4 single-phase wattmeter, and Two 25-foor leads made of No. 10 Awg cop- per wire (50 feet of wire). ens for GE paar arc listed in Publication GET-I725 enticed lnurament Tenformer Baden Date 4 well ain the descriptive lterse 3sInstrument Transformers From Publication GET- found 28 follows: 1725, burden data can be ; petectine, | TAME] Renee i Device uiseance nce ; (itlcro- 8 onmay" |_eseses | ohne py ty Warthour Meer | 0.013 “ = m Wartmeter 0.023 260 = oth Ammeter 0055 270 = % Leads | 0.050 0 - Ze ‘Total, { O14 S74 0.217" Rescancem Df, where (= equency (2) and is indecane in henry Using scales B (Fig. 11), locate a point on the rectangular plot by using 0.14 X 1000 as an abscissa and 0.22 X 1000 as an ordinate. This point falls on the radius 0.53 which gives this value as the power factor of the total impedance. Following the are (Gmmaginary), on which this point is located, to the radius marked in total impedance, 0.26 X 1000 will be noted as the total impedance. INTERCONNECTION OF BURDENS ON THREE- PHASE CIRCUITS There are three common types of interconnection used with current transformers on three-phase systems. They are: 1. ¥ connection (three transformers). 2. Vor “straight” connection (two trans formers). 3. Reversed-V or “cross” connection (two trans- formers). These are illustrated in Fig. 36, 37, and 38, respectively. The following rules for computing secondary burdens in these three examples will be found con- venient and are sufficiently accurate for most com- mercial purposes. Where the highest accuracy is re- quired, the burdens should be determined by vector analysis as described on page 37. Y Connection With che +wire Y connection (Fig. 36), the burden is Z1, Zs, and Z, on CTs, CTs, and CTo, respectively. With the 3-wire ¥ connection, the burden on any transformer is one-third of the total secondary burden fon all transformers, except for highly unbalanced burdens. V or "Straight"? Connection With the V connection, Fig. 37, the burden on a specitic transformer depends on the ratio of the im- 36 Fe. 28. Teephoe reversed V ar “crete” comecton of carrntane Taror secendaron, pedance in the secondary line that has no current ¢rans- former to the impedance in the line connected directly to the secondary of the transformer considered. 1. When this ratio is greater than 3.2:1, the ‘cquivalent burden on the transformer equals the im- pedance directly connected to its secondary plus the impedance in the secondary line without transformer. 2. When this ratio is less than 3.2:1 and greater shan 0.4:1, the equivalent impedance on the transformer cquals the impedance in the line chat is directly con-go Current Transformers Current transformer No. 1 x,| Current transformer No. 3 Fa. 39. Typical exanole of spandlt ntercnuacton of cures TTatermer ceeds nected t0 its secondary, plus chree quarters of the impedance in the secondary line without transformer. 3. When the ratio is less chan 0.4:1, che equiva- lent impedance on the transformer equals the im- pedance in the line thae is connected directly to its secondary, plus one-half of the impedance in the sec- ondary line without eransformer. "Cross" Connection ith a reversed-V or “‘cross” connection, Fig. 38, the equivalent impedance on each transformer equals the sum of the impedance (vokt-amperes) con nected directly to it, plus 1.5 times the impedance in the middle legs chus, Zi-+1.5Z3. VECTOR SOLUTION FOR INTERCONNECTION OF BURDENS In specified cases where the highest accuracy in the computation of three-phase current-transformet interconnection is desired, or where leads carrying the secondary current from more than one current trans- former have high resistance, a vector solution of the ‘oral burden imposed on each transformer should be employed. When the portion of the eireuit that is com- mon to two such interconnected transformers is merely a short lead of relatively low impedance, the effect of the interconnection on the accuracy of either trans~ former is generally inappreciable. However, if the common portion is 2 long lead oF a device of appreci- able impedance, the outputs from the current trans- formers may reach unexpected conditions of power factor and unbalance. A typical example of the common “straight” or “open delta" interconnection, in which moderate un- balancing is produced, is given in Fig. 39. As shown in this illustration, two warrmerer elements are con- nected to two current transformers through three Teads, with one of the leads being common co both From Fig. 39. he Tym t32 vein xcs (CT=10 voln SCS amp (ot 35") 8.0 ve ot Fe 40. Vactrslation fr the burdens impated on the current (relamers hes Pe circuits and carrying a current equal to the vector sum of the currents in the other two leads. Figure 40 indicates graphically that, although the secondary connected devices are apparéntly equal and symmetrically arranged, the ourput from current trans- former No. 1 is at unity power factor, while that of No. 3 is at 0.82 power factor (current lagging). This ‘means that different ratio and phase-angle corrections apply for each transformer. However, no particular difficulty is presented, since the accuracies of the erans- formers for such ranges of output are ordinarily either directly available or readily estimated from the cali- bration data furnished with the transformer. Certain situations should be guarded against; chat is, those in which the power-factor unbalance may be sufficient to cause the ourput from one of che trans- formers to assume some unustal value for which the accuracy of the transformer is unknown or cannor be readily estimated. For instance, it can be shown from a solution similar ro Fig. 40 that. had the lead resist- ances, Ri, Re, and Rs, been assumed slightly greater, 7Instrument Transformers ee there would have been a “leading” current output from transformer No. 1. It will also be found that, wich highly inductive burdens of even moderate impedance connected in lines 1, 2, and 3, the ourput from trans- former No. 3 may drop t0 zero power factor. The determination of the accuracy characteristics of inter- ‘connected transformers, when leading currents or cur- rents lagging by 90 degrees or more are being delivered, is ordinarily impossible unless data are available from special 3-phase calibration tests which have been made under identical conditions of secondary’ interconnec- tion. CORRECTIONS FOR TRANSFORMER ERRORS The USASI accuracy classification of all GE cur- rent transformers js listed in the descriptive literature. In addition, standard test data is provided on the cer- tificate of test. Some designs have the accuracy listed directly on the nameplate. Since corrections, normally, are not made for the errors of current transformers at overcutrents, the overcurrenc-accuracy classification will not be discussed. The accuracy classification at normal currents indicates the performance levels ofthe various types of \tansformers. For many measurements, the maximum errors thus indicated are so small that they can be neglected without seriously affecting the over-all accuracy of the measurement. In other measurements, high accuracy is required, and corrections for current- ‘transformer errors must be made. In these specific instances, the USASI classification of errors is not suitable for making such corrections, so characteristic curves or test certificate data must be used. ERRORS FROM CHARACTERISTIC CURVES Descriptive literature for current transformers include transformer characteristic curves published in 2 form similar to that shown in Fig. 31. This curve lists the ratio correction factor (RCF) and phase-angle error (B) from $ percent r0 100 percent (or more) of rated current, at each of the several standard burdens. The variation in accuracy of individual eransformers of 1 given type from the characteristic curve for that type depends. in some measure, on the fundamental error of the eransformer. Thus, the higher the error, the greater the possible variation in error from the characteristic curve. However, the fundamental error is often not the observed error of the transformer, because of the effect of the compensation. Thus, no numerical significance can be given to the variation in error in terms of the certor itself, although 2 general classification of this variation (Such as is represented by the following table), will give a good indication of the limits of such 38 variation, Since, for a specified USASI accuracy’ clas- sification, the observed error at 10 percent of rated current may be double that of the error at 100-pereent current, the expected variation in error is given at each of these ewo points: A Variation tm Eeror ftom Gharac deeurger. teristic Curve Values tion ae Burden | Ratio Correc- Under tion Factor Considera- ton [10%] 100% | 10a Current | Current | Current | Current 03-06 | #0008 | 0.002 |= 10min. J 7 min. 12 =0.005 | 0.003 }ar 15 min, |= 10min. The variation indicated by this cable is for the general case; many designs have variations smaller than this, although very few individual transformers will exceed chis range. ERRORS FROM TEST DATA Correction data for current-transformer errors may be obtained from test results on the particular transformer, as well as from the characteristic accuracy curves. Certificates of Test for current transformers, issued by the General Electric Co., guarantee the ratio correction factor to be within 0.001 of the figure given and the phase-angle error co be within =3 minutes. Correction of errors by this means gives the best accuracy for the particular current transformer used. TYPES OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Current transformers are made in many different current ratios. In addition, various designs are insulated for use on different voltage circuits. Thus, the circuit voltage is a8 important a consideration in the selection of current transformers as it is for potential trans- formers. In general, instrument tcansformers for use on circuits rated 25,000 volts and above are suitable for use out of doors. The same transformers, however, may be used indoors, if desired. Transformers for circuits below this voltage are usually made in wo distinct types: one for outdoor service, and the other for indoor use. WOUND-PRIMARY TYPE Current transformers, other than 600-vole window and bar types, for current ratings of 800 amperes and below are usually of the wound-primary type. In this ange of ratings, more chan one primary turn is fre-Current Transformers Fig. 1. Type JP pertablntre instrument cure! rantormer quently required co obtain’ low exciting current and high accuracy. BAR-PRIMARY TYPE Current catings of 1200 amperes and above permit sufficient ampere-cums for good design with only one effective tum in the primary. In most designs, the primary consists of a straight bar extending theough Fig. 42. Type IKW-200 SUPERPRUTE intr ment corel transformer Fin 43. Type JCM inarameat eran trntormer fr indoor the core and secondary winding. This type of construction is particularly suited co withstand the stresses of heavy overcurrent; there is no tendency for the primary winding to assume 2 circular shape, a8 is the case with wound-primary-type trans- formers. However, these transformers must be mounted with proper relation to adjacent conductors 50 as to avoid magnetic stresses which might be sufficient eInstrument Transformers eee to distore the buses and, thus, damage the transform- ers. (See section entitled, “Return Conductor Effect,” page 31.) WINDOW TYPE High-current transformers similar ro the bar- primary types may be had with no primary 2 all. ‘These so-called “window types” have an insulated hole through the core and secondary winding, through which the user can place his own conductor. This con- ductor then becomes*the primary of che transformer, and no other primary connections are necessary. By adding insulation to this conductor, the user can in- crease the over-all insulation ofthe transformer. TRIPPING TRANSFORMERS There are several types of small and inexpensive ccurrent transformers which are manufactured especially for protective and control purposes. These trans- formers are not designed to meet the same accuracy specifications as those instrument current cransformers which are intended for use with instruments and meters; but, in some cases, they will be found sufi ciently accurate for operating instruments. BUSHING TYPE ‘The bushing-type transformer consists of a second ary winding on a circular core which is designed to fic on the bushing of a power transformer, oil switch, cor other device. The conductor in the bushing acts as the primary “winding” of one effective tum. It is, therefore, evident that the ampere-rums equalethe primary amperes. For this reason and the fact that accuracy depends on ampere turns 2s well as core size and other factors, not all bushing transformers of a given size have the same accuracy for all current rat- ings; in short, the lower the rating, the poorer the accuracy. Mose of the bushing-type transformers are used for relaying purposes, where accuracy at normal current values is not extremely important. However, by ‘means of special compensation, such transformers can bbe supplied with sufficient accuracy, even at primary currents as low as 300 amperes, for notmal merering i Purposes. Burdens placed on such transformers must be kept low, however. b COMBINATION TYPES Mexering outfits (Fig. 46) combine one or more current elements with one of more potential clements in a single tank assembly. Complete metering facilities ‘are thus provided in minimum space. Fine 48. Type MC-350 metring outfit for outdoor sevice 40PORTABLE TYPE Portable current transformers, for use in making tests, are available in several. styles to meet various application requirements such as accuracy, weight, and other features. These devices usually incorporate a number of primary windings so that a considerable range of current can be covered. DOUBLE-SECONDARY TYPE The majority of standard single-secondary current transformers have sufficient capacity to carry the usual burdens, including relays, without exceeding ordinary accuracy limits. When the occasion demands, however, transformers with more than one secondary can be farnished. These designs permir instruments and other devices to be separated; that is, either to limit che maximum burden on any secondary or to isolate some particularly important device, such as a differential rely. A double-secondary transformer is actually ewo transformers, each transformer having its own core. Less space is required for this type of construction than for two transformers in series. THREE-WIRE, SINGLE-PHASE TYPE For measurement purposes on three wire, single- phase circuits, doubleprimary-type current crans- formers of the required construction are available. With this type of transformer, a normal single-phase instrument or meter can be used for three-wire circuit measurements. SPLIT-CORE TYPE Window-cype transformers are available and are designed with hinged cores which permit chem to be assembled on buses without breaking the circuit ‘A transformer of this type should be used with di cretion, a5 errors and mechanical difficulties might result from the use of such a core, unless it has been specifically designed to provide the required degree of accuracy. AIR-GAP-CORE TYPE High overcurrents during fault conditions, par- ticularly overcurrents during which long d-c transients occur, tend to saturate the cores of ordinary current Current Transformers transformers and cause high errors that vary. with the current. Such errors are not easily accounted for in differential-protection circuits. For such conditions, air-gap-cote transformers® are available in designs which have relatively constant errors over a wide range of overcurrents and cransient conditions AUXILIARY TRANSFORMERS Totalizing transformers are designed for connee- tion in the secondary circuits of standard current trans- formers. They provide a practical means for roxalizing the power output of several individual circuits. This method is often employed when it is impractical co connect the secondaries of current transformers in multiple: that is, when all current transformers are not of the same ratio. (See section entitled "Toralizing Transformers,” page 45.) APPLICATIONS Current transformers are used in many different types of circuits and for many different purposes. A. typical connection of an ammeter and a current trans- former for the measurement of current is shown in Fig. 47. Other typical circuits, which are measured by various meters, instruments, and relays by the use of both current transformers and potential cransformers, are shown in Fig. 17 through 25, and for current trans- formers alone. in Fig. 48. 1A detailed decrption ofthis type af taesformer may be found in the article engied New Gorn! Trosfrmar Jor Bus Diora Pre latin by LF Rennedy and A. Ts Sinks, ALEE Transaction, 194, Vol. 60, pp. 1180-1187 LINE Hy toap CURRENT TRANSFOMER Fe 47. Coonction Sngrom of ox emmate with corer! ranfomer 4Instrument Transformers Al Net Le FD La ae £3) ep ala) files | re ar i] H i i] ' u 1 | i + (oh ype Vsben Otros vans Fig. 48. Connection agrams of wathowr metect for dovre , 2-phove cei, wth erent resformars TABLE IV STANDARD INSULATION CLASSES AND DIELECTRIC TESTS RK CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Dielectric Testa laetared “teinse = seams ae frequency Tests, Crest Minimum Full Wave (ky) (Kv RMS) Voltage Time to (Ky Crest) ate | mirc fan FH 2 5 2 2 8 ie % we " - e g 50 175, 150 is 8 es uo 46 95 290 250 o 140 400 350 92° 185, 520 450 me 230 630 550 18 as 750 650 tot ‘Rs 865 750, 196° 395 1035 30 900 230, 460 1210 30 1050 27" 515 1500 30 1300 vsas C57.15 These system voleages ae or listed in Seandard Voleage Ratings for Ave Syncs, USAS C4, 2When applying current transformers, considera tion should be given to the voltage rating and other characteristics of the particular system in which the transformer is to be placed, in order to be sure that the insulation of the transformer is adequate. The standard insulation classes, along with the maximum system voltage and dielectric tests for current transformers, as specified by USASI Standard C57.13, are reproduced at left in Table IV. PROTECTION AGAINST VOLTAGE SURGES The reactance of a current transformer acts 35 a choke coil so thar, when a surge occurs, a voltage builds up which may involve danger to the apparatus. This fact has special significance in the case of high-voltage transformers which have large primary coils and low- current transformers which have a large number of primary tums: both of these tend to give relatively hhigh transformer impedances. Furthermore, the volt age across the primary terminals is influenced by the amount of secondary burden. Thyrite® By-poss Protection Ie is standard practice to equip current rrans- formers for high-voltage circuits with Thyrite by- pass protectors. With normal voltage, the resistance of the protector is high enough to have negligible effects ‘on the transformer operation; however, when high-fec- quency, high-voltage surges occur, the characteristic of the Thyrite is such that an appreciable part of the surge current is by-passed through che protector, thereby preventing damage to the transformer insu- lation. Operation of Gap-tyi Current Transformers Primary Winding Arrangement—SUPER #BUTE transformers have 24 conductors evenly, distribured through the core window. They also have #8 con- ductors evenly distributed around tie outside of the core, brazed together under the end bell. See Fig. 49. ‘The termination point is a large copper horse- shoe having 2 large cross-section. This horseshoe, which is attached t0 the copper end bell, provides 2 large pocential heat sink for rapid dissipation of any heat that might be generated by arcing. The gaps are located between the copper horseshoe and the primary conductor as it passes over the horseshoe. Each con- ductor has a minimum of two gaps in series (chere is 4 copper horseshoe at each end of the transformer) Protection on SUPER#BUTE Current Transformers Fe AB. inary wig renga ox SURGE cera tra When a high-voltage surge occurs on the Tine, these gaps will fire, by-passing the current through the out- side conductors of the transformer because this is the lowest impedance path. There is a minimum of wo ‘conductors outside the core as compared to one through the core window. The gaps are set becween 0.060 ‘and 0.090 in., with at least rwo gaps on the same con- ductor set at 0.060 in, at each end. It takes 5000 to 7500 crese volts to fire the gap. This is far below the incernal cum-to-curn strength of primary conductors, which is in excess of 30,000 volts to breakdown. Gap Operation—When the gaps fire, there is a 48-vole drop across each gap or 96-vole drop in any ‘one conductor which is gapped at_ each end of the transformer. If the voltage is insufficient to fire the gaps in the first turn, it has the opporrunity to fire on each successive rum as the voltage builds up, because each tum is gapped as it crosses the copper horseshoe. When che first two gaps fire, they immediacely erig- ger more gaps As the current increases, so does the number of aps that fre. The electrical arc in the gap is a vapor ath which becomes conductive, dissociating the gas into ions and electrons which is called a plasma. It is this plasma under the end bell of the transformer that causes the other gaps to fire. This dissipates the elec- trical energy over many gaps and greatly reduces the amount of current any two sets of gaps are required to carry. The most adverse possible conditions the trans- former would experience in the field would occur under fault conditions where the transformer was sub- jected co a high-voltage surge simultaneously with “8Instrument Transformers — shore-cireuie currents. The SUPER¢BUTE current transformers with their gap protection will clear this condition in the first }4.cycle. The gaps fire, by-passing the surge and carrying maximum short-circuit current for the frst 34 cycle, but chen the arc is scarved as i approaches current zero. See Fig. 50. The electrical energy being poured in at the end of the frst 34 cycle is decreasing at a rapid rate. To maintain the are re- quires a current flow of 1000 to 2000 amperes. The are is starved because the conductivity of the are drops, since it is being cooled by the large available heat sink in the copper horseshoe. Thus, the heat can- not be readily stored to maincain the conductivity of the arc, and the arc extinguishes itself. Current surge Short-ciceuit current Arc is starved Current Time Fen $0. Carve swing fol condition Due to the nature of the transformer design, bth primary and secondary windings are well discrib- ‘ued, and the leakage reactance is small. Thus, the re- strike voltage (voltage drop across the primary gaps) is less than sufficient to re-establish the arc as the by-pass gaps regain their insulation strength. Protection of Secondary Circuits In some other circumstances, it is gor! practice also co protect the secondary circuit of the transformer with suitable protectors. In particular, the switching in a circuit which contains primary capacitors, such as individual surge capacitors for a-c motors of are- famace transformers ot capacitor banks for voltage or power-factor corrcerion, may result in high transient voltages across the instrument transformers associated with these capacitor circuits. Sccondary protection should be used in such situations. 44 OPEN-SECONDARY CIRCUITS Current-transformer secondary circuits must not be open while primary current flows. Breaking che secondary circuit while primary current is flowing is especially to be avoided. Under such conditions, the entire primary current’ becomes the exciting current which raises the core density to saturation and induces 2 high voltage in the secondary; in short, human life as well as connected apparatus and leads are endangered by this situation. Another explanation is that the open-cireuit impedance ‘many times the closed-circuit impedance; hence, the voltage across the transformer is much greater when the secondary is open. Therefore, those working with current-transformer circuits should always make ceratin that the secondary

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