June 2015

Volume 11, Number 3

ISSN 1811-5209

Apatite:
A Mineral for All Seasons
DANIEL E. HARLOV and JOHN F. RAKOVAN, Guest Editors

Structure and Chemistry

A Recorder of Fluids
Magmatic Apatite
From Mineralogy to Astrobiology
Geochronology and Thermochronology
A Technological Gem
 Elemental & Isotopic
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In situ SIMS analyses on lunar apatite

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Data provide precise U-Pb age determination which is of great importance for dating lunar impact events.

Left:
Concordia diagram for sample
76055, Apollo 17 landing site.

Right:
Comparison of the mean
207
Pb/206Pb ages from the
different breccias collected
at the Apollo 12, 14 & 17
landing sites.

Data from:
F. Thiessen, J.F. Snape et al.,
LPSC conference abstract (2015).

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Elements is published jointly by the Mineralogical
Society of America, the Mineralogical Society
of Great Britain and Ireland, the Mineralogical
Association of Canada, the Geochemical Society,
The Clay Minerals Society, the European
Association of Geochemistry, the International
Association of GeoChemistry, the Société
Française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie,
the Association of Applied Geochemists,
the Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft,
the Società Italiana di Mineralogia e Petrologia,
the International Association of Geoanalysts,
the Polskie Towarzystwo Mineralogiczne
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Printed in USA
ISSN 1811-5209 (print)
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Volume 11, Number 3 • June 2015 A BOUT THE COVER : Fluorapatite,
Cerro de Mercado, Durango
City, Mexico (6.4 cm crystal).
Apatite: The Durango fluorapatite is the
international scientific “gold”
A Mineral for All Seasons standard for apatite. It is one of
the most studied and referenced
Guest Editors: Daniel E. Harlov and John F. Rakovan apatites from any location in
the world. To date, there are
over 100 published studies of
165 Structurally Robust, Chemically
Diverse: Apatite and Apatite
the Durango apatite per se and
100’s more indirect studies, and
Supergroup Minerals counting. These include two
John M. Hughes and John F. Rakovan articles in this issue (Harlov;
Chew and Spikings). PHOTO : JEFF
SCOVIL, REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION ;
PETER MEGAW SPECIMEN
171 Apatite: A Fingerprint
for Metasomatic Processes
Daniel E. Harlov
Magmatic Apatite: A Powerful,
177 Yet Deceptive, Mineral
James D. Webster and Philip M. Piccoli
Extraterrestrial Apatite:
183 Planetary Geochemistry to Astrobiology
Francis M. McCubbin and Rhian H. Jones
Geochronology and Thermochronology Using Apatite:
189 Time and Temperature, Lower Crust to Surface
David M. Chew and Richard A. Spikings
A Technological Gem: Materials, Medical,
195 and Environmental Mineralogy of Apatite
John F. Rakovan and Jill D. Pasteris
D E PA R T M E N T S
Editorial – Growing Pains in the Era of Big Data . . . . . . . . . . 155
From the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
People in the News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
CosmoElements – Catching a Falling Star (or Meteorite) . . . 160
Mineralogy Matters – Boron – The Crustal Element . . . . . . 162
Meet the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Society News
International Association of GeoChemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
European Association of Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Geochemical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Mineralogical Association of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . 206
Società Italiana di Mineralogia e Petrologia . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Mineralogical Society of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Sociedad Española de Mineralogía . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Association of Applied Geochemists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
The Clay Minerals Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
International Mineralogical Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . 216
International Association of Geoanalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Société Française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie . . . 218
Meteoritical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Book Reviews – Large Igneous Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The Dynamics of Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Parting Shots – Bon Apatite! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Advertisers in This Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
153

The Mineralogical
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composed of individuals
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In 1962, the CMS was
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E LEMENTS
PARTICIPATING SOCIETIES
The Geochemical Society
(GS) is an international
organization founded in
1955 for students and
scientists involved in the
practice, study, and teaching
of geochemistry. Our
programs include cohosting the annual
Goldschmidt ConferenceTM, editorial over-
sight of Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
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(seth.davis@geochemsoc.org)
Geochemical Society
Washington University
Earth & Planetary Sciences
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Explore GS online at www.geochemsoc.org
Founded in 1985, the
European Association of
Geochemistry is a non-
profit organization dedi-
cated to promoting
geochemistry internation-
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active and dynamic organization of over
2700 members that leads the biannual
European Goldschmidt Conference organi-
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recognizes scientific excellence through
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The International
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zation for over 40 years. Its
principal objectives are to
foster cooperation in the advancement of
applied geochemistry by sponsoring specialist
scientific symposia and the activities organized
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The Société Française
de Minéralogie et de
Cristallographie, the
French Mineralogy and
Crystallography Society,
was founded on March 21,
1878. The purpose of the
Society is to promote mineralogy and crys-
tallography. Membership benefits include
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and reduced registration fees for SFMC
meetings.
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SFMC
Case postale 115, 4 place Jussieu
75252 Paris cedex 05
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www.sfmc-fr.org
The Association of
Applied Geochemists is
an international organiza-
tion founded in 1970 that
specializes in the field of
applied geochemistry. It
aims to advance the science
of geochemistry as it relates to exploration
and the environment, further the common
interests of exploration geochemists, facili-
tate the acquisition and distribution of
scientific knowledge, promote the exchange
of information, and encourage research and
development. AAG membership includes
154
the AAG journal, Geochemistry: Exploration,
Environment, Analysis; the AAG newsletter,
EXPLORE; and Elements.
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Association of Applied Geochemists
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office@appliedgeochemists.org
www.appliedgeochemists.org
The Deutsche
Mineralogische
Gesellschaft (German
Mineralogical Society)
was founded in 1908 to
“promote mineralogy and
all its subdisciplines in
teaching and research as well as the personal
relationships among all members.” Its great
tradition is reflected in the list of honorary
fellows, who include M. v. Laue, G. v.
Tschermak, P. Eskola, C. W. Correns, P.
Ramdohr, and H. Strunz. Today, the Society
especially tries to support young researchers,
e.g. to attend conferences and short courses.
Membership benefits include the European
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Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft
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The Società Italiana
di Mineralogia e
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of Mineralogy and Petro-
logy), established in 1940,
is the national body repre-
senting all researchers
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related disciplines. Membership benefits
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The International Asso-
ciation of Geoanalysts is
a worldwide organization
supporting the professional
interests of those involved
in the analysis of geological
and environmental mate-
rials. Activities include the management of
proficiency-testing programmes for bulk-rock
and micro-analytical methods, the production
and certification of reference materials and
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International Association of Geoanalysts
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British Geological Survey
Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GC, UK
http://geoanalyst.org
The Polskie
Towarzystwo Mineral-
ogiczne (Mineralogical
Society of Poland), founded
in 1969, draws together
professionals and amateurs
interested in mineralogy,
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The International Mineralogical Association,
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International Association for the Study of Clays are
affi liated societies of Elements. The affi liated status
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J UNE 2015
Tel./fax: +48 12 6334330
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The Sociedad Española
de Mineralogía (Spanish
Mineralogical Society) was
founded in 1975 to promote
research in mineralogy,
petrology, and geochem-
istry. The Society organizes
annual conferences and furthers the training
of young researchers via seminars and
special publications. The SEM Bulletin
published scientific papers from 1978 to
2003, the year the Society joined the Euro-
pean Journal of Mineralogy and launched
Macla, a new journal containing scientific
news, abstracts, and reviews. Membership
benefits include receiving the European
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Sociedad Española de Mineralogía
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The Swiss Society of
Mineralogy and
Petrology was founded in
1924 by professionals from
academia and industry and
amateurs to promote
knowledge in the fields of
mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry
and to disseminate it to the scientific and
public communities. The Society coorganizes
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publishes the Swiss Journal of Geosciences
jointly with the national geological and
paleontological societies.
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Fax: +41 26 300 97 65
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The Meteoritical Society
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scientists, collectors, and
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The Japan Association
of Mineralogical
Sciences (JAMS) was
established in 2007 by
merging the Mineralogical
Society of Japan, founded
in 1955, and the Japanese
Association of Mineralogists, Petrologists,
and Economic Geologists, established in
1928. JAMS covers the wide field of mineral
sciences, geochemistry, and petrology.
Membership benefits include receiving the
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Japan Association of Mineralogical
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http://jams.la.coocan.jp

PRINCIPAL EDITORS
PATRICIA M. DOVE, Virginia Tech, USA
(dove@vt.edu)
GORDON E. BROWN JR., Stanford University,
USA (gordon.brown@stanford.edu)
BERNARD J. WOOD, University of Oxford, UK,
(Bernie.Wood@earth.ox.ac.uk)
ADVISORY BOARD
JOHN BRODHOLT, University College London, UK
NORBERT CLAUER, CNRS/UdS, Université de
Strasbourg, France
WILL P. GATES, SmecTech Research Consulting,
Australia
GEORGE E. HARLOW, American Museum
of Natural History, USA
JANUSZ JANECZEK, University of Silesia, Poland
HANS KEPPLER, Bayerisches Geoinstitut,
Germany
DAVID R. LENTZ, University of New Brunswick,
Canada
ANHUAI LU, Peking University, China
ROBERT W. LUTH, University of Alberta, Canada
DAVID W. MOGK, Montana State University, USA
TAKASHI MURAKAMI, University of Tokyo, Japan
TERRY PLANK, Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory, USA
XAVIER QUEROL, Spanish Research Council, Spain
MAURO ROSI, University of Pisa, Italy
BARBARA SHERWOOD LOLLAR, University of
Toronto, Canada
TORSTEN VENNEMANN, Université de
Lausanne, Switzerland
OLIVIER VIDAL, Université J. Fourier, France
MEENAKSHI WADHWA, Arizona State
University, USA
JON WOODHEAD, University of Melbourne,
Australia
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
THOMAS D. BULLEN, International Association
of GeoChemistry
CATHERINE CORRIGAN, Meteoritical Society
KATERINA M. DONTSOVA, The Clay Minerals
Society
BARBARA L. DUTROW, Mineralogical
Society of America, Chair
ANTON EISENHAUER, Geochemical Society
DANIEL J. FROST, European Association
of Geochemistry
BERNARD GROBÉTY, Swiss Society of
Mineralogy and Petrology
MARK E. HODSON, Mineralogical Society
of Great Britain and Ireland
GUY LIBOUREL, Société Française
de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie
MAREK MICHALIK, Mineralogical Society
of Poland
JUAN J. MILLAN, Sociedad Española
di Mineralogía
FABRIZIO NESTOLA, Società Italiana di
Mineralogia e Petrologia
YASUHITO OSANAI, Japan Association
of Mineralogical Sciences
IAIN M. SAMSON Mineralogical Association
of Canada
CLIFFORD R. STANLEY, Association
of Applied Geochemists
FRIEDHELM VON BLANCKENBURG,
Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft
MICHAEL WIEDENBECK, International
Association of Geoanalysts
EXECUTIVE EDITOR
JODI J. ROSSO (jrosso.elements@gmail.com)
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E LEMENTS
EDITORIAL
GROWING PAINS IN THE ERA OF BIG DATA
In the five seconds it takes you to read this sen-
tence our global community will have generated
another 800 trillion bytes of data. This year alone,
the world will add 5 trillion gigabytes—that’s
5 zettabytes or 5,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
bytes—to the ongoing, frenzy of data accumula-
tion (VASEM 2015). No wonder everyone is talking
about “big data” and the expanding toolbox of
“big data analytics.”
The popular press gives the impression that the big
data explosion is borne of industries from the med-
ical, social science, communications, and financial
sectors. After all, recent increases in data volume
can be attributed to the exponential production
and use of electronic devices, from phones and
wearable sensors to surveillance cameras, that can
monitor, collect, and store virtually every type of
information from our daily lives.
So where are the Earth sciences in all of this? An
Internet search of “big data in Earth sciences” sug-
gests that there has been little discussion of the
topic. Indeed, a recent article by Kuo et al. (2014)
asks, “How will big data technologies benefit Earth
science research?” Does this imply that big data
sets, data mining, and processing analytics are
foreign to the Earth sciences? Nothing could be
further from the truth!
Many decades before the term “big data” was
coined, the seismology, geodetics, and planetary
sciences were already using approaches that fall
into the realm of “big data analytics.” These fields
mined existing data sets for physics-based pat-
terns and employed their respective data sets as
virtual testing grounds to develop new methods
for data processing, modeling, and simulation.
For example, many of the historical drivers of the
supercomputer industry actually emerged from the
Earth sciences. Thus, our field is a “been there,
done that” older brother of big data analytics.
Looking ahead, all groups working with big data,
including the Earth sciences, are facing two
intertwined challenges—capacity and preserva-
tion. Capacity is critical because the growth of
data sets is outstripping our ability to keep up.
Researchers in academia are concerned because
many of the decisions regarding who pays for this
infrastructure are not yet reconciled. Should uni-
versities or funding agencies build and maintain
these resources? Given that the growth in data
volume is exponential, with no end in sight, this is
an urgent challenge requiring constant vigilance.
The problem of capacity was recently highlighted
from a business perspective by Vinton Cerf, the
Vice President and Chief Internet Evangelist
of Google, at the Virginia Academy of Science
Engineering and Medicine Big Data Summit
(VASEM 2015). He acknowledged that everyone
has enjoyed dramatic increases in storage density
while storage costs have been declining. This has
allowed companies like Google to keep up so far.
But he notes, “If we have to start throwing data
away, we will need protocols and decision tools for
doing that. This will be a process fraught with risk
as what we think is important today may not be
important later.” Who will decide what is impor-
tant and should be kept and who will decide what
is thrown away to make room for the new?
This brings us to the other challenge: data preser-
vation (UNESCO 2012). Not unlike the archiving
of physical samples, such as ice cores or marine
sediments, there are obvious arguments for pre-
155
serving digital data sets.
Digital data sets have a
unique usefulness for
testing new theories or
reanalyzing the basis for
past interpretations. But
also, new advances in
data analytics and data
mining may uncover
previously unrecognized
patterns or may reveal
new ways to probe into Patricia Dove
archived data. Given the
irreproducible nature of these data sets, particu-
larly those collected in the past, it would seem the
value of many is truly incalculable.
The Earth science community needs to address
the problems of capacity and preservation in the
face of exponential growth in data. The problems
cannot be ignored. From the images of grandpar-
ents on your phone to the torrents of data coming
from supercomputers, information requires soft-
ware that can interpret the bits and bytes using a
current operating system. Many of us are already
experiencing “brownouts” when lapses in back-
ward compatibility prevent us from opening
simple files that we created only a decade ago.
Now let’s fast forward 50, 100, or even 1000 years
into the future. Archiving data sets for future gen-
erations, whether big or small, is not trivial. We
need to preserve the original application software,
the original operating systems, and the original
computers that ran the operating systems in order
to read and use old digital data (VASEM 2015). If
we don’t, we risk losing records of the 21st century
and leaving a “digital Dark Age” for future genera-
tions (Ghosh 2015).
The Earth science community cannot wait for other
groups to sort out these issues. A new frontier is
upon us, and our discipline needs top people at all
levels to plan for the best use of current resources.
Furthermore, both early career and established
scientists need to plan for the future—short and
long term—by providing decision makers with
informed recommendations.
There is no time to waste! And this reminds me to
check the small herd of space-eating Ceratotherium
annoyius, umm… filing cabinets that are living in
my office. After thinking about these issues, maybe
I won’t turn them out to pasture quite yet.
REFERENCES
Ghosh P (2015) Google’s Vint Cerf warns of ‘digital
dark age’. BBC News, 13 February 2015. www.bbc.
com/news/science-environment-31450389
Kuo K-S, Clune TL, Ramachandran R (2014) Earth sci-
ence data analysis in the era of big data. Earthzine,
4 April 2014. www.earthzine.org/2014/04/04/
Earth-science-data-analysis-in-the-era-of-big-data
UNESCO (2012) The Memory of the World in the
Digital age: Digitization and Preservation. 26–8
September 2012, Vancouver BC. Conference
Proceedings. Duranti L, Shaffer E (eds) United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization, Paris. 1458 pp
VASEM (2015) Virginia Academy of Science
Engineering and Medicine: Big Data Summit.
Report of December 4–5, 2015. National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, DC. 19 pp
Patricia M. Dove, Virginia Tech
Principal Editor
J UNE 2015
 FROM THE EDITORS
THIS ISSUE
Clarifying the Etymology of Apatite
While copyediting the thematic articles in this issue, we found the
authors offered three different derivations and/or meanings of the min-
eral name apatite. To find the actual meaning, Patrick Roycroft (Elements
copy editor) checked over a dozen authoritative sources (both print and
web-based) only to fi nd almost as many variants again! Why so little
consistency in something apparently so straightforward?
Patrick sought help from Martine Cuypers (Lecturer in Greek at
Trinity College Dublin) to get to the bottom of this mystery. What they
found is worth sharing with our geoscience colleagues.
The German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749–1817) coined
the name “Apatit.” He derived this term from the Greek verb “απαταω,”
′
which he defi ned using the Latin word “decipio.” This he published in
1788 in the Bergmännisches Journal (p 85). Strictly speaking, he should
, think would make a great issue of Elements, submit a proposal. At
have written “απαταω.”
′ The correct transliteration for this is apatáō,
and the closest English translation is “to deceive” (someone) or “to
be deceptive.” Werner invented the name and supplied its etymology.
However, Werner was not the first to actually publish the name. Another
German mineralogist called Carl Abraham Gerhard (1738–1821) fi rst
published “Apatit” in 1786 in his book Grundriß des Mineralsystems
(Christian Friedel Himburg, Berlin; p 281) in the form of an indirect
quote from Werner. So, the primary source for the written name is
actually a secondary report! [Implication: Werner had coined the term
before 1786].
All this produces a headache for accurate referencing: an unwary reader
could easily get misled as to who was responsible for exactly what and
when. So what to do? Cite both!
E LEMENTS 156
ELEMENTS AT GOLDSCHMIDT
Elements will be at the 2015 Goldschmidt Conference in Prague, Czech
Republic. Come visit us (booth #6)! This will be an occasion for you
to meet our editorial team and visit with colleagues. Be sure to invite
colleagues and students who do not currently receive Elements to visit
the booth as well. We will have information about our member soci-
eties, details on how to receive Elements, and we will have back issues
available for purchase.
Our next editorial meeting will be held on August 16, immediately prior
to Goldschmidt. This yearly face-to-face meeting is essential as it gives
us an opportunity to discuss, in depth, various aspects of Elements. It is
during this meeting that we will discuss the proposals we have received
for future issues of the magazine (see below).
CALL FOR PROPOSALS – THEMATIC TOPICS 2017
Come one, come all! If you have an area of research that you
our editorial meeting in August, we will discuss the proposals we
have on hand and will slate six for 2017. The selected proposals will
strike a balance among petrology, mineralogy, and geochemistry.
Additional information can be found at at elementsmagazine.org/
proposal.htm.
JOB POSTINGS
Would you like to advertise your graduate school program? Do you
have a job opening in your department or in your company? Are you
seeking applicants for a postdoctoral or PhD in the broad fields of
geochemistry, mineralogy, and petrology? Let Elements help you fi nd
that perfect candidate! Every issue of Elements is shipped to 16,000
mineralogists, geochemists, and petrologists and 1000 libraries in over
100 countries. You can reach prospective applicants through a print ad
in Elements and/or online at elementsmagazine.org/jobpostings. Both
are reasonably priced!
J UNE 2015
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 PEOPLE IN THE NEWS

2015 VETLESEN PRIZE TO STEVE SPARKS 2014 AGU FELLOWS

Professor Stephen Sparks, of the School of Earth Sixty-two individuals have been elected to the 2014 class of
Sciences at the University of Bristol (UK), has been American Geophysical Union fellows. They were recognized during
awarded the 2015 Vetlesen Prize. This award has the Honors Ceremony at the 2014 AGU Fall Meeting, held on
been termed the Nobel Prize of the Earth sciences 17 December in San Francisco, California. The following new fellows
and is awarded to an Earth scientist whose work are members of the mineralogical and geochemical community.
has resulted in a “clearer understanding of the
Meinrat O. Paul R. Renne
Earth, its history, or its relations to the universe.”
Andreae (Max (Berkeley
His research concerns volcanic and igneous pro-
Planck Institute Geochronology
cesses, and he has made contributions in petrology,
for Chemistry) for Center) for out-
physical volcanolog y, f undamental f luid
his leadership role standing con-
mechanics, sedimentology, and hazard- and risk-assessment methods.
in the scientific tributions to
Steve Sparks has published 413 peer-reviewed papers and received
investigation of geochronology
28,663 citations (h-factor of 97) according to Google Scholar. He was
biosphere–atmosphere interac- and its application to important
president of the Geological Society of London (1994–1996), president
tions and for Earth science inte- problems in geology and hom-
of the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the
grative research. inid evolution.
Earth’s Interior (1999–2003), and president-elect and president of the
Volcanology, Geochemistry, and Petrology Section of the American Rajdeep Peter H.
Geophysical Union (2008–2012). Honors he has received include fel- Dasgupta (Rice Santschi (Texas
lowship of the Royal Society (1988), fellowship of the American University) for A&M University)
Geophysical Union, the 2004 Arthur Holmes Medal (European Union outstanding con- for fundamental
of Geoscience), the 2000 Arthur Day Medal of the Geological Society tributions to our work on the char-
of America, the 2008 Thorarinsson Medal (International Association understanding of acterization of
of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior), the 2012 the deep carbon colloids in aquatic
Wollaston Medal (Geological Society of London). In 2012, he was made and sulfur cycles and their systems and their role in trace-
a Commander of the British Empire, a prestigious UK national recogni- impacts on Earth’s evolution. metal and radionuclide cycling
tion, for services to the environmental sciences. He was one of several and transport.
international scientists who, in 2011, formed the Global Volcano Model William F.
as an international platform for volcanology information. Fitzgerald David L.
(University of Shuster
The Vetlesen Prize is administered by Columbia University’s Lamont- Connecticut) (University of
Doherty Earth Observatory. Competition for the Vetlesen Prize is for pioneering California–
open to any individual anywhere in the world. The prize consists of a research on the Berkeley) for
cash award of $250,000 and a medal. For additional information, see global biogeo- significant con-
www.ldeo.columbia.edu/vetlesen-prize/. chemical cycling of mercury and tributions to the
the effect of human activities on geophysical sciences by an out-
INAUGURAL GÜBELIN SCHOLARSHIP its behavior and fate in nature. standing early career scientist.
TO GEMMA ROBERTS Jibamitra Howard J.
Gemma Emily Roberts, a PhD student at the Ganguly Spero (University
University of Sydney (Australia), is the recipient (University of of California–
of the inaugural Dr. Eduard Gübelin Research Arizona) for sem- Davis) for estab-
Scholarship. She clinched the scholarship with inal contributions lishing how the
her project proposal, “Precious Opal Formation in the applica- geochemical
in Australia: Insights into Martian Weathering tion of geological composition of
Processes.” The successful project was selected out thermodynamics and kinetics to foraminifera from deep-sea sedi-
of a total of 172 applications from all over research questions in petrology ments can be used to elucidate
the world. and planetary science. past climate and ocean changes.
“The project will allow better constraint of the environmental condi- Michael Lawrence
tions of opal formation. Furthermore, mineralogical assemblages similar O. Garcia A. Taylor
to the one included in the opal veins in Australia have been found (University of (University of
on Mars’s surface. Therefore, a better understanding of the formation Hawai‘i at Mānoa) Tennessee) for
and evolution of this basin will help to constrain the geology and for leadership in fundamental
the environmental system of the surface of Mars,” Roberts said at the understanding contributions to
prize presentation ceremony that was held 18 September 2014, at the the origin understanding
Hong Kong Jewelry & Gem Fair. “The ultimate goal of this project is to and evolution of Hawai‘ian the petrology and geochemistry
understand if some of the deeply weathered landscapes of Mars could volcanoes. of the Moon and the Earth’s
be a potential habitat of extraterrestrial microbial life due to the pres- mantle.
ence of liquid water.” Lee R. Kump
(Pennsylvania Jessica Tierney
The deadline to apply for the 2015 scholarship is June 30. See the State University) (Woods Hole
website www.gubelingemlab.ch/scholarship/. for pioneering Oceanographic
research on the Institution) for
dynamics and seminal contribu-
long-term evolution of global tions to the devel-
biogeochemical cycles and cou- opment and use of molecular
pling to climate. biomarker compounds for under-
standing past climate changes.

E LEMENTS 158 J UNE 2015

Component / Certified SQX Value without
Element Value Matching Library

SiO2 75.70 72.8

TiO2 0.09 0.099
Al2O3 12.08 13.5
Fe2O3 2.04 2.1
MnO 0.021 0.020
MgO 0.06* 0.046
CaO 0.78 1.0
Na2O 3.36 3.6
K2 O 4.99 5.8
P2O5 - 0.0075
F 0.42 0.68
Cl - 0.063
S - 0.01
Cr 0.0012 0.0016
Co - 0.0001
The need for quick determination of elements in geological samples has been
Ni 0.0008* 0.0029
increasing. Semi-quantitative analysis, with modern XRF instruments, may be
Cu 0.0012 0.0024
performed without any reference materials. SQX is Rigaku’s semi-quantitative
Zn 0.0050 0.0060 analysis (standardless analysis) program to obtain concentrations by theoretical
Ga 0.0027 0.0031 calculation using the fundamental parameter (FP) method.
As - 0.0013
Rb 0.0325 0.037 Sample and sample preparation
Sr 0.0010 0.0014
A granitic rock (SARM 1 / Mintek) was used as a demonstration sample.
Y 0.0143 0.013
Well-dried (2 hours at 105°C) samples were pressed to 100 kN using an
Zr 0.0300 0.032
aluminum sample support ring.
Nb 0.0053 0.0059
Ba 0.0120* 0.0096
La 0.0107* 0.013
Measurement
Ce 0.0195 0.018 Rigaku ZSX® Primus III+ was used for measurement. Sequential scan analysis
Nd 0.0072 0.0046 from fluorine to uranium was performed followed by semi-quantitative analysis
Sm 0.00158 0.0010 (SQX). A fixed angle measurement, one of the unique functions in SQX, was also
Dy 0.0017* 0.0021 applied for each trace element. When measurements with this function are
Yb 0.00142 0.0018
performed, the X-ray intensities are counted at fixed angles at the peak top and
Hf - 0.0004
searched background positions for a given time after the scanning sequence.
Pb 0.0040 0.0033
This significantly reduces statistical counting error and improves precision for
Th 0.0051 0.0045
trace element analysis.
U 0.0015* 0.0015
unit: mass%, * indicative
Results
SQX results and reference values are listed at left. The results by the SQX analysis are
in good agreement with the reference values; however, even better results may be
obtained with a “matching library.”

Request full application note here:

www.rigaku.com/products/xrf/appnotes?id=XRF—1020

CATCHING A FALLING STAR (OR METEORITE) –
FIREBALL CAMERA NETWORKS IN THE 21st CENTURY
Philip A. Bland1, Gretchen K. Benedix2,
and the Desert Fireball Network (DFN) Team3
Have you ever seen a shooting star? Have you
ever seen a fi reball? They are the spectacular
fiery result when space dust and rocks enter our
atmosphere. Meteors (also known as shooting
stars) are specks of dust that leave a trail of
light as they burn up in the atmosphere.
Fireballs are caused by larger bits of material,
making them significantly brighter, and can
last several seconds in duration. Fireballs and
meteors hit the atmosphere at velocities of tens
of kilometres per second. Friction from the
air heats the surface of the rock, melting and
ablating it, giving the impression of a ball of
fi re. A meteorite is the surviving material from
a fi reball. Meteorites give planetary scientists
information about the origin and evolution
of the Solar System: from how the fi rst solids
formed all the way through to the accretion
of planets. Meteorites provide a scientifically
priceless record, but their impact is reduced
because we have no spatial context to interpret
their compositional data. Imagine trying to
understand the geology of a continent if all you
had to work with was a collection of random
rocks dumped in your yard. That is where we
are with meteorites. We know meteorites come
from space, mostly from the asteroid belt. We
can pinpoint their precise origin in the Solar
System by determining the orbit that they were
on before they hit our atmosphere. However,
this is only possible if we are able to track the
fi reball before it lands. Combining the orbit
with the recovered meteorite is a major step
towards interpreting the record of early Solar
System processes that meteorites contain.
Camera Networks
Fireball camera networks are designed to
recover meteorites with orbits. The fi rst net-
work, based in the Czech Republic, became
active in 1959 and continues to operate as part
of the European Fireball Network (Oberst et
al. 1998). In the 60s, 70s, and 80s, two other
networks were operational in North America,
covering parts of the US (Prairie Meteorite
Network; McCrosky et al. 1978) and Canada
(Meteorite Observation and Recovery Project;
Halliday et al. 1996). Despite covering over
a million square kilometers of the Earth’s
surface, only a handful of meteorites have
been recovered. This is unfortunate because
the promise of these camera networks is
very great—knowing the spatial context (an
1 Curtin University, Department of Applied Geology,
Perth, WA, Australia
E-mail: P.Bland@curtin.edu.au
2 E-mail: G.Benedix@curtin.edu.au
3 DFN Team members: Martin Towner, Jonathan
Paxman, Martin Cupak, Robert Howie, Eleanor
Sansom, Jay Ridgewell, Kathryn Dyl, Luke Daly, Lucy
Forman, Hadrien Devillepoix, and Monty Galloway
E LEMENTS
CosmoELEMENTS
Fireball over Perenjori, 260 km north of
FIGURE 1
Perth (Western Australia). The camera
was set up on Perenjori Primary School as part of the
Fireballs in the Sky outreach program.
orbit) bridges the gap between meteorite and
asteroid research, with the potential to revolu-
tionize both fields. Although the methodology
employed in these earlier networks is sound,
they are limited by their location: temperate
zones where vegetation and weather condi-
tions are not well suited for meteorite preser-
vation or retrieval. It is hard to spot a meteorite
in a cornfield, on the tundra, or in a forest.
Moreover, meteorites weather away quite rap-
idly on Earth (Bland et al. 1998); even brief
exposure to rain will affect the primordial
record they hold (Jenniskens et al. 2012).
The Desert Fireball Network
Deserts are exceptionally suited to fi nding
meteorites due to the lack of plant cover and
because the environmental conditions limit
degradation (Bland et al. 2000). Around 80%
of all meteorites have been found in deserts.
Could a network sited in a desert deliver
greater numbers of meteorites with orbits?
The benefit is that searching should be easier.
The major difficulty is building hardware
to survive and operate autonomously for
extended periods in a harsh environment. To
test the concept, a trial network of four fi lm
cameras in the Nullarbor desert of Western
Australia was established in 2007 (Bland et
al. 2012). Australia was considered ideally
suited for the network because of clear skies
and arid environmental conditions. Prior to
this project, there were no known southern
hemisphere meteorites with orbits, or indeed
any extended campaigns observing southern
hemisphere fi reballs (FIG. 1). The initial Desert
Fireball Network (DFN) covered only a small
area (172,000 km 2 ), but by 2010, two mete-
orites had already been recovered (Bunburra
Rockhole and Mason Gully) using trajectory
information calculated from fi reball images.
The images also allowed us to determine
160
the precise pre-atmosphere orbits for these
rocks (Bland et al. 2009; Towner et al. 2011).
Bunburra Rockhole was an especially inter-
esting fi nd—a unique basaltic achondrite with
an Aten-type near-Earth object orbit (Bland et
al. 2009). This achievement has allowed us to
upgrade and expand the DFN.
Currently, DFN has 32 camera stations cov-
ering ~1.3 million km 2 . The cameras are fully
autonomous systems, capable of operating for
12 months without maintenance and storing
all images collected over that period. Each
station incorporates a 36-megapixel full-
format digital and low-light video camera run
by an embedded computer. The package is an
intelligent imaging system, which calibrates
its own optics, modifies observations based
on cloud conditions, automatically recognizes
fireball events, and pre-processes the data prior
to uploading it to the project server. The data
pipeline includes image processing to deter-
mine fi reball position at sub-pixel level, trian-
gulation and fi reball trajectory modelling, and
dark fl ight trajectory modified by weather and
forecast climate modelling. The fi nal facility
will incorporate 70 stations extending over
twice the present area to record meteorite falls,
track re-entry of space debris, and determine
landing sites for each.
Citizen Science
DFN is a natural outlet for community out-
reach/engagement because of the widespread
interest in fi reballs and meteorites. Fireballs
get more and more media coverage, espe-
cially in the age of expanding use of dash-
board and security cameras. Fireballs in the
Sky (FITS) is a citizen science project linked
to the DFN (www.fireballsinthesky.com.
au) with the goal of sharing the research
and involving the global public. School stu-
dents and the general public are encouraged
to contribute and interact with scientists as
the program develops, essentially becoming
members of Fireballs in the Sky community.
There are a number of ways to engage with the
team: e-newsletters, a blog, Facebook (www.
facebook.com/fi reballsinthesky), and Twitter
(@fi reballssky). A smartphone app (www.fi re-
ballsinthesky.com.au/download-app) has been
developed so that the public can record and
share their fi reball sightings with scientists,
participating in real-time research (FIG. 2).
The app works around the world, allowing
orbital data to be confi rmed from anywhere
on the planet, even if no meteorite is found.
Users receive updates on the specific event that
they witnessed. A recent upgrade adds details
on meteor showers throughout the year and
provides users a display directing them to the
specific location in the sky for that shower.
J UNE 2015
 CosmoELEMENTS

Three screenshots illustrating the main
FIGURE 2
features of the Fireballs in the Sky
smartphone app. (LEFT) The menu screen allows a user
to report a sighting, to find current and upcoming
meteor showers in their area, and get up-to-date news
on what’s happening with the DFN research team.
(M IDDLE) To record a sighting, the user points the (R IGHT) Once a user selects a meteor shower, the app
phone at the start and end positions in the sky and will provide data such as expected peak, zenith hourly
“draws” the path of the fireball. The user is then rate, and Moon phase. The app will then direct the
prompted to edit the created simulation by adjusting user to the best area to look in the sky, in real time.
duration, brightness, shape, and colour of the fireball
before reaching a summary page. Because it is a
simulation, not a video, this is done after the fireball
has burned out. With multiple reports, a sighting can
be confirmed and will be listed on the app for users
to check.

Finally, with technologies invented for the next generation digital
observatories, we are developing an inexpensive “kit” fi reball camera
station that would allow interested amateurs to plug in a digital camera
and have their own advanced fi reball observatory. A versatile interface
will allow users to customize camera settings, schedule operations, and
download imagers using Wi-Fi. The ability to use it for daytime pho-
tography means that the system can be adapted for multiple functions
outside of fi reball observations.
The goal of DFN is to increase recovery of meteorites with orbits: a
growing, lasting resource for the research community. It is our hope
that with the smartphone app and new home kit hardware, the public
can make a real contribution to the field and participate in this research
as it happens.

REFERENCES
Bland PA, Berry FJ, Pillinger CT (1998) Rapid
weathering in Holbrook: an 57Fe Mössbauer spec-
troscopy study. Meteoritics and Planetary Science
33: 127-129
Bland PA, Bevan AWR, Jull AJT (2000) Ancient
meteorite fi nds and the Earth’s surface environ-
ment. Quaternary Research 53: 131-142
Bland PA and 17 coauthors (2009) An anomalous
basaltic meteorite from the innermost main belt.
Science 325: 1525-1527
Bland PA and 13 coauthors (2012) The Australian
Desert Fireball Network: a new era for planetary
science. Australian Journal of Earth Science 59:
177-187
Halliday I, Griffi n, AA, Blackwell AT (1996).
Detailed data for 259 fi reballs from the Canadian
camera network and inferences concerning
the influx of large meteoroids. Meteoritics and
Planetary Science 31: 185-217
Jenniskens P and 70 coauthors (2012) Radar
enabled recovery of the Sutter’s Mill meteorite, a
carbonaceous chondrite regolith breccia. Science
338: 1583-1587
McCrosky RE, Shao C-Y, Posen A (1978) Prairie
Network Fireball Data. I. Summary and orbits.
Meteoritika 37: 44-59
Oberst J and 8 coauthors (1998) The “European
Fireball Network”: current status and future
prospects. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 33:
49-56
Towner MC and 10 coauthors (2011) Mason Gully:
the second meteorite recovered by the Desert
Fireball Network. 74th Meteoritical Society
Meeting: Abstract #5124

E LEMENTS 161 J UNE 2015

 MINERALOGY MATTERS

BORON – THE CRUSTAL ELEMENT

Edward S. Grew*

Boron is a quintessential element of the Earth’s upper continental crust.

Processes that created the upper continental crust also enriched it in
boron, and, as a result, a great diversity of boron minerals are among the
most accessible of useful compounds to humankind, even in antiquity.
And humankind is most fortunate that crustal processes have been so
effective in concentrating boron, as boron is second only to beryllium
among elements with Z ≤ 32 in scarcity in the Solar System. We can
thank plate tectonic activity and boron’s affi nity for fluids, particularly
aqueous fluids, for its enrichment. Primitive mantle is estimated to
contain 0.26 ppm boron (Palme and O’Neill 2005) and is depleted due
to boron’s volatility relative to carbonaceous Ivuna-type (CI) chondrite
meteorites, which have 0.775 ppm boron (Lodders 2010). Upper conti-
nental crust, with an average boron concentration of 17 ppm (Rudnick
and Gao 2005), is produced largely by partial melting of primitive
mantle and by the alteration of basaltic rocks crystallized from these
melts. However, to form a boron mineral requires concentrations several
times the crustal average, something only attainable through further
partial melting, adsorption and absorption of boron onto clay minerals,
and via leaching by aqueous fluids. Combinations of these processes This photograph, which was acquired on October 30, 2013 by an
FIGURE 1
can produce localized boron concentrations reaching an order of mag- astronaut on the International Space Station, shows one of the largest
nitude greater than the crustal average, for example, 30–150 ppm in the borate mines in the world (Rio Tinto Borax Mine). The mine is located northwest of
Boron, California (USA). The borate minerals in the deposit—largely borax,
illite-dominated component of pelagic sediments (Leeman and Sisson Na2B 4O5 (OH) 4 ·8H2O, kernite, Na2B 4O6 (OH) 2·3H2O, and ulexite,
1996) and 213 ppm in the Tanco pegmatite (Manitoba, Canada; Stilling NaCaB5O6 (OH) 6 ·5H2O—formed in sediments of a lake fed by thermal springs in
et al. 2006). However, the evaporation of brines, such as those found an intermontane basin 16 My ago. IMAGE COURTESY OF NASA (PHOTO # ISS037-E-22990)
in closed basins near active continental margins (such as the deposit
worked in the mine shown in FIG. 1), result in even higher concentra- There is more than just scientific interest in boron. This element, which
tions of boron, which can result in a diverse suite of minerals, such as derives its name from borax, has been widely used in a variety of
colemanite (FIG. 2). industries. Borax glazes were used in China as early as 300 AD. Lake
Yamdok Cho (Tibet) was the only source of borax known to the ancient
Presently, there are approximately 280 known mineral species con- world and by 1100 AD trade along the Silk Road was bringing borax
taining boron as an essential constituent. But has it always been so? A from Tibet to Arabia, where goldsmiths used it as a flux (Emsley 2001).
review of boron minerals from the evolutionary standpoint, considering Boron compounds have also found wide application in the manufacture
the role of geologic time in mineral formation, can address this question of abrasives (e.g. “Borazon,” boron nitride, BN), heat-resistant glass
(Hazen et al. 2008). The oldest reported boron minerals in the geologic (e.g. Pyrex), porcelain enamels, and detergents. Although poisonous
record are four species of tourmaline in the 3.6–3.9 Ga Eoarchean Isua in large amounts and used in herbicides and insecticides, boron is an
supracrustal belt of Greenland (Nutman et al. 2013). This occurrence is essential element for plants and is used in fertilizers to enhance plant
evidence for localized concentrations of boron in seawater and in the growth (Greenwood and Earnshaw 1991; Emsley 2001). It also is used
continental crust that formed by what could have been the earliest plate in medicine, such as boron neutron capture therapy for cancer (e.g.
tectonic processes (Grew et al. 2011; Nutman et al. 2013). Diversity of Kueffer et al. 2013). A few boron minerals can be gemstones, of which
boron minerals increased to about 100 species through the Precambrian tourmaline is by far and away the most prized because of its variety of
and accelerated during the Phanerozoic (542–0 Ma). However, this colors. Tourmaline caught the eye of jewelers in the 14th century, nearly
acceleration could be an artifact of preservation: many boron minerals
400 years before a gem-
are soluble in water and can be considered ephemeral. Unless isolated
stone from Ceylon (now
from aqueous fluids, soluble boron minerals are lost from the geological
Sri Lanka) was recognized
record but, if protected, they can persist for as long as other minerals.
as a distinct mineral and
For example, crystals of sassolite (boric acid, H3BO3) enclosed in quartz
given the name tura-
from the 2.64 Ga Tanco pegmatite have been preserved (Thomas et
malin by Amsterdam lapi-
al. 2012). It remains highly debatable whether ephemeral boron min-
daries (Pezzotta and Laurs
erals, such as those found in nonmarine evaporites, were present as
2011). Another gemstone
early as 3.8 Ga. Yet, this is a critical question because evaporite borate
of interest is the natural
minerals, such as colemanite (FIG. 2), have been used to explain the
type IIb blue diamond.
stabilization of ribose, a critical component for the self-assembly of
This is the only gemstone
prebiotic organic compounds in the emergence of life (Ricardo et al.
that derives its color from
2004; Benner et al. 2012). Alternatively, ribose stabilization by borate
boron, caused by electronic
in solution (Furukawa et al. 2013) is more in accord with the forma-
absorption in the red por-
tion of tourmaline in the Eoarchean Isua supracrustal belt, which also
tion of the spectrum. This
involved boron-bearing solutions. How and when life arose on Earth
rarest of colors is among the
is a question that has long intrigued scientists and boron appears to
most valuable on the dia-
be a crucial player. Evidence for boron minerals on the early Earth, or
mond market (Gaillou et al. FIGURE 2 Colemanite crystal from Corkscrew
for localized boron concentrations in seawater, could give scientists Canyon Mine, Death Valley
2012). A prime example is
further insights as to how and when life originated. National Park, Inyo County, California (E. S.
the Hope Diamond (FIG. 3). Grew specimen). The white incrustation on two
Gaillou et al. (2012) won- faces is celestine, SrSO4. Colemanite,
dered about the source of Ca[B3O4 (OH)3]·H2O, is an important “ore” in
* School of Earth and Climate Sciences the boron in these dia- some nonmarine evaporite borate deposits and
has been suggested as a source of borate to
University of Maine monds—did it originate in stabilize ribose (Ricardo et al. 2004). PHOTO :
Orono, Maine 04469, USA the mantle or could it have PRISCILLA GREW
E-mail: esgrew@maine.edu

E LEMENTS 162 J UNE 2015

 MINER
TR AVELOGUE
AL MAT TERS

been sourced from deeply subducted crustal material? The latter pos- FIGURE 3 Hope Diamond (25.60
sibility is no longer outlandish: Dobrzhinetskaya et al. (2014) suggested by 21.78 mm, 45.52
carats), which has a total boron
that qingsongite (BN) formed at 10–15 GPa from mantle nitrogen and content between 0.2 and 8 ppm
crustal boron, the latter from a fragment of pelitic rock subducted (Gaillou et al. 2012). PHOTO COURTESY
to mid-mantle depths. Processes associated with formation of Earth’s OF J EFFREY POST OF THE SMITHSONIAN

crust have not only separated and concentrated boron, which then INSTITUTION
became available for our industrial use, but may also have mixed a
little bit of this crustal boron back into Earth’s mantle to create beau-
tiful gemstones.

REFERENCES
Benner SA, Kim H-J, Carrigan MA
(2012) Asphalt, water, and the
prebiotic synthesis of ribose, ribo-
nucleosides, and RNA. Accounts of
Chemical Research 45: 2025-2034
Dobrzhinetskaya LF and 6 coauthors
(2014) Qingsongite, natural cubic
boron nitride: The fi rst boron
mineral from the Earth’s mantle.
American Mineralogist 99: 764-772
Emsley J (2001) Nature’s Building
Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the
Elements. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 539 pp
Furukawa Y, Horiuchi M, Kakegawa
T (2013) Selective stabilization of
ribose by borate. Origins of Life
and Evolution of Biospheres 43:
353-361
Gaillou E, Post JE, Rost D, Butler
JE (2012) Boron in natural type
IIb blue diamonds: Chemical
and spectroscopic measurements.
American Mineralogist 97: 1-18
Greenwood NN, Earnshaw A (1997)
Chemistry of the Elements. Second
Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, 1600 pp
Grew ES, Bada JL, Hazen RM (2011)
Borate minerals and origin of the
RNA world. Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres 41: 307-316
Hazen RM and 7 coauthors (2008)
Mineral evolution. American
Mineralogist 93: 1693-1720
Kueffer PJ and 8 coauthors (2013)
Boron neutron capture therapy
demonstrated in mice bearing
EMT6 tumors following selective
delivery of boron by rationally
designed liposomes. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences
110: 6512-6517
Leeman WP, Sisson VB (1996)
Geochemistry of boron and its
implications for crustal and mantle
processes. Reviews in Mineralogy
33: 645-707
Lodders K (2010) Solar system
abundances of the elements. In:
Goswami A, Reddy BE (eds.),
Principles and Perspectives in
Cosmochemistry. Astrophysics
and Space Science Proceedings.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg,
p 379-417
Nutman AP and 6 coauthors (2013)
The Itsaq Gneiss Complex of
Greenland: episodic 3900 to 3660
Ma juvenile crust formation and
recycling in the 3660 to 3600
Ma Isukasian orogeny. American
Journal of Science 313: 877-911
Palme H, O’Neill H St C (2005)
Cosmochemical estimates of
mantle composition. In: Carlson
RW (ed) Treatise on Geochemistry.
Volume 2: The Mantle and Core.
Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, p 1-38
Pezzotta F, Laurs BM (2011)
Tourmaline: the kaleidoscopic
gemstone. Elements 7: 333-338
Ricardo A, Carrigan MA, Olcott AN,
Benner SA (2004) Borate minerals
stabilize ribose. Science 303:196
Rudnick RL, Gao S (2005)
Composition of the continental
crust. In: Rudnick RL (ed) Treatise
on Geochemistry. Volume 3: The
Crust. Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford,
p 1-64
Stilling A, Černý P, Vanstone PJ
(2006) The Tanco pegmatite at
Bernic Lake, Manitoba. XVI. Zonal
and bulk compositions and their
petrogenetic significance. Canadian
Mineralogist 44: 599-623
Thomas R, Davidson P, Beurlen H
(2012) The competing models for
the origin and internal evolution of
granitic pegmatites in the light of
melt and fluid inclusion research.
Mineralogy and Petrology 106:
55-73

1994 – 2015

21 Years
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E LEMENTS 163 J UNE 2015

 David M. Chew is an associate professor of geology
at Trinity College Dublin (Ireland). He received his
PhD from University College Dublin. His uses ther-
mochronology to quantify the timing and rates of
tectonic processes, such as mountain building and
exhumation. He also develops new isotopic dating
methods to identify the sources of sediments and
to track sediment histories. His field areas include
the Andean margin of South America, the
Caledonides of Europe and the East African Rift.
Daniel E. Harlov is a research scientist at the
Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum, Potsdam
(Germany) and a visiting professor in the
Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg
(South Africa). He holds two MSc degrees from the
University of Wisconsin–Madison and a PhD from
Purdue University (USA). Dan’s research philosophy
is to couple field observation with experimental
replication and thermodynamic verification. To this
end, he has field projects worldwide investigating the role that fluids
play in geological processes and he has laboratory projects that focus
on mineral–mineral and mineral–fluid equilibria and mineral alteration
(including apatite, monazite, xenotime, allanite, zircon, titanite, garnet,
feldspars, scapolite, oxides, sulfides) under a broad range of P–T–X
conditions.
John M. Hughes is a professor of geology at the
University of Vermont, which he joined as Provost
after a career at Miami University (USA). John
received his PhD from Dartmouth College (USA),
was a predoctoral fellow at the Carnegie Institution
for Science’s Geophysical Laboratory (USA), and was
president of the Mineralogical Society of America
in 2013. He uses X-ray diffraction to analyze crystal
structures and is particularly interested in the
behavior of F, Cl, and OH in apatite’s anion column. John is pleased
to recognize the numerous students and colleagues who have partici-
pated in this work.
Rhian H. Jones has been a Reader in Isotope
Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry at the
University of Manchester (UK) since the fall of 2014.
Prior to her current appointment, she was a pro-
fessor in the Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences at the University of New Mexico (USA).
She received her PhD at the University of
Manchester. Rhian is particularly fascinated with
chondritic meteorites, the oldest rocks in the Solar
System. She researches chondrites so she can unlock the mysteries of
how the early Solar System developed and discover what processes
shaped the geologic history of asteroids.
Francis M. McCubbin is currently a senior research
scientist in the Institute of Meteoritics at the
University of New Mexico. In the summer of 2015,
he will move to NASA’s Johnson Space Center in
Houston (Texas) to become the next Astromaterials
Curator. He received his BSc in geology from
Towson University (USA) and his PhD in geosci-
ences from Stony Brook University (USA).
McCubbin’s research combines experimental
petrology and sample analysis to understand the thermal and magmatic
evolution of the terrestrial planets and to determine the abundance
and distribution of water in the Solar System.
E LEMENTS 164
Jill D. Pasteris is a professor in the Department of
Earth and Planetary Sciences at Washington
University in St. Louis (USA). She received her PhD
from Yale University (USA). Her early research
involved the metallic ore deposits of the Duluth
Complex (USA) and Raman spectroscopy of fluid
inclusions and carbonaceous materials. Currently,
Jill investigates phosphate biomineralization by
analyzing synthetically precipitated apatite, the
bones and teeth in modern vertebrates, and the hypermineralized bone
in whales. Her goal is to understand how the composition of bioapatite
guides its structure and properties, so enabling its wide range of bio-
logical functionality.
Philip M. Piccoli is a senior research scientist at
the University of Maryland at College Park (USA),
where he completed his PhD on the chemistry of
apatites in felsic magmas. Prior to this, he obtained
a BA at the University of Montana (USA) and a MSc
from the University of Pittsburgh (USA). Phil
researches the transport mechanisms of ore metals,
such as Cu, Mo, Au, in porphyry-type environ-
ments; the chemical evolution of magmatic fluids;
how accessory phases help to decipher petrologic processes; the textures
in magmatic rocks; and how to improve analytical techniques.
John F. Rakovan is a professor of mineralogy and
geochemistry at Miami University (USA). He
received his PhD from Stony Brook University (USA)
and did a postdoc in mineral surface science at
Virginia Tech (USA). Since 2001, John has been an
executive editor of Rocks & Minerals. His research
interests include crystallography, crystal chemistry,
and the nature of the mineral–water interface. John
is particularly interested in all things apatite:
crystal growth, metal sorption, trace element partitioning, and surface-
mediated reactions.
Richard A. Spikings graduated in geochemistry at
the University of St. Andrews (UK) in 1993.
Unravelling the thermochronology of Mount Isa
(Australia) earned him a PhD in 1998 from La Trobe
University (Australia). Between 1998 and 2001 he
was a postdoctoral fellow at the Eidgenossische
Technische Hockschule (ETH)-Zurich (Switzerland).
In 2004, Richard was appointed to a tenured
research position at the University of Geneva
(Switzerland), where he currently manages the 40Ar/39Ar laboratory. His
research focuses on the thermochronology and geochronology of the
Andean cordilleras of Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Chile,
most recently concentrating on bulk and in situ U–Pb thermochro-
nology of the accessory phases.
James D. Webster is a curator at the American
Museum of Natural History (USA) where he curates
the mineral deposits and volcanology collections.
John also operates an experimental petrology labo-
ratory at the museum, which he uses to investigate
the role that volatiles play in magmatic systems,
exsolving fluids, volcanic processes, and hydro-
thermal mineral deposition. As part of this
research, he studies apatite and silicate melt inclu-
sions both from mineralized and from barren igneous systems. His field
research has taken him to the volcanoes of Vesuvius (Italy) and
Augustine (USA), to the tin-mineralized granites of southern Germany,
and to the copper-porphyry deposits of Arizona (USA).
J UNE 2015
 Structurally Robust, Chemically
Diverse: Apatite and Apatite
Supergroup Minerals
John M. Hughes1 and John F. Rakovan2

1811-5209/15/0011-0165$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.3.165

A
patite is ubiquitous in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks WHY IS APATITE
and is significant to more fi elds of study than perhaps any other IMPORTANT TO US?
mineral. To help understand why, one needs to know apatite’s struc- The atomic arrangement of apatite
and its variable chemical compo-
ture, composition, and crystal chemistry. Apatite has a robust hexagonal
sition yield properties that have
atomic framework based on two distinct metal-cation sites (M1, M2), a resulted in applications to more
tetrahedral-cation site (T), and an anion column along four edges of the fields of study than probably
unit cell. These cation and anion sites can, among them, incorporate more any other mineral: agronomy,
mineralogy, petrology, economic
than half of the long-lived elements in the periodic table, giving rise to the geolog y, biolog y, medicine,
“apatite supergroup,” which contains over 40 mineral species. The structure dentistry, geochronology, environ-
and composition impart properties that can be technologically, medically, mental remediation, and materials
science (Elliott 1994; Kohn et
and geologically very useful. al. 2002; and other articles in
KEYWORDS : apatite structure, fluorapatite, chlorapatite, hydroxylapatite, this issue). Apatite is the most
apatite supergroup abundant phosphate mineral on
Earth; it forms the foundation
of the global phosphorus cycle
WHAT IS APATITE? (Filippelli 2002, 2008), and it is
Apatite, in the strictest sense, is not a single mineral. The the most abundant ore of phosphorus. Apatite is stable
“apatite” most familiar to geologists is really a subgroup in, and can form under, a wide variety of conditions
within the apatite group within the apatite supergroup ranging from the Earth’s surface to the lithospheric
(TABLE 1). The apatite group of minerals share a common mantle (O’Reilly and Griffi n 2013). Apatite is geologi-
atomic arrangement (FIG. 1) as do all of the supergroup cally ubiquitous: it forms in igneous, metamorphic,
minerals, in which there is a dominant element—Ca, Pb, sedimentary, and hydrothermal environments. Although
Sr, Ba, or Mn—in two of the cation sites, and P, V, or As in normally a minor phase, apatite can become an impor-
a third cation site. Most common among these minerals tant rock-forming mineral in sedimentary phosphorites
are the calcium phosphate apatites, the specific species and in igneous apatite–magnetite cumulate deposits
of which vary in the occupancy of another structural (Martin and Rakovan 2013; Harlov 2015 this issue). In
site that can accommodate F (forming fluorapatite), Cl addition, human teeth, bone (though not the small bones
(forming chlorapatite) and OH (forming hydroxylapatite). of the inner ear, which are composed of vaterite, a rare
Commonly, these three species, and solid solutions among polymorph of CaCO3), some urinary calculi, and arterial
them, are referred to simply as “apatite” (especially when plaque are formed from apatite (specifically hydroxylapa-
the exact composition of a sample is unknown). Other tite), indicating a remarkable link between the inorganic
species in the apatite group do not share the same root and organic genesis of the mineral. Along with calcite and
name, for example pyromorphite. The apatite structure aragonite, apatite is among the most common biomin-
can accommodate many other substituents, and this leads erals on Earth and forms the endoskeleton for a variety
to over forty known mineral species collectively called the of species.
apatite supergroup, which is described later in this article.
These remarkable characteristics and uses of apatite arise
In this issue of Elements, unless otherwise stated, the name
from the arrangement of atoms in the apatite structure.
“apatite” will refer to the three calcium phosphate apatites
Understanding this structure is key to the successful use of
with the general formula, Ca5 (PO4) 3 (F,Cl,OH).
apatite in its myriad applications, now and in the future.

THE STRUCTURE AND ANION CRYSTAL

CHEMISTRY OF APATITE
Structure
1 Department of Geology Apatites are (predominantly) hexagonal, a = 9.4–9.6 Å, c =
University of Vermont 6.8–6.9 Å, with a space group symmetry of P63/m. In that
Burlington, VT 05405, USA space group there are two {00l} mirror planes perpendic-
E-mail: jmhughes@uvm.edu
ular to the 63 screw axis, located at z = ¼ and ¾. In the
2 Department of Geology and Environmental Earth Science apatite structure there are three cation sites (FIG. 1). The
Miami University tetrahedral site (T site) is a PO4 tetrahedron with a P–O
Oxford, OH 45056, USA
E-mail: rakovajf@miamioh.edu distance of ~1.53 Å; there are six tetrahedra per unit cell.

E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 165–170 165 J UNE 2015


A B
(A) Apatite atomic arrangement projected down the
FIGURE 1
c axis with the unit cell in black. Green ions at corners
of unit-cell are those in the F–Cl–OH column. The M1 (Ca1) sites
are in red; M2 (Ca2) sites are in orange; T (P) sites are in yellow.
IMAGE AFTER H UGHES (2015). (B) High-resolution transmission electron
photomicrograph of apatite looking down the c axis. The external
crystal morphology and structural repeat seen in the image both
reflect the hexagonal symmetry of the apatite atomic structure.
MARK K REKELER IMAGE.
The M1 site (M = metal; also called Ca1 site for the calcium
apatites) is a CaO9 tricapped-trigonal prism (FIG. 2A); there
are four M1 sites per unit cell. The M2 site (or Ca2 site for
the calcium apatites) is an irregular CaO6X1 polyhedron,
where X = F, Cl, and OH (FIG. 2B); there are six M2 sites per
unit cell. Thus, in the reduced chemical formula, which has
a stoichiometry of half the unit cell contents (i.e. Z = 2),
two of the five M sites are M1 and three are M2. This helps
in better understanding how the chemical formula relates
to the structure of the entire range of mineral formulas
for the apatite supergroup (see TABLE 1). The F, Cl, and
OH anions exist in [0,0,z] columns along the edges of the
unit cell (FIG. 1). Collectively, F, Cl, and OH are termed
“column anions.”
Anion Solid Solution and Symmetry
The calcium phosphate apatite minerals form one of the
rarer examples of a mineral group with anion solid solutions.
The M2 (Ca2) atomic site is of particular interest in the
apatite atomic arrangement because it
helps accommodate the three different
column anions (F, Cl, OH), which
A B
differ significantly in size. Whereas
there is little structural response to
anion substitutions in the other cation
sites (M1 and T) (Hughes et al. 1989),
there are dramatic differences in the
spatial environment of the M2 (Ca2)
polyhedra in fluorapatite, chlorapatite,
and hydroxylapatite. Three M2 (Ca2)
cations exist in a triangle surrounding
each anion column. An M2 (Ca2)
triangle exists in each of the mirror
planes in the unit cell. In fluorapatite
an F anion easily fits at the center of
the M2 (Ca2) triangle and is coplanar
with the three M2 (Ca2) cations. In
contrast, in chlorapatite and hydrox-
ylapatite, the Cl and OH anions are too large to fit in the
center of the triangle, forcing the Cl or OH to be displaced
below or above the triangle (~1.3 Å for Cl; ~0.35 Å for OH).
If the anion moves above the mirror plane, the site below
the mirror will remain vacant and vice versa.
E LEMENTS
The local mirror symmetry is attained only in
fluorapatite, yielding the expected hexagonal
P6 3 /m symmetry. In pure hydroxylapatite
and chlorapatite, with no substituents in the
anion column, all the OH or Cl anions in
one column will be ordered above the plane,
and all the anions in an adjacent column are
ordered below the plane. This destroys the
mirror symmetry, yielding monoclinic P21/b
symmetry (Hounslow and Chao 1970; Elliott
et al. 1973). However, over the crystal as a
whole, an average P63/m symmetry can exist
in impure hydroxylapatite and chlorapatite.
This is because OH and Cl occupy only half
the sites available on both sides of the mirror
planes. This average symmetry, however,
occurs if there are sufficient “impurities” in
the anion column to allow a reversal of the order of anions
within a column (i.e. anions above the plane or below the
plane). Less than 10% substitution of other column anions
(e.g. F) or vacancies is sufficient to destroy this ordering
and yield a disordered, hexagonal P63/m symmetry.
Unlike many cation solid solutions, the atomic arrange-
ment in the mixed-anion apatites cannot be predicted from
the positions in the individual end-members. Steric inter-
actions among the different anion species in the binary
or ternary anion column force the structure to create new
anion positions that are not seen in end-members; this
then provides the adequate anion–anion distances in the
anion column (Hughes et al. 1989). For example, the typical
end-member positions of the three anions in the ternary
apatites, with essentially equal amounts of F, Cl, and OH,
cannot exist because of short anion–anion distances.
However, anion solid solution in ternary apatite can be
attained in two ways. First, by creating a new Cl site that
relaxes ~0.4 Å toward its associated mirror plane, allowing
for an adjacent OH and reversal of the sense of ordering
of the anions above or below the mirrors in the column.
Second, by crystallizing in a P21/b monoclinic form with
ordered anion columns, which might be a common phase
in low-temperature, metamorphic apatites (Hughes et al.
1990). The conundrum of anion mixing also exists for the
apatite binaries F–Cl, F–OH, and Cl–OH , and represents a
fruitful area for further research (Hughes et al. 1989, 2015).
FIGURE 2 The two types of metal cation sites (M1 and M2) in
the apatite structure, here both filled with Ca. (A) Ca1
(M1) polyhedra. (B) Ca2 (M2) polyhedra. Each Ca2 cation bonds to
six oxygen anions and one of the column anions (F, Cl, OH). The
O1, O2, Ca2 and F all reside within one of the {00l} mirror planes
in the P63/m apatite structure.
166 J UNE 2015
Understanding the nature of these anion substitutions is
more than an academic exercise. It is essential for making
use of apatite to determine the volatile (F, Cl, water as OH)
behavior and budgets in melts and related fluids. The use
of apatite as a recorder of volatile behavior is being applied
to rock-forming systems on Earth and to extraterrestrial
bodies, such as the Moon and Mars (see articles in this issue
by Harlov 2015, Webster and Piccoli 2015, and McCubbin
and Jones 2015). Anion substitution is also why we brush
our teeth with fluoridated toothpaste. Hydroxylapatite in
the enamel of our teeth is more soluble (i.e. less stable) in
acids created by bacteria in our mouths than is fluorapa-
tite. Over time fluorine from the toothpaste slowly replaces
OH in the enamel, thus making our teeth more resistant
to decay.
A Cornucopia of Substitutions
The complexity of the anion column in apatite is mirrored
in the cation composition and crystal chemistry (Pan and
Fleet 2002). More than half the elements that occur as
long-lived isotopes on Earth can be incorporated in the
apatite structure (FIG. 3). This is in large part due to the
variety of cation sites, i.e. a regular tetrahedron and two
disparate M polyhedra. The remarkably robust nature
of the atomic arrangement allows many compounds to
adopt the apatite structure. The two distinct M polyhedra
(M1 and M2) provide substitution sites for many divalent
cations—Sr, Ba, Pb, Cd, Mg, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, and
Sn (see TABLE 1 for minerals formed from these elements).
In most cases, there is significant site preference by the
substituents, indicating the different steric environments
afforded by the two sites: Sr strongly prefers the M2 site
(Rakovan and Hughes 2000), whereas Mn strongly prefers
the M1 site (Hughes et al. 1991a).
Trivalent ions can also substitute in the M1 and M2 sites.
However, substituting a trivalent cation for divalent calcium
must be coupled with another substitution to maintain
charge balance. Hughes et al. (1991b) documented the
extensive substitution of rare earth elements (REEs) in
apatite, reporting the structures of four REE-enriched
apatites with up to 25 wt% REE 2O3. They demonstrated
that charge balance is maintained by two coupled substitu-
tions: Na + + REE 3+ ↔ 2Ca 2+ and Si4+ + REE 3+ ↔ P5+ + Ca 2+.
Among the REEs, the light REEs prefer the M2 site, whereas
E LEMENTS 167
the heavy REEs prefer the M1 site. The REEs near Nd in their
ionic radii exhibit no site preference. Tetravalent substitu-
ents do show site preferences, for example Luo et al. (2009)
reported partial segregation of U +4 and Th+4 among the M
sites in calcium phosphate apatite.
Because of this cornucopia of cation substitutions, the
presence (or absence) of apatite can strongly influence the
minor and trace element composition of rocks in which it
is contained. Apatite is one of the most important minerals
affecting REE behavior in geological systems. The concen-
tration of REEs in apatite can be so significant that apatite
can become an ore of these elements. Trace elements, such
as the REEs, often hold the key to the origin of a magma or
fluid and the geochemical processes that they have under-
gone. Thus, apatite composition plays a critical role in the
understanding and modeling of petrogenetic processes
(Piccoli and Candela 2002; Spear and Pyle 2002; Harlov
2015; Webster and Piccoli 2015). By applying knowledge
of the mechanisms and magnitude of cation substitu-
tions found in natural apatites, scientists can manipulate
structure–composition relationships in synthetic analogs
and tailor their physical properties to suit different techno-
logical applications, such as lasers or bone prosthetics.
The distribution of substituents, particularly trace and
minor elements, can be heterogeneous (zoned) within
an apatite crystal (FIG. 4). Compositional zoning can take
many forms, including concentric, oscillatory, sectoral,
and intrasectoral (Rakovan 2002). Compositional zonation
can provide a wealth of information about the environ-
ment that the crystal was in during its growth, including
how that environment changed with time. Zonation also
provides information about crystal growth, such as what
controls the crystal’s morphology, the differential rates
of face advancement, the different growth mechanisms
operating on different crystal faces, the evolution of surface
microtopography (e.g. presence and location of growth
hillocks, steps, etc.), and the differences in the atomic
structure at the crystal’s surface. All of the zoning types
hold clues to the mechanisms and history of mineral and
rock formation, as well as post growth alteration. Thus,
elucidation and understanding of compositional zoning
in apatite are essential for the correct interpretation of
petrogenesis (Webster and Piccoli 2015).
FIGURE 3 Elements
(in red) that
occur in apatite super-
group minerals in amounts
ranging from ppm to tens
of weight percent. D ERIVED
FROM PAN AND FLEET (2002)
J UNE 2015

A
B of many other elements can also be incorporated. An even
FIGURE 4 Cathodoluminescent images (each about 200 microns
across) of apatite crystal surfaces showing intrasec-
toral zoning of trace elements (primarily Mn and the REEs, which
are activating the luminescence). (A) Part of a pinacoid (001) face
on a fluorapatite from Llallagua, Bolivia. (B) Part of a prism (100)
face on a fluorapatite from Minas Gerais, Brazil. FROM R AKOVAN
(2002)
Carbonate (CO32−):
An Unexpected but Important Substituent
Because of its significant effects on the physical and
chemical properties of apatite, such as solubility, one substi-
tution that is of particular interest in biological apatites is
that of carbonate (CO32−) (Fleet 2014). Apatite solubility
is directly related to the body’s ability to build and retain
healthy bones and teeth. The carbonate ion can substi-
tute in two places in the apatite structure, with radically
different substitution geometries. In the A-type substitu-
tion, the carbonate ion is located in the anion column
(Fleet et al. 2004). In the B-type substitution, the carbonate
ion can substitute for the phosphate ion at the T site. In this
case, the trigonal-planar carbonate ion roughly occupies
the same position as one of the triangular faces of the
tetrahedral site. However, some of the structural details and
mechanisms of charge balance are still poorly constrained
and debated. Further work is needed.
E LEMENTS
APATITE SUPERGROUP MINERALS:
THE ROBUST NATURE OF THE APATITE
ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
Although many elements can occur as substituents in
apatite, many other naturally occurring compounds
assume the apatite atomic arrangement, but with different
compositions. Indeed, because it can incorporate more
than half of the long-lived elements in the periodic chart,
the apatite atomic arrangement must be considered as one
of the most robust mineral structures in nature. After the
amphiboles, micas, and zeolites, the apatite supergroup
contains more distinct species than any other mineral
supergroup. TABLE 1 lists the minerals and formulae of the
apatite supergroup and is divided into five crystal-chemical
groups (Back 2014).
In apatite supergroup minerals, the M1 and M2 sites can
be occupied by stoichiometric amounts of Ca, Sr, Pb, Ba,
Mn, Na, Bi, and REE; the tetrahedral site (T site) can be
occupied by P, As, V, S, Si, and B; and the anion column
can be fi lled by F, Cl, OH, and O. Minor and trace amounts
larger group of synthetic apatite compounds, with an even
wider variety of chemical constituents, have been created
(Pan and Fleet 2002), further attesting to the robust struc-
ture of “apatite.”
The majority of apatite supergroup minerals are hexag-
onal. However, trigonal and monoclinic pseudohexagonal
subsymmetries also exist. Monoclinic apatite occurs from
the ordering of the column anions in the hydroxylapa-
tite and chlorapatite monoclinic endmembers (hydroxyl-
apatite-M and chlorapatite-M, respectively). Such symmetry
lowering has also been observed in ternary (F, Cl, OH)
calcium phosphate apatites (Hughes et al. 1990). In other
apatite supergroup minerals, symmetry lowering results
from cation ordering, such as in the britholite group of
minerals, where ordering of the REE cations in the M2
site yields pseudohexagonal monoclinic symmetry (Noe et
al. 1993). In hydroxylellestadite, the ordering of the two
tetrahedral-site species (Si, S) also reduces the hexagonal
symmetry to a pseudohexagonal, monoclinic symmetry
(Hughes and Drexler 1991).
In a unique type of symmetry reduction, Dai et al.
(1991) demonstrated that the symmetry in mimetite-M is
monoclinic because the Pb2+ lone-pair electrons become
stereoactive at ~110 °C, and the lone-pair–bond-pair inter-
actions cause the symmetry reduction. One of the most
sensitive indicators of symmetry reduction is the optical
behavior of a mineral. Even in cases where X-ray diffraction
methods are unable to “see” symmetry lowering (dissym-
etrization), the optical properties may clearly reflect it. Two
examples are hydrothermal fluorapatites from the Llallagua
tin deposit in Bolivia and the Ashio copper deposit in
Japan. Both are optically anomalous and exhibit domains
of lower-than-hexagonal symmetry with different optical
orientation and behavior (e.g. varying nonzero values of
2V). These domains correlate directly with sectors and
subsectors of the crystals, indicating dissymetrization
during growth as a result of differential surface reactivity
(Rakovan 2002). The origin of these anomalies is unknown,
but selective ordering among structurally different sites
on the crystal surface may have occurred during growth,
indicating surface-structure control on the reactivity of
apatite.
Nomenclature
The large number of apatite supergroup mineral species
and the confusion regarding their nomenclature led to a
detailed revision of that nomenclature (Pasero et al. 2010).
168 J UNE 2015
 Currently, the apatite supergroup of minerals is divided IMA-ACCEPTED MINERALS OF THE APATITE SUPERGROUP
TABLE 1
into five groups on the basis of chemical composition WITH THEIR IDEAL END-MEMBER FORMULAE, SUBDIVIDED
INTO FIVE GROUPS. A FTER BACK (2014)
(TABLE 1). These groups illustrate the remarkably diverse
chemical composition of apatite supergroup minerals. Here, Approved Name End-member Formula (reduced)
we briefly summarize each of the five groups. Apatite Group
The Apatite Group (TABLE 1) is defi ned as having the same Alforsite Ba5 (PO 4)3Cl
dominant element in the M1 and M2 sites, and having P,
Chlorapatite Ca5 (PO 4)3Cl
V, or As in the T site. Most common among these minerals
are fluorapatite, chlorapatite, and hydroxylapatite (M1 = Fluorapatite Ca5 (PO 4)3F
M2 = Ca; T = P). Particularly colorful representatives of Hydroxylapatite Ca5 (PO 4)3OH
this group include the lead-bearing apatites, mimetite
Hydroxylapatite-M Ca5 (PO 4)3OH
[Pb5 (AsO4) 3Cl], pyromorphite [Pb5 (PO4) 3Cl], and vanadi-
nite [Pb5(VO4)3Cl], which are the staples of mineral displays Johnbaumite Ca5 (AsO 4)3OH
in countless museums (FIG. 5). Johnbaumite-M Ca5 (AsO 4)3OH
Mimetite Pb5 (AsO 4)3Cl
A B
Mimetite-M Pb5 (AsO 4)3Cl
Pieczkaite Mn5 (PO 4)3Cl
Pyromorphite Pb5 (PO 4)3Cl
Stronadelphite Sr5 (PO 4)3F
Svabite Ca5 (AsO 4)3F
Turneaureite Ca5 (AsO 4)3Cl
Vanadinite Pb5 (VO 4)3Cl
Belovite Group
C Belovite-(Ce) NaCeSr3 (PO 4)3F
Belovite-(La) NaLaSr3 (PO 4)3F
Carlgieseckeite-(Nd) NaNdCa3 (PO4)3F

FIGURE 5 Three colorful lead- Deloneite (Na 0.5REE0.25Ca 0.25)(Ca 0.75REE0.25)Sr1.5

bearing apatites. (CaNa 0.25REE0.25)(PO 4)3F0.5 (OH) 0.5
(A) Mimetite [Pb5 (AsO 4)3Cl]
Chihuahua, Mexico. (B) Pyromorphite Fluorcaphite SrCaCa3 (PO 4)3F
[Pb5 (PO 4)3Cl] Guangxi Province,
Fluorstrophite SrCaSr3 (PO 4)3F
China. (C) Vanadinite [Pb5 (VO 4)3Cl]
Mibladen, Morocco. I MAGE CREDIT: Kuannersuite-(Ce) NaCeBa3 (PO 4)3F0.5Cl 0.5
JOHN R AKOVAN
Britholite Group
Britholite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca) 5 (SiO 4)3OH
In the Belovite Group (TABLE 1), ordering of the cations causes
the splitting of the four M1 cation sites in the unit cell into Britholite-(Y) (Y,Ca) 5 (SiO 4)3OH
two sets of two symmetry-equivalent sites, the M1 and M1′ Fluorbritholite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca) 5 (SiO 4)3F
sites. Each of those sites contains different cations, as in Fluorbritholite-(Y) (Y,Ca) 5 (SiO 4)3F
belovite-(La) [NaLaSr3 (PO4) 3F], in which the four M1 sites
are split into the M1 site (Na) and M1′ site (La), and the Fluorcalciobritholite (Ca,REE) 5 (SiO 4,PO 4)3F
M2 site is occupied solely by Sr. Melanocerite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca) 5 (Si,B)3O12 (OH,F) .nH2O?

Minerals of the Britholite Group (TABLE 1) are a group of Tritomite-(Ce) Ce5 (SiO 4,BO 4)3 (OH,O)
silicates (T = Si) that typically show only partial ordering of Tritomite-(Y) Y5 (SiO 4,BO 4)3 (O,OH,F)
the M1 and M2 cations. Without exception, the Britholite
Ellestadite Group
Group of minerals contain stoichiometric REEs, but
complete ordering of any element on the M1 or M2 site Chlorellestadite (doubtful) Ca5 (SiO 4)1.5 (SO 4)1.5Cl
is not achieved. Fluorellestadite Ca5 (SiO 4)1.5 (SO 4)1.5F
In the Ellestadite Group (TABLE 1), the T site is occupied by Hydroxylellestadite Ca5 (SiO 4)1.5 (SO 4)1.5OH
three tetravalent cations (Si4+) and three hexavalent cations Mattheddleite Pb5 (SiO 4)1.5 (SO 4)1.5Cl
(S6+), yielding the requisite charge balance. In some cases,
Hedyphane Group
the ordering of these T-site cations can lead to the lowering
of symmetry, as in monoclinic hydroxylellestadite (Hughes Aiolosite Na2 (Na2Bi)(SO 4)3Cl
and Drexler 1991). Caracolite Na2 (Pb2Na)(SO 4)3Cl
Finally, the Hedyphane Group (TABLE 1) is composed of Cesanite Ca2Na3 (SO 4)3OH
phosphate, arsenate, and sulfate minerals in which the
Fluorphosphohedyphane Ca2Pb3 (PO 4)3F
M1 and M2 sites are occupied by different atomic species.
The group is typified by the eponymous arsenate mineral Hedyphane Ca2Pb3 (AsO 4)3Cl
hedyphane, [Ca 2Pb3 (AsO4) 3Cl] in which Ca occupies the Miyahisaite (Sr,Ca) 2Ba3 (PO 4)3F
M1 site and Pb is ordered into the M2 site. The site prefer-
Morelandite Ca2Ba3 (AsO 4)3Cl
ences for Ca and Pb in hedyphane, and for other cations
in different hedyphane group minerals, arise from the Phosphohedyphane Ca2Pb3 (PO 4)3Cl
differing steric environments that the M1 and M2 site
afford for the resident cations.

E LEMENTS 169 J UNE 2015

FUTURE WORK
The apatite supergroup minerals, from the ubiquitous
calcium phosphate apatites that are the framework of life
itself, to the other members of the apatite supergroup
that demonstrate remarkable compositional complexity
and diversity, are among the most important minerals on
Earth. Despite this importance, there is still much we do
not understand about apatite in all its forms. We need to
determine the fundamental thermodynamic properties of
end-member apatite group minerals and the solid solutions
among them, to understand the reactivity of apatite and
other geochronometers in aqueous fluids that is essen-
tial for accurate evaluation of geochronologic data, and
to elucidate the still poorly explored crystal chemistry of
apatite with transuranic substituents other than U and
Th. The transuranic elements, along with U, Th, and other
radionuclides, may someday be disposed of in apatite copre-
cipitates or composites. Researchers are urged to investigate
these and other areas of this structurally robust, chemically
diverse, and most ubiquitous of minerals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by NSF grant EAR-1249459 to JMH
and NSF grant EAR-0952298 to JR. We are grateful to
reviewers Daniel Harlov, Rhian Jones, Patricia Dove, and
an anonymous reviewer, whose work greatly improved
the manuscript. Karina May Heffernan reviewed an early
version of the manuscript.

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Elliott JC (1994) Structure and Chemistry
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Hughes JM, Drexler JW (1991) Cation
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(1989) Structural variations in natural
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(1990) Crystal structures of natural
ternary apatites: solid solution in the
Ca5 (PO4) 3X (X = F, OH, Cl) system.
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structure refi nements of natural Mn-
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Hughes JM, Cameron M, Mariano AN
(1991b) Rare-earth-element ordering
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Nekvasil H (2015) Fluor-chlorapatite,
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Drexler JW, Kato A (1993) The crystal
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the Chemical Transformation of Rock:
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Extraterrestrial Processes. Springer,
Berlin, pp 471-533
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E LEMENTS 170 J UNE 2015

 Apatite: A Fingerprint
for Metasomatic Processes
Daniel E. Harlov1,2
1811-5209/15/0011-0171$2.50
Backscattered electron
photograph image of
monazite, magnetite, and
quartz inclusions across
an apatite grain framed
by magnetite on either
DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.3.171 side. From the Pea Ridge
magnetite–apatite ore
deposit, Arkansas, USA.

A
patite is a superb mineral by which to investigate the nature of fl uids
that have passed through and altered a rock (metasomatic processes). The calcium phosphate apatites
[Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 (F,Cl,OH)] are one
Its ubiquity allows it to act as a reservoir for P, F, Cl, OH, CO2 , and of the most common accessory
the rare earth elements. It is also a powerful thermochronometer and can minerals (actually, a mineral
be chemically altered by aqueous brines (NaCl–KCl–CaCl2 –H2O), pure H2O, group) in sedimentary, metamor-
phic, and igneous rocks. Apatite is
and aqueous fluids containing CO2 , HCl, H2SO 4, and/or F. Thus, apatite is the highly susceptible to various fluid-
perfect tracker of metasomatic fluids, providing information on the timing induced (metasomatic) chemical
and duration of metasomatism, the temperature of the fluids, and the compo- and textural changes over a wide
range of pressures and tempera-
sition of the fluids, all of which can feed back into the history of the host
tures, from the Earth’s surface to
rock itself. the lithospheric mantle, making
KEYWORDS : fluorapatite, chlorapatite, monazite, xenotime, brines, CO2 , it an ideal mineral for “fi nger-
metamorphism, magnetite–apatite ores, lithospheric mantle, epitaxy printing” metasomatic processes.
Importantly, apatite can serve
as the principal host for the rare
INTRODUCTION earth elements (REEs) in most
rocks. REEs are incorporated into or removed from the
What is Metasomatism? What is Apatite? apatite structure via the coupled substitution reactions
How are the Two Related? (Pan and Fleet 2002; Hughes and Rakovan 2015 this issue):
“Metasomatism” is the word used to describe a metamor- REE 3+ + Na + = 2Ca 2+ (1)
phic process in which the chemical composition of a rock is
altered in a pervasive manner by a fluid or fluids, normally and
with an aqueous component, which moves along grain REE 3+ + Si4+ = P5+ + Ca 2+. (2)
boundaries or cracks in the rock. Metasomatism, there-
fore, involves the introduction and/or removal of chemical The amount of REEs in apatite is linked to whether apatite
components (mass transfer) as a result of the interaction of has undergone metasomatism. For example, REEs can
the rock with these fluids. Fluid-aided mass transfer and be metasomatically removed from apatite to form other
subsequent mineral re-equilibration are the two defi ning REE-bearing minerals, such as monazite [(Ce,La,Nd,LREE)
features of metasomatism. Taking into account geological PO4 ] and xenotime [(Y,HREE)PO4 ], which are commonly
time scales, the fluid volume and flow rate are not limiting found as inclusions in apatite.
factors in metasomatism. However, the fluids must be able
to move along grain boundaries and/or cracks in the rock A TOOL FOR TRACKING FLUID
and be chemically reactive with the minerals that they INTERACTION IN IGNEOUS
encounter such that mass transfer is promoted. The passage AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
of fluids through a rock can be deduced from up to five lines
of evidence: (1) altered mineral composition; (2) partial Partitioning of F, Cl, and OH into Apatite
to total re-equilibration of mineral phases; (3) reaction Studies of natural apatite (Pan and Fleet 2002), as well as
textures along mineral grain boundaries; (4) formation of experimental studies (Schettler et al. 2011), have shown
mineral inclusions; (5) trails of fluid inclusions through that F, Cl, H 2O (as OH), as well as CO3, can substitute
the rock’s minerals. extensively, if not totally, for each other on the halogen
site (the anion column; see Hughes and Rakovan 2015 this
issue). The proportions of F, Cl, OH, and CO3 within apatite
will depend on three factors (Zhu and Sverjensky 1991):
(1) the melt and/or fluid composition; (2) the presence of
other F- and Cl-bearing minerals, such as biotite, musco-
vite, amphibole, or scapolite; and (3) the P–T conditions.
Of the four major anions, F heavily partitions into apatite
in metamorphic rocks and most quartz-bearing igneous
1 GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam rocks (where fluorapatite serves as the major sink for F),
Telegrafenberg, D-14473 Potsdam, Germany
E-mail: daniel.harlov@gfz-potsdam.de whereas Cl, OH, and CO3 tend to be found only in minor
amounts. The preference of F for apatite is reflected in the
2 Department of Geology
F, Cl, OH, and CO3 partitioning data between apatite and
University of Johannesburg
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006 South Africa fluids (FIG. 1). This behavior, coupled with the degree of

E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 171–176 171 J UNE 2015


A B
FIGURE 1 Isopleths of anion mole fractions in apatite
C plotted as a function of log10 (a HF/a H2O) vs.
log10 (a HCl /a H2O) in a fluid at 400 °C and 500 MPa (AFTER SPEAR
AND P YLE 2002). (A) Mole fraction of F. (B) Mole fraction of
Cl. (C) Mole fraction of OH. Mole fractions of apatite
components were calculated utilizing the data in Zhu and
Sverjensky (1991) assuming ideal mixing. Note that high
concentrations of F in apatite are possible in fluids that are
considerably more dilute in HF than is the case for chlorapa-
tite or hydroxylapatite, indicating that F is strongly parti-
tioned into fluorapatite. In order for chlorapatite to be
stable, considerably higher concentrations of HCl are
required. Hydroxylapatite can only be stable under very
low concentrations of both HF and HCl relative to OH.

partitioning of F and Cl between apatite and co-existing
biotite (presumed to be in equilibrium) has allowed an
apatite–biotite F–Cl geothermometer to be developed (Zhu
and Sverjensky 1992; Sallet 2000). Chlorine, OH, and/or
CO3 only become major anions in the anion column when
apatite forms in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks (quartz
absent), in lithospheric mantle rocks, or when apatite is
a biomaterial (Boudreau et al. 1995; O’Reilly and Griffi n
2000; Krause et al. 2013; Rakovan and Pasteris 2015
this issue).
In contrast, fluorapatite from an ultramafic, nepheline-
bearing clinopyroxenite—located in mafic–ult ramafic,
Uralian–Alaskan-type complexes from Kytlym and Nizhny
Tagil (Ural Mountains, Russian Federation) —has been
metasomatized to chlorapatite (Krause et al. 2013). This
includes both matrix grains and apatite inclusions in altered
areas of the clinopyroxene phenocrysts. The fluid respon-
sible was a CaCl2 -enriched brine derived from the altera-
tion of the matrix Ca-bearing plagioclase by NaCl brines.

A Recorder of Fluid Flow A

in the Lithospheric Mantle
O’Reilly and Griffi n (2000) have demonstrated that apatite
is widespread in the Phanerozoic lithospheric mantle. In
a study of apatite-bearing lithospheric mantle xenoliths
from a series of volcanic fields located in Australia, Alaska,
Germany, and France, they further demonstrated that the
apatite could be divided into two geochemically distinct
groups on the basis of their F, Cl, and OH content and on
the presence or absence of structural CO3, Sr, and trace
elements (e.g. U, Th, and REE). The fi rst apatite group had
high F (1.2–2.6 wt%) and low Cl (0.1–0.5 wt%), with no
detectable CO3. These apatites have a composition consis-
tent with high-pressure crystallization from magmas whose
composition ranged from silicate to carbonate. The second
group of apatites had high amounts of Cl (1.5–2.5 wt%) and B
CO3 (0.7–1.7 wt%), and low amounts of F (0.2–0.3 wt%).
Because of their different composition, these latter apatites
recorded evidence of metasomatism of the fi rst apatite
group by CO3 - and Cl-rich fluids derived from a primitive
mantle source region.

Chlorapatite as a Fluid Tracer

in Mafic- to Ultramafic Rocks
Chlorapatite [Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3Cl] is a common mineral in
layered mafic intrusions (e.g. Boudreau and McCallum
1990; Boudreau et al. 1995) and in veins and dikes associ-
ated with Cl-endmember scapolite (marialite) such as at
the Ødegårdens Verk in Norway (Harlov et al. 2002b).
In both cases, chlorapatite acts as a tracer for localized
metasomatic processes. Chlorapatites from the Stillwater
Complex in the USA (Boudreau and McCallum 1990)
and the Ødegårdens Verk possess numerous inclusions of
monazite and/or xenotime in areas of the chlorapatite that
have been altered by fluids to carbonated chlorhydroxyl-
apatite [Ca10 (PO4,CO3) 6 (Cl,OH,F) 2 ] (Stillwater Complex)
or hydroxyl-f luorchlor apatite [Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 (F,Cl,OH)]
(Ødegårdens Verk; FIG. 2A,B). In both locations, the metaso-
matized areas in the chlorapatite are also heavily depleted
in REEs, which directly have contributed to the formation
of monazite and xenotime.
FIGURE 2 (A) High-contrast, backscattered electron (BSE) image
of partially metasomatized chlorapatite (ClAp) from
the apatite ore body Ødegårdens Verk, Norway (Harlov et al.
2002b). Metasomatized (reacted) chlorapatite is the dark jagged
vein (in the non-metasomatized (unreacted) chlorapatite)
containing abundant inclusions of monazite and xenotime (larger
grains noted by arrows in the reacted area). (B) BSE image of a
natural chlorapatite (Ødegårdens Verk) experimentally metasoma-
tized in H2O at 900 °C and 1000 MPa, showing metasomatized
regions scattered with a few relatively large monazite and xenotime
inclusions (arrows), as well as non-metasomatized regions.
Compared to the unreacted areas, the reacted areas are depleted in
rare earth elements (REEs), Na, Si, and Cl and are enriched in F and
OH. Monazite and xenotime form via REEs released by the chlorap-
atite during alteration.

E LEMENTS 172 J UNE 2015

A B
C D
FIGURE 3 High-contrast, backscattered electron images of fluor-
apatite (FAp) textures with metasomatically induced
monazite (Mnz) inclusions and rim grains (bright) from a series of
granulite-facies samples, the Shevaroy Block traverse, Tamil Nadu,
India (cf. Hansen and Harlov 2007). (A) Fluorapatite grain with
large monazite inclusions partially elongated parallel to the fluor-
apatite c axis. (B) Fluorapatite grain with moderate-sized monazite
inclusions; a fine powdering of very small (<1 µm) monazite inclu-
sions is seen in some areas. In both (A) and (B) Ostwald ripening of
the original small monazite inclusions has occurred, i.e. the larger
monazites grow at the expense of the smaller monazites, reducing
the total number of inclusions in the process. (C) Fluorapatite grain
with numerous, very thin, epitaxial monazites whose b axes are
elongated parallel to the host fluorapatite’s c axis. (D) Small
monazite inclusions (<1 µm) in a fluorapatite grain cut perpendic-
ular to the c axis. Because the monazite grains are elongated
parallel to the fluorapatite c axis, they appear as bright dots due
to the cut orientation of the fluorapatite crystal. Arrows point to
monazite rim grains in (B) and (C). Note the partial (bright) rim
of secondary allanite in (D). Kfs (K-feldspar), Plg (plagioclase),
Py (pyrite), Qtz (quartz)
Fingerprinting Metasomatism During
Metamorphism
Fluorapatite is a common accessory mineral in most
metamorphic rocks and generally has been inherited from
the protolith. In granulite-facies rocks, monazite and/or
xenotime inclusions in fluorapatite are common (FIG. 3A–D,
FIG. 4A) (e.g. Hansen and Harlov 2007).
However, these inclusions can also be A B
found in fluorapatites from amphibo-
lite-facies and lower-grade rocks under
certain conditions (Pan et al. 1993).
Inclusion growth has been directly
linked to metasomatism by aqueous
fluids containing H 2O, CO2, and (K,Na)
Cl during and after the peak of metamor-
phism (Harlov and Förster 2003;
Hansen and Harlov 2007). These fluids
could originate either from outside the
immediate rock system (be introduced
externally) or be the result of internal
high-grade mineral reactions. Evidence
for this is seen via transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
of apatite TEM foils (cf. Harlov et al. 2005) containing
monazite inclusions (FIG. 4B). Here voids, presumably once
fluid fi lled, are seen at specific points along the monazite–
apatite interface. Monazite and xenotime inclusions can
also form in fluorapatite from H2O-rich metapelites that
have experienced partial melting during granulite-facies
metamorphism (Harlov et al. 2007), apparently due to
alkali-bearing fluids expelled during crystallization of the
alkali–SiO2 -rich melt.
E LEMENTS
Magnetite–Apatite Ore Deposits:
Magmatism and Metasomatism
Magnetite–apatite ore deposits occur worldwide and
represent highly evolved bodies, generally associated
with volcanism, in which the apatite records varying
degrees of fluid–rock interaction starting from shortly
after crystallization and continuing down to ambient P–T
conditions. Notable examples include the Kiirunavaara
and Grängesberg ore deposits in Sweden (Harlov et al.
2002a; Jonsson et al. 2010); the Mineville and Pea Ridge
ore deposits in the USA (Sidder et al. 1993; Lupulescu and
Pyle 2008); and a series of magnetite–apatite ore deposits
located in the Bafq region of Iran (Daliran et al. 2010).
In each of these ore deposits, monazite and/or xenotime
inclusions are commonly found in apatite that has
experienced fluid-induced depletion of REE + Na + Si + Cl
(FIG. 5A–E). Once formed, these inclusions were later
reworked via subsequent metasomatic and deformational
events, which resulted in: (1) Ostwald ripening where the
larger monazite xenotime grains have grown larger by
consuming the smaller grains, thereby reducing the total
number of inclusions (FIG. 5A,B,E); (2) intergrowth of the
monazite and xenotime grains with magnetite (FIG. 5E);
and (3) later-stage fluid-aided formation of allanite via the
reaction of monazite and xenotime with the surrounding
silicate minerals (FIG. 5D).
REPLICATING THE FLUID–MINERAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APATITE,
MONAZITE, AND XENOTIME IN
THE LABORATORY
The hypothesis that fluids can induce monazite and
xenotime inclusions to form in apatite in nature under a
wide range of P–T conditions is supported experimentally
(FIG. 6A–E, FIG. 7A–C) (Harlov et al. 2002b, 2005; Harlov
and Förster 2003). The formation and growth of monazite
and xenotime as inclusions or as rim grains are the result
of coupled dissolution–reprecipitation processes during
the metasomatic alteration of apatite (Putnis 2009). Both
inclusions, and rim grains, can form over a wide P–T range,
starting at near-surface pressures and 100 °C (Boudreau and
McCallum 1990; Harlov et al. 2005). Whether nucleation
(A) High-contrast, backscattered electron image of a
FIGURE 4
fluorapatite (FAp) grain, with monazite (Mnz) inclu-
sions elongated along the fluorapatite c axis, from a granulite-facies
metabasite in the Val Strona traverse of the Ivrea-Verbano Zone,
Italy (Harlov and Förster 2002). A transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) foil (cf. Harlov et al. 2005) (black bar) was cut perpendicular
to the fluorapatite c axis. (B) A TEM bright field image of a cross
section of one of the monazite inclusions in the TEM foil noted in
(A). Note the lack of an amorphous rim at the grain boundary
interface between the monazite inclusion and the surrounding
fluorapatite. Instead, there are several randomly located, formerly
fluid-filled, now empty voids along this interface (designated by
arrows). Kfs (K-feldspar), Plg (plagioclase)
173 J UNE 2015
 A
D E
High-contrast, backscattered electron images of fluor-
FIGURE 5
apatite–magnetite–monazite–xenotime textures from
different (Kiruna-type) magnetite–fluorapatite ore deposits.
(A) Bright monazite and xenotime inclusions interconnected by
dark REE- and Cl-depleted veins along cleavage planes and cracks
in the host fluorapatite. Bafq region, Iran (Daliran et al. 2010).
(B) Monazite inclusions in the center of the fluorapatite grains. The
grain rims are relatively darkened (depleted in REEs, Na, Si, and Cl)
and are monazite inclusion-free. Larger reworked monazite grains,
originating from the monazite inclusions, are intergrown with
crystals of magnetite (white grains) and H2O-rich chlorite in the
upper-right corner of the composite image. Kiirunavaara, Sweden
(Harlov et al. 2002a). (C) A transmission electron microscopy bright
will occur is highly dependent on the level of reactivity
between the fluid and the apatite, and the amount of REEs
available.
Regions of the apatite affected by coupled dissolution–repre-
cipitation are characterized by crystallographic continuity
between the reacted and unreacted apatite (FIG. 6C) and a
pervasive, interconnected, three dimensional micro- and
nano-porosity in the reacted regions (FIG. 6B,D, FIG. 7B) that
allows fluids to infi ltrate the apatite structure (Harlov et
al. 2005; Putnis 2009). The presence of an interconnected
pore structure greatly increases the rate of mass transfer,
giving rise to the rapid (hours–days) nucleation and growth
of monazite and/or xenotime inclusions.
During metasomatic alteration of the apatite, Na and/
or Si are preferentially removed out of the apatite–fluid
system compared to the REEs. Once sufficient concentra-
tions of REEs have been reached, nucleation and growth of
monazite and/or xenotime inclusions (FIG. 6E, FIG. 7B) will
occur via the following two general mass transfer reactions
(cf. reactions 1 and 2):
[Ca5−2x, Na x, REE x ]P3O12F + x [2 Ca 2+ + P5+]
(from the fluid) (3)
= Ca5P3O12F + x REEPO4 + x [Na +] (into the fluid)
and
E LEMENTS
field image of one of the monazite inclusions in (B) surrounded by
an amorphous rim enriched in Si and Mg and depleted in P, Ca,
and REE. Kiirunavaara, Sweden (Harlov et al. 2002a). (D)
Fluorapatite interlayered with biotite, plagioclase, magnetite, and
allanite in a gneissic banded texture. The interiors of the apatite
grains are rich in monazite inclusions. Grängesberg, Sweden
(Jonsson et al. 2010). (E) Fluorapatite intergrown with magnetite.
The magnetite is also intergrown with reworked monazite origi-
nating from monazite inclusions in the fluorapatite grains, which
are still present in parts of the fluorapatite grain interiors. Pea
Ridge, Missouri, USA (Sidder et al. 1993). Aln (allanite), Bt (biotite),
Cht (chlorite), FAp (fluorapatite), Mnz (monazite), Mt (magnetite),
Plg (plagioclase)
[Ca5−y, REEy][P3−y, Siy ]O12F + y [Ca 2+ + 2 P5+]
(from the fluid) (4)
= Ca5P3O12F + y REEPO4 + y [Si4+] (into the fluid)
Because the monazite and/or xenotime are derived directly
from the host apatite, their composition will reflect the
amount of (Y + REE + Th + U) available in the host apatite.
This is seen in the generally low amounts of Th and U in the
monazite and xenotime, which reflect the trace amounts
of Th and U generally found in apatite (e.g. Hansen and
Harlov 2007), although some exceptions exist (e.g. Harlov
and Förster 2003).
The micro- and nano-pores within the interconnected
pore system provide nucleation sites for the formation
of monazite and xenotime inclusions (FIG. 6B,E). While
these mineral inclusions can be euhedral to subhedral or
occur in clumps that have grown in the fluid-fi lled voids
(FIG. 6B,E), the monazite inclusions can also be highly
elongated parallel to the apatite c axis along the monazite
b axis, suggesting an epitaxial relationship (FIG. 7A–C; see
also FIGS . 3C,D and 4A) (Pan et al. 1993; Pan and Fleet
2002). In some experiments, monazite inclusions in fluor-
apatite have been made to undergo Ostwald ripening by
deliberately prolonging the experiment for 2 to 3 times
the normal length (Harlov et al. 2005). This implies that
even after formation, fluids are still affecting inclusion
morphology and growth.
174 J UNE 2015
 A C
B E
(A) High-contrast, backscattered electron image of
FIGURE 6
fluorapatite (FAp) reacted with 1 N HCl at 600 °C and
500 MPa for 3 weeks (Harlov et al. 2005). Dark regions have
reacted with the HCl solution and are depleted in REE + Si + Na + S
+ Cl. Bright areas represent unreacted apatite. Numerous, bright,
small monazite (Mnz) inclusions outline the reaction front between
the reacted and unreacted fluorapatite. A transmission electron
microscope (TEM) foil was cut from the elongated rectangle area,
astride the reaction front. (B) TEM foil from (A), with reaction front
denoted by NE–SW dotted line. The arrow indicates the approxi-
mate direction of the fluorapatite c axis. The reacted fluorapatite
consists of a series of subparallel nanochannels and group of
Fluids found to induce the formation of monazite and/or
xenotime inclusions in apatite, include pure H 2O, H 2O–
CO2 fluids, and aqueous solutions with KCl, H2 SO4, and
HCl (Harlov et al. 2002a, 2005; Harlov and Förster 2003).
However, Na in NaCl brines discourages the growth of
monazite and/or xenotime inclusions and rim grains.
Aqueous Na prevents Na from leaving the apatite struc-
ture such that charge balance is maintained (see reactions
1 and 3), therefore inhibiting REE from forming monazite
and xenotime. Exceptions to this observation are seen
in solubility experiments involving a REE-bearing fluor-
apatite in NaCl brines at 700–900 °C and 700–2000 MPa
(Antignano and Manning 2008). Here, small crystals of
monazite formed on the surface of the fluorapatite during
its partial, incongruent dissolution in the brine. This
behavior is also seen in the incongruent dissolution of
fluorapatite in peraluminous granitic melts (Wolf and
London 1995).
APATITE, RECORDING THE FINGERPRINT
OF METASOMATISM
As has been deduced from nature (e.g. Hansen and Harlov
2007) and from experiments (e.g. Harlov et al. 2005), the
F, Cl, OH, and CO3 content in apatite, coupled with the
possible presence of monazite and xenotime inclusions,
can serve as valuable “fi ngerprints” for recording metaso-
matic events in rocks. This “fi ngerprint” helps constrain
the composition of the infi ltrating fluids responsible both
for the metasomatism of the apatite and for the rock
as a whole. In this respect, apatite serves as a valuable
E LEMENTS
D
monazite grains in a cavity filled with an amorphous quenched
Cl-rich fluorapatite enriched in REE relative to the surrounding
fluorapatite. (C) A high-resolution TEM lattice fringe image of the
interface between the reacted and the unreacted fluorapatite taken
from the region within the dashed circle in (B). The lattice fringes
are continuous across the interface, indicating that the crystallo-
graphic lattice from the unreacted fluorapatite has been transmitted
to the reacted fluorapatite. (D) Close-up of the nanochannels from
(B). (E) Close-up of the void in (B) filled by a cluster of randomly
oriented euhedral monazites. The void is surrounded by an array
of nanochannels.
A
B
C
FIGURE 7 (A) High-contrast, backscattered electron image of
fluorapatite (FAp) reacted with 1 N H2SO 4 at 900 °C
and 1,000 MPa, showing elongated monazite (Mnz) inclusions in
the darker reacted area (depleted in REE + Si + Na + S + Cl) and the
location of a transmission electron microscope (TEM) foil
(elongated open black rectangle) (Harlov et al. 2005). (B) The TEM
foil from (A) reveals a monazite inclusion elongated along its b axis
(and parallel to the host fluorapatite c axis) surrounded by
numerous nanovoids (nanoporosity), and apparently growing into
what was once a fluid-filled void. At the end of the former void is a
transition region showing numerous small spike-like features. (C)
Close-up of spikes from (B), possibly representing highly localized
regions of preferred dissolution (tubes) in the fluorapatite, no more
than 5 nm in diameter. These tubes are advancing along the apatite
c axis ahead of the fluid-filled void and the growth of the elongated
monazite inclusion. This could be epitaxial growth caught in action.
175 J UNE 2015
recorder of metasomatic events—helping to demystify an
otherwise often mysterious process—that can occur over
a wide range of temperatures and fluid compositions. Just
as importantly, the presence of coexisting biotite, along
with monazite, and xenotime inclusions in the apatite, can
give some indication of the temperature of a metasomatic
overprint via the biotite–apatite (Zhu and Sverjensky 1992;
Sallet 2000) and monazite–xenotime (Gratz and Heinrich
1998) geothermometers. Lastly, metasomatic events can
be timed using monazite–xenotime U–Pb geochronology
(Williams et al. 2007) and/or apatite U–Pb, (U–Th)/He, and
Lu–Hf thermochronology (see Chew and Spikings 2015
this issue).
The articles in this issue of Elements all point to the
amazing versatility of this common accessory mineral. The
fact that apatite can be chemically altered by metamorphic
and igneous fluids and so give information on the composi-
tion of these fluids; the fact that re-equilibration tempera-
tures can be estimated; and the fact that re-equilibration
and accompanying mass transfer can be dated over a broad
temperature range, demonstrate the incredible amount of
information that may be gleaned with regard to changing
P–T–X conditions in the host rock from this seemingly
minor and yet ubiquitous mineral.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Collaborations and discussions with various colleagues
over the years and technical support, under the direction
of Wilhelm Heinrich, at the GeoForschungsZentrum have
all contributed to this article. Reviews by Yuanming Pan,
Andrew Putnis, and Alan Treiman along with colleagues
and students at Miami University (USA), Oxford, Ohio and
the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (India) were of
great help in the revision of the manuscript.

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 Magmatic Apatite: A Powerful,
Yet Deceptive, Mineral
James D. Webster1 and Philip M. Piccoli2
1811-5209/15/0011-0177$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.3.177
A
patite may be a minor constituent in magmatic rocks but it is a
powerful research tool because it is ubiquitous and it incorporates
magmatic water, halogens, S, C, and trace elements including Sr, U, Th,
and the rare earth elements. Recent advances in experimental and analytical
methodologies allow geologists to analyze apatite textures and compositions
in great detail. This information improves understanding of the behavior of
volatiles and trace elements both in terrestrial igneous melts and their related
fluids and in extraterrestrial bodies, such as the Moon and Mars. With more
research, the petrological power of apatite can only increase with respect to
understanding eruptive, pluton-building, and mineralizing magmatic systems.
KEYWORDS : apatite, halogens, trace elements, experiments,
INTRODUCTION
Apatite is Ubiquitous
“Apatite” refers to the three calcium phosphate minerals—
fluorapatite, chlorapatite and hydroxylapatite—which are
represented by the general formula Ca5 (PO4 ) 3 (F,Cl,OH).
Apatite is the primary phosphate in most igneous systems
because of the abundance of its constituent elements
and its thermodynamic properties. Phosphorus (P) is the
11th most abundant element in the upper crust (~0.15 wt%
P2O5). Calcium, the other primary constituent in apatite, is
even more abundant. These concentrations correspond to a
calculated theoretical normative value of 0.3 vol% apatite in
the upper continental and oceanic crusts. Within a given
suite of rocks, normative (theoretical) apatite abundances
are not attained because phosphorus is included in other
minor phosphate minerals (e.g. monazite, xenotime), as
well as some silicates. For example, theoretical concentra-
tions (norms) of apatite are on the order of half of the
volume of apatite actually observed in felsic (granite-like)
rocks.
Apatite3 is a common accessory mineral that is nearly
ubiquitous in both silicic and carbonatitic systems. It is
generally present in concentrations <1 vol%, but in some
igneous rocks it can be the dominant phase exceeding
50 vol% (e.g. nelsonites).
1 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
American Museum of Natural History
New York, NY 10024-5192, USA
E-mail: jdw@amnh.org
2 Department of Geology, University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742-4211, USA
E-mail: piccoli@umd.edu
3 henceforth, the term apatite signifies magmatic or
hydrothermal origin
E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 177–182
Durango apatite,
from the Cerro de
Mercado open-pit
mine, on matrix.
Apatite is deceptive in that it
occurs as small and rare crystals,
but it is still an extremely powerful
tool for unraveling complex
magmatic systems. It is unique in
the breadth of processes that it can
shed light onto: volatile invento-
ries and histories, trace-element
distributions, ages of geological
events, and uplift rates are attain-
able due to the presence of apatite
in many rocks and the analytical
methods available to characterize
modeling, magma it. Apatite is a powerful geochem-
ical and petrologic tool because
its mineral structure can accom-
modate many elements (Hughes
and Rakovan 2015 this issue).
The composition, crystal habits, petrologic relations, and
crystallization temperatures of magmatic and magmatic–
hydrothermal apatite have been investigated through the
study of igneous rocks, experimental research, and thermo-
dynamic modeling. These methods have also been used
to determine how volatile components, minor and trace
elements, and ore elements are distributed between apatite,
melts, and fluids.
Apatite is shedding new light on a wide variety of magmatic
systems relevant to eruptive, pluton-building, and mineral-
izing processes on Earth, as well as extraterrestrial bodies
(McCubbin and Jones 2015 this issue). Pushing these appli-
cations of apatite further will open even more geological
doors, for this important, yet still developing, geochem-
ical tool. The diversity and potential of apatite’s petro-
logic power is, however, offset by a number of challenges
inherent to this mineral. It can be difficult to interpret
apatite textures in thin section, to accurately analyze the
concentrations of F and Cl, and to analyze and interpret
compositional zonation in apatite.
Apatite Textural and Chemical Forms
Magmatic apatite exhibits two dominant crystal habits:
equant to subequant (slightly elongate) and acicular (very
elongate). Equant apatite is generally defi ned by well-
formed crystal faces (FIG. 1), and is often easily recognized
by its hexagonal shape. This habit is interpreted to have
grown under near-equilibrium conditions. Less commonly,
equant apatite occurs with no well-formed crystal faces as
an interstitial phase that grew late in a magma’s crystalliza-
tion history. Highly acicular apatite grows under conditions
far from equilibrium and is indicative of rapid cooling.
Some rocks display more than one morphology in a single
sample, suggesting a complex cooling and crystallization
history. Apatite is generally small (<1 mm in length), but
can grow to a large size (e.g. >5 cm in the El Laco, Chile,
magnetite lava flow).
177 J UNE 2015

FIGURE 1 Photograph of Augustine volcano (Cook Inlet, Alaska)
degassing in 2006. ( LEFT) Back-scattered electron/
scanning electron micrograph (BSE–SEM) of experimentally grown
apatite with run-product glass mounted in epoxy. ( RIGHT) BSE–SEM
image of natural apatite with eruptive matrix glass, pyroxene, and
ilmenite from an Augustine dacite sample. A UGUSTINE IMAGE COURTESY
OF THE A LASKAN VOLCANO O BSERVATORY (URL: WWW. AVO. ALASKA .EDU / IMAGES /
INDEX.PHP)
Apatite was long thought to be compositionally unzoned.
But, it is a mineral full of surprises. Boyce and Hervig
(2009) described apatite from Irazú volcano, Costa Rica,
with OH contents ranging from 500 ppm (wt) to 4500 ppm,
Cl from 5000 ppm to 20,000 ppm, and F from 24,000 ppm
to 37,000 ppm. These variations were interpreted using
experimental partitioning data to indicate
changing abundances of these volatiles in the
melt due to magma mixing and degassing. In A B
a study of apatites from a granodiorite, Farley
et al. (2011) found that the apatites were zoned
with respect to U and Th, a fact that could
lead to potentially large and systematic errors
when trying to obtain accurate U–Th/He ages.
Recognizing major- and trace-element zoning
in apatite is critical to interpreting igneous
petrogenesis correctly.
Composition of Natural Apatite
Does the composition of apatite vary as a
function of host environment, host-rock
composition, or texture? In an effort to better
understand these questions, we subdivide the
composition of natural apatites into volcanic
and plutonic origins (TABLE 1). Apatites from
hydrothermal environments and carbonatites
can have volcanic or plutonic parentage and
are treated separately here.
The composition of volcanic versus plutonic
apatite is not appreciably different (FIG. 2A),
but it is highly variable. Excluding apatites
from hydrothermal systems, high-Cl apatites
(>3.5 wt%) are rare in plutonic systems (but
can be extensive in those intrusions where they do occur),
and nearly nonexistent in volcanic environments. Taken as
a whole, there are no statistical differences in the compo-
sition between volcanic and plutonic apatite. This result
should not be surprising. Given that apatite generally
crystallizes early and at near-liquidus conditions in most
E LEMENTS
magmatic systems, and given that much of the volume of
apatite crystallizes in a small temperature interval means
that apatite will record similar processes in the two environ-
ments. Volcanic rocks generally have low crystal contents,
and hence, a history similar to that of the hypothesized
early stages of pluton crystallization. The similarity in
apatite compositions suggests that the effects of prolonged
crystallization of other halogen-bearing phases in the
plutonic environment (in early or late-formed intercumulus
apatite), and any subsolidus reequilibration, do not play a
pervasive role on compositional zoning in apatite.
The variability in apatite composition as a function of
host-rock composition yields interesting trends (FIG. 2B–D).
Apatite is typically dominated by the F-rich component,
but rare Cl-rich apatite occurs in mafic rocks and, to a lesser
extent, in silica-rich igneous rocks. Boudreau (1995 and
references therein) described the composition, textures,
and stratigraphic association of apatite throughout several
mafic-layered intrusive suites (FIG. 2C). Intercumulus, near
Cl-end-member apatite was described from just below
the platinum group element–mineralized J-M Reef in
the Stillwater Igneous Complex (a Neoarchean intrusion
in southern Montana, USA) and the Bushveld Igneous
Complex (a Paleoproterozoic intrusion in South Africa)
(Boudreau 1995). The Cl-rich apatite is significant given
that experimental work shows that Cl may be chemi-
cally associated with Pt in mineralizing hydrothermal
fluids. Hydrous Bushveld apatites contain up to 50%
OH component in the hydroxyl site; whereas, relatively
OH-free apatites range from the nearly pure F- to pure
Cl-end-member compositions. The apatite compositions
vary systematically with stratigraphic height within the
Stillwater and Bushveld intrusions. Higher up in the
Stillwater sequence, F- and OH-rich apatite predominates
(FIG. 2C), suggesting that the apatite story can be complex.
However, the proportion of Cl-rich apatites in both intru-
C D
FIGURE 2 Plots of the halogen content in apatite (in molar
proportions) as a function of four different
parameters. (A) Host environment, where hotter colors indicate
more analyses. (B) Host rock composition: red is felsic, blue is
mafic, gray is carbonatites, green is hydrothermal, yellow is
sedimentary. (C) Mafic layered intrusion (modified from Boudreau
1995). (D) Felsic ore systems. Data are primarily from the GEOROC
database, Belousova (2000), Piccoli and Candela (2002), and
references therein.
178 J UNE 2015
 sions is small. High-Cl apatites (>6 wt%) also occur in TABLE 1 TABLE OF MAGMATIC APATITE COMPOSITIONS (WT%)
parts of the enigmatic apatite–magnetite deposits of Chile, See FIGURE 2 for data sources.
possibly from late-stage Fe-rich magmas.
Silicate Hydrothermal
Magmas Carbonatites Systems
Analytical Challenges
SiO2 0.448 0.980 0.297
The composition of apatite is determined using a variety
of techniques with electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) FeO 0.281 0.160 0.135
being the most common. Analysis by EPMA was considered MnO 0.262 0.087 0.027
reliable until Stormer et al. (1993) made a troubling obser-
MgO 0.104 0.161 0.050
vation: the measured X-ray flux from apatite is affected by
crystal orientation. As a result, apparent F concentrations CaO 54.155 53.635 54.343
can change by as much as 100% —less so for Cl, Ca and SrO 0.228 1.079 0.226
P, or grains with oblique orientations—when the electron
Na2O 0.130 0.432 0.222
beam is parallel to the c axis of the apatite. Stormer et al.
(1993) suggested that accurate analysis of apatite requires P2O5 41.056 39.612 41.606
multiple analyses at the same spot and extrapolation of SO3 0.167 0.239 0.304
the count rates back to time zero. Others have found that
F 2.522 2.322 2.445
highly accurate analyses of F and Cl can be made using
low electron beam densities, large beams, and by analyzing Cl 0.462 0.316 0.827
grains with the electron beam perpendicular to apatite’s Total 99.814 99.023 100.484
c axis (Goldoff et al. 2012). The OH content of apatite can
be estimated indirectly from EPMA measurements of F and Light REE 0.835 1.670 0.925
Cl by charge balance, and assuming that the halogen site
Middle REE 0.310 0.211 0.223
is full (Piccoli and Candela 2002). Alternatively, the OH
content can be measured directly by secondary ion mass Heavy REE 0.041 0.016 0.022
spectrometry or by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy.
Total 101.001 100.917 101.654
So, how prevalent are problematic analyses in the literature?
−O=F,Cl −1.17 −1.05 −1.22
Consider the apatite analyses recorded in the Geochemistry
of Rocks of the Oceans and Continents (GEOROC4) Total 99.83 99.87 100.44
database. It contains over 1400 apatite analyses, of which
greater than 10% exceed the maximum F concentration
that can occur in end-member fluorapatite (3.77 wt% F).
Apatite and Phosphorus Solubility Relations
The stability of apatite and its solubility in silicate melts
MAGMATIC AND MAGMATIC– have been the subject of hydrothermal experiments across
HYDROTHERMAL APATITE a range of pressures, temperatures, and melt compositions,
including mafic to felsic, and alkaline [i.e. moles of (Na + K)
Apatite’s remarkable usefulness provides vital geochemical > Al)] to aluminous [moles of Al > (Na + K)] systems. Such
and isotopic information on the partial melting of rocks research has determined that apatite solubility in silicate
at elevated metamorphic conditions and on magma evolu- melts varies strongly with temperature, the SiO2 and CaO
tion. The P and REE concentrations of granites and basalts concentrations, and the aluminosity [moles of Al 2 O3 /
reflect the mineralogy of the metamorphic rocks that were (Na 2O + K 2O + CaO)] of the melts. Phosphorus is much
involved in their genesis and the processes of rock melting more soluble in hot mafic melts than in cooler felsic melts,
and magma generation. Apatite crystallization controls and aluminous and alkaline melts may dissolve signifi-
P concentrations in evolving melts. Basaltic rocks may cantly more P than metaluminous melts [i.e. melts with
contain up to 1 wt% P2O5, whereas silica-enriched granitic moles of Al 2O3 = (Na 2O + K 2O + CaO)]. Some apatite-
and rhyolitic rocks may contain as little as 0.02 wt% P2O5. saturated mafic melts dissolve more than 12 wt% P2O5 at
magmatic temperatures and pressures.

A B
FIGURE 3 (A) Plot of F and Cl in
apatite and coexisting
melt inclusions (MI) from the Plinian
phase of the Pleistocene Bishop Tuff
eruption (in red) and the 2006
Augustine volcano eruption (in blue).
(B, C) Diagrams representing the
calculated Cl and F concentrations in
coexisting apatite and melts at the
P–T conditions estimated for the two
C eruptions. The method of calculation,
and the assumptions therein, are
described in Piccoli and Candela
(1994) and summarized in the text.
The Augustine apatite and melt inclu-
sion data are from Webster et al.
(2010) and Doherty et al. (2014,
reference therein). The yellow and
blue fields represent the range in
estimated melt Cl and F concentra-
tions, respectively, based on
published apatite compositions.
4 The GEOROC database can be found at georoc.mpch-mainz.
gwdg.de/georoc/.

E LEMENTS 179 J UNE 2015

Apatite Saturation Temperature
The temperature at which a silicate melt fi rst saturates and
crystallizes apatite (the apatite saturation temperature, or
AST) is required for some petrologic and geochemical
studies and can be easily calculated for most magma
compositions. For example, the distribution or parti-
tioning, of volatile components and REEs between apatite
and melt varies significantly with temperature. Efforts to
calculate magmatic REE and volatile concentrations via the
application of apatite compositions and the relevant experi-
mental constraints on component partitioning between
apatite and melt require accurate ASTs. By volume, most
apatite crystallizes over a small temperature interval below
the AST (Piccoli and Candela 2002).
Thermodynamic Relations and Modeling
of Apatite–Melt–Fluid(s) Systems
What is the relationship between F, Cl, and OH in apatite
and the volatile contents of the melt from which it crystal-
lized? Does the presence of high-Cl apatite indicate that
it crystallized from a high-Cl system? Not necessarily.
Apatite with a given composition can crystallize from
melts with highly variable F, Cl and OH concentrations
depending on the effects of pressure, temperature, and
system composition.
Explaining the behavior of magmatic halogens using
theoretical models takes one of two forms. One form, e.g.
Nernst partition coefficients, Di, represents the distribu-
tion of an element (i) between two phases in equilibrium.
For the case in which DF represents the concentration of
F in apatite relative to its concentration in the melt, the
F concentration in magmatic apatite generally greatly
exceeds the F content of the coexisting melt: F shows
compatible behavior. The same is true for Cl in apatite and
melt, though to a lesser extent. The Nernst coefficients can
be integrated with simple Rayleigh fractionation calcula-
tions to evaluate how halogen concentrations in apatite
should change with melt crystallization. For reasonable
modal abundances of apatite and relevant values of D F and
DCl, the concentrations of F and Cl increase in the melt as
crystallization progresses.
Models that use simple Nernst coefficients and the
Rayleigh fractionation equation, however, suffer from
problems, especially those due to host-phase stoichiometry.
Nernst evaluations are useful for qualitative assessments
of halogen behavior in magmatic systems, though more
detailed models may be required to obtain more accurate
estimates of magmatic halogens. For example, these poten-
tial pitfalls were eloquently pointed out by Boyce et al.
(2014) in evaluating magmatic lunar water contents from
apatite compositions (McCubbin and Jones 2015).
A second way to investigate the behavior of magmatic
halogens using apatite is a more rigorous modeling approach
that employs a detailed assessment of the thermodynamic
properties of apatite. This involves determining the activity
or fugacity of halogens and water in either the fluid or
the melt when in equilibrium with apatite. Activity, ai =
γiXi, is a measure of the availability of a chemical compo-
nent for reaction in a system, and contains terms for mole
fraction (Xi ) and a coefficient which takes into account
the nonideal mixing in the melt (γi). Fugacity, f i = ΓiaiP =
Γiγi XiP, represents a relative “escaping tendency” of volatiles
from a melt. It contains a term for intermolecular distances
(Γi), an activity term (ai), and is corrected for pressure (P).
Activities and fugacities can be used appropriately for fluid-
undersaturated and fluid-saturated magmas.
E LEMENTS 180
Apatite–Melt ± Fluid Equilibria
Studies of magmatic fluids are hampered by the fugitive
nature of those fluids. Evidence has been destroyed, is
lacking, is altered, or can’t easily be interpreted due to
the changing composition of the fluids with magma evolu-
tion. Estimates of fluid composition are most commonly
calculated as ratios of activity (aHCl/aHF ) or fugacity (f HCl /
f HF ). Calculation of fugacity ratios of halogens from the
apatite composition is quite straightforward. In the case
of HCl and H 2O:
aq
fHCl 2
(
/ fHaq0 = XCAp
Ap Ap
/ XHAp ) (1/10 ) ,
K
Ap Ap
where XCAp / XHAp is the mole fraction ratio of Cl/OH in
apatite, and K is an equilibrium constant defi ned as K =
0.04661 + (2535.8/T) – ((0.0303(P−1))/T), where T and P
are in Kelvin and bars, respectively. This assumes that ideal
mixing (i.e. ai = Xi) of F, Cl, and OH occurs in apatite at
magmatic temperatures (Piccoli and Candela 1994).
Hovis and Harlov (2010) found that mixing between fluor-
apatites and chlorapatites is nonideal and asymmetric with
respect to composition. Data on F–OH mixing relationships
also exhibit some nonideality (Hovis et al. 2014). Similar
information on the Cl–OH join and F–Cl–OH ternary
currently don’t exist and are sorely needed for the study
of rocks that contain apatite of these compositions.
Estimates of fluid, as well as melt, Cl contents can be made.
Piccoli and Candela (1994) used apatite compositions to
predict the Cl in the melts that formed the Plinian phase
of the Bishop Tuff (a vast volcanic ash deposit resulting
from a massive mid-Pleistocene eruption in western
North America). The Plinian phase resulted from one of
the more spectacular caldera-forming eruptions in North
America (FIG. 3), and the explosive nature of this eruption
was controlled largely by magmatic volatile behavior.
Calculations were performed for 860 °C (AST) and 1800 bars
and were compared to volatile data from silicate melt inclu-
sions (minute quantities of silicate melt trapped in minerals
and quenched to glass). The apatite compositions suggest
700–960 ppm Cl and 160–300 ppm F in the initial melt,
given reasonable estimates of the melt/fluid partitioning of
Cl and F. These estimates compare favorably with published
compositional data on Bishop Tuff melt inclusions, thus
adding confidence to the calculation method.
A second example involves apatite-saturated lavas of the
2006 eruption of Augustine volcano, Alaska (FIG. 1), where
some apatites contain 1.2 wt% Cl and 2.2 wt% F. The
relevant Nernst partition coefficients imply equilibrium
Cl and F concentrations of ~3650 and 40 ppm, respec-
tively, in the melt at 1000 bars and 800 °C. Melt inclusions
from the 2006 eruptions have Cl and F concentrations
of 3300–3800 ppm and ~200–300 ppm, respectively. If
the melt inclusions represent the melt composition at the
time of apatite crystallization then the apatite composi-
tions accurately predict the amount of Cl in the Augustine
melt but underestimate F.
VOLATILE PARTITIONING BETWEEN MELTS,
FLUIDS, AND MAGMATIC–HYDROTHERMAL
APATITE
Apatite acts as a monitor of volatile behavior during magma
evolution. Apatite compositions reveal how volatiles parti-
tion between apatite, fluids, and melts as magmas ascend
through the crust, cool, and crystallize (FIG. 3). For example,
the OH content of apatite provides crucial constraints on
magmatic H 2O concentrations. Furthermore, the other
magmatic volatiles S, Cl, and F are often of sufficient
abundance in magmas and their associated volcanic gases
J UNE 2015
 that they influence the acidity of precipitation and desta-
bilize the radiation-absorbing ozone when ejected into the
atmosphere. Apatite is a powerful tool for understanding
the evolution of these hazardous volatiles.
Prior research on volatiles has been based, largely, on
analyses of melt inclusions, but these samples of melt
are susceptible to changes in composition that magmatic
apatite is not. Hence, apatite is better at retaining accurate
information on magmatic volatiles. Moreover, melt inclu-
sions are rare in apatite-bearing plutonic rocks. Hence,
apatite in these rocks serves as a better source of informa-
tion on magmatic volatiles in plutons.

Hydrothermal Experiments on Apatite and

Their Application to Magmatic Processes
Interpreting magmatic processes requires information on
volatile distribution between melts, fluids, and apatite,
which is determined experimentally (TABLE 2). Experimental
studies establish how H 2O, Cl, F, and S partition between
apatite and fluids and/or melts as a function of melt compo-
sition, temperature, and pressure. Experiments also deter-
mine the rates of volatile diffusion through apatite as a
function of the crystallographic orientation and pressure
(Brenan 1994), and how trace elements partition between
apatite and various melts and fluids (TABLE 2).
Fluorine and Cl are important to processes of magmatic
ore formation, and experiments show that Cl partitioning
between apatite and melt varies with the Cl concentration
of coexisting fluids and with pressure (FIG. 4). However, as
observed by Boyce et al. (2014), the presence of three essen-
tial volatile components (e.g. F, Cl, and OH) occupying
a single ion site in apatite complicates the application
of Nernst partition coefficients to magmatic systems. In
rhyolitic melts, Cl partitions more strongly in favor of
apatite as pressure decreases from 2000 to 275 bars at
850 to 950 °C. It follows that the application of experi-
mental partition coefficients for Cl involving equilibrium
between apatite, melt, and fluids to natural systems requires
accurate knowledge of the pressure of fi nal equilibration
between apatite, melt, and fluid.
Sulfur partitioning between apatite and rhyolitic and
trachyandesitic melts has been determined experimen-
tally. Sulfur partitions preferentially into apatite relative to
FIGURE 4 Plot showing experimental Cl partitioning between
apatite and felsic and basaltic melts as a function of
pressure and the Cl concentration of coexisting fluids (vapor ±
saline liquid): felsic melts (triangles = 275 bars, squares = 500 bars,
diamonds = 1000 bars, half-filled diamonds = 2000 bars at
850–950 °C); basaltic melts (circles) at 2000 bars and 1075–1150 °C.
At the upper right is a schematic cross-section of an experimental
capsule containing apatite, vapor, saline liquid, and silicate melt.
Data sources referenced in Doherty et al. (2014) and unpublished
data of JDW.
these two melts and more strongly in favor of apatite with
decreasing concentrations of S in the melt (Parat and Holtz
2005). These experimental data can be applied to apatites
from evolving, subduction-related volcanoes to estimate
pre-eruptive, magmatic S contents and better understand
degassing of SO2 to the atmosphere.
Interpreting apatite compositions with experimental
data, and/or modeling, provides estimated abundances of
magmatic S, H2O, Cl, and F. Example systems for which this
is useful include granite- and rhyolite-forming magmas;
subduction-related eruptive magmas, some of which are
mineralized with Cu, Au, and Mo; igneous–hydrothermal

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR COMPONENT PARTITIONING RUNS INVOLVING

TABLE 2 APATITE ± MINERALS ± SILICATE MELT ± SALT MELTS ± AQUEOUS FLUID(S) (REEs = RARE EARTH ELEMENTS).
System/Pseudosystem Pressure (bars) Temperature (°C) Partitioning Data Source
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –CaF2–CaCl2–NaBr salt melt 1 1120–1400 Halogens, OH [1]*
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –rhyolitic melt–vapor ± brine 500 850–950 Halogens, OH [2]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (Cl) –H2O–chloride–phosphate melt 1000 and 1400 735 REEs [3]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –basalt melt–vapor ± brine 2000 1066–1150 Halogens, OH [4]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –rhyolitic melt–vapor ± brine 2000 900–924 Halogens, OH [5]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –S–rhyolite melt 2000 800–1100 Sulfur, F, OH, major elements [6]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –S–rhyolite melt 2000 and 4000 900 and 1000 Sulfur, F, OH, major elements [7]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –S–trachyandesite melt 2000 and 4000 800–950 Sulfur (involves variable ƒO ) [8]
2
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –rhyolitic to basaltic melts 10,000 1250 Major, minor, trace elements (REEs), OH, halogens [9]*
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –carbonatite melt 10,000 1250 Major, minor, trace elements (REEs), OH, halogens [10]*
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –basalt melt 10,000 950–1000 Halogens, OH [11]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –H2O fluid ± albite 10,000 1000 Sr, REEs [12]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,Cl,OH) –HCl–NaCl fluid 10,000 and 20,000 950 and 1050 Halogens, OH [13]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,OH) –phlogopite–H2O fluid 20,000 1150–1450 F, OH [14]
Ca5 (PO 4)3 (F,OH) –amphibole–phlogopite + K-richterite 25,000–87,000 900–1050 Cl, OH [15]
* F exceeds maximum for anion site
Sources: [1] Dong (2005); [2] Doherty et al. (2014); [3] Fleet et al. (2000); [4] Mathez and Webster (2005); [5] Webster et al. (2009); [6] Parat
and Holtz (2004); [7] Parat and Holtz (2005); [8] Peng et al. (1997); [9] Prowatke and Klemme (2006); [10] Klemme and Dalpé (2003); [11]
McCubbin et al. (2014); [12] Ayers and Watson (1993); [13] Brenan (1993); [14] Vukadinovic and Edgar (1993); [15] Konzett et al. (2012)

E LEMENTS 181 J UNE 2015

deposits of Fe- and apatite-rich rocks; oceanic cumulates;
ophiolites; and layered mafic intrusions. This exceptional
range of systems once again testifies to the petrogenetic
power of apatite.
REE AND OTHER TRACE-ELEMENT
PARTITIONING IN MAGMATIC APATITE
Because apatite can contain a large range of trace and
minor elements (Hughes and Rakovan 2015) it may exert
a dominant control on the geochemical behavior of trace
components like the REEs, Sr, U, and Th in melts and
magmatic fluids. These trace elements partition in favor
of silicate melts relative to apatite and in apatite relative
to carbonate melts (Prowatke and Klemme 2006; TABLE 2).
With both systems, apatite preferentially incorporates the
middle REEs relative to the lighter and heavier REEs, and
this relationship is used to identify the presence and role
of apatite in magma evolution. In silicate melts, the REEs
partition increasingly in favor of apatite as melts evolve to
higher SiO2 contents (Prowatke and Klemme 2006).
CLOSING THOUGHTS
Volatile and nonvolatile elements, including trace
elements, are key indicators of magmatic and magmatic–
hydrothermal processes during magma genesis and
evolution (TABLE 2) and during magmatic–hydrothermal
ore formation. Igneous apatites provide information on
protolith composition, the behavior of volatile compo-
nents in magmas, and weathering effects. Trace elements
in apatite also serve as a unique magmatic fi ngerprint
providing important information on igneous provenance
and volcanic tephrachronology as well as for the explora-
tion for mineral deposits. This little accessory phase really
is a little miracle!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We appreciate the support and reviews of Daniel Harlov
and John Rakovan, and reviews by Alan Boudreau, Jeremy
Boyce, principal editor P. Dove, and Jodi Rosso. We acknowl-
edge Michael Wise for providing the Black Mountain apatite
image, and Beth Goldoff for general assistance. Research
associated with this report was supported by NSF awards
EAR-0836741 to JDW and EAR-0836740 to PMP.

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E LEMENTS 182 J UNE 2015

 Extraterrestrial Apatite:
Planetary Geochemistry
to Astrobiology
Francis M. McCubbin1,2 and Rhian H. Jones2,3
1811-5209/15/0011-0183$2.50
Martian meteorite
Nakhla, the type
specimen for the
nakhlite (apatite-bearing
cumulate clinopyrox-
enite) meteorites. The
DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.3.183 black exterior of the
meteorite is a fusion
crust, which formed

T
he distribution and abundances of H 2 O and other volatiles in our during entry into
Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar System are of fundamental interest because of the important PHOTO COURTESY OF THE
roles volatiles play in geological and biological processes. Apatite, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

Ca5 (PO4)3 (F,Cl,OH), is a ubiquitous accessory mineral and provides a consistent COMPARATIVE
window into volatile abundances and processes across the Solar System and PLANETARY
throughout its history. Consequently, the chemical composition of apatite can
MINERALOGY: APATITE
VOLATILE CHEMISTRY IN
be used as a tool for exploring such diverse topics as the compositions and PLANETARY MATERIALS
roles of the Solar System’s earliest fluids on asteroids, the volatile abundances The planetary materials we discuss
of planetary bodies, and the habitability of past environments (e.g. on Mars) here consist of the Apollo and
for life as we know it. LUNA samples returned from the
Moon and the meteorites origi-
KEYWORDS : Moon, asteroid, meteorite, volatiles, Mars, apatite nating from the Moon, Mars,
and asteroids. Meteorites can be
grouped very broadly into two
INTRODUCTION
categories: chondrites and differentiated meteorites.
The calcium phosphate apatites, with the general formula Chondrites come from asteroids and are aggregates of
Ca5 (PO4) 3 (F,Cl,OH) [hereafter just “apatite”], occur in a metallic and silicate-rich particles that formed during
wide range of geologic and biologic settings on Earth. the birth of the Solar System in the protoplanetary disk.
However, apatite is also found in meteorites and in samples Chondrites have not melted since the time their asteroid
returned from other, geologically diverse, bodies in the parent bodies accreted, although they have been altered
Solar System. Extraterrestrial apatite is central to fi nding and metamorphosed to varying extents. Differentiated
possible life elsewhere in our Solar System, which itself is meteorites, by contrast, come from asteroidal or planet-
deeply intertwined with the search for one of life’s key sized parent bodies, such as the Moon and Mars, which
ingredients: water. Apatite is essential to the search for H2O have experienced extensive melting and have differentiated
in our Solar System because it is the only volatile-bearing into a metallic core, silicate mantle, and silicate crust. Stony
mineral that is ubiquitous among samples of extraterrestrial meteorites, referred to as achondrites, are the silicate-rich
materials, and it retains volatiles more effectively than bulk samples from these differentiated bodies, and iron meteor-
rock materials during thermal or shock events. Because of ites are samples of their cores. Although phosphates also
apatite’s compositional diversity and robust structure, it occur in iron and stony-iron meteorites, we focus here only
can be used as a tool to monitor volatile contents in silicate on apatite from chondrites and achondrites.
melts and hydrothermal fluids anywhere it is found.
Just as on Earth, apatite is almost ubiquitous in extrater-
Extraterrestrial apatite has already been used to try to restrial materials (FIG. 1). Apatite grains typically range
quantify the amount of H 2O in various celestial bodies, from submicron to several hundred microns in size and
such as the Moon and Mars (McCubbin et al. 2010a, display anhedral to euhedral crystal shapes. The F −, Cl−,
2012; Gross et al. 2013; Tartèse et al. 2013, 2014; Barnes and hydroxyl (OH−) anions occupy the X crystallographic
et al. 2014). Apatite from meteorites is important for our site (“anion column,” see Hughes and Rakovan 2015 this
understanding of the distribution of the halogen elements issue) and their relative abundances can be illustrated by
F and Cl throughout the inner Solar System and of the ternary plots (FIG. 2A–C). Apatites from chondritic meteor-
abundances of these elements on Earth. In this article, we ites (FIG. 2A) are rich in Cl (Jones et al. 2014), whereas
journey through the realm of extraterrestrial apatite and apatites from differentiated bodies vary substantially in
discuss the information it provides about the distribution their volatile chemistry. Most unaltered planetary basaltic
and sources of volatile elements in the inner Solar System. rocks from differentiated bodies have apatite popula-
tions that primarily extend along the F–OH join and are
relatively poor in Cl. This latter observation holds for Earth,
1 Institute of Meteoritics the Moon, and the asteroid 4 Vesta, which is hypothesized
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
to be the source for the howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED)
E-mail: fmccubbi@unm.edu meteorites (Filiberto and Treiman 2009; McCubbin et al.
2010a, 2011; Sarafian et al. 2013).
2 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
University of New Mexico Planetary basalts that display evidence of hydrothermal
3 School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences alteration (metasomatism) tend to have more Cl-rich
University of Manchester apatites than unaltered basalts (Hovis and Harlov 2010;
Manchester, M13 9PL, UK McCubbin et al. 2011; Sarafian et al. 2013). This observation
E-mail: rhian.jones-2@manchester.ac.uk

E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 183–188 183 J UNE 2015


A B
C D
E the inner asteroid belt, which is assumed to be much drier.
Images of apatite from various asteroidal and
FIGURE 1
planetary bodies. Phase abbreviations are as follows,
(Ap) apatite, (Bdy) baddeleyite, (Cpx) clinopyroxene, (Fe) Fe-rich
metal, (Ilm) ilmenite, (Mer) merrillite, (Opx) orthopyroxene, (Pl)
plagioclase, (Trd) tridymite, and (Tro) troilite. (A) Back scattered
electron (BSE) image of LL chondrite Chelyabinsk displaying a
vein-like textural occurrence commonly observed for fluid-
deposited apatites. (B) BSE image of eucrite Bates Nunataks 00300
illustrating apatite with other late-stage crystallization products
including tridymite and troilite. IMAGE CREDIT: A DAM SARAFIAN (C) BSE
image of lunar highlands magnesian-suite troctolite 76535 with
apatite in a late-stage crystallization pocket either replacing or
being replaced by merrillite. (D) BSE image of Martian breccia NWA
7034 containing a Cl-rich apatite-bearing basaltic clast that displays
evidence of secondary alteration by fluids. (E) Photograph of
3.8 cm terrestrial apatite crystal (blue) in calcite (orange) from Lake
Baikal, Russia. Apatite from this locality is commonly used as a
secondary ion mass spectrometry standard for analyzing
extraterrestrial apatites. IMAGE CREDIT: STEPHEN ELARDO
is attributed to the incompatibility of Cl compared to F and
OH in the structures of most igneous minerals (Hughes and
Rakovan 2015 this issue). The use of apatite as a tool for
tracking hydrothermal fluid composition is discussed by
Harlov (2015 this issue) but is just as applicable to extra-
terrestrial rocks. The Graves Nunataks (GRA) 06128/9
meteorite, which is a sample of fluid-altered evolved aster-
oidal crust, also has Cl-rich apatites (FIG. 2A) (Shearer et
al. 2011).
For Mars, Cl enrichment in apatite is not simply an
indicator of metasomatism. Apatites in meteorites repre-
senting both unaltered Martian basalts (shergottites) and
altered crustal rocks (nakhlites, chassignites, and the
polymict basaltic breccia Northwest Africa (NWA) 7034)
have substantial Cl components (FIG. 2C) (Filiberto and
Treiman 2009; McCubbin et al. 2012, 2013; Muttik et al.
2014). The difference between Mars and other differen-
tiated bodies indicates one of two things. First, apatite
E LEMENTS 184
compositions may reflect secondary alteration by fluids
in all Martian basalts: this possibility is not supported by
petrography. Second, Mars is geochemically distinct from
the other differentiated bodies: this possibility is consis-
tent with global geochemical models of Mars that predict
elevated Cl.
APATITES FROM ASTEROIDS RECORD
THE SOLAR SYSTEM’S EARLIEST HISTORY
Studies of chondritic meteorites show that apatite was
not one of the primary minerals to condense from the
gaseous protoplanetary disk. Instead, the ingredients for
apatite were incorporated into other condensing phases. For
example, P originally condensed into (Fe,Ni)-metal, while
halogens were probably incorporated into chondrites, in
the glass of chondrules, and in the form of ices (Jones et
al. 2014). We know that carbonaceous chondrites, which
generally come from the outer regions of the asteroid belt,
have significant organic and volatile element contents, as
well as hydrated minerals and salts that show that water
was once present (e.g. Brearley and Krot 2013). However,
we know less about the volatile content of material from
The most abundant class of chondrites, ordinary chondrites,
represent material from the inner asteroid belt. Ordinary
chondrites exhibit a metamorphic heating series, ranging
from samples consisting of near-pristine protoplanetary disk
material to samples that are highly recrystallized and chemi-
cally equilibrated. Apatite in metamorphosed ordinary
chondrites occurs as a result of a sequence of reactions.
These include solid-state redistribution of elements from
the original mineralogically diverse phases, the formation
of (volatile-free) merrillite [Na2 (Mg,Fe2+) 2Ca18 (PO4)14], and
the subsequent reactions between merrillite and metaso-
matic fluids (Jones et al. 2014) (FIG. 3). The oldest apatite
dated in ordinary chondrites records a Pb–Pb closure age of
4,563 Ma (Göpel et al. 1994), only 4 My after the fi rst Solar
System solids condensed. Apatite from ordinary chondrites
has a high Cl/F ratio and very low OH content (<100 ppm
H2O equivalent), indicating that the metasomatizing fluids
were Cl-rich and had low H2O fugacity. These observations
indicate that the inner Solar System was initially dry and
depleted in highly volatile elements. This is an important
consideration for understanding the accretionary history
and chemical composition of the terrestrial planets.
Asteroids that were heated more extensively than chondrites
underwent partial to complete melting. The largest group
of achondrite meteorites, the howardite–eucrite–diogenite
(HED) meteorites, consists of basalts and related mafic and
ultramafic intrusive rocks that formed in the mantle and
crust of 4 Vesta, following differentiation and core forma-
tion. Because these are igneous rocks, it is not surprising
that apatite occurs commonly as a late-stage product of
fractional crystallization (Sarafi an et al. 2013). Apatite
grains in most eucrites (basaltic meteorites) are typically
small (<40 µm) and have magmatic textures. Igneous
apatite is F-rich (FIG. 2A), similar to compositions that occur
in lunar mare basalts and in terrestrial igneous rocks. One
eucrite contains relatively Cl-rich apatite, and it contains
textural evidence that the sample experienced secondary
alteration by a Cl-rich metasomatic fluid (Sarafian et al.
2013). A few HED meteorites contain apatite that has a more
significant OH component, up to 20% OH in the X anion
site (FIG. 2A). This relatively OH-rich apatite records one of
two processes: crystallization from a relatively undegassed
magma, and precipitation from high-temperature, H-rich,
fluids. These observations support the presence of H and
other volatiles in the interiors of some differentiated aster-
oids at the time of melting.
J UNE 2015
 A B
F–Cl–OH chemistry of apatites from various planetary
FIGURE 2
materials. (A) Apatites from asteroidal parent bodies.
Chondrites are represented by LL ordinary chondrites (Jones et al.
2014), and achondrites are represented by eucrites and anomalous
achondrite GRA06128/9 (Shearer et al. 2011; Sarafian et al. 2013).
Missing component is reported instead of “OH” because the LL
chondrites were shown to have very low-OH abundances with F +
Cl + OH < 1. (B) Apatites from lunar samples. Unaltered lunar
In addition to the common classes of meteorites, such as
ordinary chondrites and the HEDs, meteorites with individ-
ually unique properties record a wide range of geochem-
ical conditions and behaviors. One example is the unique
meteorite GRA 06128/9, which represents an ancient
cumulate lithology containing a high abundance of sodic
plagioclase (Shearer et al. 2011). In contrast to HEDs, which
represent high degrees of melting of an anhydrous mantle,
the GRA meteorite crystallized from a magma produced by
low degrees of partial melting of a volatile-rich, probably
chondritic, parent body. Apatite in this meteorite records a
complex history of subsolidus metasomatic reactions with
a Cl-rich fluid, altering magmatic merrillite to apatite.
Metasomatism appears to be a common phenomenon in
the early Solar System. In each case, the saline metasomatic
fluids could have been produced by degassing of molten
or partially molten regions of the relevant parent body.
Mobilization of volatile elements could have occurred
either as a result of mantle melting in the asteroid interior
or melting resulting from impact events close to the surface.
Apatite, because of its anion chemistry, is a key mineral
that helps us understand the importance and behavior of
volatiles in early geologic environments within the asteroid
belt and throughout the inner Solar System.
USING APATITE AS A TOOL TO DETERMINE
H2O ABUNDANCES IN MAGMATIC SYSTEMS
AND PLANET-SIZED BODIES
We now consider what apatite reveals regarding the volatile
contents of large differentiated bodies in the inner Solar
System, specifically the Moon and Mars. Before we can do
this, we must discuss how apatite is used to determine the
abundance of H (expressed hereafter as the oxide compo-
nent H2O) in silicate melts and in magmatic source regions
(apatite hygrometry). For most igneous planetary samples,
the only material we observe is the fully crystallized rock
that formed from a silicate melt. The apatite within that
rock may be our only record of the volatile content of that
melt. Therefore, it is important to understand the assump-
tions and considerations that are necessary for using apatite
compositions to interpret the wider planetary context.
The F–Cl–OH ratio in apatite varies proportionally with
the F–Cl–OH ratio of the melt or fluid from which it forms.
However, apatite does not mirror the F–Cl–OH ratio of
its parent fluid or melt. Experimental studies that have
E LEMENTS
C
basalts are represented by the mare basalts, and altered crustal
materials are represented by rocks from the lunar highlands (Boyce
et al. 2010; McCubbin et al. 2010a,b, 2011). (C) Apatites from
Martian meteorites. Unaltered Martian basalts are represented by
the basaltic shergottites, and altered crustal materials are repre-
sented by basaltic breccia NWA 7034, chassignites, and nakhlites
(Patiño Douce and Roden 2006; McCubbin et al. 2012, 2013; Agee
et al. 2013)
explored apatite–melt partitioning relationships show that
apatite prefers F over Cl, and Cl over OH (Boyce et al. 2014;
McCubbin et al. 2015; Webster and Piccoli 2015 this issue).
This partitioning behavior implies that relatively OH-poor
apatites can form from OH-rich magmas. Specifically, the
apatite–melt ratio for F is about 75 times higher than the
apatite–melt ratio for OH (this is known as the F–OH
apatite–melt exchange coefficient) for temperatures typical
of apatite saturation in basaltic melts (~1000 °C; Boyce et
al. 2014; McCubbin et al. 2015). However, knowing this
relationship is only part of the task when it comes to using
apatite to interpret the volatile element abundances of a
planetary interior.
There are five minimum requirements, or assumptions,
that must be satisfied in order to use apatite as a magmatic
hygrometer. First, the apatite must be a primary crystal-
lization product from a rock that represents, as closely
as possible, a melt composition (i.e. no cumulate rocks).
Second, the apatite must have formed through equilib-
rium crystallization as opposed to fractional crystalliza-
tion. Third, from the time of melting in the source to
the time of apatite crystallization, the system should have
been closed with respect to F, Cl, and H 2O (i.e. no late
addition of fluids or degassing prior to apatite crystalliza-
tion). Fourth, apatite must be the only mineral phase for
which F, Cl, and OH are essential structural constituents.
Fifth, the bulk-rock abundances of F must be known, along
with an approximate temperature of apatite crystallization.
If the above conditions can be met, we can proceed with
using apatite to estimate the H2O content of the parent melt
and the source region. To start, we need to measure the F,
Cl, and OH abundances of apatite from the sample. This is
typically accomplished by secondary ion mass spectrometry
because of this technique’s accuracy, its low blank for OH
(1–10 ppm H 2O equivalent), and its high spatial resolution
(2–30 µm). Next, we determine the bulk-rock F content.
This is needed to relate the F–OH ratio of the apatite to
the F–OH ratio of the bulk rock. Fluorine is chosen because
it is much more compatible in apatite and, consequently,
much less likely to have degassed in the very late stages
of crystallization compared to H or Cl (McCubbin et al.
2015). Once the F content of the bulk rock is known, we
combine it with F and OH analyses from the apatite and
the F–OH apatite–melt exchange coefficient (which is 75)
to determine the F–OH ratio of the bulk rock (expressed
185 J UNE 2015
 a
A Bb
Grains of olivine, pyroxene, Fe,Ni- Silicate, metal and sulfide grains
metal and sulfide condense from the aggregate into “dustballs”.
gas cloud of the protoplanetary disk.
e
E fF
Olivine Pyroxene Fe,Ni-metal Fe-sulfide Glass
Chondrules, dust and ices accrete to form Mild heang results in formaon of
an asteroid. Chondrites consist of mm- merrillite and breakdown of ices. Fluids
sized chondrules (circular object) and are H2O-rich. P for merrillite is derived
μm grains in the matrix.
sub-μ from metal and chondrule glass.
as the abundance of H2O). Assuming that the bulk rock
is representative of a primary melt composition, the melt
F–OH ratio is used to determine the H2O content of the
parent liquid. If the degree of partial melting required to
produce the parent melt is known, then the estimate for
H2O in the source can be determined directly using the
H2O content of the parent melt. Otherwise, we calculate
the source H 2O content as a function of degree of partial
melting, which is commonly done for lunar and Martian
magmas (McCubbin et al. 2010a, 2012).
APATITE DISPELS IDEAS
OF A “BONE DRY” MOON
When Apollo samples were returned from the Moon,
between 1969 and 1972, they were investigated by many
mineralogists and geochemists who noticed striking differ-
ences between lunar rocks and terrestrial rocks. They recog-
nized that lunar rocks are devoid of hydrous phases, nearly
devoid of ferric iron (Fe3+), devoid of aqueous alteration or
clay minerals, contain iron metal as a primary magmatic
phase, and do not contain detectable hydrogen that could
be sourced to the Moon. All detectable H was determined to
be either from the solar wind, or terrestrial contamination
from the crew cabin or the atmosphere in Houston (Texas)
where the samples were curated. Consequently, the H 2O
content of the Moon was described using the colloquial
expression “bone dry.” Quantitative estimates for the bulk
H2O content of the Moon were generally less than 1 ppb
(McCubbin et al. 2010a).
However, the expression “bone dry” is a misnomer: bones
are composed of hydroxylapatite, which does contain
substantial OH (as a proxy for H 2O). Ultimately, apatite
in lunar rocks helped demonstrate the presence of former
E LEMENTS
Cc d
D
Dustballs are melted by a process such as Further cooling of the gas results in
a shock wave (dashed lines) passing condensaon of more silicates, Fe,Ni-
through the cloud. Products of melng metal, sulfides, ices and organics.
are mm-sized chondrules.
gG
Ices and organics Merrillite Apate Fluid
Higher temperature metamorphism results
in textural and chemical equilibraon. Dry,
Cl-rich fluids infiltrate the rock and react
with merrillite to form apate.
FIGURE 3 Cartoon illustrating the formation of apatite in
ordinary chondrites.
H2O in the Moon’s interior. Although apatite was recog-
nized among lunar minerals as early as the 1970s, the
analytical techniques available at that time indicated that
the monovalent anion site (X site) of apatite was typically
occupied only by F and Cl (Patiño Douce and Roden 2006).
Recent advancements in electron probe microanalysis and
secondary ion mass spectrometry techniques have revised
this view and shown that the anion site in lunar apatite is
not occupied only by F and Cl. This observation has led
to the fi rst detection and quantification of indigenous OH
in lunar apatite, indeed in any lunar mineral (Boyce et al.
2010; McCubbin et al. 2010a).
Isotopic analyses of apatite-derived H and Cl have confirmed
that the volatile elements in lunar apatite are not from
terrestrial contamination (Sharp et al. 2010; Greenwood et
al. 2011). Surprisingly, some of the lunar apatites have OH
abundances comparable to volcanic rocks on Earth (Boyce
et al. 2010). As a result, estimates of the H 2O content for
the bulk Moon have been increased significantly: 64 ppb
up to 390 ppm in the lunar interior (McCubbin et al. 2010a;
Tartèse et al. 2014). This four-orders-of-magnitude range in
the estimated H 2O abundance, coupled with the observa-
tion of substantial variations in the relative lunar petro-
logical abundances of F–Cl–OH (FIG. 2B), indicates that
the abundance and distribution of volatiles in the Moon is
likely quite heterogeneous (McCubbin et al. 2011; Tartèse
et al. 2013; Barnes et al. 2014).
These observations lead to a fundamental paradox: how
could an otherwise dry Moon produce OH-bearing apatites?
The answer to this paradox is currently being debated,
186 J UNE 2015
with two possible, and seemingly equally plausible, (Filiberto and Treiman 2009; McCubbin et al. 2013) and
scenarios. In the fi rst scenario (“wet Moon”), the Moon H 2O (McCubbin et al. 2012; Gross et al. 2013). Current
is H-rich. Degassing of lunar magmas under very low estimates of H2O abundances in the Martian mantle, based
oxygen fugacity, where the primary volatilizing H species on apatite analyses, are approximately 100 ppm H2O, which
is H2, has thoroughly dehydrogenated lunar rocks with the is comparable to the mantle source of terrestrial mid-ocean
exception of apatite, which was able to store magmatic OH ridge basalts.
before and/or during degassing (Sharp et al. 2013; Tartèse
Several types of Martian meteorites (nakhlites, chassig-
and Anand 2013). In this fi rst scenario, aqueous altera-
nites, and a basaltic breccia) have been altered through
tion of the lunar crust is avoided because the H2 liberated
secondary processes in the Martian crust, resulting in the
from magmas would not interact with anhydrous crustal
formation of secondary phases such as carbonates and clay
minerals to form aqueous alteration products like those
minerals. Studies of apatite from these meteorites empha-
found on Earth (Sharp et al. 2013). In the second scenario
size the importance of hydrothermal and aqueous fluids
(“dry Moon”), the Moon is H-poor. Fractional crystalli-
in the surface and near subsurface of Mars (McCubbin et
zation of lunar magmas resulted in the early removal of
al. 2013; Muttik et al. 2014). The nakhlite and chassignite
apatite that was rich in F and Cl because of apatite’s prefer-
meteorites are thought to represent individual samples of
ence for F and Cl over OH (Boyce et al. 2014). This resulted
a single layered intrusion or thick lava flow on Mars, and
in enrichment of OH, relative to F and Cl, in late-stage
apatites in these meteorites demonstrate changes in volatile
lunar melts, ultimately leading to the crystallization of
chemistry that correlate with inferred nakhlite/chassignite
apatites with a significant OH component.
sample stratigraphy (McCubbin et al. 2013). The changes in
Large intrasample F–OH variations in apatite chemistry apatite composition are similar to those observed in apatite
in lunar basalts (FIG. 2B) are predicted by both the above from the Bushveld (South Africa) and Stillwater (Montana)
scenarios. In the “wet Moon” scenario, the earliest-formed layered mafic intrusions on Earth, which have been attrib-
apatite is the most OH-rich because degassing of H 2 from uted to migrating crustal fluids. Taken together, the recent
the system drives apatite compositions to evolve towards studies of Martian apatite paint a view of the Martian
the fluorapatite apex of the apatite volatile ternary (FIG. interior that could have been conducive to the formation
2B). In the “dry Moon” scenario, the most OH-rich apatites of habitable environments on the Martian surface and near
formed last because the earliest apatite preferentially incor- subsurface. Magmatic activity on Mars could have been
porated F, leaving the residual melt depleted in F and closely associated with hydrothermal activity and the input
comparatively enriched in OH. To discern between the two of H2O into a putative biosphere (FIG. 4).
scenarios, compositional analyses must be combined with
textural observations or with an independent proxy for the
timing of crystallization. For example, one could determine
elemental zoning profi les of individual apatite crystals to
determine which process had occurred or was dominant.
Although the requirement to interpret textures and zoning
properties further complicates our current understanding
of the abundance of H2O in the Moon, lunar apatite studies
to date have clearly demonstrated that the Moon has signif-
icantly more H2O than the pre-2010 estimates of <1 ppb.

APATITE AND THE SEARCH FOR HABITABLE

PALEOENVIRONMENTS ON MARS
We currently recognize over 100 Martian meteorites. These
are in the form of basalts and related mafic and ultra-
mafic intrusive igneous rocks, and they help us unlock A B
Mars’ geologic history. Mars has been the focal point
for mankind’s search for extraterrestrial life in our Solar
System. Finding habitable environments that could have
once harbored life on Mars has become an important
scientific goal. Through many observations from orbiter
and lander missions, there is now substantial evidence to
argue that liquid water once flowed across the Martian
surface. However, the source of this H 2O has remained a
mystery. Early analyses of potentially hydrous phases in
Martian meteorites, including OH in apatite, indicated low
abundances of H2O. This implied that Martian magmas,
and by inference the Martian interior, were very dry. FIGURE 4 Cartoon of a habitable environment that could form
Estimates of Martian mantle H 2O content were as low as due to hydrothermal processes associated with intru-
sive magmatic activity. The regions adjacent to magmatic intrusions
a few ppm H2O (Patiño Douce and Roden 2006; Filiberto provide four of the primary requirements for a habitable environ-
and Treiman 2009). ment: (1) an energy/nutrient source through active Fe- and S-redox
chemistry (as recorded by the nakhlite and chassignite groups of
To the rescue came new instruments that could analyze Martian meteorites), (2) shelter from the cold desiccating surface
volatiles to a whole new level of accuracy. The results are that offers little atmospheric protection, (3) a source of water in the
a dramatic reconsideration of the hydrous phases within form of condensed hydrothermal fluid, and (4) a source of heat,
Martian meteorites (Greenwood et al. 2008; Boyce et al. provided by the intrusion and transferred to the habitable zone
conductively through the rock and by mass transport from the
2010; McCubbin et al. 2010a, 2011). As apatite is the only hydrothermal fluid. The cartoon is superimposed on an image taken
hydrous phase that occurs among all Martian meteorite by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit of the Home Plate region,
types, it has been the focal point of this work. Apatite in which is reported to be a past site of fumarolic activity at the
Martian meteorites is enriched in H2O and Cl over apatite Martian surface. Hydrothermal processes in the Martian surface and
near subsurface, like those depicted here, have been inferred by the
from typical terrestrial volcanic rocks (FIG. 2C). This has petrologic context and volatile-composition of hydrous phases,
led to ideas that the Martian interior is rich in both Cl chiefly apatite, in many Martian crustal rocks.

E LEMENTS 187 J UNE 2015

The Cl-rich nature of Martian apatite (commonly 2.5–6.5 and kinetically favorable for their formation. Although life
wt% Cl; FIG. 2C) supports an additional aspect of Martian on Mars has yet to be proven, studies of the mineral apatite
habitability. Organophosphate synthesis is a key process in Martian meteorites supports the past presence of habit-
required in prebiotic chemistry and for successful metabolic able environments on Mars and, hence, the continuing
function. The dissolution rate for Cl-rich apatite is as much need to explore Mars.
as 45 times higher than the dissolution rate for the F-rich
apatite typical of most terrestrial basalts (Adcock et al. 2013). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Consequently, phosphates would dissolve more rapidly in
We thank Jeremy Boyce, James Greenwood, Hanna
aqueous solutions during weathering on Mars compared to
Nekvasil, Mahesh Anand, Romain Tartèse, Jessica Barnes,
terrestrial weathering environments at the same tempera-
Charles Shearer, Adam Sarafian, and Zachary Sharp for
ture (Adcock et al. 2013). In addition, the solubility of
many lively discussions on the topic of extraterrestrial
Cl-rich apatite in aqueous solutions is approximately twice
apatite. We thank Adam Sarafian and Stephen Elardo for
that of F-rich apatite, so the phosphate carrying capacity
providing images used in FIGURE 1B and FIGURE 1E, respec-
per gram of aqueous solution would be higher in Martian
tively. We also thank Allan Treiman and Chris Tacker for
aqueous environments compared to terrestrial aqueous
very helpful reviews that improved the manuscript, and
environments at the same temperature (Adcock et al.
we thank Daniel Harlov and John Rakovan for editorial
2013). The enhanced availability of phosphate species
handling. FMM and RHJ acknowledge support from NASA’s
in Martian aqueous solutions provides a mechanism to
Cosmochemistry program during the writing of this
supply phosphate to a putative biosphere. It indicates that
manuscript (NNX14AK43G to FMM, and NNX12AH61G
phosphate availability would not have been a rate-limiting
to RHJ).
step for the synthesis of organophosphates from Martian
aqueous solutions if conditions were thermodynamically

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E LEMENTS 188 J UNE 2015

 Geochronology and
Thermochronology Using
Apatite: Time and Temperature,
Lower Crust to Surface LA-ICPMS map of
uranium zoning in
the Durango apatite
David M. Chew1 and Richard A. Spikings2

1811-5209/15/0011-0189$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.3.189

A
patite can provide geologists with an exceptionally wide range of ages ultimately lost to an infi nite reser-
and temperatures to investigate processes that operate from Earth’s voir (the rock matrix) by thermally
activated volume diffusion. This
surface right down to the lower crust. Apatite is a widespread acces- assumption is supported by experi-
sory mineral in igneous, metamorphic, and clastic sedimentary rocks and can mental studies over laboratory
be dated using four radioactive decay schemes, each with a different tempera- and natural timescales on apatite
Pb and He diffusion and fi ssion-
ture window for isotopic closure: Lu–Hf (675–750 °C); U–Pb (350–550 °C); track annealing (e.g. Gleadow et
apatite fission track (60–110 °C); (U–Th)/He (40–80 °C). The fission-track and al. 1986; Farley 2000; Cochrane
(U–Th)/He methods are popular for studying upper-crustal and near-surface et al. 2014).

processes, whereas the U–Pb and Lu–Hf systems are used to investigate the The ability to model the behav-
iour of a thermochronological
thermal, tectonic, and magmatic histories of the deeper crust.
system, such as diffusion of Pb
KEYWORDS : apatite, thermochronology, fission track, (U–Th)/He, U–Pb, Lu–Hf and He or fission-track annealing
in the laboratory and extrapolate
it to geological timescales, makes
INTRODUCTION: APATITE IS A VERY it possible to construct a forward model of the system
DATEABLE MINERAL and so predict how that system will evolve for a given
Apatite (used herein to mean calcium phosphate apatite t–T history. Once a forward model has been generated, it
with the general formula Ca5 (PO 4 ) 3 (F,Cl,OH)) is a very then becomes possible to apply an inverse model, using the
common accessory mineral in magmatic rocks, as P2O5 measured present-day condition of a thermochronometric
has a low solubility in silicate melts and phosphorous is system (e.g. apatite U–Pb or (U–Th)/He isotopic data or an
not easily incorporated in the crystal lattices of the major apatite fission-track date and track-length distribution) to
rock-forming minerals. Unlike the U-bearing accessory generate a computed t–T history (Ketcham 2005; Gallagher
mineral zircon, which is generally restricted to felsic 2012). What makes apatite thermochronology so powerful
igneous rocks, apatite is found as a minor phase in most is the ability of forward and inverse modelling to produce
igneous rock types. Apatite also occurs in metamorphic continuous t–T histories from three independent (the U–
rocks of pelitic, carbonate, basaltic, and ultramafic compo- Pb, fi ssion track, and (U–Th)/He) thermochronological
sition at all metamorphic grades and is virtually ubiquitous systems.
in clastic sedimentary rocks. Its abundance in the majority
The low-temperature sensitivities (FIG. 1) of the apatite
of common rock types allied to its ability to incorporate
fission-track (60 –110 °C) and (U–Th)/He (40 – 80 °C)
elements that can be used for age dating makes apatite a
methods make them popular tools for studying upper
very useful tool in geochronology. In particular, apatite
crustal and near-surface processes. Applications include
is useful in thermochronology, which is the branch of
geochronology. that aims to establish the time–temperature
0
(t–T) histories of rocks. T(°C)
The thermal histories of minerals within the Earth and 100
(U–Th)/He apatite
U–Pb apatite

in meteorites can provide key information on processes

Fission track apatite
Ar–Ar hornblende
Re–Os Molybdenite

ranging from planetary accretion to plate tectonics. 200

(U–Th)/He zircon
U–Pb rutile

(U–Th)/He titanite

Thermochronological methods such as 238,235U–206,207Pb

(e.g. applicable to apatite, titanite, rutile), fission track, 300
Fission track zircon
Fission track titanite

and (U–Th)/He dating (both techniques applicable to

Ar–Ar biotite

Ar–Ar K–feldspar

400
Rb–Sr biotite
U–Pb titanite

apatite and zircon) are tools that constrain the thermal

U–Pb monazite

Ar–Ar muscovite

histories of minerals. These methods rely on the funda-

Lu–Hf apatite

mental assumption that radiogenic daughter isotopes (e.g. 500

Rb–Sr muscovite

206,207Pb and 4He) are redistributed within minerals and are

U–Pb zircon

600

700
1 Department of Geology, School of Natural Sciences
Trinity College Dublin 800
Dublin 2, Ireland
E-mail: chewd@tcd.ie
900
2 Section of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Geneva FIGURE 1 Effective closure temperatures for various commonly
CH-1205, Geneva, Switzerland used thermochronometers. The four relating to apatite
E-mail: Richard.Spikings@unige.ch and the subject of this paper are in blue.

E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 189–194 189 J UNE 2015

quantifying the timing of exhumation during compres-
sion and extension along active tectonic margins, inves-
tigating the thermal histories of sedimentary basins and
their source regions, and examining cratonic stability over
timescales of hundreds of millions of years. In addition,
apatite low-temperature thermochronology has also been
used to quantify vertical fault displacement, to constrain
the timing of ore-mineralization events, and to decipher
landscape evolution. The higher temperature sensitivity of
the U–Pb apatite system (350–550 °C; FIGS. 1 and 4) makes it
a useful tool to study the thermal and tectonic histories of
the deeper crust. The even higher temperature sensitivity of
the Lu–Hf apatite system (675–750 °C) makes it particularly
well suited for dating zircon-free magmatic rocks. However,
the limitations of isochron-based dating make this system
unsuitable for generating continuous t–T histories.
(U–Th)/He THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OF APATITE: YOUNG AND COOL
Helium accumulates in host minerals by the radioactive
decay of 238U, 235U, and 232Th, forming the basis of (U–Th)/He
dating. In some cases, 147Sm may also produce a significant
fraction of 4He in a sample. These nuclear transformations
and their potential for geochronology were recognised
during the early 20 th century; however, the method was
abandoned in the 1950s because of mounting evidence
that He was being lost from the host minerals. Zeitler et
al. (1987) revived interest in the (U–Th)/He method as a
thermochronometer by suggesting that He loss by volume
diffusion from apatite can be exploited to recover t–T infor-
mation at temperatures of ~100 °C.
Thermal history information can be obtained from
single crystal apatite (U–Th)/He dates if we can deter-
mine the diffusion behaviour of He in apatite and
correct for He implantation, or “loss by ejection”,
during radioactive decay (FIG. 2). Since Zeitler et al.
(1987), several independent measurements of the Ejection
di
He diffusion properties in apatite (e.g. Farley 2000) Re
have defi ned a bulk closure temperature of ~70 °C
and a helium partial-retention zone (HePRZ) in the
temperature range ~40–80 °C (FIG. 1).
Subsequently, several studies (e.g. Schuster et al.
z z’
2006) revealed a significant correlation between
4
radiogenic He concentration and He diffusivity
in natural apatite, suggesting that He diffusion is
slowed down by radiation-induced damage. Flowers A
A 4
et al. (2009) derived the radiation damage accumu-
lation and annealing model (RDAAM), which
quantifies the relationship between radiation-damage
accumulation, the elimination of that radiation damage
by thermal annealing, and the kinetics of He diffusion in
apatite. The RDAAM model can resolve thermal histories
for apatite grains that exhibit (U–Th)/He dates older than
the corresponding fission-track dates, which are thought
to occur when the samples have resided for a sufficient
duration at temperatures that permit radiation damage to
accumulate. Thus, the specifics of the RDAAM model, such
as what defi nes “sufficient duration”, are entirely depen-
dent on the thermal history of the rock in question.
Effects of Alpha Recoil in Apatite
(U–Th)/He Dating
Further complications in apatite (U–Th)/He dating arise
from the high kinetic energies with which alpha particles
(He nuclei) – formed by the decay of 238U, 235U, 232Th, and
147Sm – are emitted, causing displacements of He nuclei in
apatite by up to 30 microns relative to the parent nuclide
(Farley et al. 1996). These long stopping (recoil) distances
result in three complications: (i) ambiguous intracrystal (U–
Th)/He dates when the parent isotope is heterogeneously
E LEMENTS
distributed (i.e. zoned as in FIG. 2A); (ii) implantation of
He into the apatite crystal if it shares a boundary with
a high-U–Th mineral, such as zircon (FIG. 2A,C), which
results in older (U–Th)/He dates; (iii) net loss of He and a
reduction in the (U–Th)/He date for small apatite crystals
(FIG. 2C). The correction of apatite (U–Th)/He dates for He
loss (termed an alpha-ejection correction) is dependent
on the size and morphology of the crystals and on the
distribution of the parent isotopes. Farley et al. (1996) show
that the magnitude of this correction can be up to 50% in
small (70 micron diameter) subhedral crystals.
Inaccuracies introduced during the correction for He loss
can be minimised by the careful selection of euhedral
grains. Further improvements in the He-loss correction
can be made by (i) abrading the outermost 20 microns
of the grain, which increases the fractional retention of
He to unity in unzoned crystals, and (ii) determining the
distribution of the parent isotopes using an in situ method,
such as an ion-probe or a laser ablation–inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometer (LA–ICPMS). Zoning of the
parent isotope can yield a large dispersion in (U–Th)/He
apatite dates from a single sample. For example, a prefer-
ential enrichment of the parent isotope near the apatite
crystal rim would yield a larger quantity of He close to
the grain boundary (e.g. FIG. 2A), resulting in a greater
amount of He loss by diffusion for any given t–T. Farley et
al. (2011) formulated a method to quantify the U and Th
distribution in polished sections of apatite by quadrupole-
LA–ICPMS mapping, and concluded that these effects can
significantly alter computed t–T models.
Apatite (20 ppm U) Production by decay of parent isotopes
Zircon BB
He abundance
(200 ppm U)
on
uti
strib
Impla z z’
ntatio
n Ejection and implantation effect
n
C
C tio
nta
pla
He abundance
Im
n
Ej
tio
U, Th or Sm
ec
ec
tio
parent isotope
Ej
n
He daughter
isotope z z’
(A) Schematic diagram of an apatite crystal sharing a
FIGURE 2
grain boundary with a zircon. The apatite is zoned,
with higher parent isotope concentrations in the rim of the grain.
Note cross-section transect labelled z–z′. (B) Graph across transect
z–z′ showing how He is distributed according only to its production
within the apatite. (C) Graph across transect z–z′ showing how He
is redistributed either by long He-stopping (recoil) distances or by
the implantation of He derived from the adjacent zircon.
APATITE FISSION-TRACK DATING:
YOUNG AND COOL
Fission-track dating is based on the spontaneous fission
decay of 238U [decay constant (λf ) = 8.5 × 10 −17 a−1]. The
fission products – two highly charged daughter nuclides –
fly apart in opposite directions at high velocity, producing
a linear damage trail in the host mineral or U-bearing glass
known as a fission track. Fission tracks are enlarged using
a standardized chemical etching process so they can be
observed under an optical microscope (reviews in Gallagher
et al. 1998; Donelick et al. 2005).
190 J UNE 2015
The concentration of U in apatite is typically 1–100 ppm,
which generates a statistically useful quantity of sponta-
neous fi ssion tracks for samples older than ~1 Ma. By
comparing the spontaneous fi ssion-track density with
the U content of the host mineral (apatite in our case;
FIG. 3A,B), a fi ssion-track date can be calculated which
temporally constrains the t–T cooling path through the
fission-track partial annealing zone (PAZ), a temperature
range across which fission tracks go from being perfectly
preserved at low temperatures (where there is insufficient
energy to cause significant repair of the fission tracks) to
being completely healed (annealed) at high temperatures
via thermally activated diffusion in the apatite structure.
Fission tracks are partially annealed (shortened) at temper-
atures within the PAZ (e.g. FIG. 3C). The apatite PAZ is
estimated at 60–110 °C (FIG. 1), although this varies with
apatite composition (e.g. Cl content; Green et al. 1986).
To calculate the apparent fission-track date of a mineral,
an estimate of both the amount of 238U decay recorded
in the mineral (given by the spontaneous fi ssion-track
density) and the amount of 238U (the parent isotope) is
required. The spontaneous fission-track density is tradi-
tionally calculated by manually counting etched fission
tracks using optical microscopy. Uranium concentration
measurements in fission-track analysis are usually made
by bombarding the apatite grain mount with thermal
neutrons in a nuclear fission reactor to induce fission of
235U. The induced fi ssion tracks register in the apatite
crystals and in an external detector (low-U [<1 ppm]
muscovite) that is placed in intimate contact with the
apatite grain mount. The induced fission-track density in
the external-detector muscovite is a function of the apatite
235U content and of the integrated thermal-neutron flux
within the apatite crystals in the reactor. The latter is deter-
mined by measuring the induced fission-track densities of
muscovite detectors placed in contact with a silicate glass
standard having a known U concentration. Fission-track
dates are then calculated using a zeta-calibration approach
(Hurford and Green 1983), which involves comparing the
fission-track dates of unknowns to those of fission-track
age standards.
Alternatively, uranium concentrations in fi ssion-track
dating can be undertaken by LA–ICPMS, which increases
the speed of analysis and sample throughput because
it avoids the need for neutron irradiation. Hasebe et al.
(2004) presented an “absolute” calibration approach to
LA–ICPMS fission-track dating that adopted a value for the
238
U spontaneous fission decay constant (λf ) and introduced
calibration factors for etching and observation of tracks.
An alternative approach, adopted by Donelick et al. (2005)
and Chew and Donelick (2012), is to include all of these
parameters (which are difficult to quantify) into a single
term that is calibrated by reference to an age standard,
analogous to the zeta calibration approach of Hurford
and Green (1983). An LA–ICPMS approach also facilitates
multi-element analyses during a single ablation (Chew
and Donelick 2012), including U–Pb date and chemical
composition data (such as the rare earth elements and
other trace elements, including Cl). These data are useful
in detrital apatite provenance studies and for character-
izing the annealing behaviour of fission tracks in apatite.
Fission-Track Annealing Kinetics
and Thermal History Modelling
The annealing behaviour of fission tracks in apatite is not
completely understood, but it is highly temperature depen-
dent and moderately dependent upon crystallographic
orientation. It is also a function of chemical composition
and crystal structure of the host apatite (e.g. Green et al.
1986; Carlson et al. 1999; Barbarand et al. 2003). Fission-
E LEMENTS
track annealing models attempt to correlate fission-track
annealing kinetics with measurable parameters, commonly
referred to as kinetic parameters, which take into account
variations in chemical composition or etching characteris-
tics of the host apatite (e.g. Carlson et al. 1999; Barbarand
et al. 2003). These kinetic parameters include the fission-
track etch figure diameter parallel to the crystallographic
c axis (D par) (FIG. 3A) and the apatite Cl content (measured
either by electron microprobe or by LA–ICPMS).
In addition to the fi ssion-track date, which temporally
constrains the t–T path taken through the PAZ, the
apatite fission-track method also yields information on the
nature of the t–T path taken through the PAZ (FIG. 3C).
This information is obtained from the distribution of
confi ned fission-track lengths in a sample (Gleadow et al.
1986), confi ned fi ssion-tracks being horizontal (or <10°
from horizontal) tracks that lie parallel to an apatite’s
c-axis prismatic section (FIG. 3A,B). Unannealed, sponta-
neous fi ssion-track lengths in natural apatites typically
range between ~14.5 µm and 15.5 µm, depending on
the chemical composition. An apatite grain exhibiting a
fission-track population with mean track lengths in this
typical range and a narrow variation in track length distri-
bution would be interpreted to have cooled rapidly from
temperatures ≥110 °C to temperatures ≤60 °C at the time
indicated by its apatite fission-track date. A shorter mean
track length, with a broad standard distribution, indicates
that the sample resided in the PAZ for a significant period
Fission track date temporally constrains the temperature–time history
- f (track density and U concentration of the counted area)
Reflected
Transmitted
Light Light
Confined 10 μm Confined 10 μm
Track Track
A
A B
B
c axis
track etch
pit diameter
Dpar
counted area
Confined track lengths yield information on the rate and style of cooling
- f (distribution of confined track lengths)
Time (Ma)
1
Temperature (°C)
1 3
2
2 Total annealing (~ 120 °C)
Final distribution (at time 3)
Number of tracks
3
CC Track length (μm)
FIGURE 3 (A) Reflected light image of an area of an apatite
crystal counted for fission tracks. (B) Transmitted light
image of the same area of the apatite crystal counted for fission
tracks. (C) Schematic time–temperature history of an apatite (LEFT)
starting at the surface (1), followed by reheating (2), and subse-
quent cooling to near-surface temperatures (3). The resulting track
distribution is bimodal (RIGHT).
191 J UNE 2015
(dependent on the host rock’s specific thermal history)
since the formation of the oldest fission tracks. FIGURE 3C
illustrates a schematic t–T path characterised by a bimodal
track-length distribution. The oldest tracks (t = 1, FIG. 3C)
formed at temperatures below the PAZ (≤60 °C). The sample
was then heated to temperatures (~100 °C) close to the base
of the PAZ (t = 2, FIG. 3C) generating a series of short,
annealed confi ned tracks. Any tracks that subsequently
formed during cooling through the PAZ to near-surface
temperatures (t = 3, FIG. 3C) are not annealed, resulting
in a bimodal track-length distribution. The apatite fission-
track date and track-length distribution can be combined
to construct t–T paths by inverse and/or forward modelling
(e.g. Ketcham 2005; Gallagher 2012).
U–Pb THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF APATITE:
OLD AND MODERATELY HOT
Uranium–lead apatite thermochronology exploits the loss
of Pb from apatite crystals to generate t–T paths at tempera-
tures between ~350–550 °C (FIGS. 1 and 4). Thermal-history
information is obtained by comparing apatite U–Pb dates
with grain size, grain geometry, and the intrinsic diffusion
properties of Pb in apatite. Volume-diffusion theory predicts
a positive correlation between the amount of Pb lost (and
therefore, the U–Pb date) during monotonic cooling (i.e.
continuous cooling with no reheating) and the average
distance that Pb has to diffuse within a crystal to reach
an infi nite reservoir where its effective concentration is
zero. Several studies (e.g. Chamberlain and Bowring 2000;
Cochrane et al. 2014), which dated apatites of different
grain sizes extracted from the same igneous or metamor-
phic rock, have obtained this relationship, confi rming the
hypothesis that Pb was lost by volume diffusion.
The temperatures and rates at which Pb is lost from
apatite by volume diffusion are largely a function of
its diffusivity at infi nite temperature and its activa-
tion energy for diffusion (both related to apatite’s
crystal lattice). These properties are, in turn, deter-
200
mined by the composition and geometry of the unit
cell. Thus, the temperature range of partial Pb loss is
a function of apatite composition. Lead diffusion in
apatite was first studied by Watson et al. (1985), who 400
Most previous U–Pb apatite thermochronological studies
have employed isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass
spectrometry (ID–TIMS) because it yields the best preci-
sion and accuracy. On the negative side, this destructive
technique provides only an “average” date at the scale
of any single apatite crystal. However, volume diffusion
creates a heterogeneous distribution of Pb, and, thus,
core-to-rim variations in U–Pb dates. Recovery of in situ
crystal core–rim date profi les is useful because they can be
compared with computed t–T paths generated by model-
ling of dates obtained by ID–TIMS (FIG. 4B). A close match
between the measured in situ dates and modelled dates
implies that Pb was lost from the samples by thermally
activated volume diffusion, and corroborates the modelled
t–T paths.
Cochrane et al. (2014) recently showed that in situ dates
obtained by LA–MC(multi-collector)–ICPMS can be used
to distinguish between reheating into the Pb partial reten-
tion zone (FIG. 4A) and isothermal t–T paths within this
same temperature window. Importantly, these different
t–T paths can be resolved using a single chronometer
( 238U/ 206Pb) when the dates are as young as ~100 Ma.
An alternative approach that uses the pattern of U–Pb
ID–TIMS apatite dates on concordia has been applied to
lower crustal xenoliths to distinguish between reheating
events and continuous cooling paths (e.g. Blackburn et al.
2012). This approach is limited to old U–Pb dates (>500
Ma) that span a large age range in order to determine the
topology of the Pb-loss curves with sufficient precision. In
young samples (<500 Ma), the large age uncertainties in
relatively non-radiogenic isotopic compositions often result
in concordant dates, precluding the use of Pb-loss curves
in Phanerozoic samples.
0
AHePRZ
Arbitrary t–T ApPAZ
space for a
Permian Apatite fission
track and apatite
sedimentary
rock (U–Th)/He t–T
path
Temperature (°C)

performed Pb depth-profi ling in natural Durango Apatite–Pb Partial 40

Ar/39Ar
Retention Zone muscovite
apatite using an electron microprobe. Cherniak et
al. (1991) used ion implantation of Pb2+ into apatite, 600
combined with isothermal heating experiments, to zircon U–Pb age
determine the diffusion properties of Pb in apatite Burial and
247.2 ± 4.3 Ma elevated Terrane
(anatexis) heat flow collision
after performing depth profi ling with Rutherford 800
Time (Ma)
A
A
backscattering spectrometry. Both data sets are
consistent, and the results have been used in several 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
studies (e.g. Schoene and Bowring 2007; Cochrane
Pb/ 8GDWH0D“ı
206 238 206
Pb/ 8GDWH0D“ı
238
et al. 2014) to obtain t–T histories from U–Pb apatite
Measured date
dates and grain sizes by computed forward (FIG. 4B) 140 Model date 180 C
C A
and inverse modelling (FIG. 4A).
100 140
One of the main limitations in U–Pb apatite thermo- B
B
chronology is that apatite typically incorporates 60 100
Core

substantial amounts of initial (non-radiogenic, or 40 60 80 100 120 A’

common) Pb compared to U (i.e. low 238U/ 204Pb) Diffusion length (Pm) 60 A A’ ȝP

when it crystallizes. This results in a slow increase

with time in the ratio of radiogenic Pb to non-radiogenic FIGURE 4 (A) Time–temperature (t–T ) paths (black lines) of an
~247 Ma Early Triassic migmatite formed by anatexis
206 206
Pb (e.g. Pbradiogenic/ Pbinitial), which means that the of a Permian sedimentary rock. The t-T path is constrained using
238 206
majority of U–Pb apatite thermochronology studies U/ Pb apatite dates, grain size information, and independent
have, perforce, concentrated on the t–T histories of old thermochronometers (Cochrane at al. 2014). The path was inverse
modelled using the HeFTy software of Ketcham (2005).
(Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic) cratons (e.g. Schoene (B) Comparison of apatite grain radii versus 238U/206Pb dates
and Bowring 2007). The initial Pb isotopic composition (measured by ID-TIMS) with the predicted 206Pb/238U dates
can be constrained by high-precision analyses of cogenetic obtained from the best-fit t–T path from (A). (C) 206Pb/238U date
phases, such as K-feldspar, that contain non-radiogenic Pb transect (A–A′; LEFT), with analysis spots superimposed over an
and no U. apatite back-scattered electron image (RIGHT), showing a convex
date profile attributable to Pb volume diffusion in a subhedral
grain. APAZ (apatite partial annealing zone); AHePRZ (apatite–He
partial retention zone)

E LEMENTS 192 J UNE 2015

Lu–Hf DATING OF APATITE:
MOSTLY OLD AND HOT
Typically, both igneous and metamorphic apatites have
REE concentrations of several thousand parts per million.
Apatite is, therefore, amenable to dating by the Lu–Hf
isochron method, which exploits the β-decay of radioac-
tive 176Lu to a stable daughter isotope (176Hf) as a result of
apatite strongly fractionating Lu over Hf. Isochron geochro-
nology requires that all samples defi ning the isochron
begin with identical ratios of the daughter isotope to a
non-radiogenic reference isotope of the daughter element
(in this case, identical initial 176Hf/177 Hf) and that all
samples have subsequently remained closed systems with
respect to the parent and daughter elements (e.g. Barfod
et al. 2003). An example Lu–Hf apatite isochron from the
Smålands Taberg mafic cumulate in Sweden (Larsson and
Söderlund 2005) is presented in FIGURE 5. This isochron
has had additional constraint by using a phase with a low
Lu/Hf ratio (plagioclase), and the whole-rock sample, and
demonstrates the precision that can be achieved using the
Lu–Hf apatite system; the isochron date of 1204.3 ± 1.8 Ma
yields an uncertainty of ±0.15%. The Lu–Hf apatite system
is particularly well suited for dating igneous rocks that may
be difficult to date with traditional techniques (i.e. when
baddeleyite and zircon are absent).
Difficulties in ionizing Hf by ID–TIMS are at first hampered
the application of the Lu–Hf system as a geochronometer,
but high-precision Hf data are now routine with the advent
of the LA–MC–ICPMS technique. Examples include Lu–
Hf dating of apatite within Skaergaard intrusion mafic
cumulates (Barfod et al. 2003), the Smålands Taberg Fe–Ti
ore deposit (Larsson and Söderlund 2005), and apatite from
medium- to high-grade metamorphic terranes (e.g. Barfod
et al. 2003, 2005). Diffusion data for the REEs in apatite
imply a closure temperature of at least 700 °C for the Lu–Hf
system (Cherniak 2000). This is consistent with the study
by Barfod et al. (2005) from the Adirondack lowlands in
New York (USA) where Lu–Hf systematics were investigated
for centimetre-sized apatite crystals that had remained
undisturbed during upper amphibolite–facies metamor-
phism at 675–700 °C. A conservative estimate of the partial
retention zone of Hf in apatite is 675–750 °C (FIG. 1).
Near-depositional Lu–Hf dates have been reported for a
shark tooth from the Lower Eocene London Clay, England
(Barfod et al. 2003). This intriguing result suggests that
the Lu–Hf system is a promising tool for dating biogenic
apatite (fossil bones and teeth) and for the direct dating
of sedimentary formations. However, the same study also
demonstrated that biogenic apatite in porous matrices was
highly susceptible to post-depositional resetting of the Lu–
Hf isotopic system. Subsequent work has confi rmed that
most Lu–Hf dates on biogenic apatite are substantially
younger than their depositional ages (Herwartz et al. 2013).
The nanometre-scale crystal sizes of biogenic apatite in
fossil bones, dentine, and enamel result in intensive Lu–Hf
exchange during burial for most fossil sites; Lu–Hf deposi-
tional ages are only preserved when there has been limited
REE and Hf diffusion between the sediment and the fossil.
Fine-grained argillaceous sediments with low permeability,
or carbonate matrices with low REE abundances, appear
to be the optimal lithologies encasing biogenic apatite
to inhibit diffusion (Herwartz et al. 2013), making such
sediments potentially good candidates for Lu–Hf dating.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
DEVELOPMENTS
The presence of apatite in the majority of common rock
types (mafic and felsic igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks,
and clastic sedimentary rocks) makes it a very useful tool
in geochronology and thermochronology. It is a particu-
E LEMENTS
0.35
apatite 1
0.33 1204.3 ± 1.8 Ma apatite 2
MSWD = 1.5 apatite 3
Hf/177Hf
0.31
plagioclase,
whole rock 0.2825 plagioclase
whole
176
176
Hf/177Hf rock 2
0.29 0.2824
whole
rock 1
0.010 0.014 0.018
0.27
176
Lu/177Hf
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.
176
Lu/177Hf
FIGURE 5 Lu–Hf apatite/whole rock/plagioclase isochron of a
mafic cumulate from Smålands Taberg (Sweden) illus-
trating the applicability of the Lu–Hf apatite system to dating
zircon-free magmatic rocks. SOURCE : L ARSSON AND SÖDERLUND (2005)
larly powerful thermochronometer because it can yield
continuous t–T histories as a result of combining three
independent thermochronological systems (remembering
that the Lu–Hf system cannot generate continuous histo-
ries): (U–Th)/He, spontaneous U fission, and U–Pb. These
three systems can be used to investigate the thermal and
tectonic histories of the upper to middle crust.
Although there have been many recent advances in our
understanding of the kinetics of diffusion (and annealing),
there are still many important unresolved issues in thermo-
chronology. For example, the physical basis of fission-track
annealing at the atomic scale remains incompletely under-
stood, and annealing models are constrained by empirical
laboratory experiments and geological cases studies. There
is, therefore, a significant gap in our understanding of the
relationship between the underlying diffusion processes
responsible for the gradual repair of radiation damage in
unetched (latent) fission tracks and the thermal annealing
behaviour of fission tracks as revealed by chemical etching.
It may become possible to develop diffusion-based models
of track annealing to explain the observed differences
in annealing properties between different minerals (e.g.
titanite and zircon) and also within a mineral group with
known compositional variation (such as apatite). The
advent of automated image analysis for automated fission-
track dating (e.g. Gleadow et al. 2009) opens up the possi-
bility of acquiring far larger datasets than are currently
possible with manual methods. Such datasets could include
different modes of track length (confi ned and semi-tracks)
and etch-pit diameter measurements that can be related to
annealing properties.
Many (U–Th)/He thermochronology studies have shown
that the range of single-grain ages obtained from a single
rock sample are more dispersed than expected when
considering only the analytical uncertainties (Brown et
al. 2013). Many of the complicating factors in (U–Th)/He
thermochronometry (α-ejection, He implantation, radia-
tion damage, parent isotope zonation) could be more
successfully constrained if a measure of the spatial distri-
bution of the parent and daughter isotope concentrations
could be obtained from within a grain. One approach to
constrain the daughter product (4He) diffusion profi le is
to introduce a uniform reference concentration of 3He by
proton irradiation of the sample. Thermal history infor-
mation encoded in the sample’s 4He distribution could
193 J UNE 2015
then be obtained by step-heating measurements of the
4He/3He ratio (Shuster and Farley 2004). Another approach
to extract thermal history information from (U–Th)/He
apatite data is to analyse 20 to 30 apatite grains – with
varying grain sizes, morphologies, and numbers of crystal
terminations – from each sample (Brown et al. 2013).
Recent advances in U–Pb apatite geochronology include
the ability to undertake routine U–Pb LA–ICPMS apatite
analyses that can account for the variable amounts of
initial Pb in both apatite standards and unknowns (Chew
et al. 2014). Example applications include in situ apatite
U–Pb age profiles (Cochrane et al. 2014) and detrital U–Pb
apatite geochronology. The latter approach may prove
useful in provenance studies where the source regions
are either not zircon-bearing (e.g. mafic sources) or there
has been substantial sedimentary recycling of detrital
zircon. No studies have systematically tested the relation-
ship between Pb diffusion and apatite composition; the
intrinsic Pb diffusion properties of apatite may also vary
with halogen, REE, and cation composition. Cochrane et al.
(2014) reported anomalously outlying ages when 238U/206Pb
dates from a leucosome were compared against apatite grain
size. Xenocrystic apatite crystals (i.e. those sourced from
the county rock) with high Th/U ratios (>0.5), yielded
238
U/206Pb dates that were younger than magmatic apatites
with low Th/U ratios (<0.2) with the same grain size. We
speculate that compositional variations can enhance Pb
volume diffusion rates in apatite.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DC thanks Ray Donelick, Balz Kamber, Joe Petrus, Paul
Sylvester, and Shane Tyrrell for collaborations and discus-
sions on apatite analyses by LA–ICPMS and acknowl-
edges support from Science Foundation Ireland grant 12/
IP/1663. RS thanks Urs Schaltegger and Ryan Cochrane
and acknowledges support for U–Pb apatite thermochro-
nology from Swiss NSF grant no 200020_134443. Roderick
Brown, Daniel Herwartz, Dan Harlov, Patricia Dove, Jodi
Rosso, and Ian Sanders are thanked for reviews and edito-
rial comments that significantly improved this article.

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E LEMENTS 194 J UNE 2015

 A Technological Gem:
Materials, Medical, and
Environmental Mineralogy
of Apatite
John F. Rakovan1 and Jill D. Pasteris2
1811-5209/15/0011-0195$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.3.195
A
patite has numerous applications that benefit society. The atomic
arrangement of the apatite crystal structure and its rich and variable
chemistry impart unique properties, which permit a wide range of
technological and scientific applications in an array of disciplines outside of
the traditional Earth sciences, including ecology, agronomy, biology, medicine,
archeology, environmental remediation, and materials science. In our daily
lives, apatite is essential for sustaining and enhancing human life through
agricultural amendments, through bone replacements, through fluorescent
lights, and through environmental remediation of contaminated soils. Apatite
is truly a technological gem.
KEYWORDS : apatite, fertilizer, bone, fluorescent lights, bioceramics,
radionuclide disposal
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to think of a mineral with a historically longer-
lasting and presently more diverse set of applications than
apatite. The general term “apatite” in this paper refers to
the calcium phosphate apatites, defi ned as fluorapatite,
hydroxylapatite, chlorapatite, and the solid solutions
among those end-members. As our dominant source of
phosphorus, apatite is a critical mineral for sustaining
human population through agricultural amendments.
Extracted phosphorus is also essential to many industrial
materials that rely on apatite ore. However, the significance
of apatite to society is by no means limited to its role
as a source of phosphorus (TABLE 1). Understanding the
structure and chemistry of apatite and having an aware-
ness of its current applications will help scientists to better
refi ne its utility and to develop yet unforeseen uses of this
technological gem.
AN APPETITE FOR APATITE:
HUMAN NUTRITION
Feeding the World
Phosphorus is frequently the most limited of the essential
element nutrients in the biosphere. Insufficient phosphorus
can compromise, or even shut down, biological activity.
Apatite is the most abundant naturally occurring phosphate
mineral and, therefore, forms the foundation of the global
phosphorus cycle (Filippelli 2008). It is the most important
ore of phosphorus, which is used in many applications
1 Department of Geology and Environmental Earth Science
Miami University
Oxford, OH 45056-2473, USA
E-mail: rakovajf@miamioh.edu
2 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Washington University in St. Louis
St. Louis, MO 63130-4899, USA
E-mail: pasteris@levee.wustl.edu
E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 195–200
(TA BLE 1). The global biogeo-
chemical cycling of phosphorus
begins when phosphorus is
released from apatite, naturally or
anthropogenically, at the Earth’s
surface as phosphate (PO 4 ) 3− .
Free phosphate (i.e. not bound in
crystal structures) is then able to
cycle through the hydrosphere and
biosphere where it is an essential
constituent of life. Consequently,
one of the most important uses
of phosphorus, as extracted from
apatite, is in the production of
fertilizer to help grow our crops.
FIGURE 1 (Hughes 2015) illustrates
the dramatic rise in world produc-
tion of phosphorus since 1900, mined principally from
apatite-rich sedimentary phosphorites. Superimposing the
growth curve for human population on that of fertilizer
use during the same period reveals that the two curves are
essentially parallel. This highlights the profound human
impact on the global phosphorus cycle in the past 150
years. Apatite-based fertilizer is necessary to help feed the
world’s population. The 2007 world average consumption
was 3.7 kg of P per person per year, though this value
varies widely by country, largely correlated with bovine
meat consumption (of grain-fed herds) and, more recently,
with the production of bioenergy. Ten percent of phosphate
fertilizer in the US is used to produce ethanol (Elser et
al. 2012). As the need for phosphate grows, concerned
debate surrounds the time at which the maximum global
phosphorus production rate is reached ("peak phosphorus";
Cordell et al. 2009). Dramatic price instability for
“phosphate rock” began in 2007 and continues to this
day (InvestMine 20143), raising concerns by some about
the eventual affordability of phosphate for fertilizer in the
near future. Others, however, are estimating hundreds of
years of phosphate ore availability.
Don’t Waste It
Agricultural use of apatite can also have broad-ranging
negative environmental implications. The widespread,
and often intensive, application of synthetic fertilizer
on fields produces phosphate-rich runoff. When such
phosphate-contaminated runoff enters body of water, it
can cause eutrophication because phosphorus encourages
the rampant growth of algae (blooms). Such blooms cause
the plants and animals in that ecosystem to die. Similarly,
excess phosphate can be released into the environment
3 InvestMine (2014) Historical Phosphate Rock Prices and Price
Chart. www.infomine.com/investment/metal-prices/phosphate-
rock/all/
195 J UNE 2015
 200,000 7,500 component materials in bone, their
mode of interfacing, and their hierar-
180,000 chical structure are what provide
6,500 bone with its remarkable combina-
160,000
tion of strength and flexibility. The
*OREDO3URGXFWLRQRI3KRVSKDWH5RFN

140,000
need for such mechanical properties,

:RUOG3RSXODWLRQ[
5,500 in addition to specialized biological
7RQQHV[

120,000 and chemical properties, offers scien-

tists a stiff challenge when attempting
100,000 4,500 to create substitutes for diseased or
damaged natural bones and teeth.
80,000

3,500 The term “biomaterial” has come to refer

60,000
to a large, diverse group of synthetic
40,000
organic and inorganic materials that
2,500 are engineered to interact therapeuti-
20,000 cally with a biological system, either
alone or as part of a complex system or
0 1,500 nanoscale composite. Hydroxylapatite
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
<HDU
is the basis for the carbonated apatite
that forms the mineral component of
Diagram showing how the global annual production tooth and bone; thus, it is one of the
FIGURE 1
of phosphate rock (red) tracks the estimated world phases used alone or as part of a mineral–organic composite
population (blue). FROM H UGHES (2015). to repair or replace teeth or bones (Gross and Berndt 2002;
Dorozhkin 2009, 2013).
through either raw or treated sewage, which is enriched in The remarkably accommodating structure of apatite has
phosphate because animals (including humans) consume allowed medical researchers and biomedical engineers to
plant and animal material. produce a wide array of medically useful apatites (as well
as other calcium phosphate phases) that differ in crystallite
The dual challenges of managing waste phosphate versus
size, degree of crystallinity/atomic order, and composition
the increasing agricultural need for phosphate have created
(e.g. with carbonate or silica substituting for phosphate):
emerging technologies. For instance, as documented by the
these are referred to as bioceramics (FIG. 3A,B,E). By its
European Sustainable Phosphorus Platform (ESPP; www.
very nature, apatite is biocompatible with body tissue
phosphorusplatform.eu), there is now large-scale technical
(see TABLE 1 BIOLOGY/M EDICINE SECTION). The variations in
capability and increasing government encouragement to
formulation can control how osteoinductive (encouraging
recycle the phosphate removed from wastewater and from
of bone growth) and osteoconductive (providing a scaffold
agricultural waste.
on which bone can grow) apatite can be (LeGeros 2008)
(FIG. 3C,D). Researchers can synthesize biomimetic apatite
BIOAPATITE AND BIOMATERIALS:
SUPPORTING HUMAN HEALTH
Apatite is Us: Tooth and Bone
Teeth (dentin and enamel) and bones are composed of
apatite (FIG. 2). Biologically precipitated apatite (nanocrys-
talline bioapatite) is structurally very similar to hydroxyl-
apatite but differs compositionally in the extensive
substitution of carbonate for PO 43− (mostly) and the
incorporation of ~3 wt% molecular water in the struc-
ture. Bioapatite in bone and in tooth dentin contains
about 6 wt% CO32−, whereas that in tooth enamel has
only about 3.5 wt% CO32− (LeGeros 2008). There is an
intimate connection between apatite’s composition and its
properties. The additional carbonate in bone apatite makes
its crystallites much smaller and more soluble than those
in tooth enamel: this fulfi lls the need for bone apatite to
be readily resorbable. Solubility is important for the bone
remodeling/replacement process that is ongoing in our
bodies and that is systematically regulated by our cells.
Tooth enamel, in contrast, is a harder and more dissolution-
resistant apatite that must protect the tooth and provide
a durable chewing surface. Enamel consists almost totally
of mineral; bone is only about 50% mineral by volume,
the rest of the bone comprising water and a fibrous protein
called collagen, which provides a physical framework and
a spatial template for the incorporation of nanocrystals
of bioapatite. FIGURE 2 (TOP) SEM of tooth enamel from the acid-etched,
ground-down surface of a mouse incisor. Shows the
Bone is, in fact, a natural biological nanocomposite of alignment of enamel prisms consisting of bundles of oriented
carbonated apatite and collagen that is hierarchically carbonated apatite crystals. Scale bars = 10 µm and 2 µm. R EPRINTED
FROM FINCHAM ET AL . (1999) WITH PERMISSION OF E LSEVIER . ( BOTTOM ) SEM of
ordered on several spatial scales from nanometers to
tooth enamel, showing that one enamel prism consists of many
centimeters (Weiner and Wagner 1998; Pasteris et al. apatite crystals. Scale bar = 2 µm. R EPRINTED FROM CHEN ET AL. (2005)
2008; Skinner and Ehrlich 2014). The nature of the two WITH PERMISSION OF E LSEVIER .

E LEMENTS 196 J UNE 2015

 TABLE 1 THE PRINCIPAL TECHNOLOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC USES OF APATITE.

Application Properties Utilized

Petrogenetic indicator Major- and trace-element composition
Geology Geochronology (dating) Radionuclide composition, fission tracks
Ore of phosphorus and REE Composition (P and REE)
Heavy-metal and phosphate sequestration Elemental affinity, chemical stability, insolubility
Thermal and chemical stability, annealing temperature,
Solid nuclear waste form
Environmental elemental affinity
Water treatment Elemental affinity, deflocculant
Fertilizer Constituent phosphate
Orthopedics Natural constituent of bone
Dentistry Natural constituent of teeth
Biology/Medicine Nanoparticle drug delivery agent Size, morphology, structure, solubility, biocompatibility
Prosthetic coating, bone and tooth Compositional and structural similarity to mineral in bones
replacement media and teeth
Phosphors Optical emission
Materials Lasers Optical emission and lasing behavior
Gems Color, diaphaneity, chatoyancy

or can collect (from vertebrates) actual biological apatite,
which would have the crystal size, the surface chemistry
and texture, and the solubility of natural bone (FIG. 3E).
Many apatite biomaterials begin their fabrication as precipi-
tates from aqueous solutions below 100 °C. However, they
typically are then sintered at temperatures between 900 °C
and 1200 °C. Such heating transforms the apatitic material
structurally (reordering atoms, eliminating defects) and
chemically (releasing CO2 and H2O) into well-crystalline
stoichiometric hydroxylapatite, which causes the precipi-
tate to be much less soluble, decreases its porosity, and
greatly alters its surface chemistry.
The physical properties of apatite biomaterials are
tunable. Another high-temperature form of biomate-
rial apatite is plasma-sprayed hydroxylapatite that is
used, for example, as a coating on metallic devices to
A B
A B
CC D augmented bioapatite is biphasic calcium phosphate, which
D E
Apatite-based biomaterials. (A) Bio-Eye ®
FIGURE 3
“Hydroxyapatite orbital implant.” FROM WWW.IOI.COM
(B) Commercial hydroxylapatite in disks, blocks, and powder. FROM
WWW.CCPCORP.COM / PHOTOS /CCPCORP1 _ B IG .JPG (C) and (D) Schematic
view of how the geometry of an organic template (red and gray)
may control the orientation and alignment of hydroxylapatite
crystals (yellow). R EPRINTED FROM N EWCOMB ET AL. (2012) WITH PERMISSION
OF J OHN WILEY AND S ONS . (E) Biomimetically apatite-mineralized
collagen fibers, after heating to 600 °C. The c axes of hydroxylapa-
tite crystals align with collagen fibers. Scale bar = 250 nm. R EPRINTED
FROM L I AND A PARICIO (2013)
improve their biocompatibility as surgically implanted
prosthetics. The total porosity, pore sizes, and grain sizes
of apatite are medically important. Fine-grained apatite,
from nanocrystalline to millimeter-scale granules, can
be created for packing into disease-induced gaps in bone.
Hydroxylapatite-based injectable cements can, in turn, be
introduced into voids in bone. These cements also can
be molded or carved into appropriate shapes (Gross and
Berndt 2002; Dorozhkin 2013). The success of such diverse
bioactive calcium phosphate biomaterials seems to lie in
their ultimate utilization by the body as if they were bone
in need of remodeling. Such compounds can be resorbed
(at a rate established by the details of their chemistry and
crystallinity) and the released ions then reprecipitated as
normal bioapatite by specialized bone cells (Pasteris et al.
2008; Skinner 2013).
“New and Improved Versions”
Materials scientists are unimpressed with the mechanical
properties of hydroxylapatite ceramics, which are brittle and
have a tensile strength less than that of bone (Dorozhkin
2009). This recognition accounts for the common use of
metal rods and other metallic parts to fully or partially
replace bone. Biomaterials designers do realize that the
chemical and biological properties of bioapatite are impor-
tant, but they feel free to augment naturally occurring
phases with others that increase functionality. One such
was developed as mixtures of highly crystalline hydroxylap-
atite plus beta tricalcium phosphate [Ca3 (PO4) 2 ] in various
proportions (LeGeros 2008; Daculsi et al. 2009). Upon
introduction into the body, the more soluble beta trical-
cium phosphate dissolves fi rst, stimulating bone growth,
whereas the less soluble hydroxylapatite acts both as an
immediate stable construct and as a long-term, slow-release
component to provide ongoing ion delivery for sustained
bone formation. Biphasic calcium phosphate can be used
to make a moldable, injectable, resorbable bone cement.
Moreover, antibiotics or other drugs can be incorporated in
bone cement to provide a site-specific slow release (Daculsi
et al. 2009; Dorozhkin 2013).
There are many examples of how the properties of apatite
are weighed against those of other compounds in the
selection of the most appropriate biomaterial to address
a specific medical condition. A particular challenge is to
develop spherical implants for cosmetic (non-functional)

E LEMENTS 197 J UNE 2015

eye replacements. Such replacements typically consist of
two parts: the semi-spherical orbital implant, and the
ocular prosthesis, which is a convex shell—having the
appearance of the sclera, cornea, iris, and pupil—that fits
on top of the orbital implant. Hydroxylapatite is often
chosen to make orbital implants, though other implant
materials are also used. What is unique to hydroxylapatite
implants, however, is the self-healing they induce in small
perforations that often occur in tissue surrounding an
implant. This important property reflects hydroxylapatite’s
strong biocompatibility, which is related to its similarity
to the mineral in bone (Baino et al. 2014).
Some special properties of hydroxylapatite were recognized
long before we could produce it synthetically. Dating back
to 1899 in Germany, trabecular (spongy) cow bone was
used for orbital implants. Spheres of bone material were
fi rst heated to several hundred degrees Celsius to remove
all organic tissue (mostly collagen), thereby leaving behind
a highly crystalline framework of micrometer-scale hydrox-
ylapatite crystals that mimicked the interconnecting pores
of the original bone (Baino et al. 2014).
The manufacture of porous hydroxylapatite for implants
requires the means to produce both the desired chemistry
and porosity. Bone-derived material is no longer accepted
due to concerns about bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(“mad cow disease”) and other possible diseases that might
be transmitted even by heated bone. The two materials
now typically used are coral-derived hydroxylapatite and
synthetic hydroxylapatite. The exoskeleton of a coral
consists of fi nely crystalline aragonite (a polymorph of
calcite) in a highly porous framework. Depending on the
coral species, the pores are ~150–1000 micrometers in
diameter. Decades ago it was determined that coral (CaCO3)
could be hydrothermally processed with (NH) 4 HPO 4
to produce a slightly carbonated hydroxylapatite, the
carbonate component making this apatite more bone-like
than end-member hydroxylapatite. From a physical stand-
point, what is produced is an apatite pseudomorph that
retains the coral’s macrostructure and porosity (Gross and
Berndt 2002).
Creating Novel Composites with Apatite
Another way in which hydroxylapatite is used in biomate-
rials is in a variety of composites, typically with a synthetic
or natural (collagen) polymer. The addition of a polymer to
hydroxylapatite crystallites increases flexural strength and
strain (% deformation), while decreasing Young’s modulus
(stiffness) compared to hydroxylapatite alone. The polymer
is selected for its material properties and its biocompat-
ibility and dissolution properties. Some hydroxylapatite
composites have mechanical properties better than those
of bone (Gross and Berndt 2002). Multiple laboratories have
now created biomimetic collagen–hydroxylapatite compos-
ites by placing collagen fibers in solutions of simulated
body fluid and allowing slightly carbonated (due to CO2
in the air) hydroxylapatite crystallites to precipitate on and
within bundles of collagen fibers.
PHOSPHORS, LASERS,
AND VIBRANT COLORS
Lighting the World
Due to their physical and chemical properties, apatite and
the apatite group minerals are used in many industrial
materials applications, notably fluorescent lighting (FIG 4A).
The presence of manganese, rare earth elements, lead, and
other activators in apatite give it fluorescent properties
(FIG. 4A) that make apatite useful in the phosphor and laser
industries (Waychunas 2002; Rakovan and Waychunas
2013). Have you ever wondered why all fluorescent light
E LEMENTS 198
A B
FIGURE 4 (A) Naturally fluorescent apatite under shortwave
ultraviolet light, from Darrah Pech, Kunar Province,
Afghanistan. Specimen is 10 cm across. (B) Fluorescent light bulb
with Mn–Sb-doped apatite halophosphore. PHOTOS : JOHN R AKOVAN
bulbs are translucent rather than transparent? It is because
of apatite. The inside of a fluorescent light bulb is coated
with synthetic apatite that has been doped with manga-
nese, antimony, or rare earth elements: the visible light
emitted from the bulbs is created by the fluorescence of
the doped apatite coating (FIG. 4B). Some of the rare earth
elements used to dope this synthetic apatite may have been
obtained from natural apatites that were mined as an ore
of these elements (TABLE 1).
Fluorescent bulbs commonly consist of a tube containing
mercury and a gas such as argon. At each end of the bulb
is an electrode. When the bulb is energized, electrons
flowing between the electrodes ionize the mercury vapor.
The mercury then emits ultraviolet light that the apatite—
the halophosphor—absorbs and converts into visible light.
By slightly varying the apatite phosphor composition, the
emission color balance can be tailored, allowing for bulbs
with “warm white,” “white,” and “daylight” emissions.
Halophosphate fluorescent light bulbs have been in use for
many decades. More recently, since the early 1990s, a new
design of fluorescent light has come into use. Commercially
known as “triphosphors,” these bulbs are based on fluores-
cence from three different phosphors that individually emit
in the red, green, and blue. The blue-emitting phosphor is
commonly europium-doped apatite.
Why so Many Colors?
The causes of luminescence and color in apatite are closely
related. Substituents such as the fi rst row transition
elements and the lanthanides can lead to luminescence
(they are activators) and impart color (are chromophores).
Crystal imperfections such as site vacancies, vacancies with
trapped electrons, and point defect clusters, can likewise
A B
(A) A 10-carat (1.5 cm tall) faceted fluorapatite
FIGURE 5
gemstone. PHOTO : TERRY H UIZING. (B) A 35-carat (1.5 cm
wide) chatoyant fluorapatite cabochon, PHOTO : MARK MAUTHNER. Both
are from a granite pegmatite located near Manambato, Ambilobe
District, Madagascar.).
J UNE 2015
influence color and luminescence. Because of its affi nity The direct addition of apatite to a sediment, sometimes
for chromophoric substituents and its propensity for called phosphate-induced metal stabilization (PIMSTM), has
other defects, apatite is found in just about all colors of been employed in many ways, one of which involves the
the rainbow (Rakovan and Waychunas 2013). Because of use of cleaned fish bones, patented as Apatite II TM (Wright
its beautiful and often intense color, natural apatite, not et al. 2005).
surprisingly, has been used as a gemstone (FIG. 5A). The
There are two fundamental mechanisms by which the
use of apatite as a gem material (TABLE 1) dates back as far
direct addition of apatite to a contaminated soil may
as the Neolithic. Beads of blue-green apatite have been
work to sequester metals. The fi rst is adsorption of the
found by archeologists at the sixth millennium BC Çatal
contaminant to the apatite surface. The degree of disper-
Hüyük site in Turkey. Interestingly, early users of apatite
sion retardation and, hence, the effectiveness of the
did not recognize this mineral for what it is. Not until
remediation will vary depending on such factors as the
the late 18th century was apatite recognized as a distinct
nature of the adsorption mechanism, the metal specia-
species (Werner 1788). Prior to this, apatites were mistaken
tion, and the state of overgrowth onto or aggregation of
for other similar-looking minerals, such as beryl. It is that
the particles to which the metal is adsorbed. Although
confusion that led to the name “apatite,” which stems from
this can be a useful methodology in metal remediation,
a Greek word meaning “to deceive.”
adsorption typically provides less stable sequestration than
incorporation, but both desorption and dissolution will
Set to Stun! release sequestered contaminants. The second mechanism
The luminescence activated by various rare earth elements, is dissolution–precipitation, in which apatite that is added
such as Nd and Yb, has also been employed in the develop- to the contaminated soil or water dissolves and releases
ment of numerous types of apatite lasers. The structural phosphate that is free to combine with the contaminant
and compositional complexity offered by apatite allows for metal to form another solid phase. The primary metal
tailoring of fundamental laser parameters, including the that has been remediated to date by this mechanism is
emission lifetime and cross section, as well as the pump lead, which is known to be a major health hazard and can
line-width and saturation parameters, which in turn allow cause nervous-system disorders in children. After apatite
adjustment of the pumping, storage, and energy extraction dissolves in the contaminated water or soil moisture, the
characteristics (Payne et al. 1994). phosphate combines with lead to form pyromorphite,
Pb5(PO4) 3Cl (Manecki et al. 2000), one of the apatite-group
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION: minerals with a particularly low solubility and, hence, high
APATITE TO THE RESCUE contaminant-retention capacity.
One of the most rapidly expanding areas of apatite science A related environmental problem is the disposal of
and technology is in the field of environmental miner- contained liquid industrial waste. This problem is particu-
alogy (TABLE 1): the study of the dynamic interaction larly germane to radioactive waste products from weapons
between minerals and the environment and the effect manufacture or spent nuclear fuel. Another environmental
of minerals on environmental chemistry, water quality, application of apatite, which is not yet in use but is being
human health, contaminant remediation, and microbial actively investigated, is as a solid to incorporate nuclear
processes (Brown and Calas 2011). The development of this
science will encourage additional “mineral engineering”
for environmental remediation and protection. One such A
application of apatite is the sequestration and stabilization
of heavy metals, such as lead and arsenic, in contaminated
sediments and water.
The heavy metal remediation strategy is based on reducing
the bioavailability of these elements. If the metals are
present in a form that cannot get into plants and animals
or are nonreactive (cannot be metabolized), then they
are nonbioavailable. Instead of removing the metals from
the environment, which can be extremely laborious and
expensive, the idea is to change their speciation to a stable
(highly insoluble), nonbioavailable form, such as bound in
the crystal structure of one of the apatite-group minerals.
Once formed, such metal phosphates typically have very B
low solubility over a range of pH values, thereby retaining
the contaminant metals, assuring their nonbioavailability,
and substantially reducing their health risk.
Because apatite can incorporate such a large number of
substituent elements (Hughes and Rakovan 2015 this issue),
the potential use of apatite as a sequestration agent is broad.
Apatite-based remediation can include the engineered in
situ precipitation of a contaminant-incorporating apatite or
the direct addition of apatite to a sediment by mixing or by
restricted placement, such as in a permeable reactive barrier
(FIG. 6A). The engineered formation of an apatite phase in
contaminated soils and sediments is a new and promising
method for sequestering harmful metals—including radio- FIGURE 6 Schematics illustrating two fundamental methods of
nuclides—and for other types of environmental remedia- applying apatite to contaminant sequestration.
(A) Isolated emplacement, in this case as a permeable reactive
tion (Magalhães and Williams 2007). In the case of in situ barrier, where sequestration occurs by sorption or dissolution–
precipitation, individual concentrated solutions of calcium precipitation. (B) In situ precipitation and contaminant incorpora-
and phosphate are injected into contaminated sediments tion by injection of aqueous Ca2+ and PO 43– into contaminated
where they can mix, resulting in apatite formation (FIG. 6B). soils.

E LEMENTS 199 J UNE 2015

waste (Ewing and Wang 2002). The idea is to put radio-
nuclides into the stable apatite structure and then dispose
of the apatite in deep geological repositories. Radionuclide
disposal in the form of relatively insoluble apatite will
greatly decrease the potential of the radioactive elements to
disperse into the environment (e.g. through groundwater)
after they are buried. Solid nuclear waste forms, in which
apatite is one component of a composite material, are also
being explored (Ewing and Wang 2002).
Apatite has three characteristics that make it useful for
dealing with radioactive elements. First, a high capacity
to incorporate many radionuclides of concern, as well as
some of the fission products resulting from their decay.
Second, a good chemical stability (e.g. low solubility in
natural waters) depending on the geochemical environ-
ment for disposal. Third, a propensity to rapidly anneal
radiation damage. These are the same characteristics that
make apatite an important mineral for geological dating
(Chew and Spikings 2015 this issue).
Thus, when it comes to environmental remediation, apatite
could be our heavy metal hero.
APATITE: HOUSEHOLD TO HIGH-TECH
Apatite and its constituent phosphorus have not passed
from the limelight into graceful semiretirement, as
some geological materials have (due to lack of interest
or banning of their usage). Phosphorus is essential for
feeding the world’s population via its use in agriculture,
and phosphorus has many vital industrial applications.
Most modern rechargeable lithium batteries are based on
lithium–iron–phosphate cathodes (synthetic triphylite,
LiFePO 4 ). Every lithium–iron–phosphate battery in an
electric car contains 60 kg of phosphorus (Elser et al. 2012).
In addition, nearly 40 million metric tons of phosphoric
acid are produced annually, which are used to make food
and drink additives, to manufacture detergents, as gasoline
(petrol) additives, to make insecticides, and to manufacture
rust removers.
Phosphorus from apatite is also being used in an increasing
number of industrial and scientific applications: from light
bulbs to lasers, from prosthetic arms to cosmetic eyes, from
heavy metal remediation agents to potential nuclear waste
forms, and not forgetting the many geological applications
of this ubiquitous mineral (see articles throughout this
issue).
Apatite is a true technological gem.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Gabriel Filippelli, Glenn
Waychunas, and Catherine Skinner for their helpful reviews
of an earlier version of this paper. We are grateful to John
Hughes and Patricia Dove who also reviewed and contrib-
uted to this article. This work was partially supported by
NSF grant EAR-0952298 to JR.

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In: Al-Tabbaa A, Stegemann JA (eds)
Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment
and Remediation: Proceedings of
the International Conference on
Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment
and Remediation, 12–13 April 2005,
Cambridge. Taylor and Francis, London,
pp 261-266

E LEMENTS 200 J UNE 2015

 International Association of GeoChemistry
www.iagc-society.org
IAGC COUNCIL
We would like to thank the outgoing members of the IAGC council
who completed their terms at the end of 2014: Martine Savard (NRC/
GSC, Canada); Philippe Negrel—current vice president of IAGC (BRGM,
the French geological survey); Janet Herman (University of Virginia,
USA); and Thomas Kretzschmar (Geology Department CICESE, Mexico).
Thank you all for your service to the IAGC!
On 1 January 2015, we welcomed six new council members to the IAGC
Board of Directors to serve a 2 year term:
Patrice deCaritat – Principal Research Scientist, Geoscience Australia;
Jodie Miller – Senior Lecturer, Department of Earth Sciences,
Stellenbosch University, South Africa; Avner Vengosh – Professor,
Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, USA; Romain
Millot – Researcher, Laboratory Division, BRGM (French Geological
Survey); Sophie Opfergelt – Professor, Earth and Life Institute,
Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium; Steve Grasby – Research
Scientist, Geological Survey of Canada
AWARDS
Distinguished Service Award
Dr. Thomas Bullen worked for the US Geological
Survey as an isotope geochemist for three decades.
During that time, he made numerous advances
in our understanding of isotope chemistry in
geohydrologic systems: in particular, using
elements such as Fe, Cr, Sr, Ca, Se, etc. To call Tom
an isotope geochemist would be to oversimplify
his contribution to our science. He has used
isotopes among many tools to characterize water–
rock interactions applied to problems such as weathering, catchment
hydrology, groundwater–surface water interactions, magmatic evolu-
tion, water salinization, and a host of other topics. Tom’s h-index of
around 40 (!!) is a fitting metric of the magnitude of his contributions
to the geosciences.
While maintaining this enviable record of productivity, Tom has also
mentored numerous young scientists and contributed to the operation
of several IAGC working groups. Tom was an ever-enthusiastic partici-
pant and organizer at the Applied Isotope Geochemistry (AIG) group
meetings, where he gave presentations that were memorable both for
their science and their engaging delivery. Tom also worked tirelessly
behind the scenes to organize the Faure awards for the best student
presentations and to co-edit the special edition of Applied Geochemistry
derived from AIG-9 in Tarragona (Spain). Tom has been an active
participant and leader in the Water–Rock Interaction (WRI) Working
Group. In addition to his scientific contributions to WRI, Tom served
as treasurer of WRI-7 in Park City (Utah) in 1992 and as editor of the
proceedings volume of WRI-12 in Kunming (China) in 2007. Both of
these roles required a tremendous amount of Tom’s time (and patience!)
and were fundamental to the successes of these WRI and IAGC meetings.
Tom also became immersed in the food and culture of the many cities
that the working groups visited and was willing to share his findings
enthusiastically and knowledgeably with his fellow delegates.
Tom has also had a major role in the success of Elements magazine, the
joint publication of which IAGC is a consortium member. After serving
as guest editor of the highly successful issue on metal stable isotopes
in 2009, Tom joined the Executive Committee in 2011 as our IAGC
representative, and he continues in that role to this day. For his contri-
butions to the art of geochemistry and for his service to IAGC, few
people are as deserving of the IAGC Distinguished Service Award as is
Tom Bullen.
E LEMENTS 201
IAGC Fellow
Gabriel Filippelli is currently a professor in the
Department of Earth Science at Indiana University –
Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). He received
his BS from the University of California, Davis (USA)
and his PhD at the University of California, Santa
Cruz (USA). Gabe spent the early portion of his
career investigating the past and present global
biogeochemical cycle of phosphorus and continues
to work on important paleo-oceanographic questions relating to climate
change and element cycling. He is recognized as an international
authority in the interdisciplinary field of earth sciences and human
health. His work on environmental lead exposure and blood lead levels
in children in urban areas has been innovative and transformative. As
director of IUPUI’s Center for Urban Health, he has engaged academics
and the lay public to recognize the link between urban environmental
issues, public health, and sustainable cities. He is a former United States
Department of State Jefferson Science Fellow. For his important and
novel research and his exemplary record of service, Gabriel Filippelli
is named an IAGC Fellow for 2015.
Kharaka Award
Dr. Renguang Zuo received his PhD from the
China University of Geosciences (CUG) in 2009. His
doctoral dissertation was on mineral prospectivity
mapping and identifying geochemical anomalies
using fractal/multifractal models. For this, he was
awarded the Best PhD Thesis in Hubei Province of
China in 2010 and was among the Chinese National
Hundred outstanding doctoral theses nominated in
2011. Dr. Zuo’s current research focuses on the identification of weak
geochemical anomalies associated with mineralization under covered
areas. He has had several successes in identifying weak anomalies from
fractal/multifractal models and by using spatially robust neighborhood
statistics. Dr. Zuo has published more than 30 peer–reviewed papers
and was awarded the First–Class Prize in Sciences and Techniques by
the Ministry of Land and Resources of the People’s Republic of China
in 2011; the Second–Class Prize of the National Science and Technology
Progress Award of the People’s Republic of China; the Highest Prize of
Young Geoscientists; and China’s New Century Excellent Talents in
University grant in 2013. In 2013, Zuo was promoted to a full professor
at CUG. Dr. Zuo is also an associate editor of the Journal of Natural
Resource Research and the Journal of Geochemical Exploration He was guest
editor of the special issue “Fractal Analysis of Geochemical Data” in
the Journal of Geochemical Exploration. For his excellent career to date,
Renguang Zuo is the fi rst recipient of the IAGC’s Kharaka Award.
IAGC SESSIONS AT GOLDSCHMIDT 2015
The IAGC is sponsoring or cosponsoring five sessions at the Goldschmidt
2015 meeting, which will be held 16–21 August in Prague (Czech
Republic).
S ession 04g: Joint IAGC–EAG–GS Session on Urban Geochemistry
C ONVENERS : David Long, David Bendz
Session 07j: Metal Stable Isotopes (non-CHONS) as Tracers of
Ecosystem Processes
C ONVENERS : Sophie Opfergelt, Richard Wanty, Thomas Bullen
Session 10e: Contaminant Hydrogeochemistry
C ONVENER : Anne Hansen
Session 10g: Reactive Transport Modelling: Capabilities,
Applications, and Data-Model Integration
C ONVENERS : Henning Prommer, Ulrich Mayer, Ilka Wallis, Dirk Kirste
Session 13h: Geochemical Characterizations of Unconventional
Petroleum Reservoirs and Environmental Impacts Associated with
their Production
C ONVENERS : Hamed Sanei, Bernhard Mayer, Avner Vengosh
J UNE 2015
 European Association of Geochemistry

www.eag.eu.com

2015 EAG MEDALLISTS Houtermans Award to Caroline Peacock

Urey Award to Al Hofmann
Albrecht Hofmann (Max Planck Institut für
Chemie, Germany) has been awarded the 2015 Urey
Medal. His detailed chemical studies of mantle-
derived volcanic rocks are distinguished by their
creative approaches to understand the processes
controlling trace-element variability in lavas. Al’s
work not only defi ned some of the chemical varia-
tions that exist in the mantle but also helped to
explain why they exist and their relationship to
Earth’s dynamic interior. His decades-long direction of the Max Planck
Institut für Chemie built the laboratory into a world-renowned centre
for geochemistry and a training ground for many of today’s top high-
temperature geochemists. Through his own scientific achievements
and his many leadership roles in the geochemistry community, Al
Hofmann fundamentally contributed to the growth of geochemistry
as a discipline.
Werner Stumm Science Innovation Award
to Philippe Van Cappellen
Philippe Van Cappellen (University of Waterloo,
Canada) is one of the outstanding low-temperature
geochemists of his generation: he possesses an
outstanding flair for defi ning the key biogeochem-
ical processes. He uses his special ability to quan-
titatively understand those processes, both
theoretically and experimentally, and has devel-
oped an extraordinary variety of useful biogeo-
chemical models. For much of his career, Philippe
has been working at the interface between environmental geochemistry
and microbiology and has recognised the crucial role that bacteria play
in globally important elemental cycling. He also has an outstanding
record as a mentor: 21 of his former PhD students and postdoctoral
fellows now hold positions in academia and research institutes.
Caroline Peacock (University of Leeds, UK)
obtained her undergraduate and PhD degrees from
the University of Bristol (UK) where she helped
pioneer the combined application of synchrotron
spectroscopy, quantum mechanical modelling and
experimental approaches to studying molecular
interactions between metals, minerals and microbes.
Caroline continued this work during a lectureship
at the University of Southampton (UK), before
moving to Leeds in 2009, where she is now an associate professor. Her
many achievements include developing the fi rst molecular thermo-
dynamic models to predict trace-metal abundance and stable-isotope
fractionation in seawater and marine sediments. Caroline is also among
the fi rst to show that molecular processes at the surfaces of Fe–Mn
minerals are the primary control on the global abundance and distribu-
tion of many bioessential metals in seawater.
Distinguished Service Award to Christa Göpel
This year, the EAG council wishes to recognise
Christa Göpel (Institut de Physique du Globe de
Paris, France), for her service as EAG treasurer from
2008 to 2014. Christa has been instrumental in
placing the EAG on a solid fi nancial footing, so
allowing the society to fund many additional initia-
tives. An excellent treasurer, Christa has always
demonstrated a good balance between optimism
and pessimism when presenting fi nancial forecasts! The EAG is
honoured to recognize Christa for her outstanding contribution to the
geochemical community, which greatly exceeded the expectations of
normal service.
EAG PHOTO CONTEST 2015: submit your photo from
mid-August Winners receive a 5-year EAG membership!
More details on our website and newsletters (subscribe to newsletters
for free at www.eag.eu.com/subscribe)

THE LIVES OF GREAT GEOCHEMISTS: WERNER STUMM (1924–1999)

Werner Stumm is the
i nve nto r o f “a q u at i c
chemistr y ”— a unif ying
approach in low-tempera-
ture geochemistr y and
water technology. Together
with James J. Morgan he
co-authored an infl uential
textbook with the same
title. He signif icantly
advanced the fi eld of surface chemistry and had a
broad vision for the discipline, one that anticipated
many developments in environmental science.
Werner was born 1924 in Switzerland and earned his
PhD in chemistry from the University of Zurich in
1952. His thesis focused on the use of ion-exchange
resins in analytical chemistry, which led to an initial
career as a solution chemist. With his enthusiasm to
apply science to practical problems, he spent a post-
doctoral year at Harvard University (USA) working on
iron corrosion and was hired shortly thereafter as an
assistant professor of sanitary chemistry. Between
1956 and 1970, he developed a highly visible research
agenda focusing on the application of chemical
concepts to process engineering. His group at Harvard
derived rate laws for oxidation processes, investigated
the chemical aspects of coagulation, and advanced
the understanding of corrosion processes. In his
teaching, Werner was infl uenced by the Swedish
chemist Lars Gunnar Sillén and by scientific exchanges
with geochemists such as Heinrich Holland and
Robert Garrels. While at Harvard, he wrote the classic
textbook Aquatic Chemistry which appeared in 1970.
In the same year, Werner Stumm moved back to
Switzerland to become the director of Eawag, now
renamed as the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic
Science and Technology. Together with Paul Schindler
(University of Bern), Werner and his students
embarked on a new research program to transfer the
concepts of complexation chemistry to the mineral–
water interface. They developed a simplifi ed electro-
static model to derive equilibrium constants at
charged aqueous surfaces and to describe the adsorp-
tion of cations and ligands in colloidal systems.
Werner promoted the idea of an “inner-sphere surface
complex” as a paradigmatic shift from electrochem-
istry towards coordination chemistry. This break-
through was fruitful because it could build on decades
of previous research on aqueous solutions. The
concepts of surface complexation helped advance our
understanding of geochemical processes (such as
mineral dissolution) and were later validated and
refined by numerous spectroscopic studies.
While his achievements in aquatic chemistry are still
well cited, Werner Stumm’s vision for interdisciplinary
research has left a much smaller footprint on the web
of science. Nonetheless, as a director and professor
he was tremendously influential in developing envi-
ronmental science as an academic discipline. His 1980
interview in Environmental Science & Technology and
his 1986 article in Ambio (“Water, An Endangered
Ecosystem”) read like blueprints for a biogeochemical
research agenda. Together with a network of allies,
he pushed for a system-oriented education, the
formation of interdisciplinary teams and the courage
to address global research questions.
Werner Stumm received many honours, including the
Goldschmidt Medal, the Tyler Prize and the Stockholm
Water Prize. He died in 1999 and will be remembered
for his forceful enthusiasm to shape geochemical
thinking.
Bernhard Wehrli (wehrli@eawag.ch)

E LEMENTS 202 J UNE 2015

 In honor of the 25th anniversary of the Goldschmidt conference,
a series of 25 special anniversary talks linked to each theme will
highlight the greatest achievements over the past quarter century
AWARDS TO BE PRESENTED AT GOLDSCHMIDT 2015 and a vision of where the specific geochemical field may be going
EUROPEAN GEOCHEMICAL GS/EAG in the future.
ASSOCIATION OF SOCIETY The speakers will aim to give insightful overviews across the whole
GEOCHEMISTRY
of their geochemical field, and motivate all of us to explore new
research opportunities to advance geochemistry.
We look forward to seeing you there.

EUROPEAN 2015 GS/EAG GEOCHEMICAL FELLOWS

GAST LECTURER: MINERALOGICAL
Ann Pearson UNION
GOLDSCHMIDT
UREY MEDAL: MEDAL: Miriam (Harvard University,
Albrecht W. Kastner (Scripps USA)
Hofmann Institution of
GEOCHEMICAL
(Max-Planck-Institut Oceanography, USA) SOCIETY OF JAPAN
für Chemie, Germany)

Ariel Anbar (Arizona Gert de Lange

State University, USA) (Utrecht University,
2014 EMU RESEARCH
The Netherlands)
EXCELLENCE MEDAL:
Encarnación Ruiz-
Agudo (University
of Granada, Spain)
PATTERSON MEDAL: GEOCHEMICAL
SCIENCE INNOVATION Karen H. JOURNAL AWARD: INTERNATIONAL
AWARD (Werner Johannesson (Tulane Haruna Sugahara ASSOCIATION OF
Stumm Medal): University, USA)* (Japan Agency for GEOCHEMISTRY
Philippe Van Marine-Earth Science Hai Cheng (Xi’an
Cappellen (University and Technology) Jiatong University, Timothy W. Lyons
of Waterloo, Canada)* China and University (University of
SHEN-SU SUN of Minnesota, USA) California–Riverside,
FOUNDATION
USA)

2014 PATTERSON 2014 EBELMEN

MEDAL: Christopher AWARD: Sophie
M. Reddy (Woods Opfergelt (Université
HOUTERMANS Hole Oceanographic Catholique de Louvain,
MEDAL: Caroline Institution, USA)* Belgium) Timothy Elliott
SHEN-SU SUN AWARD:
Peacock (University Liping Qin (University of Bristol, Kathryn L. Nagy
of Leeds, UK) (University of Science UK) (University of Illinois,
and Technology of USA)
China)

CLARKE MEDAL: Anat

Shahar (Carnegie
DISTINGUISHED Institution of Monica M. Grady
SERVICE AWARD: Washington, USA) (Open University, UK) Eiji Ohtani (Tohoku
Christa Göpel University, Japan)
(Institut de Physique du
Globe de Paris, France)

* Medallists are also 2014 ALFRED TREIBS Erik Hauri

named Geochemical MEDAL: Steve Larter (Carnegie Institute of Holly Stein (Colorado
Fellows by virtue of (University of Calgary, Washington, USA) State University, USA)
their medal.
Canada)*

E LEMENTS 203 J UNE 2015

 Geochemical Society
www.geochemsoc.org
THANK YOU VOLUNTEERS!
What we do at the Geochemical Society, day after day, to deliver on
our mission to impact the direction of geochemistry at a global level
is only possible through the Herculean efforts of our volunteers.
Thank you!
The following volunteers complete terms at the end of June 2015; an
asterisk denotes committee chair. Visit www.geochemsoc.org/society/
committeesandpersonnel for full committee rosters.
2015 Program Committee
Jim Hendry (University of Saskatchewan, Canada)
Bill Hart (Miami University, USA)
2015 Award Nomination Committee
Bridget Bergquist (University of Toronto, Canada)
Steve Shirey (Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, USA)
2015 V.M. Goldschmidt Award Committee
Weidong Sun (Guangzhou Institution, China)
Terry Plank (Columbia University, USA)
2015 F.W. Clarke Award Committee
*Ros Rickaby (University of Oxford, UK)
Yuichiro Ueno (Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan)
2015 C.C. Patterson Award Committee
Fumio Inagaki (Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science
and Technology, Japan)
Kliti Grice (Curtin University, Australia)
2015 Geochemical Fellows Committee
Trevor Ireland (Australian National University)
Kei Hirose (Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan)
2015 Alfred Treibs Award Committee
Ann Pearson (Harvard University, USA)
Mark Pagani (Yale University, USA)
GEOCHEMSOC.ORG PUBLICATIONS
AND PROGRAMS YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT
Special Publication Series
The fi rst seven volumes, more than 160 articles, of the Geochemical
Society’s Special Publication Series are available available as free PDF
downloads.
Meeting Assistance Program
Each year the Geochemical Society provides individual grants of up to
US$2000 each to attend sessions or symposia at any scientific confer-
ence of geochemical relevance.
Introductory Student Membership Program
This program grants a two-year Geochemical Society membership to
qualifying students in under-represented countries. These have all the
benefits of membership, including a print subscription to Elements
magazine and online access to the entire Elements magazine archive.
Check out these and other resources at geochemsoc.org
E LEMENTS
2016 AWARD NOMINATIONS
Geochemists want and need recognition for their work. Awards help
to inspire individuals to do their best. Awards set the bar for others to
match or exceed. Your participation in the awards program, either by
being a nominator or by writing a supporting letter of recommenda-
tion, benefits both the nominee and the geochemical community.
Please take the time to highlight the accomplishments of your valued
colleagues by nominating them. With your help, we can ensure that
the award committees have a diverse and deserving pool of candidates.
The V.M. Goldschmidt Medal is awarded for
major achievements in the fields of geochemistry or
cosmochemistry, consisting either of a single
outstanding contribution or of a series of publica-
tions that have had great influence in these fields.
The F.W. Clarke Medal is awarded to a scientist
near the start of their career for a single
outstanding contribution in geochemistry or
cosmochemistry, published either as a single paper
or a series of papers on a single topic.
The C.C. Patterson Medal is awarded for a
recent innovative breakthrough of fundamental
significance in environmental geochemistry, partic-
ularly in service of society, consisting of either a
single outstanding contribution or a short series of
papers published within the last decade.
The Alfred Treibs Medal is awarded by the
Organic Geochemistry Division of the GS for major
achievements in organic geochemistry.
The GS/EAG Geochemical Fellows Award is
bestowed upon outstanding scientists who have
made a major contribution in the field of
geochemistry.
Make a nomination at
www.geochemsoc.org/awards/makeanomination.htm
Nomination Deadline: October 31, 2015
CALL FOR NOMINATIONS FOR 2016 OFFICERS
The Nominations Committee of the Geochemical Society is seeking
potential nominees for the positions of Vice-President and two directors
to begin on 1 January 2016. The potential nominees should have estab-
lished reputations of leadership in geochemistry and be willing to
devote considerable time and effort to the work of the society.
Suggestions may be communicated by 31 July 2015, to any member of
the 2016 Nominations Committee or to the GS business office. More
information regarding the duties and responsibilities of board positions
can be found on the Geochemical Society website.
GEOCHEMICAL SOCIETY BUSINESS OFFICE
Seth Davis, Chief Operating Officer Email: gsoffice@geochemsoc.org
Kathryn Hall, Administrative Phone: 314-935-4131
Assistant Fax: 314-935-4121
Washington University in St. Louis Website: www.geochemsoc.org
Earth and Planetary Sciences, Facebook: www.facebook.org/
CB 1169 geochemsoc
One Brookings Drive Geochemical News: www.multibriefs.
Saint Louis, MO 63130-4899 USA com/briefs/gs/
204 J UNE 2015
 Mineralogical Association of Canada
www.mineralogicalassociation.ca
FROM THE PRESIDENT
What are you going to do with all those back
issues of the mineralogical journals that line
your bookshelves? I no longer use these dusty
volumes. When I need to refer to a paper, I
fi nd it quicker, easier, and more useful to
download a pdf. I also have a fi ling cabinet
full of reprints that I requested from authors
when I was a graduate student. I remember
fi lling out and mailing request cards and then
waiting for several weeks for a reprint to arrive
in the mail, often with a signature and
“compliments of the author.” I still remember
when I got my fi rst reprint request! This brings
me back to what to do with all my printed
journals. A few years ago, it was suggested that
the paper copies could be sent to libraries
where copies did not exist. Maybe there was a
small window in time when this was a realistic
option, but with the current price of shipping
and the availability of Internet resources, this
is no longer so. Sadly, my bound paper journals
seem only bound for recycling.
The Canadian Mineralogist is beginning to leave
the world of paper publishing behind. It will
still be possible for die-hards to receive a paper
copy through the mail, but most of our
members now request electronic access to the
journal. A tremendous advantage of electronic
distribution of the journal is that we can
publish papers online ahead of the printed
version. Look at The Canadian Mineralogist web
page www.canmin.org/content/early/recent
for “up-to-the-minute” papers.
Ready access to many journals through the
Internet is great but is not available to all.
Restricted access to publications is driven by
the need to generate revenues to sustain the
staff and resources necessary to publish a
wo r ld - c l a s s p e e r- r e v i e w e d jo u r n a l .
Nevertheless, access to papers by all can be
achieved if articles are published in a “gold
open access” format. Many granting agencies
now require that papers funded by them be
made open access within 12 months of initial
publication. In the future, as more manuscripts
are published as open access, not-for-profit
societies will fi nd that their revenue stream
from publishing will shift away from member-
ship subscriptions to page charges for open
access manuscripts. Publishing journals by
societies and associations is a challenge in
today’s changing landscape. I encourage you
to help your society through these challenges
by continuing to be an active member and by
paying page charges to keep this valuable
system viable.
Ron Peterson, MAC President
E LEMENTS
MEMORIAL TO ROBERT BURY FERGUSON, FRS (1920–2015)
T he Minera log ica l bond lengths and bond strengths in crystal
Association of Canada structure determinations. Bob had three
has lost a founding notable postdoctoral fellows: K. V. Subbarao,
father and an impor- Petr Černý, and Frank Hawthorne. Bob’s role
tant mineralogist and as a teacher and mentor has been praised by
crystallographer. Bob his students, and he has received the special
Ferguson was one of recognition of having a mineral named after
the 16 mineralogists him, bobfergusonite (a transition-metal phos-
who met at the Mines phate discovered in a pegmatite at Cross Lake,
Branch on Boot h Manitoba). Bob had a major impact on the
Street, Ottawa, on 23 science of crystallography in Canada: in addi-
August 1954, to set up the mechanism for the tion to his “mineralogical children,” Bob
founding of the MAC in 1955. He was presi- introduced many chemists, physicists, and
dent of the association in 1977 and honored scientists in other disciplines to crystallog-
with the Hawley Medal in 1981. raphy through his teaching and collabora-
tion. He retired from the Department of
Bob attended the University of Toronto from Geological Sciences at the University of
1938 to 1947 (BSc 1942; MSc 1943; PhD Manitoba in 1985 as professor emeritus but
1948). His advisor was Martin Peacock, a remained an active participant in the intel-
great mineralogist and a leader in X-ray crys- lectual life of the department for many years.
tallography. Bob was appointed professor of
mineralogy at the University of Manitoba in This brief account of Bob’s life in science and
1947. One of his fi rst research projects was to education fails to record the charm, goodness
determine the crystal structure of albite, with of heart, charitable and community initia-
W. H. Taylor of Cambridge (UK). He went on tives, and optimism that captured generation
to produce many publications, the majority after generation of students and colleagues.
on feldspar composition and structure, Si–Al
Allan Turnock, University of Manitoba
ordering, and the determination and uses of
MAC UNDERGRADUATE AWARDS
Congratulations to the following students who ƒ VICTORIA HOUDE (Western University, Ontario)
received undergraduate awards for the ƒ JILLIAN KENDRICK (Dalhousie University,
academic year 2013–2014: Nova Scotia)
ƒ ALEXANDRA LAUDADIO (Carleton University,
ƒ JENNIFER M. ADAM (University of Ontario)
New Brunswick) ƒ MARIE-CHRISTINE LAUZON (Laval University,
ƒ TARYN LYNN AZZOPARDI (University of Quebec)
Windsor, Ontario) ƒ DANIEL MACLEOD (St Francis Xavier
ƒ CHRISTOPHER BECKETT-BROWN (Laurentian University, Nova Scotia)
University, Ontario) ƒ DOMINIQUE MORIN (University of Quebec
ƒ HANNAH CAVALLIN (University of British at Chicoutimi)
Columbia) ƒ HAYLEA NISBET (McGill University, Quebec)
ƒ ALYSSA DAVIS (Brock University, Ontario) ƒ ALIX OSINCHUK (University of Alberta)
ƒ JACK EASTWOOD (Queen’s University at ƒ AMANDA DAWN PALANIUK (University of
Kingston, Ontario) Regina, Saskatchewan)
ƒ ALAN HANNAH (Mount Royal University, ƒ VIVIAN PATTISON (University of Victoria,
Alberta) British Columbia)
ƒ PATRICK J. A. HILL (University of British ƒ SIMON POIRIER (Acadia University,
Columbia) Nova Scotia)
rgin
s T hrough Ti m
Ma
Whitehorse 2016
e
GAC®–MAC Joint Annual Meeting
Whitehorse, YT L'AGC® –AMC Congrès Annuel
G AC
R
- MA C 2 0 1 6 June 1–3, 2016
Special Sessions Join us for the first GAC®–MAC Joignez-vous à nous pour le congrès Séances Spéciales
Rodinia to Laurentia in NW annual meeting to be held in annuel de l’AGC®–AMC 2015 qui se De la Rodinie à la Laurentie dans
North America Yukon! The conference theme, tiendra pour la première fois au le Nord-Ouest de l’Amérique du Nord
“From Laurentia to Beringia: Yukon. Le thème de la conférence:
Geology and tectonics of orogenic Margins through time”, reflects a “De la Laurentie à la Béringie : les Géologie et tectonique des
belts wide array of technical sessions marges au fil du temps”, comprend chaines orogéniques
and field trips sure to cover topics une large variété de séances
Remediation and mine closure in of interest to geologists of all kinds. techniques et d’excursions qui Remédiation des sites miniers
cold climates couvriront surement les sujets sous climats froids
www.whitehorse2016.ca d’intérêt des géologues de tout genre.
205 J UNE 2015
 Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland
www.minersoc.org
LONDON CALLING
Euroclay 2015, 5–10 July,
in Edinburgh (Scotland)
The Euroclay 2015 conference is upon us. We
have ~470 delegates as well as ~80 accompanying
persons coming to Edinburgh for four days of
scientific sessions, a pre-conference workshop, one pre-conference field
trip, four mid-conference field trips, a short course, a full programme
of social events and a real flavour of Scotland. Watch out for a report
in Elements later this year.
This is a joint event between the European Clay Groups Association
and The Clay Minerals Society, with the UK's Clay Minerals Group (and
Prof. Steve Hillier, in particular) being responsible for organizing
the event.
Clay and fi ne-particle science has always been pursued across a wide
variety of traditional scientific disciplines. The sessions that contribute
to the programme of Euroclay 2015 reflect this broad reach of clay
science and have been aligned with three crosscutting societal research
themes: energy, materials, and environment and health.
Clay science has always had close links with energy research, the
discovery and recovery of hydrocarbons being a prime example. This
link is more relevant than ever as we strive to increase recovery and to
tap unconventional sources, such as clay-rich shales. And clay-rich
shales themselves are the focus of many concepts for the safe contain-
ment of nuclear waste.
As far as materials are concerned, clay must qualify as the oldest
branch of all materials science, yet it continues to defi ne some of the
newest of material developments. Clay probably ranks as the most
important and versatile of all of man’s industrial minerals, with a wealth
of modern applications and uses.
Environment and health are also key areas where clay research has
much to contribute to society. Careful but innovative management of
soils will be key to future food and water security as population pres-
sures increase. With respect to health, we are only beginning to explore
the many uses of clay minerals.
Check out the fi nal programme at www.euroclay2015.org/programme.
Late registration is still possible but note that we are very close to our
maximum of 500.
EMU Notes in Mineralogy, vol. 15
Planetary Mineralogy, edited by Martin Lee, now available.
The contents list is as follows:
Lunar geology M. Anand, J.J. Barnes
and L.J. Hallis
Aqueous alteration in chondritic
asteroids and comets from the
study of carbonaceous chon-
drites Josep M. Trigo-Rodriguez
Chondritic meteorites and early
solar system solids Ian S. Sanders
Noble gas chemistry of planetary
materials Julia A. Cartwright
Isotopic analyses of primitive
meteorites Jutta Zipfel
E LEMENTS 206
Impact metamorphism in terrestrial and experimental
cratering events Alex Deutsch, Michael H. Poelchau and Thomas
Kenkmann
Shocked rocks: impacts from the laboratory to the Solar
System Mark J. Burchell
Organics in primitive meteorites Laurent Remusat
Micrometeorites Luigi Folco and Carole Cordier
Society Council for 2015
President: F. Wall; General Secretary: K. Goodenough; Treasurer: J.
Adams; Publications Manager: P. J. Treloar; Principal Editors, Mineralogical
Magazine: P. Williams and R. Mitchell; Principal Editor, Clay Minerals:
G. E. Christidis; Public Relations Officer: A. Kerr
Elements representative: M. E. Hodson; Editor of the Landmark Series:
D. J. Vaughan
Ordinary Members of Council: J. Lloyd, M. R. Lee, B. O’Driscoll,
C. Corkhill, C. Greenwell, D. Wray (co-opted) M. Tyrer (co-opted) and
S. J. Mills (co-opted).
Vacancies for 2016: President and one member of council required
for 2016.
Please contact the society (kevin@minersoc.org) if you are willing to
serve on Council, on a Special Interest Group Committee, on an edito-
rial board, as a society representative in your local department or in
any other way. We are always glad to receive such offers.
Distinguished Lecturers
The Society also welcomes nominations of people willing to serve as a
Society Distinguished Lecturer. Each distinguished lecturer is asked to
deliver 4–6 talks during the 2015/16 academic year at institutions
throughout Great Britain and Ireland. Please suggest the names of candi-
dates to Kevin Murphy (kevin@minersoc.org).
Metamorphic Studies Group
There may still be places available to attend a
Metamorphic Studies Group field trip to the Shetland
Caledonides (Scotland), 17–23 July 2015. See www.
minersoc.org/fi les/ShetlandFlyer 2015.pdf for details. Any queries,
please contact Anna Bird (a.bird@hull.ac.uk).
Society Bursaries for 2015
The following have been awarded Senior Bursaries for 2015: P. Bots; R.
Guildbaud, P. Lancaster and A. Nowacki. The total to be awarded is
£1500.
Student Bursaries have been awarded to the following for 2015:
D. Backhouse, F. Couperthwaite, L. Hepworth, B. Karykowski, Y. Li,
M. Mangler, C. Mann, J. Munnikhuis, A. E. Pickersgill, L. Valetti and
M. R. Warke. The total to be awarded is £4850.
Many congratulations to them all – we look forward to receiving reports
of their work and to publishing them on the society’s website at www.
minersoc.org/bursary-report.html
J UNE 2015
 Italian Society of
Mineralogy and Petrology

Society Award in Honour of Prof. R. A. Howie:
The “Mineralogical Society Best Paper Award”
An award is made annually to “the lead
author of the ‘best paper’ published (in
English) in a mineralogical journal (sensu
lato) within three years of award of his/her
PhD thesis.” The award will take the form of
a bursary (£1000) to attend an international
conference (to be agreed with the society)
and present a paper as the “R. A. Howie
Memorial Lecture”. The money will be paid
on receipt of an official confi rmation of
conference registration.
The “R. A. Howie Memorial Lecture” award is named in honour
of Prof. R. A. Howie (1923–2012), a distinguished professor of
mineralogy at Kings College London and Royal Holloway
University, London. The nomination process is outlined below.
Nominations
Nominations can be made by any scientist (including a co-author)
but not the nominee him/herself and must be supported by a
fellow scientist familiar with the nominee’s work.
www.socminpet.it
GNM SCHOOL ON “THE PHYSICS OF MINERALS”
Bressanone (Italy), 2–5 February 2015
In the cold, yet sunny, winter of Bressanone/Brixen, the Gruppo
Nazionale di Mineralogia (GNM) organized a school, held 2–5 February
2015, on The physics of minerals: geological implications and practical
applications. The school was organized under the aegis of SIMP and
was tailored for MSc and PhD students and for young researchers. All
the teaching activities were housed in the Casa della Gioventù, a well-
equipped teaching center belonging to the University of Padova. The
scientific program lasted four days and included lectures and practical
activities with freeware software (equations of state, crystal structure
refi nements, thermodynamics, and phase diagram calculations). The
teaching staff included Gabriella Salviulo (Padova), Marco Pasero (Pisa),
Ross J. Angel (Padova), Sergio Speziale (Potsdam), Giovanni B. Andreozzi
(Roma), Francesco Princivalle (Trieste), Cristian Biagioni (Pisa), Daniele
Antonangeli (Paris), Paola Comodi (Perugia), Donato Belmonte
(Genova), Gilberto Artioli (Padova), Alessandro F. Gualtieri (Modena),
and Giuseppe Cruciani (Ferrara).

Nominations must be received by the executive director by

1 September each year. The society’s Awards Committee will
consider the nominations and rank them. This ranking will then
be passed to the society’s council (by mid-October) for a formal
decision at the November meeting of that committee. Council will
make a decision and inform the winner.

Nominations should consist of a letter of nomination together

with at least one letter of support along with a copy of the paper Group photo of GMN school participants
being nominated and a copy of the nominee’s CV. The letter(s)
should address the criteria outlined below and how any or all of
them are met by the paper in question. Each nomination package
should be submitted in electronic form (a single pdf fi le) and sent
to the Society’s executive director, Kevin Murphy (kevin@minersoc.
org).

Award criteria
The Awards Committee will take into consideration the following
points:

1. Novelty

2. Interdisciplinarity
3. Applicability
4. How science is advanced by the new work
Timing
The nominated paper must have been published in the calendar
year before the nomination and within three years of award of
the candidate’s PhD and will remain on the slate for up to two years.
Giulia Guidobaldi Veronica D’Ippolito
The school was attended by 39 students who had the opportunity to
display their research in a dedicated poster session. Two students were
awarded a special mention for their poster presentations during a
convivial dinner on the last evening of the school: Giulia Guidobaldi
(PhD, Perugia) and Veronica D’Ippolito (PhD, Roma). Participants fi lled
out (anonymously) a short questionnaire at the end, the results of
which revealed their appreciation for the range of topics covered and
for the smooth organization of the school. PDFs of the lessons are
available for general download at www.socminpet.it/GNM/bressa-
none2015.htm.

E LEMENTS 207 J UNE 2015

 Mineralogical Society of America
www.minsocam.org
NOT TAKING THINGS FOR GRANTED:
FROM CHERRY BLOSSOMS TO MINERAL SCIENCE
US Postal Service Commemorative Cherry Blossom stamp from 2012.
CREDIT: USPS (WITH PERMISSION)
April is a month of change. In the Washington DC area, the best indi-
cation of this is the profusion of floral trees, such as the cherry, that
burst forth. Visitors from all over the world come to see the show and
participate in the National Cherry Blossom Festival. What is the connec-
tion between the cherry trees and the Mineralogical Society of America?
More than you would think. MSA was chartered in and is still head-
quartered in the Washington DC area. Planting Japan’s gift of the cherry
trees along the Potomac River near the National Mall took place between
1912 and 1920, at the same time as MSA was founded (1919). The
festival queen celebrates with a massive crown of Japanese pearls (1585
of them to be exact) that is so heavy it can only be worn for a few
moments. The planting of the cherry trees was accomplished by Eliza
Scidmore and others whose vision took 25 years to realize. This last
fact serves as a reminder that behind the scenes there are always people
working to effect the things we take for granted. MSA Executive Director
Alex Speer’s Notes from Chantilly column makes this clear. Buried in
the details of MSA’s leadership ballot, awards, publications, and activi-
ties is the subtle fact that Alex Speer is the recipient of the 2015 MSA
Public Service Award. For more than 20 years, Alex Speer has been the
guiding, behind-the-scenes person who has ensured that MSA has
remained a premier scientific publisher and a force in mineral science
and education. MSA’s flagship products, Elements, Reviews in Mineralogy
and Geochemistry, American Mineralogist, and GeoscienceWorld would
not exist without Speer’s leadership. On behalf of MSA membership
we congratulate you on this much-deserved honor and salute your
efforts. Thank you Alex!
Steven B. Shirey (sshirey@carnegiescience.edu)
2015 MSA President
PUBLICATIONS ON APATITE/PHOSPHATES
For more description and table of contents
t t off these
th books,
b k and d ordering
online visit www.minsocam.org or contact Mineralogical Society of America,
3635 Concorde Pkwy Ste 500, Chantilly, VA 20151-1110 USA phone:
+1 (703) 652-9950 fax: +1 (703) 652-9951
E LEMENTS
NOTES FROM CHANTILLY
ƒ Balloting for the 2015 election of MSA officers and councilors is
underway. The slate of candidates: President: Rebecca A. Lange,
University of Michigan. Vice president (one to be selected): Mickey
E. Gunter, University of Idaho or George E. Harlow, American
Museum of Natural History. Secretary (one to be selected): Brian
Chakoumakos or Jacob Lowenstern. Councilors (two to be selected):
Aaron Celestian, Rasdeep Dasgupta, Francis McCubbin, Peter
Nabelek. Continuing treasurer: Howard Day. Continuing councilors:
Edward S. Grew, Wendy Panero, Abby
Kavner, and Matthew J. Kohn. MSA
members should have received by
e-mail their voting instructions.
Those who do not wish to vote online
can request a paper ballot from the
MSA Business Office. The voting deadline is August 1.
ƒ MSA will have a presence at the Geological Society of America (GSA)
meeting in Baltimore (Maryland) 1–4 November 2015. Events will
include the awards lunch; the MSA Presidential Address; the joint
reception of the MSA, the Geochemical Society, and the GSA’s
Mineralogy, Geochemistry, Petrology, and Volcanology (MGPV) divi-
sion; the MSA Annual Business Meeting, plus a council meeting,
and breakfasts for the past presidents and associate editors. The MSA
booth will be in the Exhibit Hall, Sunday–Wednesday.
The MSA Awards Lunch will be held at the Hilton Baltimore Hotel
on Tuesday, 3 November, when the Roebling Medal will be presented
to Rodney C. Ewing of Stanford University; the MSA Award presented
to Nicholas Tosca of the University of Oxford; and the Distinguished
Public Service Medal presented to MSA’s own J. Alex Speer. The
2014–2015 MSA Distinguished Lecturers—Bethany Ehlmann,
Colleen Hansel, and Lutz Nasdala—will be recognized. The MSA
Awards lectures, annual business meeting, and presidential address
will be held on Tuesday, 3 November, at the Baltimore Convention
Center: Rodney C. Ewing will give the Roebling Lecture; Nicholas
Tosca will give the MSA Award Lecture, and Steve Shirey will give
the MSA Presidential Address. The MSA/GS/MGPV Joint Reception
will follow at 5:45 p.m.–7:30 p.m.
Topical sessions have been proposed for the two awardees: T132
“Mineralogy of Diagenesis on Earth and Mars: In honor of Nick
Tosca, 2015 MSA Awardee”; and T134 “Radiation Effects, Mineralogy,
and Materials Science of Actinides: In Honor of Rodney C. Ewing,
2015 Roebling Medalist.” There are also sessions in honor of three
other MSA members: T133 “Mineralogy Writ Small: A Tribute to the
Distinguished Career of David R. Veblen”; T165 “Zen and Now:
Honoring the Legacy of E-an Zen’s Contributions to Geology”; and
T168 “Subduction, Fluids, Accessory Minerals, and Trace Elements:
A Celebration of Sorena Sorensen’s Career.”
ƒ The 2015 Dana Medal will be presented at the Fall 2015 American
Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco (California) 9–13
December 2013, to Patrick Cordier of Université Lille 1. There is a
session proposed to coincide with his interests wherein he will give
the Dana Lecture. The medal presentation itself will be made during
the VGP–MSA–GS Joint Reception. For the fi rst time since 1997, MSA
will have a booth in the Exhibit Hall 14–18 December 2015.
J. Alex Speer, MSA Executive Director
jaspeer@minsocam.org
208 J UNE 2015
 MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
AND GEOCHEMICAL SOCIETY
50- AND
25-YEAR MSA MEMBERS SHORT COURSE ANNOUNCEMENTS

The following individuals will reach 50 or 25 years of continuous Pore-Scale Geochemical Processes
membership in the Mineralogical Society of America during 2015. Their ORGANIZERS : Carl Steefel, Simon Emmanuel,
long support of the Society is appreciated and is recognized by this list and Larry Anovitz
and by 25- or 50-year pins mailed to them in early January. If you 15–16 August 2015, Design Elephant Hotel,
should be on this list and are not, or have not received your pin, please Prague, Czech Republic
contact the MSA Business Office. This short course will review recent research on the pore-size dependence of
50-Year Members Mary C. Eberle reaction rates; thermodynamic and kinetic factors that influence geochemistry
Timothy J. Fagan in nanoconfi ned pores; and the experimental characterization and modeling
Joel E. Arem
Thomas Fockenberg advances in our understanding of pore-scale geochemical processes.
Alice M. Blount
Masuo Thomas Fukui Characterization approaches include X-ray synchrotron techniques, small-angle
Michael L. Boucher Sr.
John H. Jones neutron scattering (SANS), backscattered electron (BSE) mapping, and focused
Bernard W. Evans
Motoharu Kawano ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) mapping of pore structure.
James R. Evans
Thomas A. Kubic Experimental studies include those that make use of micromodel and/or micro-
Robert I. Irwin Gait
Stephen J. Lynton fluidic approaches to quantify geochemical or coupled geochemical transport
Terence M. Gordon
Murli H. Manghnani processes.
Richard I. Grauch
Bruce D. Marsh
Liang Chi C. Hsu
L. Gordon Medaris Jr.
James G. Mills Jr. Siderophile and Chalcophile Elements
Gordon Moore ORGANIZERS : Jason Harvey and James Day
Edward H. Poindexter
Takashi Murakami 11–12 December 2015, Scripps
Malcolm J. Rutherford
Robert J. Pruett
Robert K. Smith Oceanographic Institute,
Jeanette N. Roelofsen
San Diego, CA, USA
Andy H. Shen
25-Year Members Lynn Simmons The strongly chalcophile (sulfur-loving) elements
Jun Aizawa Eugene I. Smith include Se and Te, whereas the highly siderophile
Ulf B. Andersson Michael A. Velbel (iron-loving) elements include the platinum-
John Bargar Robert Von Dreele group elements Re, Au, Pt, and Os, within which
Henry L. Barwood Christiane Wagner are the following long-lived isotope systems based on the decay of Re and Pt to
Michael Brown Huifang Xu isotopes of Os: 187Re–187Os and 190Pt–186Os, respectively. As a result of the strong
Vincent M. Ceci partitioning of siderophile and chalcophile elements into metals, alloys, and
sulfides, the study of the distribution and behavior of the siderophile and chal-
MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA cophile elements, and the phases that host them, provides a unique perspective
UNDERGRADUATE PRIZE (MSAUP) on how the major geochemical reservoirs of the Earth, and other rocky planets,
formed and evolved.
FOR OUTSTANDING STUDENTS
Description and registration online at www.minsocam.org or contact Mineralogical
The MSA welcomes the exceptional students listed below to the Society of America, 3635 Concorde Pkwy Ste 500, Chantilly, VA 20151-1110 USA phone:
program’s honor roll and thanks the sponsors for enabling the +1 (703) 9950 fax: +1 (703) 652-9951.
Mineralogical Society of America to recognize them. The MSA
Undergraduate Prize (MSAUP) is for students who have shown an 2015-2016 MSA DISTINGUISHED LECTURERS
outstanding interest and ability in mineralogy, petrology, crystallog-
The Mineralogical Society of America is pleased to announce its
raphy and geochemistry. Each student is presented with a certificate at
Distinguished Lecturers and their lecture titles for 2015–2016:
an awards ceremony at his or her university or college and receives an
MSA student membership, which includes a subscription to Elements, ƒ Richard Carlson (Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
and a volume of the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry or Monograph Institution for Science, Washington, DC) will offer the talks “A
series, as chosen by the sponsor, student, or both. History of Earth Formation” and “Cenozoic Magmatism in the
Cordilleran: Driving Geologic Activity Far Removed From a Plate
Previous MSAUP awardees are listed on the MSA website, as are instruc- Boundary.”
tions on how MSA members can nominate their students for the award.
ƒ Rebecca Flowers (Department of Geological Sciences, University
ƒ Jeremy Beales, University of Victoria (British Columbia, Canada), of Colorado, Boulder) will offer the talks “Just How Stable Are You?
Sponsored by Prof. Dante Canil
Relationships Between Cratonic Surface Histories, Kimberlites, and
ƒ Elisabeth Calderwood, University of Victoria (British Columbia, Canada),
Mantle Dynamics” and “Dating an Iconic Landscape: How Old is
Sponsored by Prof. Dante Canil
the Grand Canyon?”
ƒ Nell Davis, Williams College (Massachusetts), Sponsored by Prof. Reinhard
Wobus ƒ Olivier Bachmann (Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology, ETH
ƒ Emma Hall, Smith College (Massachusetts), Sponsored by Dr. John Brady Zürich, Switzerland) will offer the talks “Supervolcanoes and their
ƒ Margaret Holahan, Indiana University, Sponsored by Prof. David Bish Deposits: Insights into the Dynamics of Large Magma Reservoirs”
ƒ Scarlette Hsia, University of Texas at Austin, Sponsored by Dr. Elizabeth and “Flow or Blow: Will Eruptive Styles Ever Be Predictable?”
Catlos
Check the schedule of these tours on the MSA website (www.minsocam.
ƒ Tanis Coralee Leonhardi, University of Hawaii-Manoa, Sponsored by
Dr. Julia Hammer org). MSA expresses its appreciation to these individuals for helping to
ƒ Lisa L. Perrin, Towson University (Maryland), Sponsored by Dr. David Vanko promote our science.
ƒ Shayna Quidas, University of Maryland, Sponsored by Dr. Sarah
Penniston-Dorland IN MEMORIAM
ƒ Susan Richmond, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Sponsored by WILLIAM D. JOHNS – Senior Fellow, 1950
Prof. Huifang Xu
ƒ Luke Schranz, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Sponsored by
H AYDN H. MURRAY – Senior Fellow, 1950
Prof. Huifang Xu DOUGLAS W. R ANKIN – Senior Fellow, 1957
ƒ Casey Watamaniuk, University of British Columbia, Sponsored by DAVID B. STEWART – Life Fellow, 1951
Dr. James Scoates
MARC B. VUAGNAT – Life Fellow, 1953

E LEMENTS 209 J UNE 2015

 German Mineralogical Society
www.dmg-home.de
CHANGES IN THE DMG MANAGERIAL BOARD
F. Michael Meyer (RWTH Aachen University) retired at the end of
February and, therefore, resigned his position as secretary of the DMG.
Michael, we thank you very much for your efforts for more than 7 years!
Klaus-D. Grevel (Jena University), already known as DMG’s Elements
news editor, will temporarily take over the position of secretary until
the next DMG elections. Until further notice, please direct all requests
concerning the society to Klaus-Dieter.Grevel@rub.de.
“CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
IN MINERALOGY” AND “APPLIED MINERALOGY IN
TECHNIQUE AND ENVIRONMENT” JOINT WORKSHOP
The DMG sections “Chemistry, Physics and Crystallography in
Mineralogy (CPKM)” and “Applied Mineralogy in Technique and
Environment (AMiTU)” came together for their annual joint workshop,
held 25–27 February in Bad Windsheim, Bavaria. The meeting was
organized and led by Christoph Berthold (Eberhard Karls University,
Tübingen) and Stefan Stöber (Martin Luther University, Halle-
Wittenberg). They welcomed the 35 students and scientists who contrib-
uted to 22 talks and lectures, discussed their recent work, and were
inspired by fresh ideas.
The workshop began on the fi rst evening with the traditional task of
cooking dinner together, which was successfully mastered by the partic-
ipants. The regular program started the next morning with talks from
graduate students of the Bundesanstalt für Materialprüfung and a
participant from the University of Koblenz presenting on various indus-
trial topics and applications. This was followed by talks on biominer-
alization and related subjects by students and scientists from the
universities of Munich, Göttingen, Tübingen, and Bochum. The topics
ranged from analysing biomineral microtextures to crystal structure
determinations of sea urchin spines. These talks were followed by
Gerald Buck (University of Tübingen) who introduced the participants
to the Neolithic Age and the tools fashioned by the human inhabitants.
Further diverse lectures on structure investigations of different mate-
rials and minerals ended the fi rst day, which was completed by Bernd
Hinrichsen from BASF introducing us to the company and their
research, as well as his own personal work.
Participants of CPKM–AMiTU 2015 in front of the “Hotel am Kurpark,”
Bad Windsheim, Bavaria.
The second day began with Gert Klöß and his graduate students (from
Leipzig University) revealing their development of how a polarizing
microscope can be added to an X-ray diffractometer. Graduate students
of the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin then presented their investigations
on materials for thin-fi lm solar cells. The last part of the program
consisted of classical mineralogical topics, such as structure investiga-
tions of sanidine feldspars from Eifel (western Germany/eastern
Belgium) and Raman studies of pegmatitic water-bearing phosphates
from Hagendorf, Bavaria.
Finally, Christoph Berthold was confi rmed again as CPKM–AMiTU
group leader and it was decided to hold the 2016 workshop in Bad
Windsheim at the same time next year.
Johannes Kähn (Helmholtz Centre Berlin)
E LEMENTS 210
The thermodynamic modeling group in Kiel. Prof. C. de Capitani (front row,
wearing a red pullover) revealed the secrets of Theriak–Domino.
DMG SHORT COURSE: INTRODUCTION
TO THERMODYNAMIC MODELING – THEORY
AND EXERCISES
The DMG international short course on thermodynamic modeling was
organized by Dr. Erik Duesterhoeft, Prof. Dr. Christian de Capitani,
and Prof. Dr. Romain Bousquet and was held 23–25 February at the
Christian-Albrechts-Universität (Kiel, Germany). The participants
included students and researchers from Canada, South America, South
Africa, Belgium, Germany, and France who were at different stages in
their careers (e.g. Masters, PhD, post-doctoral researchers). The exciting
and exceptionally well-structured short course focused on thermody-
namic concepts and the application of thermodynamic modeling in
metamorphic petrology using the Theriak–Domino software package.
Theriak-Domino was developed by Christian de Capitani (University
of Basel, Switzerland) and is a freeware package containing a suite of
programs. The Theriak component allows the calculation of stable
mineral assemblages, equilibrium phase compositions, and their phys-
ical properties at specific pressure and temperature conditions or along
a specific P–T path. The Domino component is the software that allows
the calculation of equilibrium assemblage phase diagrams, as well as
pseudo-binary and pseudo-ternary diagrams. Theriak–Domino is avail-
able for Windows and Unix-based systems. The recently developed
add-on, called Theriak_D (written by Erik Duesterhoeft), expands the
software and provides for more general geodynamic-related
applications.
During this workshop, three main petrological topics were spread over
the three days. The fi rst day focused on thermodynamic principles and
concepts, including the Gibbs minimization algorithm on which the
software is based. During the afternoon, the focus shifted towards
tutorials for calculating petrogenetic grids, pseudo-sections, and equi-
librium phase diagrams at fi xed bulk-rock compositions. The day
concluded with a traditional north German dinner in Kiel.
The second day started with an introduction to the “nuts and bolts”
of the various available thermodynamic databases and ended with the
modeling of P–T loops and the creation of AFM pseudo-sections. The
day ended with a guided tour of the mineralogical museum and various
laboratory facilities (e.g. electron microprobe, high-temperature calo-
rimeter, and high-pressure experimental labs) at Kiel University’s
geology department.
The third day focused on geodynamic applications of the modeling
software. The day consisted of an introduction to Scilab and basic
programming examples, such as the calculations of a geothermal
gradient and lithostatic pressures. These exercises served as a basis for
the introduction of the aforementioned Theriak_D add-on, which was
used to calculate the difference in the effect of physical and thermal
density during a model of subduction.
The organizers produced an exceptionally well-organized petrological
short-course. They generously shared their knowledge and experience
of Theriak–Domino, as well as their expertise in metamorphic petrology,
thermodynamic modeling and geodynamics. We heartily thank them.
Katreine Blomme (Leuven, Belgium),
Eugene Grosch (Bergen, Norway)
J UNE 2015
 Sociedad Española de Mineralogía
www.ehu.es/sem
LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT
It is a pleasure and an honour to have been
elected President of the Sociedad Española
de Mineralogía (SEM). My term started in
January 2015, and I take over from Carlos
Ayora. The SEM elections themselves were at
the last General Assembly, held July 2014 in
Granada, at which we also elected a new vice-
president, a new treasurer, and five council-
lors, all of whom will serve a four-year term
Juan Jiménez, SEM President on the Executive Council. The new council
members are as follows: Blanca Bauluz
(University of Zaragoza vice-president); Emilia García Romero
(University Complutense Madrid, new treasurer); and councillors José
Manuel Astilleros (University Complutense Madrid), Maria Ángeles
Fernández González (University of Oviedo), José Miguel Herrero
(University of Basque Country), Pilar Mata (IGME, Madrid), and Albert
Soler (University of Barcelona). On behalf of our members, I would like
to thank all the outgoing councillors who served the society with such
great efficiency and enthusiasm.
SEM was created in 1975 and is now completing its 40 th year. Today,
the society is in good shape, with a stable number of members at around
280. Moreover, the number of student members is increasing. Our
endowments are sufficiently healthy to allow us to continue our travel
grant program and awards. But, SEM must remain young and dynamic:
we do not want to rest on our laurels. We have begun planning for the
future and would like to focus our efforts on three core issues.
(1) Increasing international collaboration between academics, industry,
and government and increased collaboration among our own society
members. Today, the world faces many challenges, and mineralogy has
a significant role to play in meeting those challenges. Research carried
out by society members used to have great societal relevance. But, SEM
membership and attendance at our conferences is overwhelmingly
dominated by academics, though our last seminar at the annual meeting
tried to forge links between academia and industry. I hope that we can
expand our horizons and that SEM can do more to foster links between
our members and the world outside.
(2) Increasing the presence of our members in the journals and events
that SEM promotes, especially the European Journal of Mineralogy (EJM)
and Elements. We would like to evaluate our publications, membership
programs, and conference participation. We hope to be able to organize,
for instance, SEM sessions based on individual Elements issues, and I
encourage anyone with ideas for this type of session to contact SEM.
SEM is one of the owners of the EJM, but the Spanish mineralogical
community is scarcely represented in its published articles. We want
to promote the presence of SEM members in the EJM and strongly
encourage you to submit your most exciting research to the journal.
(3) Improving our response to the needs of young mineralogists. I look
forward to meeting the many students who attend Society meetings
and who usually give the very best presentations. I would like to hear
from them what SEM can do to improve their careers. Our members
are very generous to our society, and we would like to look for ways in
which we could provide additional services and benefits to our younger
members. Finally, we aim to maintain our promotion of the Enciende
awards, which are designed to promote new mineralogical vocations.
The SEM council looks forward to hearing your opinions and wants to
help make our society more effective. The Society is financially healthy,
and we invite proposals for how some of our funds could be usefully
utilised. Please don’t be shy about telling us how to make the SEM work
better for you.
Juan Jiménez, SEM President
E LEMENTS 211
SEM 2015 ANNUAL MEETING IN HUELVA
The 35th Annual Meeting of the Spanish Mineralogical Society will be
held in Huelva (Spain) on June 30–July 3 2015. It will be organised by
the University of Huelva and coordinated by José Miguel Nieto.
The program for the SEM 2015 meeting includes the following:
ƒ A one-day workshop seminar entitled “Rare Earth Elements: miner-
alogy, geochemistry, ore deposits and metallurgy.” This seminar will
take place on June 30, and the speakers will include scientists and
professionals of international prestige in this field. The aim of the
seminar is to present and discuss new perspectives and ideas about
REEs, particularly for young scientists.
ƒ Scientific sessions that will take place on July 1–2 and will feature
invited scientists to deliver plenary lectures on topics of general
interest. Oral and poster presentations in the fields of clays, miner-
alogy, petrology, and geochemistry may be submitted. The main
objective is to hold high-quality scientific sessions that become a
platform for debate, the exchange of ideas, and the establishment
of new scientific collaborations.
ƒ A geological excursion to the Rio Tinto mining district (environ-
mental mining impact and new mining projects) will be held on
July 3.
For updated information, go to www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/.
MANUEL PRIETO ELECTED NATIONAL
CORRESPONDING FELLOW OF THE SPANISH ROYAL
ACADEMY OF EXACT, PHYSICAL, AND NATURAL
SCIENCES
Manuel Prieto, former member of the executive
committee of Elements, was recently elected
National Corresponding Fellow of the Spanish
Royal Academy of Exact, Physical, and Natural
Sciences. Manuel Prieto is a professor of crystal-
lography and mineralogy in the Department of
Geology, University of Oviedo (Spain). He received
his PhD in geology from Complutense University
of Madrid (Spain), where he also served as a
teaching assistant from 1979 to 1984 and as a lecturer in crystallography
and mineralogy from 1984 to 1991. He was dean of the Faculty of
Geology of the University of Oviedo from 1997 to 2000. Manuel has
been the Earth sciences coordinator for the Spanish Commission for
Science and Technology between 2000 and 2006. He served as president
of the Spanish Mineralogical Society from 2006 to 2010 and as chief
co-editor of the European Journal of Mineralogy from 2012 to 2014. His
research applies crystal growth concepts and techniques to the study
of environmental and geochemical problems. Manuel started as an
experimentalist, but his inclination to theory has become progressively
more evident. His expertise covers thermodynamics and kinetics of
ambient-temperature geochemical processes, crystal growth and crys-
tallography. He is a recognized international authority in the thermo-
dynamics of solid solution–aqueous solution systems.
On February 18, Dr. Prieto received this honour during a scientific
session where he gave a lecture entitled “Water-mineral interaction
phenomena: from crystal-chemistry to environmental geochemistry.”
Dr. Juan Antonio Vera (University of Granada, Spain) gave the citation
for this award.
J UNE 2015
 Association of Applied Geochemists
www.appliedgeochemists.org
KURT KYSER NEW EDITOR-IN-CHIEF FOR GEEA
It is with great pleasure that the AAG and the
Geological Society of London announce Dr. Kurt
Kyser as the new Editor-in-Chief of our journal,
Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis
(GEEA). Kurt is a professor in the Department of
Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering
at Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario
(Canada) and is internationally renowned. He is
currently the director of the well-equipped
Queen’s Facility for Isotope Research (QFIR), Kurt Kyser
which provides a means for interdisciplinary
research by university, government, industry, or private agencies on a
global basis. Kurt’s own research interests include isotope geochemistry,
the origin and chemical evolution of the Earth, mass spectroscopy,
evolution of fluids in basins, low-temperature geochemistry, geochro-
nology, environmental geochemistry, and fluid–rock interactions. His
work has been widely published, including ~300 papers in refereed
journals (including GEEA of course!), 200 in conference proceedings,
and 50 chapters in books. Kurt has also provided invaluable expertise
to his numerous undergraduate and graduate students, as well as to the
field of exploration geochemistry.
Amongst the numerous honours awarded to Kurt are the Killam
Research Fellowship (Canada Council for the Arts), the Willet G. Miller
Medal (Royal Society of Canada, for outstanding research), a Queen’s
University Research Chair, Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and
the AAG Distinguished Lectureship. He has held the posts of President
of the Mineralogical Association of Canada, President of Earth-Oceans-
Atmosphere Sciences, and Chair of the Selection Committee on Research
Grants, amongst others.
Clearly, the journal is in very capable hands and we look forward to
exciting new ventures with Kurt at the helm!
Gwendy Hall (gwendyhall@gmail.com)
Outgoing Editor-in-Chief, GEEA
REGIONAL COUNCILLORS UPDATE
Regional councillors ensure strong, representative coverage of our
members and provide a good understanding of current, regional applied
geochemistry–related activities. A brief synopsis of recent updates
follows, but for more details go to www.appliedgeochemists.org.
Northern Europe (by Pertti Sarala): The interest in minerals that host
so-called high-technology elements (e.g. In, Li, the REEs, Sc and Y) has
increased in the European Union. Regions hitherto largely ignored are
now being studied as potential areas for mineralization. As part of this
strategy, the Geological Survey of Sweden has completed its soil
geochemical mapping project and published The Geochemical Atlas of
Sweden (2014). The atlas includes the maps of geochemistry of agricul-
tural soil based on 179 sampling points. In Finland, the environmen-
tally conscious Green Mining Programme of the Finnish Funding
Agency for Technology and Innovation has progressed well towards
developing intelligent and minimum-impact mines and for fi nding
new mineral resources (www.tekes.fi/programmes/GreenMining).
Brazil (by João Larizzatti): Over the last two years, the Geological
Survey of Brazil (CPRM) has conducted regional multi-element
geochemical surveys from Santa Catarina (in the south) to Roraima
States (north), and from Rondônia (west) to Pernambuco (east). The
focus is on regional geochemical mapping, geochemical exploration,
and environmental geochemistry. CPRM sampled 4130 soils, 20,523
stream sediments and 19,742 heavy mineral concentrates across
E LEMENTS 212
continental Brazil. These were analysed for multi-element geochemistry
and mineralogy. An additional 1592 marine sediments off Brazil’s north-
east shore were also analysed. The resulting geochemical atlases,
composed of maps and databases, provide regional coverage for a given
sampling media at the 1:100,000 map scale. These data are available
free of charge or at low cost. Please visit www.cprm.gov.br.
Australia and New Zealand (by Ryan Noble and Tony Christie):
UNCOVER is a major new initiative between the Australian state geolog-
ical surveys, Geoscience Australia, and the Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO): it is universities and
industry working to improve the success rate of mineral exploration in
Australia under covered areas. Other, separate, activities include the
Deep Exploration Technologies Cooperative Research Centre developing
rapid drilling and real-time analysis; the Distal Footprints of Giant Ore
Systems project in Western Australia; and the Advanced Resource
Characterisation Facility (ARCF), a technological hub capable of
analysing rock from drill-core down to the atomic scale. The ARCF will
be internationally unique for the range and proximity of access to
facilities that include a new NanoSIMS, an Atom Probe TEM and the
prototype Maia mapper.
The New Zealand–based GNS Science regional soil geochemical survey
collected 400 sample sites, 8 km apart across south Otago and Southland
for which multi-element geochemistry, isotopes of S, Sr and Pb and
magnetic susceptibility will be determined. The GNS will assist in devel-
oping the concept and benefits of a national survey.
Ryan Noble (ryan.noble@csiro.au)
AAG Vice-President, Perth, Australia
RECENT ARTICLE PUBLISHED IN EXPLORE
N. TURNER (2015) Optimised detection limits for multi-element
geochemical analysis. Explore 166 (March 2015)
The concept of detection limit has always been difficult to explain
because it can be expressed in so many ways. It is also a somewhat
controversial subject in geochemistry as there is a commercial advan-
tage to having lower reporting limits, thereby seemingly offering the
geologist better information about their samples. However, what consti-
tutes a method detection limit as opposed to an instrumental detection
limit, and what is the best way of determining the detection limit for
multi-element analyses are not well understood.
An investigation of detection limits was undertaken using the multi-
element method MMI® – a weak leach used in soil exploration that
uses ICP-MS to measure concentrations of 53 elements in solution
extracts. Typically, detection limits are measured from method blank
data in a single test combined with knowledge of elemental crustal
abundance. Whilst this does give justifiable limits, it suffers from draw-
backs such as method performance over time and relative sample
concentrations. A more holistic approach to the detection limit was
performed by analysing a large database of randomised method blanks
and duplicate analyses. Detection limits were calculated from the levels
that can both be seen and are seen using real samples over time. This
technique results in optimised detection limits that allow the geologist
to use analytical data to its fullest extent by providing true reporting
limit capabilities that are appropriate for targeting anomalies.
Nicholas Turner (Nicholas.Turner @sgs.com)
SGS Minerals Services Geochemistry, Toronto, Canada
J UNE 2015
 The Clay Minerals Society
www.clays.org
THE PRESIDENT’S CORNER
Size matters. In small scientific societies, such as
the Clay Minerals Society (CMS), the role of Chair
or President often involves doing lots of work with
a dedicated staff member or two and making
many requests to delegate additional work. The
work gets done. All is well. That routine has been
my experience for the past few years. I have had
strong CMS office support, and I have had the ear
and time of many colleagues who have stepped
W. Crawford Elliott
up when needed. I thank the staff and many
members for their dedicated efforts to help further
the reach of the CMS.
Size also matters in considering the work and impact of smaller scientific
groups. The CMS is a relatively small group in the Elements family
(maybe mid-sized), yet we wield an appropriate (perhaps more than
appropriate) amount of influence on our related scientific communities.
In addition to our ability to convey results via our annual meeting,
our journal (Clays and Clay Minerals), and our workshop volumes, our
stock and trade is in understanding the many roles played by the small
minerals in rocks, soils, and industrial materials. We marshal many
technologies to study these small, but important, minerals. We are at
the leading edge in some technologies (e.g. quantitative mineral deter-
mination via X-ray diffraction). We exert considerable influence on
paleoclimate reconstructions, the geomechanics of soils and sedimen-
tary media, the fate and transport of anthropogenic contaminants, the
thermal-history analysis of sedimentary basins, fluid flow in source
and reservoir rocks for crude oil and natural gas, the isolation of landfills
and high-level nuclear waste repositories, and many others.
Economically, society depend on kaolin, bentonite, and other fi ne-
grained clays for many nonglamorous, but useful, applications. And
let us not forget the ongoing exploration of Mars and the stories that
Martian clay minerals are telling us. All told, clay minerals are able to
do what they do in rocks and soils because size matters. In these exam-
ples, being a small mineral is a key to the success of these applications.
We all appreciate that size matters, big and small.
The CMS is pleased to be a contributing part of the Elements family.
We have much more to contribute in the years to come. I am hopeful
that CMS members will continue to take leadership and author roles
in Elements. As the outgoing president, I thank our friends in Elements
for another great year of good science and good published work. I also
thank Ian Bourg for his work in putting together the CMS society pages
for Elements.
My fi nal task for my fi nal report is to introduce Dr. Prakash Malla, the
new CMS president effective 11 July 2015. Prakash is well-known in
clay mineral circles for his innovative work on kaolin and related clays.
He is a technical director at Thiele Kaolin Company. I wish Prakash
much success in his presidential duties for this coming year.
Sincerely,
W. Crawford Elliott, President, The Clay Minerals Society
wcelliott@gsu.edu
GLOSSARY OF CLAY SCIENCE
The latest version of the Glossary of Clay Science (April 2015) is now
available on the CMS website. It can be viewed online or downloaded
in .doc or .pdf format at www.clays.org/glossary/clay_glossary.htm. The
updated glossary includes about 65 new terms and definitions, primarily
related to clay textures. Requests for other terms to be included in
future editions should be directed to the chair of the CMS Nomenclature
Committee, Dr. S. Guggenheim (xtal@uic.edu).
E LEMENTS
STUDENT RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT
Congratulations to Mathias Köster (Technische Universität München),
Joanna Wilford (University of Georgia), and Kyle Cox (Western
Michigan University) for winning a CMS Student Research Grant!
Mathias H. Köster’s doctoral research is on the
genesis of bentonite deposits. His research
uses X-ray diffraction, portable X-ray fluorescence,
stable and radiogenic isotope analyses, secondary
ion mass spectrometry, and prompt gamma
neutron activation analysis to examine the origin
of smectites and associated carbonates. Mathias
has shown that boron (B) isotopes indicate the
involvement of both marine and nonmarine,
B-rich saline fluids during sodium bentonite
formation. Mathias also found that carbonate minerals in bentonites
can be used as proxies for water compositions, redox states, and as
tracers of Mg and Ca ions for microbial dolomitization and associated
bentonitization. One practical implication is that freshwater bentonites
in southern Germany are practically free of sodium and contain only
small amounts of other water-leachable components. This makes them
particularly well suited as fi ning agents for treating beer and wine.
Mathias’ student research grant was accompanied by the Robert C.
Reynolds, Jr. Award for the best proposal received by the CMS
in 2014.
Joanna Wilford’s research focuses on identifying
mineralogical controls on sandstone
weathering in quarries and in the built
environment. Joanna has examined quarry
samples of the sandstones used to construct the
Angkor temples in Cambodia (Kulen Mountain
sandstone), the nineteenth-century brownstone
buildings of the northeastern United States
(Portland brownstone), and the pre-1906 campus
buildings of Stanford University (Stanford sand-
stone). These sandstones undergo weathering in a variety of climates
and they present preservation challenges in historically significant
structures. Joanna used thin section petrography, X-ray diffraction,
and electron microprobe analysis to characterize the mineralogy of the
sandstones, focusing on the matrix and cement. In all samples, she
discovered that the sandstone matrix contained swelling clays (mixed
chlorite–smectite or illite–smectite) that can explain the contour scaling
and cracking observed in the historic buildings.
Kyle Cox investigated the thermal history of
the Michigan Basin by analyzing the authi-
genic minerals of the Upper Paleozoic strata:
secondary dolomites in the Devonian Dundee
Formation and clay cements in the Mississippian
Marshall sandstone. The diagenetic conditions for
the authigenic minerals were compared to
expected thermal and chemical conditions based
on depositional and burial history. Kyle found
that the authigenic dolomite and illite had formed
at temperatures greater than expected from burial alone and that they
had formed in the presence of saline brines sourced from deeper within
the basin. This reinforces the idea that the thermal history of the
Michigan Basin results from episodic and extensive hydrothermal
activity associated with the reactivation of basement faults in the failed
Proterozoic rift that underlies the basin, possibly due to Appalachian
tectonic events.
213 J UNE 2015
 International Mineralogical Association
www.ima-mineralogy.org
NEW MINERALS: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
(INTRODUCING THE IMA “MINERAL OF THE YEAR”
INITIATIVE)
Anton R. Chakhmouradian, IMA Communications Officer
chakhmou@cc.umanitoba.ca
In the 170 years since the publication of the second edition of Dana’s
System of Mineralogy (1844), in which the now-familiar principles of
mineral classification were fi rst laid out, the number of mineral species
has grown twelve-fold. In less than a century, the typical mineral descrip-
tion has evolved from an exhaustive account of crystal morphology and
a partial chemical analysis, to an impressively scrupulous synthesis of
hundreds of data acquired with state-of-the-art instrumentation and,
to a layperson, reading like “rocket science.” Compare, for example,
the description of clinozoisite in Weinschenk (1896) with the recently
published report on its lead–manganese analogue, piemontite-(Pb)
(Chukanov et al. 2012), which comes complete with several dozen
electron-probe analyses, an IR spectrum, an X-ray pattern, a single-
crystal structure refi nement, and synchrotron XANES data.
As new minerals become harder to fi nd and more challenging to work
with, mineralogists have expanded their search for previously unknown
combinations of elements and structure types beyond the Earth’s crust
and learned to operate on micron and smaller scales. For example, the
most talked-about new species of 2014, bridgmanite, is the principal
component of the lower mantle but was actually described from the
Tenham meteorite (1879, Australia), where submicrometer-sized grains
of this Mg-silicate “perovskite” occur in shock-generated veins
(Tschauner et al. 2014; FIG. 1). Clearly, without this and similar discov-
eries, our understanding of the terrestrial planets and their evolution
would be far from complete. The study of new minerals is also of great
practical significance: the bewildering structural complexity of some
of these minerals is a source of inspiration for materials scientists
(FIG. 2).
The approval and naming of new species, as well as matters of mineral
classification, are now handled by the IMA Commission on New
Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC, http://ima-
cnmnc.nrm.se/). Although there is a steadily growing interest in this
area of research, with 55 new proposals approved by the Commission
in 2004 and 2.5 times as many in 2013, it has not precipitated a propor-
tional increase in the amount of available fi nancial support. The
funding situation echoes, perhaps, the skepticism voiced on some
discussion forums with regard to the future of “mineral hunting” and
the role of the CNMNC in streamlining mineral nomenclature.
To help the mineralogical community better appreciate the efforts of
researchers involved in these activities, the IMA is introducing a new
initiative: “Mineral of the Year”. Beginning in 2015, this recognition will
be awarded annually to one new mineral species whose description was
published in a reputable international journal in the year preceding the
award. The Mineral of the Year will be chosen by a specially appointed
selection panel on the basis of the quality of its description and on its
importance to society, science, and/or technology.
We would like to launch this initiative with the present article, where
several well-known “mineral hunters” from around the world share
their thoughts on the significance of their work and make some projec-
tions for the future. My interviewees are Anthony R. Kampf (ARK;
curator emeritus at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles, USA),
Ulf Hålenius (UH; CNMNC chairman and professor of mineralogy at
the Swedish Museum of Natural History), Igor V. Pekov (IVP; professor
at Moscow State University, Russia), Frédéric Hatert (FH; professor at
the University of Liège, Belgium), and Satoshi Matsubara (SM; curator
E LEMENTS 214
FIGURE 1 Shock-induced
glass vein in the
Tenham L6 meteorite (red
arrow), containing minute
crystals of the high-pressure
phases bridgmanite and
akimotoite (ilmenite-like
MgSiO3). IMAGE COURTESY OF
CHI MA (C ALTECH) AND OLIVER
TSCHAUNER (UNIVERSITY OF
NEVADA, L AS VEGAS).
emeritus at the National Science Museum in Tokyo, Japan). I cannot
think of a better way of introducing these researchers than by saying
that, collectively, they are responsible for 7% of all mineral species
known to date, and each have had minerals named in their honor:
kampfite [Ba12 (Si11Al5)O31(CO3) 8Cl5], håleniusite-(La) (LaOF), pekovite
(SrB2 Si 2O8 ), hatertite [Na 2 (Ca,Na)(Fe,Cu) 2 (AsO4) 3 ], and matsubaraite
[Sr4Ti5 (Si2O7) 2O8 ].
ARC: My first question is, naturally, “Why?”
ARK: Every new species adds something to our understanding of the
natural world and the conditions under which minerals form and exist.
In some cases, they can help us decipher geological processes that we
cannot otherwise observe (e.g. new minerals in Ca–Al-rich inclusions
in chondrite meteorites). Occasionally, they have structural features
that have never been seen before, even in synthetic phases; such discov-
eries can lead to the development of new materials with important
uses. It’s like going out into the rainforest and collecting strange plants
in search of a new wonder drug. You never know what’s going to come
out of a new discovery.
UH: Minerals are the fundamental building elements of our planet
and, as such, provide a framework for the existence of life. Minerals
are also fundamental sources for materials that are used in the develop-
ment of infrastructure and new technologies. Consequently, knowledge
of the properties of minerals, their stability fields and modes of forma-
tion, is critically important to society.
IVP: New mineral research satisfies the human hunger for knowledge.
Any new mineral, even the rarest and smallest, is another building
block in our understanding of Nature. These discoveries enrich not
only mineralogy and geology, but also other disciplines. From a cultural
viewpoint, the diversity of the Mineral Kingdom is equally as remark-
able as that of the Animal Kingdom, and deserves as much attention.
No synthetic analogues are known for ~50% of minerals, which under-
scores the practical importance of our work. Among the ~100 species
discovered every year, dozens have previously unknown structure types,
which could be of interest to technology as prototypes for molecular
sieves, ion exchangers and other advanced materials.
FH: The description of new mineral species is extremely important to
society because minerals that have formed through long geological
processes in Nature constitute a fantastic reservoir of new structure
types. Due to the extreme variety of geological environments, minerals
may show exotic chemical compositions and structures which are diffi-
cult to obtain in the laboratory. A good understanding of these complex
structures is of prime interest to solid-state scientists, for whom minerals
constitute a source of inspiration for the development of valuable high-
tech materials. A good example is triphylite, a lithium–iron phosphate.
This mineral is often oxidized, which had been observed under the
microscope by mineralogists back in 1937. Sixty years later, chemists
J UNE 2015
 A B
(A) Spherulites of the Na titanosilicate zorite, discovered in the
FIGURE 2
Yubileinaya pegmatite body in the Lovozero Mountains, Kola, Russia
(B) Spherulite of synthetic titanosilicate ETS-4, based on the zorite structure and
used in a wide array of industrial applications, from gas separation to waste
treatment. IMAGE A COURTESY OF I.V. PEKOV. IMAGE B COURTESY OF B. YILMAZ, J. WARZYWODA
AND A. SACCO (YILMAZ ET AL. 2004).
discovered the exceptional electrochemical properties of this phase,
which is nowadays used in lithium batteries found in electric cars and
bicycles! The moral: always listen to what mineralogists have to say…
SM: The behavior of elements in minerals provides clues to Earth’s
history. For this purpose, the information gleaned from new minerals
is very useful because they contain new combinations of elements, or
concentrations of rare elements, not previously seen.
ARC: What attracted you to this area of research?
ARK: For the most part, I do it because I enjoy the challenge of putting
together everything that is needed to defi ne a new mineral and relish
the sense of discovery that I get, especially when the crystal structure
turns out to be unique or reveals an unusual new feature.
UH: Having been born and raised in an area with important ore
deposits, exploration geology was the door opener for my interest in
Earth sciences. With time, my interest in ore geology, in combination
with a fascination for chemistry, led me to the field of mineralogy. In
particular, I am intrigued by the fact that mineral colors, often of
breathtaking beauty, can provide detailed information on the short-
range structure of minerals.
IVP: (1) Scientific inquiry: an aspiration to find and examine previously
unknown natural objects; (2) not knowing what to expect, because
many new minerals are full of surprises and show intriguing structural
or chemical characteristics requiring a customized approach to their
investigation; (3) some new minerals broaden, or even break, stereo-
typical views on the behavior of chemical elements in nature; such
was our recent discovery of modulated hydroxide-sulfides with
Mo-for-Nb substitution.
FH: Owing to their perfect shapes and vivid colors, minerals are
extremely attractive; for that reason, I became, at the age of 10, fasci-
nated by them. I started collecting minerals and searched actively for
quartz crystals close to my family home in the Ardennes Mountains
of Belgium. This fascination is still there today! Even if the phosphate
minerals that I generally work on can look dull, I see their beauty
through the scientific questions that they bring to my mind.
SM: My fi rst supervisor in the National Science Museum in Tokyo was
Akira Kato, who was secretary of the Japanese Commission on New
Minerals. I was interested in new minerals and the processes of their
formation. I felt that the discovery of a new natural substance would
be both important and exciting and that I could experience this excite-
ment only in the field of mineralogy.
ARC: Do you have a favorite mineral deposit
or a geological process that is particularly fecund
for new minerals?
ARK: I got my start working on pegmatite phosphates, and these still
hold a special place in my heart, but my horizons have expanded greatly
to include all oxysalts. In general, secondary minerals formed at low
temperatures under oxidizing conditions, such as those from the
oxidized zones of ore deposits, are now of greatest interest.
E LEMENTS
UH: Chemical complexities, heterogeneity and a long history of recur-
rent thermal events have made some mineral deposits highly attractive
for systematic mineral research. My favorite one is the Långban deposit
in Sweden. Some 300 different species have been identified from this
deposit and still more are in the pipeline. A wide variety of chemically
diverse minerals have been described from this deposit, and some of
these are endemic to Långban.
IVP: My favorites are: First, late mineral assemblages related to highly
alkaline, initially agpaitic rocks; Second, “live” hot fumaroles on active
volcanoes; Third, oxidation zones of complex chalcogenide ores.
FH: You can fi nd new mineral species everywhere, in any type of
geological environment. Some deposits of exotic geochemistry, or rocks
affected by extreme geological processes, generally constitute a fertile
ground for new species. Personally, I very much enjoy working on
Mn-rich low-grade metamorphic rocks, like those in the Ardennes
Mountains, and on granitic pegmatites, where many new phosphate
minerals are described every year.
SM: I like metamorphic environments because I enjoy figuring out
what the original materials were and how elements moved during meta-
morphism, in addition to characterizing new minerals from these rocks.
ARC: Where do you see this field of research in 50 years?
ARK: I wouldn’t be surprised to see the number of minerals double.
Our instrumentation will improve and we will be able to more readily
identify and characterize minerals occurring in very small crystals.
Given the ever increasing realization that the biological realm plays a
critical role in mineral formation, given the difficulty in drawing the
line between purely and partially biogenic processes in nature, and
given that the distinction actually creates an awkward and rather arti-
ficial dichotomy between compounds that are, most importantly, natu-
rally formed, I think eventually the defi nition of a mineral will be
modified to include crystalline solids formed by purely biogenic processes.
UH: As information on short-range structures of minerals becomes
more important, the application of synchrotron-based X-ray spectros-
copies and high-resolution electron-microscope techniques will be
increasingly important for new mineral characterization.
IVP: Further improvements of diffraction techniques could be a major
progress-driving factor in our field. Access to ion microprobes also
seems important, particularly for analyzing light elements that are
undetectable by electron microprobes. EXAFS/XANES will become
routine for the determination of element oxidation states.
FH: Analytical capabilities are constantly improving, so the number
of new mineral species will increase exponentially. However, I am
convinced that we will soon reach the peak in the number of new
mineral proposals, because fewer and fewer scientists are interested in
this field. Our next challenge will be to attract young people, and to
do that we have to show them the pure beauty of minerals.
REFERENCES Tschauner O, Ma C, Beckett JR,
Prescher C, Prakapenka VB,
Chukanov NV, Varlamov DA, Nestola
Rossman GR (2014) Discovery of
F, Belakovskiy DI, Goettlicher J,
bridgmanite, the most abundant
Britvin SN, Lanza A, Jancev S
mineral in Earth, in a shocked
(2012) Piemontite-(Pb),
meteorite. Science 346: 1100-1102
CaPbAl 2Mn3+ [Si 2O7][SiO4 ]O(OH), a
new mineral species of the epidote Weinschenk E (1896) Ueber Epidote
supergroup. Neues Jahrbuch für und Zoisit. Zeitschrift für
Mineralogie Abhandlungen 189: Kristallographie 26:156-177
275-286
Yilmaz B, Warzywoda J, Sacco A
Dana JD (1844) A System of (2004) Synthesis of large ETS-4
Mineralogy, Comprising the Most crystals in the Na and Na/K
Recent Discoveries. Wiley & systems: the effects of alkali metal
Putnam, New York and London, ion and synthesis mixture alka-
633 pp linity. Journal of Crystal Growth
271: 325-331
215 J UNE 2015
 Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences
http://jams.la.coocan.jp
JAXA’S HAYABUSA SAMPLES OF ASTEROID 25143 ITOKAWA:
FIVE YEARS LATER
Takashi Mikouchi, an associate professor of
mineralogy in the Department of Earth and
Planetary Science at the University of Tokyo
(Japan), is studying extraterrestrial samples
from the 25143 Itokawa asteroid (FIG. 1). In
June 2010, samples of this asteroid were
returned by the Japan Aerospace Exploration
agency (JAXA)’s Hayabusa spacecraft and are
currently being investigated to better under-
stand the evolution of the Solar System.
Members of Dr. Takashi Mikouchi’s
FIGURE 1 laboratory in front of the field emission
gun scanning electron microscope at the University
of Tokyo (Japan).
Although some of the returned particles are as
large as 300 µm, most are smaller than 50 µm.
Following initial analysis by the Hayabusa
Asteroidal Sample Preliminary Examination
Team, the particles are now being distributed
to the international community under the
International Announcement of Opportunity
(referred to as “AO”) program.
Particles from asteroid Itokawa are of great
scientific interest because they are the fi rst
asteroidal materials to be returned to Earth
and because they contain important informa-
tion on the evolution of small objects in the
Solar System. A direct link has now, and for
the fi rst time, been made between meteorites
and their parent asteroid. The particles have
also revealed that the original parent body,
which was much larger than the present
Itokawa asteroid (535 m × 294 m × 209 m)
experienced a break-up and a subsequent
re-agglomeration into one or more rubble-piles
(e.g. Nakamura et al. 2011). Most importantly,
some Itokawa particles contain evidence that
they were once on the surface of the asteroid
and have been affected by space weathering
(e.g. Noguchi et al. 2011; Nagao et al. 2011).
Such fi ndings would not have been possible
from studying meteorite samples alone.
Mineralogical and crystallographic studies
were conducted on several Itokawa particles
received following the fi rst AO in 2012 (FIG. 2).
Synchrotron radiation X-ray sources were used
E LEMENTS
Back-scattered electron image of an
FIGURE 2 analyzed particle from asteroid Itokawa,
as returned by the Hayabusa spacecraft. Ca phos
(calcium phosphate particle); Plag (plagioclase)
to investigate their thermal and shock histories
(Mikouchi et al. 2014). At the Super Photon
ring – 8 GeV Beam Line 37XU (SPring-8, BL
37XU) facility in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan (the
world’s largest synchrotron), an energy-scan-
ning X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique has
been developed that can analyze crystals as
small as ~1 µm in thin sections (FIG. 3) (Hagiya
et al. 2010). Using this technique, plagioclase
grains from several Itokawa particles were
analyzed and crystal structure refi nements
were performed revealing that they had under-
gone high-temperature metamorphism at
~800 °C. This result is consistent with initial
analyses, which suggested that the original
parent body size was greater than 20 km in
diameter (Nakamura et al. 2011). X-ray absorp-
tion near edge structure (XANES) measure-
ments were carried out at the Photon Factory
of the High Energy Accelerator Research
Organization (KEK) (using a 5- µm beam on
line BL-4A) at Tsukuba (Japan) on the same
plagioclase grains to determine their iron
valence, which is a good indicator of redox
state (Satake et al. 2014). Approximately 50%
of the iron in the Itokawa plagioclase crystals
is present as Fe3+, suggesting formation under
relatively oxidizing conditions. This result is
Synchrotron radiation XRD instrument at
FIGURE 3 the Super Photon ring – 8GeV Beam Line
37XU (SPring-8, BL 37XU) facility in Hyōgo Prefecture,
Japan
216
consistent with reports that Itokawa particles
show a similarity to LL chondrites, which
themselves were formed under relatively
oxidizing conditions.
Takashi Mikouchi
University of Tokyo, Japan
REFERENCES
Hagiya et al. (2010) Meteoritics & Planetary Science
45(Supplement 1): A5-A227, Abstract #5083
Mikouchi et al. (2014) Earth, Planets and Space 66: 82
Nagao et al. (2011) Science 333: 1128-1131
Nakamura et al. (2011) Science 333: 1113-1116
Noguchi et al. (2011) Science 333: 1121-1125
Satake et al. (2014) Geochemical Journal 48: 85-98
JOURNAL OF MINERALOGICAL
AND PETROLOGICAL SCIENCES
Vol. 110, No. 2, April 2015
Original Article
The reactions between iron and magnesite
at 6 GPa and 1273–1873 K: Implication to
reduction of subducted carbonate in the
deep mantle Naira S. MARTIROSYAN,
Konstantin D. LITASOV, Anton SHATSKIY
and Eiji OHTANI
Letters
Local structure around Ge in lithium germ-
anate glasses analyzed by AXS and EXAFS
techniques Hiroshi ARIMA, Toru KAWAMATA
and Kazumasa SUGIYAMA
Geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic character-
istics of Quaternary Magmas from the
Pre-Komitake volcano Tomoyuki SHIBATA,
Mitsuhiro YOSHIMOTO, Toshitsugu FUJIIand
Setsuya NAKADA
New fi nding of paragonite–clinozoisite
association in garnet from the type locality
of Sanbagawa belt (Kanto Mountains,
Japan) Atsushi MIYASHITA
Ruby-bearing feldspathic dike in peridotite
from Ray-Iz ophiolite, the Polar Urals:
Implications for mantle metasomatism and
origin of ruby Satoko ISHIMARU, Shoji ARAI,
Makoto MIURA, Vladimir R. SHMELEV and Evgeny
PUSHKAREV
Effect of clinopyroxene composition on
Fe–Mg distribution coefficient between
garnet and clinopyroxene Daisuke
NAKAMURA, Madoka OKADA and Takao
HIRAJIMA
XAFS study of Zr in Cretaceous–Tertiary
boundary clays from Stevns Klint Tsubasa
TOBASE, Akira YOSHIASA, Ling WANG, Tatsuya
HIRATOKO, Hidetomo HONGU, Maki OKUBE and
Kazumasa SUGIYAMA
The effect of curing temperature of high
alumina cement on the crystallization of
stratlingite: In the case of curing tempera-
tures of 10 °C and 60 °C Toshio SHINMEI,
Makio OHKAWA, Makoto IIYAMA, Christoph
WOHRMEYER and Chris PARR
J UNE 2015
 International Association of Geoanalysts
http://geoanalyst.org
IAG COUNCIL MEETING that our association’s scien-
tific journal is in good
The International Association of Geoanalysts’s Governing Council held
health and it remains a
its most recent meeting on 20 March 2015, at Beaumont Estate near
leading source for the latest
the town of Old Windsor, just west of London, England. Nearly all of
advances in the chemical
the members of council were able to attend, bringing representatives
analysis of geomaterials.
not only from Europe but also from North and South America. This
venue was selected for its specialization in hosting small- to medium- Doug Miles reported on the
size business meetings in a rural environment. Located only a 20-minute current status of IAGeo
drive from London’s Heathrow airport, the venue’s proximity and seclu- Limited, the association’s
sion meant that participating council members arrived Thursday after- commercial trading arm.
noon, effectively giving the council an extra half-day to plan new Interest in quality control
initiatives and to discuss the future direction of our association. materials and in IAG
Certified Reference
Materials for whole-rock
analytical methods remains
unabated. Equally positive
was t he repor t t hat
purchases of the 91500
zircon reference material
remain steady. Council
pa r t ic u la rly welcome d
information about the
unexpectedly strong
demand for other mineral reference materials, confi rming the success
of IAG’s collaboration with the Harvard Mineralogical and Geological
Museum. Readers needing the best characterized reference materials
for bulk methods or for mineral microanalyses are encouraged to visit
Members of the IAG council after their 2015 meeting near the town of Old Windsor
www.IAGeo.com.
(just west of London, UK).

One of the more important topics discussed involved changes to the GEOANALYSIS 2015
structure of the IAG’s materials certification committee. The IAG is
active at the highest level of international metrology, and work has
been initiated that will further optimize our ability to represent the
global geochemical community in this arena. Updating IAG’s certifica-
tion protocol continues in order to bring it into line with recent tech-
nical guides by the International Organization for Standardization.
Phil Potts, current chairperson of the IAG’s Certification Committee,
reported on the status of the various material certification projects that
are already underway. This led to further discussion about which future
sample types should be prioritized for both academic and industrial
users.

IAG’s council has also initiated a discussion on expanding its awards

and professional recognition prizes. Jérôme Chmeleff, winner of the
IAG’s Early Career Scientist Award in 2007 and a council member since
The premier event on IAG’s triennial calendar is the Geoanalysis
2012, outlined proposals to expand the profile of our awards programme,
Conference. This is a key conference for the exchange of ideas on new
including a higher level of support for young scientists and new research
methods for analyzing Earth materials and on the latest trends for
and travel grants for association members. The council enthusiastically
improved data quality. The next event in this conference series is rapidly
agreed to increase the association’s support of analytical geochemistry
approaching. Geoanalysis 2015, the ninth such meeting, will take place
via such initiatives. Further details about these new opportunities will
9–14 August at the Montanuniversität in Leoben (Austria), a region
be announced on www.geoanalyst.org.
with a long and well-established tradition in mining and resource
Ed Williams, managing editor of Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research processing. The conference will be preceded by four technical work-
(GGR), provided a detailed status of our association’s official journal. shops; the post-conference fieldtrips, including options for group travel
His well-received report noted that the number of top-quality manu- to Prague (Czech Republic) for the following week’s Goldschmidt confer-
scripts being submitted continues to grow, and efforts to minimize the ence, are now open for registration. Scientists interested in the latest
turnaround time for peer-reviewed manuscripts are ongoing. Further technical and theoretical advances in the characterisation of natural
visibility for GGR is being generated by the “Editor’s Choice” platform, materials are encouraged to visit the conference’s web site at www.
which currently contains eleven of the most highly cited articles to geoanalysis.info.
have appeared in the journal. These articles are in a free access format
Michel Wiedenbeck
that is available to the entire geoanalytical community. Thus, these
michael.wiedenbeck@gfz-potsdam.de
positive trends, including GGR’s current impact factor of 3.792, mean

E LEMENTS 217 J UNE 2015

 Société Française de Minéralogie
et de Cristallographie
www.sfmc-fr.org

OBITUARY FOR RAYMOND KERN (1928–2014)

Professor Raymond Kern, a world-class expert in
crystal growth, passed away on 6 November
2014. The crystal-growth community has lost not
simply one of its most pre-eminent leaders but
also a man who possessed rich human
qualities.
R. Kern started his career in 1949 as a chemist at
the Laboratory of Mineralogy and Crystallography
(LMC) in Strasbourg (France) where he defended
his Docteur-ès-Sciences thesis in 1953 on the
Prof. Raymond Kern in habit of ionic crystals grown from solution, espe-
his office at the Centre
cially the role that supersaturation and additives
Interdisciplinaire de
Nanoscience de Marseille played on the morphology of alkali–halide crys-
(CINaM) tals. He then moved to the LMC of Paris–
Sorbonne, headed by Jean Wyart and where he
met Hubert Curien, with whom he worked on a
crystallographic theory of crystal twinning. There R. Kern adopted the vectorial
treatment of crystallography, which became the trademark of his whole approach
to teaching the subject throughout his career.
In 1959, R. Kern was appointed professor in Nancy, where he founded his first lab
and applied theory and experiment on solution-growth topics to problems of
nucleation, focusing on the key role that adsorption phenomena play on growing
or inhibiting crystal faces. In 1964, he co-authored a book with Alain Weisbrod
that was, for decades, “the bible” for young Earth scientists: Thermodynamique
de base pour minéralogistes, pétrographes et géologues (Masson & Cie). R. Kern
worked with the crystal-growth specialist Boyan Mutaftchiev ; they focused on
adsorption phenomena and wetting properties of minerals, which led to a better
practical improvement of ore processing by flotation.
In 1966, R. Kern moved to Marseille University (France) where he founded the
Centre de Recherche sur les Mécanismes de la Croissance Cristalline (CRMC2) at
the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, and thereby initiated the “golden
age” of crystal growth research in France. At the CRMC2, physicists, chemists,
biologists, and geologists worked together to explore all facets of crystal-growth
science, including industrial and medical applications. R. Kern co-founded the
Journal of Crystal Growth, the first international journal on the subject. In 1981,
he was elected as head of the Société Française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie.
He maintained a keen interest in crystal science right to the very end; even then
he was working on elastic strain phenomena at steps on crystal surfaces.
Related to his exceptional qualities as a founder of modern crystal growth, R. Kern
had a very strong personality, such that an indifferent opinion of him was not
possible. His office door was always open to discuss with one and all, scientifi c or
personal problems. He loved classical music, literature, gardening, and good food,
all of which he loved to share with his co-workers. He did, like all of us, have a
few pet peeves, among them a strong dislike of television and computers.
In his passing, Raymond Kern leaves behind an unforgettable legacy, both in the
science that he pioneered and in the person that he was.
Alain Baronnet, Aix-Marseille University
Centre Interdisciplinaire de Nanoscience de Marseille (CINaM)

TREASURES OF THE EARTH:

A NEW MINERAL EXHIBIT IN THE HEART OF PARIS
The Muséum National d’Histoire Some 600 spectacular mineral
Naturelle (MNHN) in Paris has just masterpieces are now forming the
reopened its permanent exhibit enti- modern exhibition of Treasures of
tled Trésors de la Terre (Treasures of the Earth. A central alley shows off
the Earth) and we thank the French the giant crystals and four panels
oil company Total for generously dedicated to explaining the mineral
sponsoring the new exhibit. kingdom: definitions, classifications,
crystallography, and optical proper-
The MNHN, founded in 1626, was ties, as well as the formation of the
home to some of the most famous Earth. These aspects are illustrated
mineralogists, crystallographers, and using the best specimens in the
gemologists of all time, including collection, as well as having infor-
René-Just Haüy (1743–1822) and mative presentations on nearby
Henri Becquerel (1852–1908). The touch pads. Three other sections
collections have benefitted greatly explain the interactions between the
from prestigious donations: the mineral kingdom and man: gems,
French Crown Jewels, including the precious metals, and the French
Grand Saphir (135.74 carats) The giant crystal alley, central core to the Treasures of the Earth exhibition. Crown Jewels and precious artefacts
belonging to King Louis XIV of from the French royal collections.
France (1669); the impressive
th th
The section about the history of the
Florentine pietre dure tables (16 –17 century); some of the fi rst pre- mineral collections highlights how the royal apothecary, founded in
Columbian artefacts to enter a western collection (an obsidian Inca 1626, was transformed into an unparalleled “King’s Cabinet of
mirror, 1737); the fi rst scientifically studied meteorites (L’Aigle, 1803); Curiosities” during the 18th century. The last two sections deal with
and many mineral type-specimens, including the fi rst ever dioptase an exclusive selection of the rarest meteorites and of “dream stones”
(Haüy, 1797). The MNHN owns the world’s best collection of giant (梦石, meng shi) from Roger Caillois (1913–1988).
crystals (including quartz, topaz, amazonite, beryl, etc.).
For information, please see www.galeriedemineralogieetgeologie.fr or
contact François Farges (farges@mnhn.fr).

E LEMENTS 218 J UNE 2015

 Meteoritical Society
http://meteoriticalsociety.org
METEORITE NOMENCLATURE COMMITTEE REPORT
The purpose of the Nomenclature Committee
(NomCom) is to approve new meteorite names
and to establish guidelines and make decisions
regarding the naming of meteorites. The
committee also keeps the community apprised of
new meteorites through the Meteoritical Bulletin
and the Meteoritical Bulletin Database (www.lpi.
usra.edu/meteor/metbull.php). While the yearly
publication of the Meteoritical Bulletin (e.g. MB103
Chris Herd
= 2014, MB104 = 2015) lags behind the database
entries, new meteorites are automatically added to the next issue of the
bulletin by the database editor. The contents of the bulletin are acces-
sible using the “Publication” dropdown window in the database. MB103
contains 2593 meteorites (1082 non-Antarctic), and MB104, so far, has
1138 meteorites (385 non-Antarctic).
As of January 1, we welcome Emma Bullock, Vinciane Debaille, and
Hasnaa Chennaoui-Aoudjehane as new members. Special thanks to
Kees Welten, Henning Haack, Smail Mostefaoui, and Caroline Smith,
who have completed their terms on the committee. I thank Caroline
in particular for serving as committee secretary, a position she has held
since 2008.
In order to assist in preventing a backlog of new meteorite submissions
requiring revision, a 90-day limit on revisions has been implemented.
Any submitter that does not revise their submission after 90 days will
have the submission rejected and they will need to resubmit the fi le.
This is not a change in our procedures because the editor has always
had this power. However, we found it necessary to implement this
editorial policy in order to manage old jobs where the submitter does
not make revisions in a timely fashion.
The NomCom has been considering the issue of naming of meteorites
found in Morocco. It has determined that there should be no special
treatment of meteorites found in Morocco and the surrounding areas
for which location information is made known after a northwest Africa
(NWA) name has already been assigned. It is a longstanding tradition
in meteoritics that formal meteorite names should not be changed once
they are established in the literature or in public use.
Further to this topic, the NomCom has revised the Guidelines for
Meteorite Nomenclature. The most significant changes are as follows:
1. Eliminating the special rules for meteorites recovered from Morocco
and surrounding areas. In the past, for meteorites from these areas
to receive location-specific names, a photograph of the meteorite
in place with a GPS unit next to it was required. This requirement
was found to be onerous and difficult to enforce. Recognizing the
large numbers of meteorites found in any given area within this
region, we eliminated the special rules and established a dense
collection area (DCA) grid for all of Morocco and Western Sahara.
DCA sizes are consistent with those from other desert areas (e.g.
Saudi Arabia, Oman, etc.) and are approximately 1 to 1.5 square
degrees. From now on, any meteorites found in these areas will be
given DCA names that better reflect the general area in which they
were recovered.
2. Redefi ning the use of NWA (northwest Africa) and NEA (northeast
Africa) prefi xes. NWA will apply to meteorites thought to be found
in Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Tunisia, or
Niger. NEA will apply to meteorites thought to be found in Libya,
Chad, Egypt, or Sudan.
3. Rebooting the numbering system for NWA meteorites to start at
10001, to reflect the implementation of the new use of the prefi x.
E LEMENTS 219
The guideline changes were met with some consternation from the
meteorite collector/dealer community, as well as some members of the
Meteoritics Society. In response, I have established a DCA subcommittee
to examine the implications of the revised guidelines for meteorites
found in Morocco and surrounding areas, to make any recommenda-
tions for change, and to review the outlines of DCAs in this part of
the world.
A new categorization scheme for falls and fi nds has been implemented
to better express the varying level of confidence as to whether a given
meteorite was actually an observed fall. The five categories are the
following: confirmed fall; probable fall; find, possible fall; find, doubtful
fall; and fi nd. A document explaining the new scheme can be found
at www.lpi.usra.edu/meteor/docs/falls-fi nds.pdf.
As of March 2015, I stepped down as chair, having served in that
capacity for five years. It has been an excellent learning experience for
me, and I am pleased that a number of significant initiatives have been
brought to completion in that time. NomCom is one of the hardest-
working and most active committees in the Meteoritical Society, the
rewards of involvement in which far outshine the challenges.
Please do not hesitate to contact us with questions or concerns about
NomCom, especially with suggestions for improvement. Essential infor-
mation on meteorite nomenclature, instructions and the template for
reporting new meteorites, and NomCom membership can be found at
meteoriticalsociety.org/?page_id=106.
Chris Herd
Chair of Nomenclature Committee
IN MEMORIAM
Dr. Bernard Ray Hawke
passed away on 24 January 2015, in Honolulu (Hawaii). Dr. Hawke, known
as “Ray” to family and childhood friends and as “B. Ray” to most of his
planetary science colleagues, was a renowned lunar scientist, valued mentor,
devoted brother and uncle, and cherished friend to many. He was born on
22 October 1946, in Louisville (Kentucky) and grew up in Elizabethtown,
where he attended public schools. He participated in Future Farmers of
America and 4-H activities [4-H is a US-based youth development program].
His 4-H leader worked for the US Geological Survey. This sparked an interest
in geology in young Ray and later led to an internship doing field mapping
in central Kentucky. He also was inspired by US President Kennedy’s speech
calling for a manned Moon landing.
B. Ray earned a BS in geology at the University of Kentucky. He then entered
the army and served with the 173rd Airborne Brigade and N Company, 75th
Rangers, in Vietnam during 1970–1971. After leaving the army, he returned
to the University of Kentucky where he earned a MS in geology. He continued
his geology studies at Brown University (Rhode Island) where he earned
another MS and a PhD.
Dr. Hawke joined the small group of planetary geologists at the University
of Hawaii in 1978. That group grew and later became part of the Hawaii
Institute of Geophysics and Planetology. In 1983, he established the Pacific
Regional Planetary Data Center, one of NASA’s Regional Planetary Image
Facilities, and remained director until his death. Dr. Hawke’s lunar geology
interests included impact craters and volcanic deposits. He was a pioneer in
advocating the use of the resources associated with pyroclastic deposits by
future inhabitants of the Moon. His scientific studies involved active collabo-
rations with colleagues in Hawaii and around the world, and their success
was due to his generosity. He shared his ideas and knowledge and gave his
time to help others.
Dr. Hawke is survived by his brother Stephen, Stephen’s wife Nancie, and
their children David and Michael of Columbia (Missouri).
J UNE 2015

LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCES1
The term “large igneous province” (LIP) was fi rst intro-
duced in 1992 to describe unusually large, short-dura-
tion volcanic episodes that are relatively rare throughout
Earth’s history and that are not easily explained by plate
tectonics. The use of LIP has become widely accepted;
however, there has been considerable debate as to what
exactly a LIP is and how one originates. In his book Large
Igneous Provinces, Richard E. Ernst has done an excel-
lent job in reviewing these fascinating features and the
controversies surrounding them, as well as providing an
assessment of our current state of knowledge.
The fi rst two chapters cover the historical context of
LIPs and defi nitions that have previously been pro-
posed. Ernst refi nes the earlier concepts and provides a
new defi nition that integrates aerial extent, volume (e.g.
>0.1 Mkm3), eruption duration, number of pulses, geo-
chemical signature, and tectonic setting. He makes it clear that intra-
plate mafic LIPs dominate but distinguishes between LIP and non-LIP
magmatism, thus providing a clear separation of what is and is not
a LIP. Ernst provides the most comprehensive look to date at what a
LIP should include. This, then, provides a sound basis for subdividing
LIPs and describing their characteristics, which forms the second part
of the book.
Ernst’s LIP classification includes the well-established continental, oce-
anic, and volcanic rifted-margin basalts types, but also the less obvious
ones where only small remnants remain, as in Archean and Proterozoic
ones, or even just the dike systems. For example, he classifies Archean,
nonarc, greenstone belts that have tholeiite–komatiite affi nities as LIPs
that probably erupted from the hottest part of a mantle plume. His ratio-
nale for including areas where only dikes remain is that they must have
fed LIPS that now are completely removed, leaving only the plumbing
system for our inspection. One criterion for including dike systems
into LIP classification is that LIP dikes are typically wider than 10 m,
whereas dikes associated with volcanic edifices, mid-ocean ridges, and
ophiolites are typically only a few meters wide. Of course, this is not
a golden rule: many dikes feeding the Columbia River basalts are less
than 10 m wide. Ernst points out that LIP dikes tend to be hundreds to
a thousand kilometers long, which is undoubtedly a characteristic of
LIPs. He also includes the planetary analog LIPs and silicic LIPs, which
have received considerable attention in the last decade. After describing
the main categories of LIPs, he then addresses links between LIPs and
kimberlites, carbonatites, and lamprophyres.
1 Ernst RE (2014) Large Igneous Provinces. Cambridge University Press, New York,
666 pp, ISBN 978-0-521-187177-8, US$130.00
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E LEMENTS
BOOK REVIEW
Following his description and characterization of LIPs,
Ernst examines LIP geochemistry. This chapter includes
some material that might have been better placed with
individual LIP descriptions, but it does provide a nice
overview of the general geochemistry of LIPs in one
coherent chapter. As such, it is a welcome addition for
those wishing to have a summary of the geochemical
aspects of LIPs without having to wade through the
details of individual ones.
The next three chapters look at the broader aspects
of LIPs. First, Ernst considers the role of LIPs in the
supercontinent cycle. Then, he examines regional top-
ographic changes associated with the initiation of LIP
volcanism: this is an interesting subject because many
researchers argue that the emplacement of a LIP is usu-
ally preceded by regional domal uplift as caused by the arrival of a
mantle plume. Finally, he examines the role of geologic structures (e.g.
wrinkle ridges) that are superimposed on many of these features.
The next chapter addresses the impact of LIPs on the environment.
Here, Ernst presents an impressive argument for LIPs having played
a significant role in effecting climate change through Earth’s history
and playing a major role in mass extinctions.
By far the most controversial LIP topic is their origin. Initially, the
plume model was widely accepted; but in the past decade, this model
has come under increasing attack. He begins by reviewing the principal
models, including the bolide model, and then discussing the data that
supports each. It is clear throughout the book that Ernst favors a plume
origin, though he treats alternative models fairly.
The last chapter summarizes the influence that LIPs have had in pro-
viding Earth’s resources: everything from platinum group elements to
water and petroleum. This important topic is typically overlooked by
other authors. Few realize how important LIPs are to civilization, espe-
cially in areas where flood basalts control regional groundwater supplies.
The book is well written and well referenced with abundant illustra-
tions. Considering the cost and information contained, I consider it
worth the price. Ernst developed the book, at least in part, from a
course he taught, and this origin shows throughout. The chapter on
the supercontinent cycle has a fascinating section that would provide
excellent exercises for an introductory tectonic class. Ernst provides
eight “Strategies” for using LIPs to constrain continental reconstruc-
tions. I could see students applying these strategies in an exercise to
reconstruct former continents. Thus, the book would make a great refer-
ence for a graduate seminar in LIPs and could be used for other courses,
including climate change and tectonics. Anyone with an interest in
LIPs will want to have this book.
Stephen Reidel, Washington State University
cambridge.org/earth @CambUP_EarthSci
Volcanism
Global and Global
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Hazards Change
Anja Schmidt
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220 J UNE 2015
 BOOK REVIEW
THE DYNAMICS OF DISASTER1
Historian Will Durant stated that “civilization exists by
geologic consent, subject to change without notice.” In
The Dynamics of Disaster, Susan W. Kieffer provides an
overview of most types of natural disasters. She explains
disasters through the unifying concept of “changes of
state.” The term disaster is defined in as “a sudden calami-
tous event bringing great damage, loss, or destruction.”
This book focuses on disasters caused by geological pro-
cesses on our planet. As the world population grows, our
brushes with natural disasters will intensify because we
will increasingly build on volcano slopes, flood plains,
and other high-risk locations.
After setting the stage in the fi rst two chapters, Kieffer
devotes each of the next seven chapters to one type of
natural disaster: earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes, tsu-
namis, rogue waves, hurricanes, and droughts and floods. Each chapter
starts with a “field trip” to witness examples and ends with reflections
on various topics. A good example of this is the chapter on earthquakes.
Here, Kieffer describes several historical earthquakes and compares
the magnitude 7 earthquake in Haiti in January 2010 with the magni-
tude 7.1 event in New Zealand eight months later. In Haiti, more than
50,000 people died, mostly victims of poor infrastructure, and a million
became homeless. In New Zealand, thanks to strict building codes, no
one died. The chapter ends with a discussion on how information about
risk related to these rare events can be communicated to the public.
1 Kieffer SW (2013) The Dynamics of Disaster. W. W. Norton & Company, New York,
315 pp, ISBN 978-0-393-08095-7, US$25.95
E LEMENTS
In the fi nal chapter, “Earth and Us,” Kieffer discusses
the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake in Italy. In 2012, Italian
scientists were accused, in a court of law, of negligence
for “failing to adequately evaluate and communicate the
potential risk to the public” concerning this earthquake.
This has had a chilling effect on the willingness of sci-
entists worldwide to communicate risks to the public.
She ends the chapter with a plea for the creation of a
“CDC for Planet Earth,” a hypothetical (for the time
being) world body that would be loosely based on the
US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
and whose mandate would be to protect the long-term
health and safety of the planet.
The Dynamics of Disaster is written for the general public,
and, with her fun-to-read conversational style, Susan
Kieffer does a great job of introducing the various concepts needed to
understand the issue at hand. To explain abstract geological concepts,
Kieffer nicely uses examples that everyone can relate to. I highly rec-
ommend this book as a textbook for an introductory course on natural
disasters. My only quibble is that the small, black-and-white photos do
not do justice to the rest of this beautiful, carefully laid-out book. But,
at $25.95 for a hardcover volume, it is excellent value.
Pierrette Tremblay
L évis, Canada
4 Techniques - 1 Workflow.
ESPRIT 2, the only software which
combines 4 microanalysis methods.
www.bruker.com/esprit2
221 J UNE 2015

2015
June 14–19 Gordon Research
Conference: Catchment Science:
Interactions of Hydrology, Biology
& Geochemistry, Andover, NH, USA.
Web page: www.grc.org/programs.
aspx?id=12330
June 15–19 Astrobiology Science
Conference 2015, Chicago, IL, USA.
Web page: www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/
abscicon2015
June 17 Critical Materials, London,
UK. Web page: www.minersoc.org/
critical-materials.html
June 17–21 7th International
Symposium on Granitic Pegmatites
(PEG 2015), Ksiaz, Poland. Web page:
peg2015polandczech.us.edu.pl/index.
php/78-peg2015
June 21–26 Isotopes 2015, Jeru-
salem, Israel. Web page: isotopes2015.
conferences-travel-nevet.com
June 24 Environmental Mineralogy
and Geomicrobiology Research
in Progress meeting, Leeds, UK.
Web page: www.minersoc.org/gmb.
html#GMB-EMG-2015
June 22–29 Extensional Reactivation
of Thrust Faults, Coseismic Surface
Rupture, and Crustal Evolution in the
Eastern Basin and Range Transition
Zone, Evanston, WY, USA. Web page:
www.geosociety.org/penrose
June 22–July 2 XXVI General
Assembly of the International Union
of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG),
Prague, Czech Republic. Web page:
www.iugg2015prague.com
June 27–29 ECROFI23 – The Sorby
Conference on Fluid and Melt Inclu-
sions, University of Leeds, UK. Web
page: www.see.leeds.ac.uk/ecrofi
June 28–July 2 International Sympo-
sium on Zeolites and MicroPorous
Crystals, Sapporo, Japan. Web page:
www.zmpc.org
June 30–July 3 SEM 2015, XXXV
Reunión de la Sociedad Española de
Mineralogía, Huelva, Spain. Web page:
www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/
July 1–3 Deep Carbon Observatory
Thematic Institute: “Carbon from the
Mantle to the Surface”, Berkeley, CA,
USA. Web page: deepcarbon.net/feature/
deep-carbon-observatory-thematic-insti-
tute-carbon-mantle-surface#.VlenXIefUjc
July 5–10 52nd CMS Annual Meeting,
Edinburgh, Scotland. Web page: www.
clays.org
July 5–10 Euroclay 2015, University of
Edinburgh, UK. E-mail: stephen.hillier@
hutton.ac.uk; Web page: www.minersoc.
org/euroclay.html
July 19–23 Astrobiology Graduate
Conference, Madison, WI, USA. E-mail:
abgradcon@gmail.com; Web page:
abgradcon.org
July 25–29 Annual Meeting of the
American Crystallographic Association,
Philadelphia, PA, USA. Web page: www.
amercrystalassn.org/content/pages/
main-annual-meetings
July 26–29 Granulites and Granu-
lites 2015, Windhoek, Namibia. Web
page: web.uct.ac.za/depts/geolsci/
G&g_2015_1circular.pdf
E LEMENTS
CALENDAR
July 26 – August 1 6th International
Conference on Medical Geology,
Aveiro, Portugal. Web page: medgeo15.
web.ua.pt
July 27–28 Urban Geochemistry: The
impact of legacy infrastructure and
contaminants on the environment and
public health, Detroit, MI, USA. www.
iagc-society.org/UG.html
July 27–31 78th Annual Meeting of
the Meteoritical Society, Berkeley, CA,
USA. Web page: www.meteoriticalso-
ciety.org
August 2–6 Microscopy & Microanal-
ysis 2015, Portland, OR, USA. Web page:
www.microprobe.org/events/microscopy-
microanalysis-2015
August 2–7 The 20th American
Conference on Crystal Growth and
Epitaxy (ACCGE-20), Big Sky, MT, USA.
Web page: www.crystalgrowth.org
August 8–14 Geoanalysis Confer-
ence, Leoben, Austria. Web page: 2015.
geoanalysis.info
August 10–12 ICAM 2015 (Interna-
tional Congress on Applied Miner-
alogy), Istanbul, Turkey. Web Page:
icam2015.org
August 14–15 MSA Short Course:
Pore Scale Geochemical Processes,
Prague, Czech Republic. Web page: www.
minsocam.org/msa/SC/#open_sc
August 16–20 250th ACS National
Meeting & Exposition, Boston, MA, USA.
Web page: www.acs.org
August 16–21 2015 Goldschmidt
Conference, Prague, Czech Republic. Web
page: goldschmidt.info/2015
August 23–28 29th Meeting of
European Crystallographic Association
(ECM29), Rovinj, Croatia. Web page:
ecm29.ecanews.org
August 24–27 SGA 13th Biennial
Meeting, Nancy, France. E-mail:
sga-2015@univ-lorraine.fr; Web page:
sga2015.univ-lorraine.fr
August 24–28 Joint DMG / MSA
Workshop: Application of diffusion
studies to the determination of time-
scales in geochemistry and petrology,
Bochum, Germany. Web page: www.
minsocam.org/msa/SC/#open_sc
August 26–28 2nd European Mantle
Workshop, Wroclaw, Poland. Web page:
www.emaw2015.ing.uni.wroc.pl
August 31–September 5 Deep
Carbon Observatory second Early Career
Scientist Workshop, University of the
Azores, Sao Miguel, Portugal. Web page:
deepcarbon.net/feature/second-dco-early-
career-scientist-workshop#.VTpE1SFVikp
September 9–11 8th European
Conference on Mineralogy and Spec-
troscopy (ECMS 2015), Rome, Italy. Web
page: www.ecms2015.eu
September 20–25 8th Hutton
Symposium on Granites and Related
Rocks, Florianópolis, Brazil. Web page:
www.hutton8.com.br
September 21–25 11th meeting on
Applied Isotope Geochemistry (AIG
11), Orléans, France. Web page: aig11.
brgm.fr
September 27–30 Society of
Economic Geologists (SEG) 2015
222
Conference: World-Class Ore Deposits:
Discovery to Recovery, Hobart,
Tasmania. Web page: www.seg2015.org
September 28–October 2
22nd International Symposium for Envi-
ronmental Biogeochemistry, Portoroz,
Slovenia. Web page: www.iseb22.ijs.si
October 4–7 GeoBerlin2015
(Annual Meeting DGG–DMG–GV),
Berlin, Germany. Web page: www.
geoberlin2015.de
October 4–8 MS&T15: Materials
Science & Technology Conference and
Exhibition, combined with ACerS 117th
Annual Meeting, Columbus, OH, USA.
Web page: ceramics.org/meetings/acers-
meetings
October 8–11 Conference of the
Mineralogical Society of Poland,
Sandomierz, Poland. Web page: www.
konferencja-ptmin.us.edu.pl/?lang=en
November 1–5 Geological Society
of America Annual Meeting, Baltimore,
MD, USA. E-mail: meetings@geosociety.
org; Web page: www.geosociety.org/
meetings
November 9–13 Short Course
“Introduction to Secondary Ion Mass
Spectrometry in the Earth Sciences,”
Potsdam, Germany. Web page: www.
gfz-potsdam.de/SIMS/short-course
November 29–December 4 MRS Fall
Meeting & Exhibit, Boston, MA, USA.
Web page: www.mrs.org/fall-meetings
December 14–18 American
Geophysical Union Fall Meeting, San
Francisco, CA USA. Web page: fall-
meeting.agu.org/2015/
2016 www.amercrystalassn.org/content/
pages/main-annual-meetings
January 18–22 10th International
Symposium on Environmental July 24–28 Microscopy & Micro-
Geochemistry (ISEG10), Perth, Western analysis 2016, Columbus, OH, USA. Web
Australia. Web page: www.iseg10.com page: www.microprobe.org
January 24–29 40th International August 7–12 79th Annual Meeting
Conference and Expo on Advanced of the Meteoritical Society, Berlin,
Ceramics and Composites (ICACC’16), Germany. Web page: www.meteoritical-
Daytona Beach, Florida, USA. Details society.org
forthcoming
August 21–25 252nd ACS National
Meeting & Exposition, Philadelphia, PA,
February 14–18 TMS Annual
USA. Web page: www.acs.org
Meeting & Exhibition, Nashville, TN,
USA. Web Page: www.tms.org/meetings/ August 21–26 International
annual-16/AM16home.aspx
Congress on Ceramics (ICC6), Dresden,
Germany. Web page: www.icc-6.com
March 13–17 251st ACS National
Meeting & Exposition, San Diego, CA, August 27–September 4 35th Inter-
USA. Web page: www.acs.org national Geological Congress,
May 22–25 10th South American Cape Town, South Africa. Web page:
Symposium on Isotope Geology www.35igc.org
(SSAGI), Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. Web
September 5–9 International Ni-Cu-
page: www.ssagi10.geofisica.unam.mx/ PGE Symposium, Perth-Fremantle,
June 1–3 Geological Association Western Australia. E-mail: Steve.Barnes@
of Canada – Mineralogical Associa- csiro.au
tion of Canada (GAC-MAC) Meeting, September 9–13 AIPG 2016 National
Whitehorse, Canada. Webpage: white- Conference, Santa Fe, NM, USA. Web
horse2016.ca/ page: aipg.org/events/index.htm
June 19–22 AAPG 2016 Annual
Convention & Exhibition, Alberta, The meetings convened by the
Canada. Web page: www.aapg.org/ societies participating in Elements are
events/conferences/ace highlighted in yellow. This meetings
calendar was compiled by Andrea
June 26–July 1 Goldschmidt2016,
Koziol (more meetings are listed
Yokohama, Japan. Web page: goldschmidt. on the calendar she maintains at
info/2016/
homepages.udayton.edu/~akoziol1/
July 22–26 American Crystallo- meetings.html). To get meeting
graphic Association Annual Meeting, information listed, please contact her
Denver, CO, USA. Web page: at akoziol1@udayton.edu
J UNE 2015
 PARTING SHOTS
BON APATITE!
Apatite is a familiar, friendly little mineral that turns up all over the
place. It’s useful for teaching students that minerals can have both
high relief and low birefringence and for demonstrating the relation-
ship between hexagonal symmetry and the interference figure. I have
often encountered it within the alkali feldspars in many of the alka-
line rocks I have worked on but, seduced by the feldspar microtextures,
have never analysed one. However, right at the start of my career, I
serendipitously became involved with rocks with so much apatite that
they were seriously considered as a commercial source of phosphate.
I started my PhD studies in 1960, right at the beginning of what became
a golden decade for mineralogy and petrology. Perhaps all of us oldies
think of our early careers as part of a golden age, but it is hard to argue
with a decade that gave us plate tectonics, outstanding work in experi-
mental petrology, the introduction of the electron microprobe and XRF
analysis, the fi rst routine use of computers, and the appearance of the
fi rst desktop calculators. And, of course, the Beatles.
The subject of my PhD – at Durham University (UK), under the super-
vision of Henry Emeleus, a truly great field geologist and petrologist,
and still active – was a small syenite pluton, the Loch Ailsh intrusion,
on the eastern edge of the Assynt district in the extreme north-west
of Scotland. Assynt is genuinely world famous because of the classic
maps made by Ben Peach and John Horne at the end of the 19th cen-
tury. They showed that Assynt was a window into a stacked pile of
thrust sheets, the highest and most famous plane of movement being
the Moine Thrust. American exchange students sometimes took our
courses and I remember one such young lady putting her hand rever-
ently on the thrust plane and commenting, “Wow … I had to write
an essay about that!” The top of the Loch Ailsh intrusion is truncated
by this great thrust.
Assynt is a wild and sparsely populated region of great beauty (FIG. 1).
Geological exposure, however, is dreadful (FIG. 2). It is too boggy even
for modern off-roaders, and Peach and Horne did much of their map-
ping on horseback. When interpolation between the rare exposures
became too much even for their fertile (but usually correct) imagina-
tions, they would resort to marking an area as ‘peat’, until the exposure
improved. Most of the Loch Ailsh intrusion is made of alkali feldspar
syenite, and it is the type locality of perthosite, a mono-mineralic
feldspar rock. About a third of my thesis was concerned with single-
crystal X-ray diffraction work on the feldspars and applications of a
new-fangled device called a powder diffractometer. Fifty-five years later,
I’m still going on about feldspars!
The mountains of western Assynt (Scotland). The photographer is
FIGURE 1
standing in the Moine Thrust Belt and most of the rocks surrounding
the loch are imbricated Cambrian limestones. The mountains are part of the belt’s
foreland zone, below the lowermost thrust, and are unmetamorphosed Proterozoic
sandstones resting on Archaean gneiss, a fragment of Laurentia left behind when
the North Atlantic opened.
E LEMENTS
Typical terrain at the western end of the Loch Borralan Complex
FIGURE 2
(Scotland). The boggy peat, sometimes 3 m thick and much of it
covered in thick grass and heather, provides only rare glimpses of the nepheline
syenite complex and its associated apatite-rich pyroxenites.
At several places in the intrusion there are clusters of xenoliths of more
basic varieties of syenite. On the eastern side, close to a contact with
some Cambrian limestones, are a few tiny exposures of apatite-rich
magnetite pyroxenite in a small stream. A Geological Survey memoir
published in 1926 boldly drew an analogy with the Shonkin Sag lac-
colith in Montana and proposed that the Loch Ailsh intrusion was a
stratified laccolith with an upward transition from pyroxenite through
shonkinite and pulaskite to an upper body of perthosite. Clearly, this
laccolith model stood or fell on the attitude and extent of the pyrox-
enites under the peat.
Encouraged by geophysicists at Durham University, I found a field assis-
tant and we headed north with another new-fangled device, a proton
precession magnetometer. I remember the excitement as we started a
traverse at right angles to the little stream, recording the total mag-
netic intensity every few paced yards. The intensity just went up and
up and up! We had discovered one of the largest magnetic anomalies
in the UK: 5000 γ, in the units of the time. We made numerous pro-
fi les, constructed a contour map which showed the anomaly dying
out as the pyroxenites passed under the Moine Thrust, and headed
triumphantly home.
The geophysics group was fi red up by this discovery. I measured the
magnetic properties of orientated samples of pyroxenite and teamed up
with Roger Stacey, a geophysics post-grad. He wrote a programme for
the Ferranti Pegasus computer in Newcastle University (UK) that would
enable us to calculate the subsurface shape of the pyroxenite body.
Pegasus was big: think minibus, but narrower. A restored Pegasus in
the Computing Gallery of the Science Museum in London is currently
the oldest working electronic computer in the world! Each morning
it took engineers two hours to warm up its vacuum tubes. Because we
had to travel some distance, Roger and I were given special permission
to switch it off when it had fi nished its number crunching. This was
not difficult – we just pressed a big red button and closed the windows!
Our calculations clearly showed that the pyroxenites formed a near
vertical mass and that a zone of large vertical screens of pyroxenite
occurred within the syenites. The stratified laccolith was no more. My
fi rst paper (1965) was in geophysics. But the story does not end there.
A few kilometers west-southwest of the Loch Ailsh intrusion is a much
larger pluton, the Loch Borralan Complex. The little rock that is actu-
ally exposed is a riot of exotic nepheline syenites and quartz syenites,
some of which were given names by the early workers that are used to
this day. There are also some tiny exposures of pyroxenite, including
one hidden in the vegetation of FIGURE 2. Encouraged by our success at
Loch Ailsh, we made a single traverse across a large area of totally unex-
posed ground in the south-west of the intrusion where the contact had
to be. Again, we found a very strong magnetic anomaly and evidence
for screens of pyroxenite in other less magnetic rocks of unknown type.
Cont’d on page 224
223 J UNE 2015
 PARTING SHOTS

Cont’d from page 223

Commercial interests arrived in 1969 when, encouraged by the
high vanadium content (0.3%) of the magnetite in the pyroxenites,
Robertson Research International made a detailed magnetic survey of
the Loch Borralan Complex and diamond-drilled four holes through our
anomaly. Further drilling was carried out by Consolidated Goldfields in
1975, and in 1981 the British Geological Survey completed a detailed
gravity survey and drilled 37 boreholes over an area of about 3 km 2,
their interest being sparked by the high apatite content (up to 10%)
of the pyroxenites and its potential as a source of phosphate. Further
drilling followed in the 1980s, funded by the UK Department of Trade
and Industry, because of the discovery that some pyroxenites contained
up to 328 ppb Pt and 550 ppb Pd. Rather similar platinum group ele-
ment (PGE) values were found in the Loch Ailsh pyroxenites.
So, from little acorns do mighty oak trees grow. Two lads with a mag-
netometer, driven only by curiosity, and helped by one of the earliest
computers, discover a potential source of PGE and a source of phos-
phate in the form of apatite. I hope it is never mined. In the UK, we
need to preserve our limited wild country.
Ian Parsons (ian.parsons@ed.ac.uk)
University of Edinburgh

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