TEACHING STRATEGIES

Teaching strategies are the methods you use to allow learners to access the
information you are teaching. For example, you could read the information to them; you
could display it pictorially; you could allow them to research the information themselves;
you could present it as a PowerPoint presentation. People learn in 3 main ways - visually,
auditory and kinesthetically.

a. Visual learners learn by looking at/seeing something.

b. Auditory learners learn by hearing it/being told it.
c. Kinesthetic learners learn by actually doing/experiencing it.

Thus, teaching strategies should aim to include all types of learner.

1. Integrative Teaching Strategy

Integrative teaching strategy is one of the emerging trends in education for the past
years. It focuses on connections rather teaching isolated facts. For instance, a certain
different subject may be integrated in teaching another subject (Like the content of Science
be taught in teaching Language). With this, learners will be able to realize that subjects being
taught to them are not separate and isolated field of knowledge, but are linked to each other
in order to achieve understanding and concept attainment.

Furthermore, integrative teaching aims to connect what is learned in school to real

life situations, thus it is more on developing problem solving and discussions of issues
in the real world. Learners will learn to relate what they learn and apply it to their own
daily lives.

In addition, integrative teaching involves consideration on the learners' individual

differences. These include multiple intelligences and learning styles. The teacher therefore
must present the lesson in various ways that can cater each learner's uniqueness.

Finally, when we say integrative teaching, we must remember the ABC domain of our
objectives. The cognitive, behavioral and affective dimensions in teaching must be given
balanced consideration. Values must be integrated in instruction across all subject areas.
Through this, we are molding "integrated" learners, or well rounded individuals.
INTEGRATIVE TEACHING

According to the Brenda B. Corpuz and Gloria G Salandanan, two well-known

educators in the Philippines…
One characteristic of an effective teaching strategy is that it is integrated. The word
integrated comes from the Latin word integer which means whole. An integrated strategy will put
together the parts of a whole in order to arrive at a wholistic, complete and more accurate view of
reality.
Let’s us recall the story of the four blind men who were made to touch an elephant and who
after were asked what it was that they touched. The first who held one ear said it is a fan. The
second who touched the body said it’s a wall. The third who held one leg it’s a column and the
fourth who touched the tail it’s a rope. Of the four blind men nobody gave a correct answer because
each one touched just a part of the elephant.
That is exactly what happens when we study just a part of reality like when we put a wall to
shut science from math, language from values, music from civics. That is what we do when we teach
the subjects in isolation from one another.
We are far from the truth and we are far from reality. To arrive closer to what is true we
make connections of the subjects. Let’s us make them interconnected instead of drawing
demarcation lines between and among them. We teach values, health, grammar and math when we
teach science. We teach science, values and math when we teach grammar. After all these subjects
are all part and parcel of life which is truly the only curriculum. THE INTEGRATED STRATEGY IS
INTERDISCIPLINARY.

 This term is used to designate what modern educators call the new learning, which aims to
achieve the integration of the individual.
 Integrative teaching is concerned with the development of a well-rounded personality-one
which can adjust and respond to situations in a meaningful way.
 Integration as a concept of organization is seen in different ways. Psychologically,
integration is the term employed to denote the educator's concern for the total personality
of the learner. Pedagogically, integration is used to describe a teaching procedure which
relates varieties of subject matter to units of study or to problem-solving situations.
 Integrative technique is a means of achieving both personal and social integration of the
individual..
 Examples are: Content-based instruction, thematic teaching, and communicative approach in
teaching language.
 Integrative technique is a means of achieving both personal and social integration of the
individual. This technique can work effectively only in an integrative curriculum where
learning opportunities are organized to promote or wholeness of the learner.
 Examples are: Content-based instruction, thematic teaching, and communicative approach in
teaching language.
2. Teaming To Teach: Operational Definitions

Team teaching can be defined as a group of two or more teachers working together to plan,
conduct and evaluate the learning activities for the same group of learners. Quinn and Kanter
(1984) define team teaching as "simply team work between two qualified instructors who, together,
make presentations to an audience." There appear to be two broad categories of team teaching:

 Category A: Two or more instructors are teaching the same students at the same time
within the same classroom;
 Category B: The instructors work together but do not necessarily teach the same groups of
students nor necessarily teach at the same time.

When instructors team teach the same group of students at the same time (Category A), there
are a number of different roles that these team teachers might perform. For monetary and spatial
reasons, this type of team teaching usually involves two partners. Six models of team teaching have
been identified by Maroney (1995) and Robinson and Schaible (1995). Category A team teaching
usually involves a combination of these models according to the personalities, philosophies or
strengths of the team teachers as well as the personalities and strengths of the learners.

 Traditional Team Teaching: In this case, the teachers actively share the instruction of
content and skills to all students. For example, one teacher may present the new material to
the students while the other teacher constructs a concept map on the overhead projector as
the students listen to the presenting teacher.
 Collaborative Teaching: This academic experience describes a traditional team teaching
situation in which the team teachers work together in designing the course and teach the
material not by the usual monologue, but rather by exchanging and discussing ideas and
theories in front of the learners. Not only do the team teachers work together, but the course
itself uses group learning techniques for the learners, such as small-group work, student-led
discussion and joint test-taking
 Complimentary / Supportive Team Teaching: This situation occurs when one teacher is
responsible for teaching the content to the students, while the other teacher takes charge of
providing follow-up activities on related topics or on study skills.
 Parallel Instruction: In this setting, the class is divided into two groups and each teacher is
responsible for teaching the same material to her/his smaller group. This model is usually
used in conjunction with other forms of team teaching, and is ideally suited to the situation
when students are involved in projects or problem-solving activities, as the instructor can
roam and give students individualized support.
 Differentiated Split Class: This type of teaching involves dividing the class into smaller
groups according to learning needs. Each educator provides the respective group with the
instruction required to meet their learning needs. For example, a class may be divided into
those learners who grasp adding fractions and those who need more practice with the
addition of fractions. One teacher would challenge the learners who grasped the concept
more quickly, while the second teacher would likely review or re-teach those students who
require further instruction.
 Monitoring Teacher: This situation occurs when one teacher assumes the responsibility for
instructing the entire class, while the other teacher circulates the room and monitors
student understanding and behaviour.
 Category B team teaching consists of a variety of team teaching models, in which the instructors
work together but do not necessarily teach the same groups of students, or if they do, they do not
teach these students at the same time. This category of team teaching can take many forms:

 Team members meet to share ideas and resources but function independently. An
example arose during the Master of Teaching (MT) lecture series on November 9th, 1999,
when five recent MT graduates shared their experiences after 50 days on the job. Although
these teachers were not teaching in the same class, they participated in daily meetings,
ongoing discussions and planned their curriculum together. A recent article in Mathematics
Teacher (Rumsey, 1999) describes cooperative teaching in which instructors share teaching
ideas and resources but otherwise teach independently. This version of cooperative teaching
entails weekly meetings and a teaching-resource notebook. The goals of the weekly meetings
are to discuss the concepts to be covered during the following week of classes, to present
ways of teaching and assessing these concepts, and to share new ideas among teachers. The
resource notebook is a comprehensive collection of teachers’ best ideas that are ready to
implement and use.
 Teams of teachers sharing a common resource center. In this form, teachers instruct
classes independently, but share resource materials such as lesson plans, supplementary
textbooks and exercise problems.
 A team in which members share a common group of students, share the planning for
instruction but teach different sub-groups within the whole group. This appears similar
to the way in which the Master of Teaching program is operated. The various professors
share a common group, or cadre, but teach separate sub-groups of this cadre.
 One individual plans the instructional activities for the entire team. This model does
not take full advantage of the team concept as only one individual's ideas are incorporated.
Sometimes, due to time or financial constraints, there may be no alternative to one person
designing the entire program.
 The team members share planning, but each instructor teaches his/her own
specialized skills area to the whole group of students. An example would be seven
instructors teaching the seven different topics in Mathematics 30 to seven different classes
and rotating throughout the duration of the course.

Advantages of Team Teaching for the Instructor

1. it gives the participating team teacher a supportive environment,

2. allows for development of new teaching approaches,
3. aids in overcoming academic isolation, and
4. increases the likelihood of sounder solutions regarding the discipline of problematic
students and augments the opportunity for intellectual growth.

Team members are part of a supportive environment in which they are exposed to different
styles of planning, organization, and class presentation. This gives the team members an
opportunity to develop and enhance their own teaching approaches and methods. Another benefit
of team teaching is that working closely with one or more colleagues enables teachers to overcome
the isolation inherent in teaching. When an instructor teaches solo, she rarely has the time or the
opportunity for interacting with her fellow teachers, even though she is surrounded by educational
colleagues. By working together, team teachers can discuss issues relating to students, such as
behavioral expectations, student motivation and teaching policies, and end up with improved
solutions. Robinson and Schaible (1995) describe each team member as a sounding board for
sharing the joys and the disappointments of particular class sessions. When team teaching involves
interdisciplinary subjects, each member can gain enlightenment about lesser-known fields, and
therefore grow intellectually.

Disadvantages for the Instructor

 The primary disadvantage to team teaching appears to be the element of time: the time
required prior to the implementation of the team teaching partnership for professional
development, the many meetings needed during the running of the program as well as the
numerous impromptu chats that are bound to arise from such an endeavor. Ironically, the
time factor that is so necessary to team teaching can also be divisive as it may lead to
conflict. Long before the teachers begin their first class teaching together, intensive staff
development in the area of team teaching may be necessary. This training may involve
learning the rationale behind team teaching, shared readings and discussion, learning
cooperative skills to enable a positive partnership to evolve, as well as learning a variety of
time management skills to ensure smooth operation in meetings and in the classroom.
 While the course is running, time will be taken up by innumerable planned and spontaneous
meetings dealing with planning the course, agreeing on guidelines for such issues as
consistency when grading writing or tests, how to deal effectively with difficult students,
how to improve the content of lessons and the manner in which they are delivered.
 Ironically, the time required to function effectively as a team may increase the probability of
personality conflicts arising between team members. On one hand, these differences may
lead to renewed insights and understanding between the team members, but on the other
hand, an irreparable rift between the colleagues may result. When mediation cannot mend
the situation, separation is often the best alternative, as students can sense the negative
tension between the educators in front of them and this awkward situation will detract from
the students’ learning.

Advantages of Team Teaching for the Student

 Team teaching can open a student's eyes to accepting more than one opinion and to acting
more cooperatively with others. Team teaching may even provide educational benefits such
as increasing the student's level of understanding and retention, in addition to enabling the
student to obtain higher achievement. Exposure to the views of more than one teacher
permits students to gain a mature level of understanding knowledge; rather than
considering only one view on each issue or new topic brought up in the classroom, two or
more varying views help students blur the black-and-white way of thinking common in our
society, and see many shades of gray. In addition, diverse perspectives encourage students to
consider the validity of numerous views. The variety of teaching approaches used by the
team can also reach a greater variety of learning styles (Brandenburg, 1997).
 The cooperation that the students observe between team teachers serves as a model for
teaching students positive teamwork skills and attitudes (Robinson and Schaible, 1995). In a
collaborative team teaching experience (when the two teachers present their respective
content to the same class at the same time) the students witness and partake in a dynamic
display of two minds and personalities. The benefits of collaborative learning include higher
achievement, greater retention, improved interpersonal skills and an increase in regard for
group work for both students and teachers (Robinson and Schaible, 1995).
Potential Disadvantages of Team Teaching for the Student

 While team teaching may prove advantageous for many students, some students may feel
frustration and discontentment about having more than one teacher. The potential for
diversity and ambiguity within team teaching may prove disconcerting for some students
who might be become confused by more than one way of looking at issues or grading
assignments. These students may be unwilling to try out new learning techniques, such as
small-group work, in this different team teaching environment.
 When team teaching involves two instructors teaching the same class at the same time, the
inevitability of larger class sizes may be a detriment for some students, particularly students
with attention deficit disorders, or students who feel uncomfortable or anonymous in large
group settings. Also, a clever student may attempt to play one teacher against the other in
order to improve his/her grades. This is one of the many reasons that team teachers have to
maintain a common and united front, and continually discuss the numerous team teaching
issues and concerns in ongoing communication.
2. Team Teaching
At its best, team teaching allows students and faculty to benefit from the healthy
exchange of ideas in a setting defined by mutual respect and a shared interest in a topic. In
most cases both faculty members are present during each class and can provide different
styles of interaction as well as different viewpoints. Team teaching Strategy is traditionally
thought of as when more than one teacher is involved in instruction within a
classroom. There are a few different models of team teaching, and more than one model
may be carried out within one class period. There are many positive effects associated with
team teaching, but there are also many things that need to be considered before jumping
into a team teaching approach.

Significance
Higher expectations are placed on students and teachers of the 21st century than
ever before. Different studies have been conducted that address different teaching methods
for helping students meet these expectations. Team teaching is just one of the methods that
have been explored. Additionally, as more attention is being brought to including special
education students into the regular classroom, debates develop about how that can be done
effectively. Often, team teaching is the answer.

Types
Traditional team teaching is a model in which two teachers within a classroom
take equal responsibility for teaching the students and are actively involved at all
times. One may be teaching while the other is writing notes on the board. "Supportive
Instruction" is a second model of team teaching in which one teacher teaches the material
and the other teacher provides follow-up activities. "Parallel Instruction" is a form of team
teaching in which students are split into two groups and each teacher is responsible for
teaching his group.
"Differentiated Split Class" team teaching involves splitting students into two
groups based on achievement. One teacher provides remedial instruction to students who
are struggling on a skill while the other teacher provides enrichment to those who have
grasped the skill.
The "Monitoring Teacher" is another form of team teaching. In this model, one
teacher assumes the role of instruction while the other teacher walks around the class and
monitors students' behavior and progress. Different types of team teaching may be used
within one class period.

Effects
When team teaching is organized and carried out effectively, positive effects are felt
by students, parents and school faculty. Research shows that students taught using a team
teaching approach have higher levels of achievement. There is also more contact with
parents by teachers in a team teaching situation. Additionally, schools that employ team
teaching have teachers who are more satisfied with their job, resulting in an improved
work climate.

Considerations
If team teaching is something you are thinking about implementing, ask yourself these
questions before proposing the idea to colleagues:
1. Are the teachers involved open to trying new methods of instruction?
2. Are the teachers involved open-minded and optimistic people?
3. Are the teachers involved resourceful, flexible, and able and willing to communicate
effectively?
4. Are the team members honest, trustworthy, respectful people who won't be offended by
constructive criticism?

Warning
Teachers involved in team teaching need to define what team teaching will look
like in their classroom before implementing this model of instruction. The definition needs
to include everything from goals and responsibilities to planning time. Lack of a unified
definition or vision for team teaching could result in confusion by all involved, including
the students. It could also result in an inconsistent classroom environment in which
students play one teacher against the other.

Advantages
Students do not all learn at the same rate. Periods of equal length are not appropriate
for all learning situations. Educators are no longer dealing primarily with top-down
transmission of the tried and true by the mature and experienced teacher to the young,
immature, and inexperienced pupil in the single-subject classroom. Schools are moving
toward the inclusion of another whole dimension of learning: the lateral transmission to
every sentient member of society of what has just been discovered, invented, created,
manufactured, or marketed. For this, team members with different areas of expertise are
invaluable.

Of course, team teaching is not the only answer to all problems plaguing teachers,
students, and administrators. It requires planning, skilled management, willingness to risk
change and even failure, humility, open-mindedness, imagination, and creativity. But the
results are worth it.
Teamwork improves the quality of teaching as various experts approach the
same topic from different angles: theory and practice, past and present, different
genders or ethnic backgrounds. Teacher strengths are combined and weaknesses are
remedied. Poor teachers can be observed, critiqued, and improved by the other team
members in a nonthreatening, supportive context. The evaluation done by a team of teachers
will be more insightful and balanced than the introspection and self-evaluation of an
individual teacher.

Working in teams spreads responsibility, encourages creativity, deepens friendships,

and builds community among teachers. Teachers complement one another. They share
insights, propose new approaches, and challenge assumptions. They learn new perspectives
and insights, techniques and values from watching one another. Students enter into
conversations between them as they debate, disagree with premises or conclusions, raise
new questions, and point out consequences. Contrasting viewpoints encourage more active
class participation and independent thinking from students, especially if there is team
balance for gender, race, culture, and age. Team teaching is particularly effective with older
and underprepared students when it moves beyond communicating facts to tap into their
life experience.
 The team cuts teaching burdens and boosts morale. The presence of another
teacher reduces student-teacher personality problems. In an emergency one team member
can attend to the problem while the class goes on. Sharing in decision-making bolsters self-
confidence. As teachers see the quality of teaching and learning improve, their self-esteem
and happiness grow. This aids in recruiting and keeping faculty.

Disadvantages
Team teaching is not always successful. Some teachers are rigid personality types
or may be wedded to a single method. Some simply dislike the other teachers on the team.
Some do not want to risk humiliation and discouragement at possible failures. Some fear
they will be expected to do more work for the same salary. Others are unwilling to share the
spotlight or their pet ideas or to lose total control.
Team teaching makes more demands on time and energy. Members must arrange
mutually agreeable times for planning and evaluation. Discussions can be draining and
group decisions take longer. Rethinking the courses to accommodate the team-teaching
method is often inconvenient.
Opposition may also come from students, parents, and administrators who may
resist change of any sort. Some students flourish in a highly structured environment that
favors repetition. Some are confused by conflicting opinions. Too much variety may
hinder habit formation.
Salaries may have to reflect the additional responsibilities undertaken by team
members. Team leaders may need some form of bonus. Such costs could be met by
enlarging some class sizes. Nonprofessional staff members could take over some
responsibilities.
3. MODULAR INSTRUCTION

Modular Instruction (MI) may be defined as instruction which is either partly or entirely
based on modules. Creager and Murray (1971) point out that "current uses of modules range
from one or a few modules inserted into a traditional course, through complete courses that
consist of a prescribed sequence of modules, to courses that offer the student the
choice of a certain number of modules among a large set of modules".(p. 11). They predict
that in the "near future, whole curricula or interdisciplinary programs may be designed
around modules, with each student's program tailored to his individual needs" (p. 11).

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF MODULAR INSTRUCTION?

1. One purpose of MI is to allow the student to proceed at his own rate. The belief that
self-pacing is desirable is based on the generally accepted assumptions that learners
do not achieve at the same rate and are not ready to learn at the same time (Burns,
1971).
2. Another purpose is to allow the student to choose his own learning mode. Choice
among different learning modes is desirable, if we assume that learners solve
problems and learn using different techniques based on unique behavior repertoires
(Burns, 1971). MI may therefore include a large variety of instructional activities,
such as reading textbooks and articles, examining photographs and diagrams,
viewing films and slides, listening to audiotapes, examining demonstration materials,
participating in projects and experiments, and participating in relevant "extra
curricular" activities.
3. A third purpose of MI is to provide a choice among a large variety of topics within any
given "course" or discipline, if we assume that students do not possess the same
pattern of interest and are not motivated to achieve the same goals (Burns, 1971).
4. A fourth purpose is to allow the student to identify his strengths and weaknesses and
to "recycle" through remedial modules, repetition, or a change in learning mode
(Klingstedt, 1971), if we assume that it is desirable to save student time (frequent
evaluation permits early diagnosis) and to allow as many students as possible to
attain the stated objectives.

ADVANTAGES OF MODULAR INSTRUCTION FOR THE STUDENT

If carefully designed, and if alternatives are included, MI can offer the following advantages
to the student:
1. Cooperation. MI reduces competition and threat of failure. Consequently, cooperation
is increased: Students share the responsibility for learning with the teacher.
2. Feedback. Modules have their own built-in assessment of progress: They provide the
student with immediate and continuing feedback.
3. Flexibility. MI adapts to individual learner differences by providing flexibility with
respect to the pacing, format, and content of instruction.
4. Mastery. MI avoids the artificial procedure of grading on a normal curve. Because of
the nature of the learning process in MI, and because real achievement is measured,
potentially all students can master the subject.
5. Motivation. Student choice is likely to increase motivation, hence, effort.
6. Objectives. The modules are designed so that the student may easily identify the
objectives and, therefore, proceed directly to achieve them.
 7. Recycling. MI includes provision for specific remedial work (weak areas are quickly
identified). The student does not have to restudy large amounts of subject content.

ADVANTAGES OF MODULAR INSTRUCTION FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

To the instructor, MI can offer these advantages:

1. Enrichment. The instructor has more time for "enrichment" lectures or special presentations.
2. Freedom from Redundancy. Since modules are independent, single-topic units, they may be
used intact in different courses, eliminating redundancy within and between departments,
thereby decreasing staff preparation time. Similarly, modules may be exchanged among
universities.
3. Freedom from Routine. MI frees the instructor from both lecture preparation and many
routine administrative tasks (the latter are usually assumed by non-professional personnel
and students).
4. Greater Satisfaction. Since modules are developed empirically (i.e., tested and revised until
they are effective), student learning is greater and therefore satisfaction for the instructor
increased: He is doing a job (for which he is paid) well.
5. Individual Attention. The instructor has time to focus on deficiencies of individual students
without involving the whole group with each problem.
6. Intellectual Challenge. Concentrating on the process of learning can be an exciting and
scholarly activity. Questions (such as, how do students learn? How can the instructor
facilitate learning? What is a relevant and necessary sequence in instruction?) can provide
intellectual challenges to any
instructor.
7. Student Contributions. Students, perhaps after completing modules on "How to develop a
module," can become assistant curriculum designers and provide the instructor with
additional instructional materials.

FORMATIVE EVALUATION

Traditional development of instructional materials (e.g., textbooks, films) is usually done in

large sequences or portions and away from students. Revision based on student learning is
therefore difficult and
seldom carried out. Modules cover less content and can be tested in the developmental phase on a
small number of students. This, as well as the provision for pre-and post-testing allow for empirical
validation, i.e., the possibility of rendering instructional materials effective in terms of student
learning.

IMPLEMENTATION

Ideally, the learner begins MI by taking a pretest which will indicate the appropriate level: Too little
familiarity with the subject area to be explored can be as detrimental to successful learning as too
much. If the student does not have all required prerequisites, he may need prior remedial
instruction. If he is already competent in the area of a particular
module, he can proceed to a more advanced module or to one with a different content.
Upon completion of a module the student is again evaluated. The post-test might be identical to the
pretest. If the post-test indicates that the student has not achieved mastery of the module's
objectives, he might be recycled through the module or through parts of it or he may take a
remedial module. If he does succeed, he proceeds to the next (or, to
another) module. (The pre- and post-test also allow for empirical validation of the module itself.)

EVALUATION IN MODULAR INSTRUCTION

Evaluation plays a critical role in well designed MI since it provides feedback to the learner as well
as to the instructor. As far as the learner is concerned, the purpose of evaluation includes the
assessment of prerequisite skills, the diagnosis of difficulties, and the confirmation of mastery. At
the same time, the evaluation of student performance serves as assessment of the instructional
system (e.g., a module) and provides direction for the design of instruction. A number of techniques
can be utilized to evaluate a module, including paper-and-pencil tests, oral quizzes, performance
tests, and individual and group projects.

Final grades in MI are awarded in a variety of ways. In some cases, students who have successfully
completed all required modules automatically receive an "A". In others, a "B" or "C" is earned if a
certain number of units has been mastered, with additional credit given for extra modules, special
projects, the reading of articles or books, or for excellence in execution. In such a system, the
student has considerable choice in deciding his own grade level and the method for achieving it. In
most cases, however, grades are not given on the basis of a comparison among all students of the
class ("grading on a curve") but rather on an absolute basis ("concept of mastery," Bloom, 1968).
Consequently grades in MI are usually somewhat higher than average and "may have means of B or
B+ and modes of B+ or A" (Corey and McMichael, 1970, p. 9).

This should not be surprising if one considers the fact that students acquire and retain more
material (Corey, McMichael and Tremont, 1970).

Reinforcement and feedback in MI are immediate, since the material to be taught is presented in
small units. Thus, deficiencies in student performance can be corrected at once. This again results in
a feeling of accomplishment on the part of the student which rarely manifests itself in courses with
only a final examination.
IN WHICH DISCIPLINES HAS MI BEEN USED?

MI has been used in a variety of disciplines besides biology. For example, psychology (Corey, et al,
1970; Homme and Tosti, 1971; Ringness, 1970), engineering, sociology, education, mathematics,
English, chemistry, linguistics, and the growing field of environmental and social concerns (Butler,
et al, 1971) have also made use of modules. It should be
emphasized that, contrary to common belief, MI is not only useful for teaching skills, facts, or simply
"imparting information"; properly developed and administered, MI can find applications in many
areas often thought of as "beyond" the capability of self-instruction. For example, Lysaught (1968)
reports that self-instructional materials are used by medical practitioners and interns and deal with
current controversies about diagnosis, treatment, and theoretical issues.

One essential criterion, however, has to be observed: The objectives of a modular unit must be
stated clearly. This does not exclude the humanities or the arts where according to some observers
a tendency exists to "rely on vague generalities, defending them in humanistic or creative terms"
(Allen, 1967, p. 2). On the other hand, it is important to note that the objectives of MI are not
necessarily limited to those stated in behavioral terms; not all aspects of a course can be defined
precisely, "but there is virtually no course that does not have at least some components which can
be defined in behavioral terms, and which then become susceptible to this approach" (Allen, 1967,
pp. 2-3).
4. Programmed Instruction

 Programmed instruction is an instructional method in which the material to be learned is

presented to the student in small chunks of information. In order to progress through the
material, the student needs to demonstrate understanding of the previous information,
thereby receiving instant reinforcement for correct responses. This method can be instructor
led or can be self taught by the student. It also lends itself well to computer assisted learning.
The method was originally popularized by B.F. Skinner as a behavioral approach to teaching.
 Programmed instruction is a precise process. The material a student learns is broken down
into tiny chunks to avoid overwhelming the student with too much at once. At times, a single
course may consist of thousands of these chunks, or units, of instruction. It is thought that
presenting the material in small pieces improves comprehension and retention. It's also much
easier to pinpoint exactly where learning issues occur, and which parts are not understood,
allow for immediate remediation.
 Once broken down into units of instruction, the information can be presented to the student.
As the student works through the content, his or her understanding is checked after each
unit. This can be accomplished through questioning directly after the information is
presented. If the student responds correctly, demonstrating appropriate comprehension, he
or she is able to move on; this provides immediate positive reinforcement. If the response is
incorrect, the student receives the information again to provide an opportunity to process it
before moving on to the next module.
 A carefully designed program can be instructor led but it works best in a one-to-one setting,
or with a very small group of students with similar abilities; it's a difficult method to apply in
larger groups. Most curricula that utilize programmed instruction are designed to be self
taught, allowing the student to move through the material at his or her own pace. This also
allows faster learners to move ahead quickly while allowing others to take as much time as is
needed. Programs can utilize a textbook approach, or they can be taught via computer. Most
contemporary programmed instruction uses computers, which are ideal for this approach
since software can be programmed to deliver information and test questions automatically.
 B.F. Skinner is considered by many to be the "father" of programmed instruction. He
popularized the approach in the 1950s. Skinner viewed it as a behavioral method, which used
questions to elicit the correct response as the desired behavior. The approach then rewarded
or reinforced the behavior by allowing the student to move on to new material. Skinner
invented a mechanical device called a "teaching machine" containing a list of questions that
automated by the standards of his day the task of programmed instruction.
 In short, in programmed instruction

- Learners are exposed to small amounts of information and proceed from one
frame or one item of information, to the next in an orderly fashion (this is what is
meant by linear)
- Learners respond overtly so that their correct responses can be rewarded and
their incorrect responses can be corrected
- Learners are informed immediately about whether or not their response is correct
(feedback)
- Learners proceed at their own pace (self-pacing)
COMPARISON BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND MODULAR INSTRUCTION

Characteristics Conventional Course Modular Instruction

Course Success Mostly judged subjectively by the Objectives and evaluation assure
instructor that the instructor is able to correct
faulty instructional materials and
knows when his course is successful
in terms of
student learning
Instructional Mostly lectures and written Many different instructional
Activities assignments, media used on basis of activities are used to optimize
instructor's learning, media used on basis of
personal feelings about them efficacy established through trial
use by students

L earning Experience Oriented toward teacher performance, Oriented toward student

with emphasis on teaching performance
and individual instruction with
emphasis on learning
Mastery It is expected that only a few students Given enough time, all students are
will do very well and some will fail expected to achieve mastery of the
objectives
Objectives Usually not stated in precise Stated in terms of student
observable terms behaviours and presented before
instruction begins
Participation Passive Active
Presentation of Group-oriented at predetermined Highly individualized, each student
Materials times can use any or all of the
instructional materials, available at
preferred times
Rate (or pacing) Students must all go at the same rate Each student can proceed at his
own rate
Reinforcement Usually only after major examinations Immediate and frequent after small
units of material studied

Role of Instructor Disseminator of information - Diagnostician, prescriber,

Test References Norm-referenced tests are used
("grading on a used; success is
independent of
curve")
Testing Student typically takes one or two
tests (sampling the material
"covered") which determine his grade
for the entire course skills
motivator and resource person
Criterion-referenced tests are used
("grading on a used; success is
independent of performance of
fellow students
Designed to measure mastery of the
objectives stated at the beginning of
the course, purposes are
assessment of prerequisite
diagnosis of strengths, weaknesses
and mastery