Hinduism is usually considered a religion like Islam and Christianity.

While Hinduism
remains one of the earliest religious philosophies of mankind, it is not exactly a religion
given by a messiah. It is a human philosophy for life and its conduct that evolved with a lot
of thought and debate, often with multiple schools of views and opinions. Its origin and
evolution are a testimony to its scientific temperament usually missing in religions.

Origin of Hinduism

HINDUISM, as you may be aware, is a misnomer. In Sanskrit, the ancient Indian language,
from which all Indian languages and dialects have arisen, there is

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a word, 'Sindhu' meaning river. Since in ancient times, all concentrations of human
civilizations were around major rivers, those lands were called 'lands of Sindhu' or 'lands of
rivers'. Trading foreigners called those lands 'Hindu' or 'Hind', which came to be called 'India'
by Britishers, and after colonization it became the name by which world addressed this
country.

The same thing happened with religion. The ancient Indian religious philosophy is not a
'religion' in the sense Islam and Christianity are. It is more a sort of philosophy. It was and is
called 'Sanatana Dharma', or 'eternal duty', and revolves around the simple question as to
what should be the duty of a person in his or her different capacities. So the duty of a soldier
will be different from those of a singer, and the duties of a person as a father different as a
son.

One of the Oldest Human Civilizations

Even though the exact historical dates of its evolution are not known, there is enough
evidence to suggest that Indian civilization is one of the oldest human civilizations in the
world. As per available scientific evidence experts have come to a conclusion that humans,
believed to have originated somewhere in Africa, migrated next to Indian region around
85000 years ago. Not much is known about the ancient human dwellings. The earliest
archaeological artefacts of human civilization relate to about 7000 years ago. However, it is
neither possible to say conclusively that Indian civilization did not exist prior to that, nor can
one assign any specific dates with certainty. Thus, on the basis of available evidence, one can
only say that Indian civilization existed around 6000 years ago.

Evolution of Hinduism – The Religion of ‘Dharma’

In ancient India, religion was understood as code of conduct, and even though various
schools of religious philosophies existed in the form of multiple sects, they were not
considered as different religions. In Sanskrit, the ancient Indian language (and perhaps the
oldest of the Indo-European languages surviving today), the word that is equivalent to
religion is DHARMA, meaning ‘duty’. Since the concept of duty applied to every human
being, it was called SANATANA DHARMA, meaning ‘eternal duty.’
Thus, in ancient India, religion was just a matter of social values, not a divine diktat. Thus,
religion in India has always been far more tolerant and less fanatic than anywhere else in the
world during the pre-modern times.

Concept of God in Hinduism

The concept of God in this philosophy is also a result of the understanding and analysis of the
many great philosophers of those times, and is thus more an indication and admission of
ignorance rather than an assertion of superiority. Another important aspect of this philosophy
is the fact that there are different schools of philosophical thoughts all of which are equally
revered and respected, even though one of them may be more accepted than the other. Some
of them are exactly opposite, and yet respected - a tolerance that was often absent even in the
field of scientific thought till the last century.

One school of philosophy considers God as omnipresent, and a part of everything. Thus the
God as a creator is not different from its creation. In this philosophy (Advaitavad), the
universe is a part of God, and so is everything that

exists, though each of these things and beings is not god. Then every human soul (atma) has a
temporary existence, and its ultimate fate is to get united with the rest, i.e. god (parmatma), a
process called 'moksha' or 'nirvana'.

There is another somewhat different school of thought (Vishishta Advaitavad)in which the
creator is separate from the creation, but becomes one after nirvana.

Gyan, Karma & Bhakti – The three paths to salvation

However, before we go any further, it is also necessary to understand such complicated

philosophy of god was not always understood by the common folk. In fact, the rishis and
munis (thinkers) elaborated three ways in which a person should approach God. The path of
devotion (bhakti), the path of action and duty (karma), and the path of knowledge (Gyan).

The first is the 'path of devotion' (Bhakti) - in which a person devotes whole of its existence
and possession to the love of God, therein immersing his complete ego and existence. In the
process he frees himself from all worldly attachments and greed, and attains a detached state
where he is no more affected by the material pursuits and wealth. This is the path in which
one needs to focus on God alone, and to be able to do that, one needs to imagine or perceive
God in a certain form. The devotees follow two different methods for this purpose. One is to
focus on God without any form (nirakar bhakti) - where the God is perceived like all
pervading, all powerful and omnipotent entity. The other is to worship God in a perceivable
human like form (sakar bhakti)- this is a method that became more and more popular over the
centuries because of the ease with which the worshiped entity could be shared and discussed
together by a large mass of mankind.

In different times, and different places, God began to be worshiped in different forms, amidst
the realization that it is only the form that is changing, the essence remains the same. So even
though the God is the same, he is known and called by many names, worshiped in many
forms, and depicted as different entities.
Concept of Incarnation

The 'dharma' includes the philosophy that the God will and does come to mankind in times of
need, by taking the human form. So arose the concept of "incarnation", where the Lord
himself took birth as a human, lived the whole life like any other human, just to follow the
rules he has set for himself, and during his lifetime did whatever was required to let the good
defeat the evil, and to ensure that truth and fairness prevails. Thus in Hinduism, God is
worshiped in many human forms, in which he is believed to have taken incarnations.

A unique thing about God in Hinduism, even in perceived human forms, is that it is gender
neutral. The male and female are supposed to be complimentary halves, and both are
worshiped.

For a civilization that has been there for a few thousand years now, the concept of God is as
deep and interlinked with philosophies, myth and legends, as one would expect it to be.

Introduction

History of Hinduism

India

Hinduism's early history is the subject of much debate for a number of reasons.

Firstly, in a strict sense there was no 'Hinduism' before modern times, although the sources of
Hindu traditions are very ancient.

Secondly, Hinduism is not a single religion but embraces many traditions.

Thirdly, Hinduism has no definite starting point. The traditions which flow into Hinduism
may go back several thousand years and some practitioners claim that the Hindu revelation is
eternal.

Although there is an emphasis on personal spirituality, Hinduism's history is closely linked

with social and political developments, such as the rise and fall of different kingdoms and
empires. The early history of Hinduism is difficult to date and Hindus themselves tend to be
more concerned with the substance of a story or text rather than its date.

Hindu notions of time

Hindus in general believe that time is cyclical, much like the four seasons, and eternal rather
than linear and bounded. Texts refer to successive ages (yuga), designated respectively as
golden, silver, copper and iron.

During the golden age people were pious and adhered to dharma (law, duty, truth) but its
power diminishes over time until it has to be reinvigorated through divine intervention.

With each successive age, good qualities diminish, until we reach the current iron or dark age
(kali yuga) marked by cruelty, hypocrisy, materialism and so on. Such ideas challenge the
widespread, linear view that humans are inevitably progressing.

Main historical periods

Although the early history of Hinduism is difficult to date with certainty, the following list
presents a rough chronology.

 Before 2000 BCE: The Indus Valley Civilisation

 1500–500 BCE: The Vedic Period
 500 BCE–500 CE: The Epic, Puranic and Classical Age
 500 CE–1500 CE: Medieval Period
 1500–1757 CE: Pre-Modern Period
 1757–1947 CE: British Period
 1947 CE–the present: Independent India

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Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation (before 2000 BCE)

The Indus basin ©

The Indus Valley civilisation was located in the basin of the river Indus, which flows through
present day Pakistan. It had developed by about 2500 BCE although its origins reach back to
the Neolithic period. It had faded away by 1500 BCE.

The Indus Valley was a developed urban culture akin to the civilisations of Mesopotamia.
Two major cities have been uncovered, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which has given us the
alternative name of Harappan culture. These cities housed about 40,000 people who enjoyed
quite a high standard of living with sophisticated water systems; most houses having drainage
systems, wells, and rubbish chutes. Grain was the basis of the economy and large grain stores
collected grain as tax.

The civilisation was extensive, from the eastern foothills of the Himalayas, to Lothar on the
Gujarat coast, and to Sutgagen Dor near the Iranian border. Some cities of the Indus valley
culture have yet to be excavated.

The Indus civilisation did not develop as a result of contact with other civilisations such as
Sumer or Egypt but was an indigenous development growing out of earlier, local cultures.

Religion in the Indus valley

We know little of the religion, social structure or politics of this early civilisation and we do
not know the language, but seals have been found with what looks like a script inscribed on
them. This has not been deciphered successfully and some scholars now question whether it
is in fact a script, although this is contentious.

Male figure found at Mohenjo-Daro. Photo: Amir Taj ©

Religion in the Indus valley seems to have involved temple rituals and ritual bathing in the
'great bath' found at Mohenjo-Daro. There is some evidence of animal sacrifice at
Kalibangan. A number of terracotta figurines have been found, perhaps goddess images, and
a seal depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals that some scholars thought to be a
prototype of the god Shiva. Others have disputed this, pointing out that it bears a close
resemblance to Elamite seals depicting seated bulls. One image, carved on soapstone
(steatite), depicts a figure battling with lions which is reminiscent of the Mesopotamian
Gilgamesh myth.

There may be continuities between the Indus Valley civilisation and later Hinduism as
suggested by the apparent emphasis on ritual bathing, sacrifice, and goddess worship. But
ritual purity, sacrifice and an emphasis on fertility are common to other ancient religions.

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Vedic Period

The Vedic Period (c.1500–c.500 BCE)

There have been two major theories about the early development of early south Asian
traditions.
 1. The Aryan migration thesis that the Indus Valley groups calling themselves 'Aryans' (noble
ones) migrated into the sub-continent and became the dominant cultural force. Hinduism,
on this view, derives from their religion recorded in the Veda along with elements of the
indigenous traditions they encountered.
2. The cultural transformation thesis that Aryan culture is a development of the Indus Valley
culture. On this view there were no Aryan migrations (or invasion) and the Indus valley
culture was an Aryan or vedic culture.

There are two sources of knowledge about this ancient period - language and archaeology -
and we can make two comments about them. Firstly, the language of vedic culture was vedic
Sanskrit, which is related to other languages in the Indo-European language group. This
suggests that Indo-European speakers had a common linguistic origin known by scholars as
Proto-Indo-European.

Page of the Rig Veda in

Sanskrit: early 19th century Indian manuscript ©

Secondly, there does seem to be archaeological continuity in the subcontinent from the
Neolithic period. The history of this period is therefore complex. One of the key problems is
that no horse remains have been found in the Indus Valley but in the Veda the horse sacrifice
is central. The debate is ongoing.

Vedic religion

If we take 'Vedic Period' to refer to the period when the Vedas were composed, we can say
that early vedic religion centred around the sacrifice and sharing the sacrificial meal with
each other and with the many gods (devas). The term 'sacrifice' (homa, yajna) is not confined
to offering animals but refers more widely to any offering into the sacred fire (such as milk
and clarified butter).

Some of the vedic rituals were very elaborate and continue to the present day. Sacrifice was
offered to different vedic gods (devas) who lived in different realms of a hierarchical universe
divided into three broad realms: earth, atmosphere and sky.

Earth contains the plant god Soma, the fire god Agni, and the god of priestly power,
Brhaspati. The Atmosphere contains the warrior Indra, the wind Vayu, the storm gods or
Maruts and the terrible Rudra. The Sky contains the sky god Dyaus (from the same root as
Zeus), the Lord of cosmic law (or rta) Varuna, his friend the god of night Mitra, the nourisher
Pushan, and the pervader Vishnu.

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Epic, Puranic and Classical Age

The Epic, Puranic and Classical Age (c.500 BCE–500 CE)

Arjun and one of his brothers, two of the heroes of the Mahabharata.
Dasavatara Temple, Deogarh, 6th century. Photo: Vaticanus ©

This period, beginning from around the time of Buddha (died c. 400 BCE), saw the
composition of further texts, the Dharma Sutras and Shastras, the two Epics, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and subsequently the Puranas, containing many of the
stories still popular today. The famous Bhagavad Gita is part of the Mahabharata.

The idea of dharma (law, duty, truth) which is central to Hinduism was expressed in a genre
of texts known as Dharma Sutras and Shastras. The Dharma Sutras recognise three sources of
dharma: revelation (i.e. the Veda), tradition (smrti), and good custom. The Laws of Manu
adds 'what is pleasing to oneself'.

During this period the vedic fire sacrifice became minimised with the development of
devotional worship (puja) to images of deities in temples. The rise of the Gupta Empire (320-
500 CE) saw the development of the great traditions of Vaishnavism (focussed on Vishnu),
Shaivism (focussed on Shiva) and Shaktism (focussed on Devi).

From this period we can recognise many elements in present day Hinduism, such as bhakti
(devotion) and temple worship. This period saw the development of poetic literature. These
texts were composed in Sanskrit, which became the most important element in a shared
culture.

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Medieval Period

Medieval Period (500 CE–1500 CE)

 Temple to Sri Brahadeeswarar (Shiva) in Tanjavur, the world's first granite
temple, built 1004–1009 CE ©

From 500 CE we have the rise of devotion (bhakti) to the major deities, particularly Vishnu,
Shiva and Devi. With the collapse of the Gupta empire, regional kingdoms developed which
patronised different religions. For example, the Cholas in the South supported Shaivism.

This period saw the development of the great regional temples such as Jagganatha in Puri in
Orissa, the Shiva temple in Cidambaram in Tamilnadu, and the Shiva temple in Tanjavur,
also in Tamilnadu. All of these temples had a major deity installed there and were centres of
religious and political power.

Poet-saints and gurus

During this time not only religious literature in Sanskrit developed but also in vernacular
languages, particularly Tamil. Here poet-saints recorded their devotional sentiments. Most
notable are the twelve Vaishnava Alvars (6th–9th centuries), including one famous female
poet-saint called Andal, and the sixty-three Shaiva Nayanars (8th–10th centuries).

Subsequent key thinkers and teachers (acharyas or gurus) consolidated these teachings. They
formulated new theologies, perpetuated by their own disciplic successions (sampradaya).

Shankara (780–820) travelled widely, defeating scholars of the unorthodox movements,

Buddhism and Jainism, which around the turn of the millennium had established prominent
seats of learning throughout India. He re-established the authority of the Vedic canon,
propagated advaita (monism) and laid foundations for the further development of the
tradition known as the Vedanta.

Madhva (c.1238–c.1317, Vaishnava saint and founder of the philosophical

school Dvaita Vedanta ©
Developments in Vaishnavism and Shaivism

The Vaishnava philosophers Ramanuja (c. 1017–1137), Madhva (13th cent) and others
followed, writing their own scriptural commentaries, propounding new theologies and
establishing their own successions. Ramanuja qualified Shankara's impersonal philosophy,
and Madhva more strongly propounded the existence of a personal God.

Shaivism similarly developed during this period with important philosophers such as
Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025) writing commentaries on the Tantras, an alternative revelation
to the Veda, and other texts.

The Tantras became revered as a revelation that fulfilled or superseded the Veda. Some of
these texts advocated ritually polluting practices such as offering alcohol, meat and ritualised
sex to ferocious deities but most of these texts are simply concerned with daily and
occasional rituals, temple building, cosmology and so on.

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Pre-Modern Period

The Pre-Modern Period (c.1500–1757 CE)

Marble elephants at Jagdish Temple in Udaipur, Rajasthan (1651 CE).

Photo: Christopher Walker ©

Alongside the development of Hindu traditions, most widespread in the South, was the rise of
Islam in the North as a religious and political force in India. The new religion of Islam
reached Indian shores around the 8th century, via traders plying the Arabian Sea and the
Muslim armies which conquered the northwest provinces.

Muslim political power began with the Turkish Sultanate around 1200 CE and culminated in
the Mughul Empire (from 1526). Akbar (1542–1605) was a liberal emperor and allowed
Hindus to practice freely. However, his great grandson, Aurangzeb (1618–1707), destroyed
many temples and restricted Hindu practice.

During this period we have further developments in devotional religion (bhakti). The Sant
tradition in the North, mainly in Maharashtra and the Panjab, expressed devotion in poetry to
both a god without qualities (nirguna) and to a god with qualities (saguna) such as parental
love of his devotees.
The Sant tradition combines elements of bhakti, meditation or yoga, and Islamic mysticism.
Even today the poetry of the princess Mirabai, and other saints such as Tukaram, Surdas and
Dadu are popular.

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British Period

British Period (1757–1947 CE)

Map of British Indian Empire, 1909 ©

Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey (1757) heralded the end of the Mughul Empire
and the rise of British supremacy in India.

At first, the British did not interfere with the religion and culture of the Indian people,
allowing Hindus to practice their religion unimpeded. Later, however, missionaries arrived
preaching Christianity. Shortly after, the first scholars stepped ashore, and though initially
sympathetic, were often motivated by a desire to westernise the local population. Chairs of
Indology were established in Oxford and other universities in Europe.

Hindu reformers

The nineteenth century saw the development of the 'Hindu Renaissance' with reformers such
as Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) presenting Hinduism as a rational, ethical religion and
founding the Brahmo Samaj to promote these ideas.

Another reformer, Dayananda Sarasvati (1824–83), advocated a return to vedic religion

which emphasised an eternal, omnipotent and impersonal God. He wanted to return to the
'eternal law' or sanatana dharma of Hinduism before the Puranas and Epics through his
society, the Arya Samaj.

Both of these reformers wished to rid Hinduism of what they regarded as superstition. These
groups were instrumental in sowing the seeds of Indian nationalism and Hindu missionary
movements that later journeyed to the West.

Another important figure was Paramahamsa Ramakrishna (1836-86), who declared the unity
of all religions. His disciple Vivekananda (1863–1902) developed his ideas and linked them
to a political vision of a united India.

These ideas were developed by Gandhi (1869–1948), who was instrumental in establishing
an independent India. Gandhi, holy man and politician, is probably the best known Indian of
the twentieth century. He helped negotiate independence, but was bitterly disappointed by the
partition of his country. He was assassinated in 1948.

A shrine to Paramahamsa Ramakrishna at Mysore. Photo: Chetan Hegde M

©

Gandhi drew much of his strength and conviction from the Hindu teachings, such as the
notion of ahimsa (non-violence), and propounded a patriotism that was broad-minded and
magnanimous.

Hindutva

During the resistance to colonial rule, the term 'Hindu' became charged with cultural and
political meaning. One central idea was hindutva (hindu-ness), coined by V.D. Savarkar to
refer to a socio-political force that could unite Hindus against 'threatening others'.

Cultural organisations such as the RSS (Rashtriya Svayam-Sevak Sangh) and VHP (Vishva
Hindu Parishad) have embraced and developed this ideal, which found political expression in
the BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party). These sectarian ideas continued after independence.

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Independent India

Independent India (1947 CE–present)

Gate of the Swaminarayan Temple in London. Photo: Colin Gregory

Palmer ©

The partition of India in 1947, and the resultant bloodshed reinforced nationalistic tendencies
and specifically notions of India as 'a Hindu country', and of Hinduism as 'an Indian religion'.

These tendencies have continued and, since then, communal violence has frequently erupted.
In 1992, Hindus were incited to tear down the Babri mosque in Ayodhya, which they believe
was deliberately and provocatively built over the site of Rama's birth. Tensions have been
exacerbated by attempts to covert Hindus to other religions and reactions by the continuing
hindutva movement.

Identity in the Hindu diaspora

However, the post-war Hindu movements imported into the west, and wide migration of
Hindus, raised questions about the exact nature of Hindu identity. From the 1960s onwards,
many Indians migrated to Britain and Northern America. Gurus travelled to the West to
nurture the fledgling Hindu communities, sometimes starting missionary movements that
attracted Western interest.

In the late 1960s, Transcendental Meditation achieved worldwide popularity, attracting the
attention of celebrities such as the Beatles. Perhaps the most conspicuous was the Hare
Krishna movement, whose male followers sported shaved heads and saffron robes.

Practising yoga in Paris. Photo: austinevan ©

Many such Western adherents, and casual practitioners of yoga also, were attracted to the
non-sectarian spiritual aspects of Hinduism. Many Hindu youth in the diaspora have similarly
preferred these universal aspects of Hinduism, standing in tension with its more political and
sectarian elements.

At the end of the millennium, the Hindu communities became well established abroad,
excelling socially, economically and academically. They built many magnificent temples,
such has the Swaminarayan Temple in London.

Hindus in diaspora were particularly concerned about the perpetuation of their tradition and
felt obliged to respond to Hindu youth, who sought a rational basis for practices previously
passed down by family custom. They are now particularly concerned about how to deal with
contentious issues such as caste, intermarriage and the position of women. In many ways,
Hindus in the West are turning back to their roots.
Understanding the Essential Nature of Hinduism

by Jayaram V

Synopsis: Understanding the essential nature, character, diversity, origin and historical
development of Hinduism from its prehistoric roots, and why Hinduism is unlike any other
religion which you may know and why it is difficult to understand it.

How old is Hinduism ?

Hinduism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It is undoubtedly the oldest of the living
religions. Hidden in its layers are traces of many ancient practices that have been erased
completely over time from the memories of the earth. The European historians of early 20th
century grudgingly accepted the period of Indian history as beginning around 2500 B.C. with
the supposed origin of its predecessor, the Vedic religion. However, subsequent studies by
Indologists suggest that Hinduism is much older. Its antiquity is difficult to fathom because it
does not have a founder and does not fit into the western definition of a religion. Hinduism is
a complex tradition, which evolved out of the amalgamation of numerous indigenous
cultures, subcultures and practices of the Indian subcontinent, not just Vedism or
Brahmanism. Just as it is difficult to trace the exact origin of the human civilization, it is
difficult to measure the antiquity of Hinduism.

The early synthesis

The antiquity of Hinduism can be better estimated from the astronomical evidence available
in the Hindu Scriptures, the folk-traditions and anthropological studies peculiar to the Indian
sub-continent, and some geographical and etymological references mentioned in the Vedic
literature. These evidences suggest that what we understand today as Hinduism may have a
long and checkered history of at least 6000 years or more. It is true with regard to the folk
traditions of the early human settlements of the Indian subcontinent which have now become
part of it.

Whatever may be the truth, some of the core beliefs of Hinduism are derived from the Vedic
religion, also known as Brahmanism, which thrived in the Indian subcontinent around 2500
BC. It was based upon the knowledge of the Vedas, of the which the Rigveda is considered
the oldest. It is a voluminous work, which is divided into ten books, and which may have
been composed in its present form over a period of many centuries. The early Vedic people
lived in the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent. We do not know whether they had
any connection with the Indus Valley Civilization. It appears that Vedism thrived, following
the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.

Subsequently, the Vedic people migrated to the plains of the northern and central India. We
do not know the reason for the migration. It happened probably because of the drying up of
the ancient River Saraswathi and continued drought. The Vedas themselves do not reveal
much about these historical events. However, they do throw considerable light upon their
customs, beliefs and practices.

The hymns of the Rigveda suggest that the Vedic religion is very ancient. However, we do
not know how the true origins of the Vedic community or how they gained importance. It is
possible that they were a heterogeneous group. Some of them might have been immigrants
from outside. Their society was divided into four distinct groups, which was based upon
either color, occupation or birth. At some point, the divisions became rigid, resulting in the
emergence of birth based caste system. The knowledge of the Vedas remained confined to the
Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. The Brahmanas specialized in ritual knowledge, while the
Kshatriyas in the spiritual knowledge.

The Vedic hymns were products of a very ancient wisdom, received by ancient seers in
contemplative and intuitive states who claimed as their progenitor, the great Manu, the first
man on earth. The Vedic seers used their religious knowledge wisely, to their best advantage,
attracting new adherents through royal patronage and the appeal of magical rituals. They also
integrated many rival traditions of the subcontinent, either under pressure from the native
rulers or on their own, to broaden their appeal and attract a wider following.
Hinduism may have its roots in the prehistoric times

Hinduism is not derived from Vedic religion only. It has also drawn richly from Shaivism,
Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Tantra, and several ascetic traditions. Overtime it had also been
enriched by numerous folk and tribal traditions. Undoubtedly, some of them had their roots
and antecedents in the prehistoric cultures that thrived in the Indian subcontinent. These
traditions were not part of the Vedic religion, but in course of time they were integrated into
it and became indistinguishable from it. The deities of these traditions became part of the
Vedic pantheon while many original gods of the Vedas were relegated to a secondary place.

Is Hinduism a religion?

Truly speaking, when we refer to Hinduism, we do not know whether we should consider it a
religion or group of religions. Neither Hinduism nor any of its sects is founded by any
particular person nor institution. Numerous seers, sages, saints, scholars, philosophers, kings
and common people contributed to its growth. Some of its beliefs and traditions are
diametrically opposed to each other. The contradictions of Hinduism lead to the argument
that Hinduism cannot be considered a religion in the strict sense of the word, but as a
complex theology, which incorporates into its body numerous beliefs, scriptures,
philosophies, concepts and practices.

The word Hindu is not a religious term but a geographical one. It is derived from the River
Sindhu, which flowed in the north western region of the Indian subcontinent. To the world
outside, the people who inhabited the region were known as Hindus. Later their faiths
collectively became Hinduism. Some scholars prefer calling it Santana Dharma, meaning the
eternal religion, since God, who is said to be its source, is eternal. Hinduism differs from
other organized religions in the following aspects:

 It is not based upon a particular founder.

 It is not based upon a particular book.
 It is not controlled by a central institution or authority such as a church or a sangha or
association.
 It is not averse to examine and assimilate fundamentally diverse thoughts and beliefs into its
system.
 It accepts other religions as various paths to salvation and does not favor organized
attempts to proselytize people.
 It has been evolving continuously, through internal reforms and as a reaction to the threats
and challenges without.

Hinduism is difficult to define

That Hinduism is not a religion in the strictest sense of the word, but an ancient tradition in
continuity and in perpetual evolution is an unquestionable fact. To try to define Hinduism is
like trying to put the waters of an unfathomable ocean into a small vessel, or to capture the
essence of human life in a single word or phrase.

With a structured definition we may be able to capture the essential elements of Hinduism
and satisfy our intellectual curiosity. But it is highly doubtful if that justifies the significance
of a tradition that began in prehistoric times and eventually grew into a complex system of
religious thought and beliefs, which we recognize today under the generic name of
"Hinduism." Hinduism is continuing to evolve even now.

Hinduism can be truly called an Asvaththa tree, whose roots are above, and whose branches
are spread throughout below. The roots are the traditions that we inherited from the Rigvedic
Aryans or their ancestors. The branches are the various new schools, sects, philosophers and
teacher traditions, which were subsequently incorporated into it during its long history. The
trunk is the belief in the eternal nature of Self and the Supreme Self who are central to
Hinduism.

Hinduism is a way of life

Those who are familiar with Hinduism know that is not a religion, but a way of life. It is very
true. Hinduism is not supposed to be practiced on specific occasion or at specific places. You
may go to temples and offer worship to gods. You may perform daily rituals. In Hinduism
they do not constitute true practice. Hinduism has to be lived in word and deed from the time
you wake up and until you go to bed. Your commitment to the Dharma extends even beyond
this world into the next world since your karma follows you like your shadow. According to
the tenets of Hinduism, life and religion are inseparable. Religion pervades your whole life,
like the omnipresent Brahman, dominating and regulating every aspect of your life, and
aligning it with the aims of creation and the functions of God. As an aspect of God you have
the obligation to manifest the will of God upon earth and play your dutiful role in ensuring
the order and regularity of the world. Thus, in living your life upon earth you are never
separate from your source from your ordained duties.

Dharma, which is a set of your prescribed duties, controls every action of a devout Hindu.
Though he has the freedom to live his life according to his desires and expectations, he
cannot yield to them because it will bind him to the cycle of births and deaths. Therefore, if
he wants to be free from suffering and escape from rebirth, he has to put God at the center of
his life and live it for his sake rather than for himself. Thus, the invisible hands of religion
mold the thinking of a devout Hindu at every step, and make him part of the larger vision of
God. Beneath his mind, his religion remains, like an undercurrent, influencing his thinking
and actions.

The transformative nature of Hinduism

Throughout its history, Hinduism has never been static. It has evolved continuously from
stage to stage, adapting and transforming itself to the changing, social and political
conditions. While circumstances played a considerable role in its growth and transformation,
it also benefited greatly over the ages from the contribution of numerous seers, sages, saints,
kings, scholars, devotees, and patrons. By correcting, molding, modifying, and integrating
various aspects of the tradition according to the needs and demands of the times, they kept
the lamp of Hindu wisdom and spirituality bright and burning. With foresight and wisdom,
they provided knowledge and guidance to a multitude of people, while the world still
overshadowed by endless wars, violence, barbarism, savagery.

They enriched the tradition, gave it depth and complexity, and imparted to it great flexibility
and openness for which it is well known today, making it appealing and acceptable to a wide
range of people with different temperaments, beliefs and attitudes. Because of them
Hinduism has become like an ocean, allowing into it the flow of diverse streams of thought
from all directions. Like an ocean it remained firm and stable, in a world of impermanence
and change absorbing new knowledge and traditions, without losing in the process, its
moorings and original character. Despite its long history and numerous influences, it did not
compromise its basic ideals, nor lose its vitality and core beliefs. Instead, it grew in strength
and character, to illuminate and enlighten eager minds, absorbing new thoughts and concepts,
without discarding what it has already gathered. Over the centuries, it peacefully and
harmoniously integrated the old with the new and broadened its base.

Interaction with other religions

Since Hinduism never existed as a monolithic religion, but lived in parts and in numerous
guises, the competing religions which either originated in India or entered India from outside
during its long history could not make much difference to it. They influenced it in parts,
while they were influenced in turn, thus resulting in a synthetic ethnic culture which currently
distinguishes the Indian subcontinent from the rest of the world.

The interaction also resulted in numerous reforms and improvements within Hinduism. For
example, Hindu caste system grew from a fourfold system into a complex system consisting
of numerous castes and sub castes. Secondly it shifted the attention of its followers from
external ritual practices to internal spiritual practices. Thirdly it facilitated the integration of
numerous and schools.

We can see traces of early reforms within Hinduism in the epic Mahabharata, several
Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita. We may reckon Lord Krishna as one of the earliest social
and religious reformer of his times. The Buddha was not the first social or religious reformer
of ancient India. Before him there were many and among them Lord Krishna was one of the
most prominent. To a careful reader of the Bhagavad-Gita it becomes self-evident that the
scripture was a reaction against religious conditions of his times.

It synthesized many divergent ideas and created a coherent philosophy and spiritual approach
to the problem of bondage and karma, and the ideal solutions to achieve liberation. It
presented a rational basis to the people to resolve the contradictions that were inherent in the
paths of action (karma), knowledge (jnana), intelligence (buddhi), renunciation (sanyasa),
contemplation (atma samyama), and devotion (bhakti), the path of knowledge, and put them
together to achieve the four chief aims of human life namely dharma, artha (wealth), kama
(sexual desire) and moksha (liberation).

The divergent Darshana philosophies of Hinduism, and the emergence of atheistic or

renunciant traditions such as the Carvakas, Apart from rise of Buddhism and Jainism, the
Lokayatas, Parivrajakas, Ajivikas and Nirgaranthas were also products of a similar
development. Although they opposed it and competed with it for followers, in the end they
either yielded to its influence or became dissolved in it.

The Upanishads, the end part of the Vedas, were also products of scholarly reaction against
the tyranny of the Vedic ritualism sanctioned by the Samhitas and Brahmanas. Similar was
the case with the Bhakti movement, which originally started in the South in the first or the
second century A.D., and culminated in the subsequent rise and popularity of Saivism and
Vaishnavism. The rise of the Tantrism and other movements, at a time when Buddhism and
Jainism were on the ascendance and gaining ground, added complexity and depth to the
ancient Indian religious thought and provided it with the much needed diversity for which it
is famous today. The schools of Monism (Advaita), Dualism (Dualism) and Qualified
Dualism (Vishishtadvaita) were the internal reactions, which attracted the attention of many
seekers of truth and encouraged them to explore the true nature of the reality of the world in
which they lived.

It is said that competition amongst these divergent sampradayas (traditions) was very intense,
sometimes resulting in religious intolerance, infrequent wars and quarrels, religious debate
and mutual abuse.

However, through that commotion and confrontation the Vedic religion somehow emerged as
a complex tradition, gaining depth and complexity from numerous sources. It is still the most
dominant tradition of India, which wields considerable influence over large sections of
society,

Hinduism encounter with Islam and Christianity

Interaction with other religions, coupled with internal reforms and assimilation of numerous
sects and traditions, and absence of a distinct identity or monolithic character, helped
Hinduism successful cope with Islam and Christianity when they entered the subcontinent
through foreign subjugation. When they confronted the native faiths, the two religions had
immense political patronage and vast resources to exert themselves. However, they
succeeded but little largely because what they dealt with was largely unlike them in
organization as well as essential character.

Hinduism, then was not yet a recognized, unified religion. It existed but in name. What they
confronted was a large body of distant traditions and practices and a native population of
diverse ethnic, social, political, linguistic, regional groups. The very flexibility of the native
traditions, the loyalty, devotion and commitment of the native people to their beliefs and
practices, despite the absence of centralized religious authority, were the major obstacles
which they were unable to overcome.

Therefore, they succeeded but little. With the help of money, power and political coercion,
they managed to convert a few groups, but largely they remained ineffective. They did shake
Hinduism and left it a little bruised and battered in parts, largely they were unsuccessful to
change the native mindset and the loyalty of the people to their ancestral religions.

Folk Traditions of Hinduism

Since the earliest times, India has been home to a diverse group of people. It is now widely
believed that the Indus Valley people were heterogeneous and belonged to diverse racial and
ethnic groups. The diversity of Indian population remained intact throughout its long history.
Vedic community itself was not much different from the rest of India. Apart from urban
settlements and organized village communities, there were many tribes and rural folk who
lived in different parts of the subcontinent, practicing various faiths and occupations and
speaking numerous languages. Most of them lived on the fringes of Vedic society and the
civilized world, but enjoyed considerable freedom in practicing their faith. They had no
access to the Vedic scriptures or right to worship the Vedic gods. Instead, they worshipped
Nature, plants, trees, mountains, rivers, ancestors, spirits, snakes, lakes, oceans, and so on. At
times, they also practiced animal and human sacrifices. Today some of their practices have
become integrated into Hinduism. In many parts of India people still worship village and
local deities, celebrate festivals in their honor, make offerings to the ancient spirits.

Thus, we can see that what we today understand as Hinduism originally started thousands of
years ago, and overtime absorbed numerous traditions, beliefs and practices, acquiring in the
process a great complexity, depth and character, and catering to the religious and spiritual
needs of the educated and enlightened as well as the ignorant and the uninformed.

Britannica:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism#toc261604

http://www.hinduwebsite.com/

UNIT – II HINDU SCRIPTURES

Vedas - Four Vedas and their outlines –

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas

http://www.indianmirror.com/scriptures/vedas.html

The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization and the most
sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, containing
spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of life. The philosophical maxims of Vedic
literature have stood the test of time, and the Vedas form the highest religious authority for
all aspects of Hinduism and are a respected source of wisdom for mankind in general.

The word Veda means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it serves to manifest the language
of the gods in human speech. The laws of the Vedas have regulated the social, legal, domestic
and religious customs of Hindus up to the present day. All the obligatory duties of Hindus at
birth, marriage, death etc. are guided by Vedic rituals.

Origin of the Vedas

It is difficult to say when the earliest portions of the Vedas came into existence, but it seems
clear they are among the very earliest written wisdom docments produced humans. As the
ancient Hindus seldom kept any historical record of their religious, literary and political
realization, it is difficult to determine the period of the Vedas with precision. Historians
provide us many guesses but none are guaranteed to be precise. It is thought, though, that the
earliest Vegas may date back to roughly 1700 BCE—the late Bronze Age.
Who wrote the Vedas?

Tradition has it that humans did not compose the revered compositions of the Vedas, but that
God taught the Vedic hymns to the sages, who then handed them down through generations
by word of mouth.

Another tradition suggests that the hymns were "revealed" to the sages, who were known as
the seers or “mantradrasta” of the hymns. The formal documentation of Vedas was done
mainly by Vyasa Krishna Dwaipayana around the time of Lord Krishna (c. 1500 BC)

Classification of the Vedas

The Vedas are classified into four volumes: the Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda
and the Atharva Veda, with the Rig Veda serving as the principle text.

The four Vedas are collectively known as “Chathurveda, ” of which the first three Vedas--
Rig Veda, Sama Veda and Yajur Veda--agree with one another in form, language and
content.

Structure of the Vedas

Each Veda consists of four parts--the Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (rituals), the
Aranyakas (theologies) and the Upanishads (philosophies). The collection of mantras or
hymns is called the Samhita.

The Brahmanas are ritualistic texts that include precepts and religious duties. Each Veda has
several Brahmanas attached to it.

The Aryanyakas (forest texts) intend to serve as objects of meditation for ascetics who live in
forests and deal with mysticism and symbolism.

The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Veda and is therefore called the
“Vedanta” or the end of the Veda. The Upanishads contain the essence of Vedic teachings.

The Mother of All Scriptures

Although the Vedas are seldom read or understood today, even by the devout, they no doubt
form the bedrock of the universal religion or “Sanatana Dharma” that all Hindus follow. The
Upanishads, however, are read by serious students of religious tradition and spirituality in all
cultures and are regarded as principle texts within the body of mankind's wisdom traditions.

The Vedas have guided our religious direction for ages and will continue to do so for
generations to come. And they will forever remain the most comprehensive and universal of
all ancient Hindu scriptures.

Next, let's look at the four Vedas individually,

“The One Truth the sages call by many names.” ~ Rig Veda

The Rig Veda: The Book of Mantra

The Rig Veda is a collection of inspired songs or hymns and is a main source of information
on the Rig Vedic civilization. It is the oldest book in any Indo-European language and
contains the earliest form of all Sanskrit mantras, dating back to 1500 BCE- 1000
BCE. Some scholars date the Rig Veda as early as 12000 BCE - 4000 BCE.

The Rig-Vedic ‘samhita’ or collection of mantras consists of 1,017 hymns or ‘suktas’,

covering about 10,600 stanzas, divided into eight ‘astakas,’ each having eight ‘adhayayas’ or
chapters, which are sub-divided into various groups. The hymns are the work of many
authors, or seers, called ‘rishis.’ There are seven primary seers identified: Atri, Kanwa,
Vashistha, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bharadwaja. The rig Veda accounts in
detail the social, religious, political and economic background of the Rig-Vedic civilization.
Even though monotheism characterizes some of the hymns of Rig Veda, naturalistic
polytheism and monism can be discerned in the religion of the hymns of the Rig Veda.

The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda
and are ascribed to the Vedic period.

The Sama Veda: The Book of Song

The Sama Veda is purely a liturgical collection of melodies (‘saman’).

The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the
Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own. Hence, its text is a reduced version of
the Rig Veda. As Vedic Scholar David Frawley puts it, if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama
Veda is the song or the meaning; if Rig Veda is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its
realization; if Rig Veda is the wife, the Sama Veda is her husband.

The Yajur Veda: The Book of Ritual

The Yajur Veda is also a liturgical collection and was made to meet the demands of a
ceremonial religion. The Yajur Veda served as a practical guidebook for the priests who
execute sacrificial acts while muttering simultaneously the prose prayers and the sacrificial
formulae (‘yajus’). It is similar to ancient Egypt’s “Book of the Dead.”

There are no less than six complete recessions of Yajur Veda--Madyandina, Kanva,
Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani and Kapishthala.

The Atharva Veda: The Book of Spell

The last of the Vedas, this is completely different from the other three Vedas and is next in
importance to the Rig Veda with regard to history and sociology. A different spirit pervades
this Veda. Its hymns are of a more diverse character than the Rig Veda and are also simpler
in language. In fact, many scholars do not consider it part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva
Veda consists of spells and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a clearer picture of the
Vedic society.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Vedas are a collection of hymns and other religious texts composed in India between
about 1500 and 1000 BCE. It includes elements such as liturgical material as well as
mythological accounts, poems, prayers, and formulas considered to be sacred by the Vedic
religion.

Origin & Authorship of the Vedas

The origin of the Vedas can be traced back as far as 1500 BCE, when a large group of
nomads called the Aryans, coming from central Asia, crossed the Hindu Kush Mountains,
migrating into the Indian subcontinent. This was a large migration and used to be seen as an
invasion. This invasion hypothesis, however, is not unanimously accepted by scholars today.
All we know for certain, mainly through linguistic studies, is that the Aryan language gained
ascendency over the local languages in the Indian sub-continent. The language of the Vedas
is Sanskrit, an ancestor of most of the modern languages spoken today in South Asia.

Cremation was believed to prevent the spirit of the dead from remaining among the living, so
worshippers of Agni burned their dead, and Agni transported the soul.

We do not know much about the authors of these texts: In Vedic tradition the focus tends to
be on the ideas rather than on the authors, which may allow one to look at the message
without being influenced by the messenger. Vedic literature is religious in nature and as such
tends to reflect the worldview, spiritual preoccupations, and social attitudes of the Brahmans
or priestly class of ancient India.The Vedas were first composed sometime around 1500-1000
BCE in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent - present day Pakistan and
northwest India - and they were transmitted orally over many generations before eventually
being committed to writing. Like the Homeric epics, parts of the Vedas were composed in
different periods. The oldest of these texts is the Rig-Veda, but it is not possible to establish
precise dates for its composition. It is believed that the entire collection was completed by the
end of the second millennium BCE.

Structure & Content of the Vedas

The basic Vedic texts are the Samhita “Collections” of the four Vedas:

 Rig-Veda “Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise”, for recitation.

 Sama-Veda “Knowledge of the Melodies”, for chanting.
 Yajur-Veda “Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas”, for liturgy.
 Atharva-Veda “Knowledge of the Magic formulas”, named after a kind of group of
priests.

In general, the Vedas have a strong priestly bias, as the priestly class had the monopoly in the
edition and transmission of these texts.
The Rig-Veda is the largest and most important text of the Vedic collection; it includes 1028
hymns and it is divided into ten books called mandalas. It is a difficult text, written in a very
obscure style and filled with metaphors and allusions that are hard to understand for modern
reader. The Sama-Veda has verses that are almost entirely from the Rig-Veda, but are
arranged in a different way since they are meant to be chanted. The Yajur-Veda is divided
into the White and Black Yajur-Veda and contains explanatory prose commentaries on how
to perform religious rituals and sacrifices. The Atharva-Veda contains charms and magical
incantations and has a more folkloristic style.

The Vedas present a multitude of gods, most of them related to natural forces such as storms,
fire, and wind. As part of its mythology, Vedic texts contain multiple creation stories, most of
them inconsistent with each other. Sometimes the Vedas refer to a particular god as the
greatest god of all, and later another god will be regarded as the greatest god of all.

Some elements of the religion practised by the natives of India before Vedic times still persist
in the Vedas. The Pre-Vedic religion, the oldest known religion of India, which was found in
India before the Aryan migrations, was apparently an animistic and totemic worship of many
spirits dwelling in stones, animals, trees, rivers, mountains, and stars. Some of these spirits
were good, others were evil, and great magic skill was the only way to control them. Traces
of this old religion are still present in the Vedas. In the Atharva-Veda, for example, there are
spells to obtain children, to avoid abortion, to prolong life, to ward off evil, to woo sleep, and
to harm or destroy enemies.

Gods & Mythological Accounts

Despite the fact that the Rig-Veda deals with many gods, there are some who get a lot of
attention. More than half the hymns invoke just three top-rated gods of the moment: Indra
(250 hymns), Agni (200 hymns), and Soma (just over 100 hymns).

Indra was the head of the ancient Hindu pantheon. He was the Storm-god (sometimes he is
referred to as the Sky-god and also as the god of war). The Vedas describe Indra as the god
“Who wields the thunderbolt”, and his most celebrated story was the killing of the demon-
serpent Vritra. The legend says that Vritra kept all the waters trapped in his mountain lair,
and Indra was the one who slew the demon in order to release the waters.

I have slain Vritra, O ye hast’ning Maruts;

I have grown mighty through my own great vigour;

I am the hurler of the bolt of Thunder

For man flow freely now the gleaming waters.

(Mackenzie, Donald, Indian Myth.,54)

This story has a deep significance: The waters are vital for the health of any human
community where agriculture is understood as the basis of wealth. By hoarding the waters,
the serpent has upset the natural order, preventing the circulation of wealth and nourishment.
Indra must thus do battle to restore the balance.
He, who slew the Dragon, freed the Seven Rivers, and drove the

kine forth from the cave of Vala,

Begat the fire between both stones, the spoiler in warrior's battle,

He, O men, is Indra.

(Rig-Veda 2.12.3)

Even the Heaven and the Earth bow down before him, before his

very breath the mountains tremble.

Known as the Soma-drinker, armed with thunder, the wielder of the bolt,

He, O men, is Indra.

(Rig-Veda 2.12.13)

Soma was the personification of the sacred soma plant, whose juice was holy and intoxicating
to gods and men. Agni, the god of fire, is often referred to in Vedic literature as the most
important god, and is considered to be the flame that lifts the sacrifice to heaven, a symbol of
the fiery life and spirit of the world, the “vital spark”, the principle of life in animate and
inanimate nature. Agni was seen as a sort of messenger between the realm of the living and
the realm of the dead. Cremation was believed to prevent the spirit of the dead from
remaining among the living, and for this reason, worshippers of Agni burned their dead, and
Agni was responsible for transporting the soul of the dead.

Another important deity is Varuna, who was initially associated with heaven. Varuna
eventually developed into the most ethical and ideal deity of the Vedas, watching the world
through his great eye, the sun, and was thought to know everything, to enforce justice and to
preserve the world’s smooth functioning. Varuna was also the executor and keeper of the
eternal law known as Rita. This was at first the law that established and maintained the stars
in their courses; gradually it became also the law of right, the cosmic and moral rhythm
which every human must follow to avoid the celestial punishment.

The Vedas also have a hymn to Purusha, a primordial deity who is sacrificed by the other
gods: Purusha’s mind became the Moon, his eyes the Sun, his head the Sky, and his feet the
Earth. In this same passage we have one of the first indications of a caste system with its four
major divisions:

 The Brahmans or priests, came from Purusha’s mouth

 The Kshatriyas, or warrior rulers, from Purusha’s arms
 The Vaishyas, or the commoners (land-owner, merchants, etc.), from Purusha’s
thighs.
 The Shudras, or labourers and servants, from Purusha’s feet.

Myths are products of beliefs, and beliefs are products of experience. This story reflects the
concerns and experiences of a community based on agricultural lifestyle, where water is seen
as one of the most valuable assets. Myths with an agricultural significance are found in many
other cultures and dragon-slaying myths are told all over the world, especially in many other
Indo-European traditions.

Later Vedic Period

During Vedic times, it was widely believed that rituals were critical to maintain the order of
the cosmos and that sacred ceremonies helped the universe to keep working smoothly. In a
sense, ceremonies were seen as part of a deal between humans and the gods: Humans
performed sacrifices and rituals, and the gods would return their favour under the form of
protection and prosperity.

Nature, however, remains indifferent to religious rituals, so when events went awry, society
blamed the priests’ incompetence. Priests were not willing to admit their helplessness in
trying to master nature and would say that the gods ignored poor quality offers. The solution,
the priests said, required more royal support. Brahman priests refused to have their privileges
cut, so they developed a new literature which specified, sometimes in a very detailed way,
how rituals had to be performed, the precise quantity and quality of material to be used, and
the exact pronunciation of sacred formulas. This new set of texts, known as the Brahmanas,
was attached to the Vedic collection around the 6th century BCE. The priests claimed that if
sacrifices were performed exactly as they said, then the gods would be compelled to respond.
When these new rituals also proved to be useless, many sectors of Indian society believed
that this whole business of ritual and sacrifice had been taken too far.

During the later Vedic period (from c. 800 to c. 500 BCE), the priestly class was seriously
questioned. The rituals, the sacrifices, the detailed rulebooks on ceremonies and sacrifices, all
of these religious elements were being gradually rejected. Some of those who were against
the traditional Vedic order decided to engage in the pursuit of spiritual progress, living as
ascetic hermits, rejecting ordinary material concerns and giving up family life. Some of their
speculations and philosophy were compiled into texts called The Upanishads. A number of
practices were linked to this new spiritual approach: meditation, celibacy, and fasting, among
others.

Around the 7th century BCE, India saw the growth of a culture of world-renunciation, which
was a reaction against the Vedic tradition. This culture is the common origin of many Indian
religions considered to be “heretical” by the Indian traditional priestly class. Charvaka,
Jainism, and Buddhism, among other movements, originated around this time, encouraged by
the gradual decay of the priestly orthodoxy. This would result in the end of the Vedic
hegemony, shifting the focus of religious life from external rites and sacrifices to internal
spiritual quests in the search for answers.

The authority of the Vedas eventually diminished to give way to a new religious synthesis in
India that would dominate Indian society for the centuries to come.
Upanishads:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads
Upanishad means the inner or mystic teaching. The term Upanishad is derived from upa
(near), ni (down) and s(h)ad (to sit), i.e., sitting down near. Groups of pupils sit near the
teacher to learn from him the secret doctrine. In the quietude of the forest hermitages the
Upanishad thinkers pondered on the problems of deepest concerns and communicated their
knowledge to fit pupils near them. Samkara derives the word Upanishad as a substitute from
the root sad, 'to loosen.,' 'to reach' or 'to destroy' with Upa and ni as prefixes and kvip as
termination. If this determination is accepted, upanishad means brahma-knowledge by which
ignorance is loosened or destroyed. The treatises that deal with brahma-knowledge are called
the Upanishads and so pass for the Vedanta. The different derivations together make out that
the Upanishads give us both spiritual vision and philosophical argument. There is a core of
certainty which is essentially incommunicable except by a way of life. It is by a strictly
personal effort that one can reach the truth.

The Upanishads more clearly set forth the prime Vedic doctrines like Self-realization, yoga
and meditation, karma and reincarnation, which were hidden or kept veiled under the
symbols of the older mystery religion. The older Upanishads are usually affixed to a
particularly Veda, through a Brahmana or Aranyaka. The more recent ones are not. The
Upanishads became prevalent some centuries before the time of Krishna and Buddha.

The main figure in the Upanishads, though not present in many of them, is the sage
Yajnavalkya. Most of the great teachings of later Hindu and Buddhist philosophy derive from
him. He taught the great doctrine of "neti-neti", the view that truth can be found only through
the negation of all thoughts about it. Other important Upanishadic sages are Uddalaka Aruni,
Shwetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada, Sanat Kumara. Many earlier Vedic teachers like
Manu, Brihaspati, Ayasya and Narada are also found in the Upanishads.

In the Upanishads the spiritual meanings of the Vedic texts are brought out and emphasized
in their own right.

--------------------------------------------------------------
The Upanishads are a collection of texts of religious and philosophical nature, written in
India probably between c. 800 BCE and c. 500 BCE, during a time when Indian society
started to question the traditional Vedic religious order. Some people during this time decided
to engage in the pursuit of spiritual progress, living as ascetic hermits, rejecting ordinary
material concerns and giving up family life. Some of their speculations and philosophy were
compiled into the Upanishads. There is an attempt in these texts to shift the focus of religious
life from external rites and sacrifices to internal spiritual quests in the search for answers.

Etymologically, the name Upanishad is composed of the terms upa (near) and shad (to sit),
meaning something like “sitting down near”. The name is inspired by the action of sitting at
the feet of an illuminated teacher to engage in a session of spiritual instructions, as aspirants
still do in India today.

The books, then, contain the thoughts and insights of important spiritual Indian figures.
Although we speak of them together as a body of texts, the Upanishads are not parts of a
whole, like chapters in a book. Each of them is complete in itself. Therefore, they represent
not a consistent philosophy or worldview, but rather the experiences, opinions and lessons of
many different men and women.

Themes & Content

Although there are over 200 surviving Upanishads, only 14 are considered to be the most
important. The names of these Upanishads are: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,
Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brhadaranyaka, Svetasvatara, Kausitaki,
Mahanarayana and the Maitri.

These texts provide the basic source for many important topics of Indian philosophy and all
major philosophical themes are covered in their pages. In general they remain neutral among
competing interpretations and they attempt to integrate most of the opposing views regarding
philosophical and spiritual matters.

When a person achieves moksha (liberation), their atman (self) returns to Brahman (the source),
like a drop of water returning to the ocean.

The purpose is not so much instruction as inspiration: they are meant to be expounded by an
illuminated teacher from the basis of personal experience. In fact, one of the first lessons that
we learn in the Upanishads is the inadequacy of the intellect. Human intellect is not an
adequate tool to understand the immense complexity of reality. The Upanishads do not claim
that our brain is entirely useless; it certainly has its use. However, when it is used to unlock
the great mysteries of life, the eternal, the infinite, then it simply is not enough. The highest
understanding, according to this view, comes from direct perception and intuition.

Basic Principles

Even though the Upanishads do not offer a single comprehensive system of thought, they do
develop some basic general principles. Some of these principles are samsara, karma, dharma
and moksha. These principles form a metaphysical scheme which was shared with varying
adjustments made by most Indian religions and philosophers.

The concept of Samsara is reincarnation, the idea that after we die our soul will be reborn
again in another body. Perhaps in an animal, perhaps as a human, perhaps as a god, but
always in a regular cycle of deaths and resurrections.

Another concept is Karma, which literally means “action”, the idea that all actions have
consequences, good or bad. Karma determines the conditions of the next life, just like our life
is conditioned by our previous karma. There is no judgement or forgiveness, simply an
impersonal, natural and eternal law operating in the universe. Those who do good will be
reborn in better conditions while those who are evil will be reborn in worse conditions.
Dharma means “right behaviour” or “duty”, the idea that we all have a social obligation. Each
member of a specific caste has a particular set of responsibilities, a dharma. For example,
among the Kshatriyas (the warrior caste), it was considered a sin to die in bed; dying in the
battlefield was the highest honour they could aim for. In other words, dharma encouraged
people of different social groups to perform their duties the best they could.

Moksha means “liberation” or release. The eternal cycle of deaths and resurrection can be
seen as a pointless repetition with no ultimate goal attached to it. Seeking permanent peace or
freedom from suffering seems impossible, for sooner or later we will be reborn in worse
circumstances. Moksha is the liberation from this never ending cycle of reincarnation, a way
to escape this repetition. But what would it mean to escape from this cycle? What is it that
awaits the soul that manages to be released from samsara? To answer this question we need
to look into the concept of atman and Brahman.

The Upanishads tell us that the core of our own self is not the body, or the mind, but atman or
“Self”. Atman is the core of all creatures, their innermost essence. It can only be perceived by
direct experience through meditation. It is when we are at the deepest level of our existence.

Brahman is the one underlying substance of the universe, the unchanging “Absolute Being”,
the intangible essence of the entire existence. It is the undying and unchanging seed that
creates and sustains everything. It is beyond all description and intellectual understanding.

One of the great insights of the Upanishads is that atman and Brahman are made of the same
substance. When a person achieves moksha or liberation, atman returns to Brahman, to the
source, like a drop of water returning to the ocean. The Upanishads claim that it is an illusion
that we are all separate: with this realization we can be freed from ego, from reincarnation
and from the suffering we experience during our existence. Moksha, in a sense, means to be
reabsorbed into Brahman, into the great World Soul.

The following passage explains in metaphorical terms the idea that atman and Brahman are
the same:

As the same fire assumes different shapes

When it consumes objects differing in shape,

So does the one Self take the shape

Of every creature in whom he is present.

(Katha Upanishad II.2.9)

How is moksha achieved? There are many ways according to the Upanishads: Meditation,
introspection and also from the knowledge that behind all forms and veils the subjective and
objective are one, that we are all part of the Whole. In general, the Upanishads agree on the
idea that men are naturally ignorant about the ultimate identity between atman, the self
within, and Brahman. One of the goals of meditation is to achieve this identification with
Brahman, and abandon the ignorance that arises from the identification with the illusory or
quasi-illusory nature of the common sense world.
In the famous Chandogya Upanishad, we find the story of Uddalaka and his son Shvetaketu.
At a certain point Shvetaketu went to study the Vedas and returned to his family after twelve
years, very proud of what he had learned, maybe even a little arrogant. Uddalaka asks his son
if he had gained the wisdom that allows him to hear the unheard, to perceive what is
unperceivable, to know the unknown. Shvetaketu has no idea what he is being asked, so his
father employs a series of metaphors to enlighten his son:

As the rivers flowing east and west

Merge in the sea and become one with it,

Forgetting they were separate rivers,

So do all creatures lose their separateness

When they merge at last into pure Being.

There is nothing that does not come from him.

Of everything he is the inmost Self.

He is the truth; he is the Self supreme.

You are that Shvetaketu, you are that.

(Chandogya Upanishad IV.10.1-3)

Legacy

These metaphysical schemes of samsara, karma, dharma and moksha presented in the
Upanishads are to some degree shared by most Indian religions, including Hinduism, Jainism
and Buddhism. These concepts are part of the cultural makeup of Indian society. This is
particularly interesting in the case of Buddhism: despite the fact that the Buddha originally
remained indifferent to metaphysical speculations, many Buddhist schools have adopted this
scheme as part of their metaphysics.

Unlike the Vedas, which present the rituals relevant to a specific culture, the Upanishads’
message attempts to be universal. In India, these texts are still today as highly regarded as
they were in the past and they have played an important role in shaping Indian culture.

------------------------------------------------------------------
The Upanishads are the end part of the Vedas which briefly expound the philosophic
principles of the Vedas and are considered the essence of the Vedas. The philosophy of the
Upanishads is sublime, profound, lofty and soul-stirring. The Upanishads speak of the
identity of the atman (individual soul) and brahman (the Supreme Soul). They reveal the most
subtle and deep spiritual truths.

Fold
Table of Contents

Overview

Origin Of the Upanishads

108 Principal Upanishads

Significance and Ideal

References

Overview

There is no book in the whole world that is so thrilling, soul-stirring and inspiring as the
Upanishad. The philosophy taught by the Upanishads has been the source of solace for many,
both in the East and the West. The human intellect has not been able to conceive of anything
more noble and sublime in the history of the world than the teachings of the Upanishads.

The Upanishads contain the essence of the Vedas. They are the concluding portions of the
Vedas and are the source of the Vedanta philosophy. Profound, original, lofty and sublime
thoughts arise from every verse. They contain the direct spiritual experiences or revelations
of seers, or sages, the rishi. They are the products of the highest wisdom, supreme divine
knowledge. Hence they stir the hearts of people and inspire them.

The glory or grandeur of the Upanishads cannot be adequately described in words, because
words are finite and language is imperfect. The Upanishads have indeed greatly contributed
to the peace and solace of mankind. They are highly elevating and soul-stirring. Millions of
aspirants have drawn inspiration and guidance from the Upanishads. They are the cream of
the Vedas. They are treasures of incalculable value. They are rich in profound philosophical
thought. Their intrinsic value is very great. There is immense depth of meaning in the
passages and verses. The language is beautiful.

The Upanishads give a vivid description of the nature of the Atman, the Supreme Soul, in a
variety of ways, and expound suitable methods and aids to attain the Immortal Brahman, the
Highest Purusha.

Ages have passed since they were first presented to the world. Even now they are remarkably
sweet and charming. Their freshness is unique. Their fragrance is penetrating. Many cannot
live today without the study of Upanishads daily. They give supreme food for the soul.

It is said that Schopenhauer, the renowned philosopher of the West, had always a book of the
Upanishads on his table, and was in the habit, before going to bed, of performing his
devotions from its pages. He said,

The Upanishads have undoubtedly exercised and will continue to exercise a considerable
influence on the religion and philosophy of India. They present a view of reality which would
certainly satisfy the scientific, the philosophic, as well as the religious aspirations of man.
Origin Of the Upanishads

The Upanishads are metaphysical treatises which are replete with sublime conceptions of
Vedanta and with intuitions of universal truths. The Indian Rishis and seers of yore
endeavoured to grasp the fundamental truths of being. They tried to solve the problems of the
origin, the nature and the destiny of man and of the universe. They attempted to grasp the
meaning and value of knowing and being. They endeavoured to find a solution for the
problems of the means of life and the world and of the relation of the individual to the
‘Unseen,’ or the Supreme Soul. They sought earnestly satisfactory solution of these profound
questions: Who am I? What is this universe or Samsara? Whence are we born? On what do
we rest? Where do we go? Is there any such thing as immortality, freedom, perfection, eternal
bliss, everlasting peace, Atman, Brahman, or the Self, Supreme Soul, which is birthless,
deathless, changeless, self-existent? How to attain Brahman or Immortality?

They practised right living, Tapas, introspection, self-analysis, enquiry and meditation on the
pure, inner Self and attained Self-Realization. Their intuitions of deep truths are subtle and
direct. Their inner experiences, which are direct, first-hand, intuitive and mystical, which no
science can impeach, which all philosophies declare as the ultimate goal of their endeavours,
are embodied in the sublime books called the Upanishads.

The Upanishads are the knowledge portion, or Jnana-Kanda, of the Vedas. They are eternal.
They came out of the mouth of Hiranyagarbha, or Brahman. They existed even before the
creation of this world.

The Upanishads are a source of deep mystic divine knowledge which serves as the means of
freedom from this formidable Samsara, earthly bondage. They are world-scriptures. They
appeal to the lovers of religion and truth in all races, and at all times. They contain profound
secrets of Vedanta, or Jnana-Yoga, and practical hints and clues which throw much light on
the pathway of Self-Realization.

There are four Vedas., Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and atharvaveda. There are as many
Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas or branches (subdivisions). there are 21, 109,
1000, and 50 subdivisions to Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas respectively. Thus there
are one thousand and hundred and eighty (1,180) Upanishads.

108 Principal Upanishads

There are total 108 Upanishads according to the Muktika Upanishad. Of these, the following
12 are considered the principle Upanishads. They are:

1. Isha Upanishad
2. Kena Upanishad
3. Katha Upanishad
4. Taitiriya Upanishad
5. Aitareya Upanishad
6. Prashna Upanishad
7. Mundaka Upanishad
8. Mandukya Upanishad
9. Chandogya Upanishad
 10. Svetasvatara Upanishad
11. Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad
12. Maha-Narayana Upanishad

Another 8, called minor Upanishads, are:

1. Kaivalya Upanishad
2. Kaushitaki Upanishad
3. Atma Upanishad
4. Amritabindu Upanishad
5. Brahma Upanishad
6. Paramahamsa Upanishad
7. Sarva Upanishad
8. Aruni (Aruneyi) Upanishad

Significance and Ideal

Knowledge of the Upanishads destroys ignorance, the seed of Samsara. 'Shad' means to
'shatter' or 'destroy'. By having knowledge of the Upanishads one is able to sit near Brahman,
i.e., to attain Self-realisation. Hence the name 'Upanishad'. Knowledge of Brahman is called
'Upanishad', because it leads to Brahman and helps aspirants to attain Brahman. The term
'Upanishad' is applied to the book also in a secondary sense, by courtesy.

The following two ideas dominate the teaching of all the Upanishads:

(1) Final emancipation can be attained only by knowledge of the Ultimate Reality, or
Brahman (Brahmajnana):

(2) He who is equipped with the four means of salvation, viz., Viveka, (discrimination),
Vairagya (dispassion), Shad-Sampat (the six-fold treasure; self-control, etc.) and
Mumukshutva (yearning for liberation), can attain Brahman.

The Upanishads teach the philosophy of absolute unity.

The goal of men, according to the Upanishads, is realisation of Brahman. Self-Realization

alone can dispel ignorance and bestow immortality, eternal bliss, and everlasting peace.
Knowledge of Brahman alone can remove all sorrows, delusion and pain.

The Upanishads are rightly called the Vedanta, the end of the Vedas, that which is reserved
for those who have freed themselves from the bonds of formal religion.

The Upanishads are not meant for the masses, as they contain the highest speculations of
philosophy. They are meant only for the select few, who are fit and worthy to receive the
instructions. Hence the term 'Upanishad' signified at first 'secret teaching' or 'secret doctrine'.
As already stated, Sadhana-Chatushtaya (the fourfold means) is the primary qualification of
an aspirant of Jnana-Yoga, or one who seeks the knowledge of the Upanishads.

Study the Upanishads systematically. Acquire the four means of liberation. Meditate on the
non-dual Atman or Brahman and attain ever-lasting Bliss!
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Identity of Atmam and Brahman:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)

Atman & Brahman

The phrase "atman is Brahman" captures the Vedanta school's primary view about ultimate
reality and our human relationship to it. The Vedanta school of Hindu thought is one of the
largest and most dominant perspectives in Hindu philosophy.

What does "atman is Brahman" mean?

Let's break the phrase down into its two basic concepts.

First is "atman" - loosely translated, this means "soul" or "individual soul." Atman refers to
the essence of each individual living thing - its soul or primary living energy. Each living
thing - people, animals, plants - have an atman that forms each thing's eternal essence. The
atman is not the body; the body is not eternal. The body houses the atman until the body dies.
Atman is immortal and eternal.

Brahman is "world soul" or "cosmic soul." It is the eternal essence of the universe and the
ultimate divine reality. It is the life source of all that has been, is and will be throughout the
entire cosmos. It is not an individual being - it is more like the primal ground or reality of all
being and existence.

So, the phrase "atman is Brahman" is saying, quite simply, that the individual soul is the
world soul.

In other words, each individual soul - say, yours or mine - comes from and is made of the
same reality as the world soul. There is no distinction between us, on the one hand, and the
ultimate divine reality, on the other.

This is an amazing concept!

It basically means that in our deepest selves, we are divine. All living things are divine in
their deepest selves. Now, that divine self may be hidden or covered over by hatred, envy,
fear or other negative things. But, it is there nonetheless and it is our "true" and "eternal"
selves.
Maybe you've heard people say hello, goodbye or greet people with the word "namaste"
accompanied by clasped hands and a bow. What this greeting means is something like "the
divine in me honors the divine in you." This statement makes sense because of the belief that
"atman is Brahman" - all living things are ultimately divine.

This concept is at the heart of much of the non-violent tradition in Hinduism, and is has
spread throughout the world into other systems of thought.

For example, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. studied the teachings of Gandhi, the famous Hindu
leader, and learned this concept of atman is Brahman. Dr. King incorporated it into his own
Christian theology and used it as a central idea in his theory of non-violent, passive resistance
in the American civil rights movement.

Civil rights demonstrators were not to strike back at those who made fun of them or harassed
them for their stand for equal rights under the law. Why? Because even the worst racists -
even the members of the Ku Klux Klan - have an atman, and that atman is Brahman.
Therefore, they are divine in their deepest selves and that must be respected despite the hatred
they express.

Atman is Brahman for everyone - not just the nice people.

Imagine the strength it took to not lash out against those who spewed hatred!

Indeed, the concept of "atman is Brahman" has had a powerful impact in the world - even in
communities that don't practice Hinduism.

Search for The Soul – Indrajit Rathore

A Spiritual Odyssey

« The Upanishads : evolution of thought

The Upanishads : Education of Svetaketu about the Soul »

The Upanishads : Brahman and Atman

November 30, 2013 //
17

credit: saibharati.com

Parallel to the development of the concept of Brahman as Universal Essence was that of
the Soul or Atman also as being the Universal essence. The Atman was in like
manner shown as being both ubiquitous and immanent. This thought derived its
inspiration from the Rig-Vedic concept of the Cosmic Person from whose eye emerged
the Sun, the Moon from his mind, fire from his mouth, the wind from his breath, the
sky from his head, the earth from his feet etc. Thus the Cosmic Person was seen as
projecting into the forces of nature and the world.

A further extension of this thought in the Upanishads was to create a correspondence

not only to the world in general but to the individual as well. Thus fire now entered the
mouth of a person and became speech, wind entered the nose and became breath, the
Sun became sight in the eyes, the moon became his mind and so on. While on the one
hand creation was shown as emerging from the Universal Essence, on the other the
created forces were shown as producing the faculties of man. Thus the microcosm and
the macrocosm were connected.

From the Cosmic Person analogy also arose the thought that the Universal Essence was
a Great Soul of which the individual soul was an aspect (Ansha). Thus in the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad it is stated:

”Atman is the person in the earth and the person in the body… in fire and in speech; in
wind and in breath; in the Sun and in the eye… in truth and truthfulness; in humanity and
in the human; in the Self and in the self.”

The idea of the immanence of Brahman had a cosmic magnificence while that of the
extension of the Universal Soul at the core of beings as individual souls, was even more
extraordinary with profound spiritual implications. It was philosophically and ethically
elevating and deeply significant for the future course of Indian thought and spirituality.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad clearly defines the emerging insight:

”That same thing, namely, this self, is the trace of this All; for by it one knows this All. Just
as ( if it were)a footprint”

Again in the Svetashvatara Upanishad the same theme is reiterated:

” with the nature of this self, as with a lamp, a practitioner of Yoga beholds here the nature
of Brahman”

The cosmic Brahman as an idea and the subtle Atman concept then began to be
connected as we see in the Chandokya Upanishad : ”Who is our Atman? What is
Brahman? Finally the two concepts merged and Brahman and Atman became
synonymous. Thus the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad cleary states:

‘Verily, that great unborn soul, undecaying, undying, immortal, fearless is Brahman.’

And again in the Svetasvatara Upanishad it is affirmed:

‘The Soul which pervades all things…this is Brahman.’

This grand union of two complimentary concepts implied that the unitary cosmic
realism of the first was now one with the innermost spiritual essence of the self and the
not-self, the great spirit of a supersoul. Furthermore the linkage between the individual
self and the Great Self was the ultimate step to an authentic Monism as in the
resounding declaration of the Chandokya Upanishad”

‘Tat tvam asi’ – ‘That thou art’

- Bhagavad Gita – Gnana, Karma, Bakthi yogas :

The Yoga of the Bhagavad-gita

Complexity:

by Satyaraja Dasa

Lord Krishna discusses the major forms of yoga, setting up a hierarchy and saying clearly
which one belongs at the top.
When Time magazine ran a cover story on the science of yoga, it reported that "fifteen
million Americans include some form of yoga in their fitness regimen—twice as many as did
five years ago." Yet one wonders if any of the fifteen million are getting out of yoga what
they should. As supermodel Christy Turlington, pictured on the cover as an ardent
practitioner, is quoted as saying, "Some of my friends simply want to have a yoga butt."
Patricia Walden, a prominent yoga teacher who has made a fortune producing instructional
videos, responds to what many would consider a shallow approach to yoga: "If you start
doing yoga for those reasons, fine. Most people get beyond that and see that it's much, much
more."

Or do they?

The sad truth is that most people are not studying the Bhagavad-gita, traditionally seen as a
yoga-sutra, a treatise on yoga. At least in Western countries, aspiring yogis, intimidated by
the Gita's Sanskrit terminology, set the book aside to be studied later. Though that response
in understandable, let's look at the Gita's teachings on yoga and see why for centuries it has
been, and still is, considered among the most important textbooks on the subject.

It should be noted at the outset that the word yoga itself refers to "linking with God." This
implies that any genuine approach to yoga should involve the spiritual pursuit, however
varied that pursuit may be. For example, in the first verses of the Gita's third chapter, Lord
Krishna introduces two forms of spirituality that might be identified with yoga: the
contemplative life and the active one. The people of India in the time of the Gita were given
to extreme acts of renunciation. Aspiring spiritualists of the age felt that only by shaking off
the burden of active worldly life could one approach a life of the spirit. The Gita seeks to
correct this misconception. It takes the doctrine of nivritti, negation, so dominant in ancient
India, and augments it with positive spiritual action. Thus, Krishna (who is also known as
Yogeshvara, or "the Master of Mystic Yoga") teaches Arjuna not so much about renunciation
of action, but about renunciation in action. In later Vaishnava terminology, this is the
preferred yukta-vairagya, or "renouncing the world by acting for the Supreme." Krishna
accepts both forms of renunciation, but He describes the active form as more practical and
more effective as well.

Whichever form, or approach, one chooses, says Krishna, detachment from sense objects is
mandatory. The difference, then, lies only in one's external involvement with the world.
Krishna asserts that contemplative, or inactive, yoga is difficult because the mind can become
restless or distracted. He recommends the active form of yoga, which He calls karma-yoga.
This is safer, He says, because one still strives to focus the mind, using various techniques of
meditation, but augments that with practical engagement in the material world.

Krishna elaborates on how to perform karma-yoga in the sixth chapter, again emphasizing its
superiority to mere renunciation and philosophy:

One who is unnattached to the fruits of his work and who works as he is obligated is in the
renounced order of life, and he is the true mystic, not he who lights no fire and performs no
duty. What is called renunciation you should know to be the same as yoga, or linking oneself
with the Supreme, O son of Pandu, for one can never become a yogi unless he renounces the
desire for sense gratification. (6.1-2)
Krishna's instruction here is especially useful for us today, living in the Western world. He is
saying that we needn't go off to a forest to contemplate our navel. In fact, He says that such
endeavors will most likely fail for most of us. Rather, we can achieve the goal of yoga by
learning the art of "detached action," one of the Gita's main teachings. Krishna will explain
that art to Arjuna and, by extenuation, to the rest of us. The Gita teaches how we can, in
modern terms, be in the world but not of it.

Meditation: Restraining The Mind

Krishna explains that both processes of yoga, the contemplative and the active, begin with
learning how to control the mind, which is essentially dhyana, or meditation:

When the yogi, by practice of yoga, disciplines his mental activities and becomes situated in
transcendence—devoid of all material desires— he is said to be well established in yoga. As
a lamp in a windless place does not waver, so the transcendentalist, whose mind is controlled,
remains always steady in his meditation on the transcendent self.
(6.18-19)

Such meditation, Krishna admits, is difficult, but one can achieve it through arduous effort:

It is undoubtedly very difficult to curb the restless mind, but it is possible by suitable practice
and by detachment. For one whose mind is unbridled, self-realization is difficult work. But he
whose mind is controlled and who strives by appropriate means is assured of success. That is
my opinion. (6.35-36)

In verses ten through fourteen of the sixth chapter, Krishna elaborates on the "appropriate
means," and we begin to see how truly difficult it is to perform this kind of meditation. The
yogi must learn to meditate continually, without interruption, in perfect solitude. Free of
wants and possessiveness, the yogi must fully restrain his mind. He must prepare a seat for
himself in a clean place, neither too high nor too low, covered with cloth, antelope skin, and
kusha grass. He must sit in this special place, says the Gita, and learn to make his mind one-
pointed, restricting any extraneous thoughts or sensual distractions. The yogi should practice
such meditation for his own purification only—without any ulterior motive. Firmly holding
the base of his body, his neck, and his head straight, looking only at the tip of his nose, he
must be serene, fearless, and above any lusty thought. He must sit in this way, restraining his
mind, thinking only of God, Krishna says, fully devoted to the Supreme.

Krishna calls this method raja-yoga, because it was practiced by great kings (raja) in ancient
times. The heart of this system is breath control (pranayama), which is meant to manipulate
the energy (prana) in the body. Breath control, along with intricate sitting postures (asana),
was an effective means for quieting one's passions, controlling bodily appetites, and focusing
on the Supreme.

Nonetheless, this contemplative form of yoga, systematized in Patanjali's yoga-sutras and

popular today as hatha-yoga, is too difficult for most people, at least if they are going to
perform it properly. Krishna says this directly by the end of the sixth chapter.
Still, He recommends elements of contemplative yoga along with the yoga of action, or
karma-yoga. And for most readers of the Gita, this can get confusing. Just which is He
recommending—the austere form of disciplined sitting and meditation or action in perfect
consciousness? Does the Gita recommend hatha-yoga, or doesn't it? Does this most sacred of
texts accept the path of contemplation, or does it say that one must approach the Supreme
through work?

Indeed, Arjuna himself expresses confusion in two chapters of the Gita: Is Krishna advising
him to renounce the world, Arjuna wonders, or is He asking him to act in Krishna
consciousness?

A thorough reading of the Gita reveals a hierarchy, a yoga ladder in which one begins by
studying the subject of yoga with some serious interest—this is called abhyasa-yoga—and
ends up, if successful, by graduating to bhakti-yoga, or devotion for the Supreme. All the
stages in between—and there are many—are quite complex, and at this point most modern
Western practitioners become daunted in their study of the Gita.

Stages Of Yoga

The question may legitimately be raised why the two approaches to yoga—the contemplative
and the active (and all their corollaries)—seem to be interchangeable in one section of the
Gita and a hierarchy in another. The answer lies in the Gita's use of yoga terminology, a
lexicon which, again, can be confusing. The whole subject becomes easier to understand
when we realize that the Gita uses different words for yoga that actually refer to the same
thing: the various yoga systems are all forms of bhakti-yoga. The differences are mainly in
emphasis.

Bhakti-yoga is called karma-yoga, for example, when, in the practitioner's mind, the first
word in the hyphenated compound takes precedence. In karma-yoga one wants to perform
work (karma) and is attached to a particular kind of work, but he wants to do it for Krishna.
Karma is primary, yoga secondary. But since the work is directed to God, it can be called
karma-yoga instead of just karma. The same principle can be applied to all other yoga
systems.

Bhakti, the first word in the hyphenated compound bhakti-yoga, means devotional love. In
love, one becomes selfless, and thus, instead of giving prominence to one's own desire, one
considers the beloved first. So the second part of the compound (yoga) also becomes
prominent—linking with God takes precedence over what the individual wants. The first and
second words of the hyphenated compound become one: Real love (bhakti) means full
connection (yoga). This makes bhakti-yoga the perfection of the yoga process.

Karma-yoga emphasizes working (karma) for the Supreme, jnana-yoga emphasizes focusing
one's knowledge (jnana) on the Supreme, dhyana-yoga involves contemplating (dhyana) the
Supreme, buddhi-yoga is about directing the intellect (buddhi) toward the Supreme, and
bhakti-yoga—the perfection of all yogas—occurs when devotion (bhakti) is emphasized in
relation to the Supreme. The main principle of yoga, in whatever form, is to direct our
activity toward linking with God.
Climbing The Ladder

We may first of all, then, observe that the Gita accepts all traditional forms of yoga as
legitimate, asserting that they all focus on linking with the Supreme. Yet the Gita also creates
a hierarchy: First come study, understanding, and meditation (dhyana-yoga). These lead to
deep contempla-tion of philosophy and eventually wisdom that culminates in renunciation
(sannyasa-yoga). Renunciation leads to the proper use of intelligence (buddhi-yoga), then
karma-yoga,and finally bhakti-yoga.

All of this involves a complex inner development, beginning with an understanding of the
temporary nature of the material world and of duality. Realizing that the world of matter will
cease to exist and that birth all too quickly leads to death, the aspiring yogi begins to practice
external renunciation and gradually internal renunciation, which, ultimately, comprises giving
up the desire for the fruit of one's work (karma-phala-tyaga) and performing the work itself
as an offering to God (bhagavad-artha-karma). This method of detached action (karma-yoga)
leads to the "perfection of inaction" (naishkarmya-siddhi), or freedom from the bondage of
works. One becomes free from such bondage because one learns to work as an "agent" rather
than as an "enjoyer"—one learns to work for God, on His behalf. This is the essential
teaching of the Gita, and in its pages Krishna takes Arjuna (and each of us) through each step
of the yoga process.

The Top Rung

The Gita's entire sixth chapter is about Arjuna's rejection of conventional yoga. He describes
it as impractical and "too difficult to perform," as it certainly is in our current age of
distraction and degradation (known as Kali-yuga). Since the goal of yoga is to re-connect
with God, bhakti-yoga rises above all the rest. According to Krishna, Arjuna is the best of
yogis because he has devotion to the Supreme Lord. Krishna tells His devotee directly, "Of
all yogis, he who always abides in Me with great faith, worshiping Me in transcendental
loving service, is most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all."

This brings us back to the basic definition of the word yoga. The word comes from the
Sanskrit root yuj, which means "to link up with, to combine." It is similar in meaning to
religio, the Latin root of the word religion, which means "to bind together." Religion and
yoga, therefore, have the same end in mind: combining or linking with God. This, again, is
the essential purpose of the yoga process, and the end to which the Gita hopes to bring its
readers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita
Three Yogas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the "Three Yog" in Jainism, see Asrava

The Three Yog are three soteriological paths mentioned in Bhagavad Gita for the liberation
of human spirit.[1] They are

1. Karma Yoga or the Path of Action (karma)

2. Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion (bhakti) to Ishvar (God)
3. Gyan Yoga or the Path of Knowledge (Gyan)

These concepts are at the foundation of the Bhakti devotionalism movement. They are
elaborated upon in the Vaishna Bhagavata Purana.[citation needed]

Discussion

The Bhagavad Gita had been made practically the only source for the means to moksh with
the development of Classical Hinduism in the 8th or 9th century, and Hindu philosophers of
the medieval period have tried to explain the nature of these three paths and the relation
between them.

Shankara tended to focus on gyan-yog exclusively, which he interpreted as the acquisition of

knowledge or vidya. He considered karma-yoga to be inferior, and ignores bhakti-yog
entirely.

The 12th-century philosopher Ramanujam considered the three yog by interpreting his
predecessor Yamunacharya. In Ramanujam's interpretation, bhakti-yog appears to be the
direct path to moksh, which is however available only to those whose inner faculties have
already been trained by both karma-yog and gyan-yog.[2]

A "fourth yog" is sometimes added, Raj Yog or "the Path of Meditation". This is the classical
Yog presented in the Yog Sutr of Patanjali. Patanjali's system came to be known as Raj Yog
or "Royal Yog" retro-actively, in about the 15th century, as the term Yog had become popular
for the general concept of a "religious path".

The systematic presentation of Hindu monotheism as divided into these four paths or "Yog"
is modern, advocated by Swami Vivekananda from the 1890s.[citation needed] They are presented
as four paths to God suitable for four human temperaments, viz. the active, the emotional, the
mystic and the philosophical.[citation needed]

The Bhagavad Gita: 3 Paths of Yoga

Posted on December 30, 2010 by Khushi Malhotra
 The Truth is One, but the paths are many.

The Bhagavad Gita extols three major margas or paths of Yoga which help the aspirant frame
his personal nature with the highest goal, realization and union with Brahman, or the all-
knowing and pervasive consciousness that governs the universe.

Although each path is different, the destination is ultimately the same. One path is not higher
than the other; rather the lessons of each contain its own unique wisdom that provides an
integrated and balanced view of one’s relationship to oneself and the higher reality.

These three paths are:

1. Karma Yoga: the path of Selfless Action

1. Bhakti Yoga: the path of Devotion
2. Jnana Yoga: the path of Self Transcending Knowledge
 KARMA YOGA

brahmany adhaya karmani

sangam tyaktva karoti yah
lipyate na sa papena
padma-patram ivambhasa

One who performs his duty without attachment, surrendering the results unto the Supreme
God, is not affected by sinful action, as the lotus leaf is untouched by water.

jneyah sa nitya-sannyasi
yo na dvesti na kanksati
nirdvandvo hi maha-baho
sukham bandhat pramucyate

One who neither hates nor desires the fruits of his activities is known to be always
renounced. Such a person, liberated from all dualities, easily overcomes material bondage
and is completely liberated, O mighty-armed Arjuna.

Karma Yoga is essentially Acting, or doing one’s duties in life as per his/her dharma, or
duty, without concern of results – a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is
action done without thought of gain. One cannot live in the world without performing actions,
and thus a proper mindset should be established when doing these actions. Karma Yoga
purifies the heart by teaching one to act selflessly, without thought of gain or reward. By
detaching oneself from the fruits of one’s actions and offering them up to God, one learns to
sublimate the ego. This is the difference between simply performing actions for personal
gains, and performing actions without attachment (vairagya) as a spiritual practice where all
fruits are given to God. This is the most arduous of all paths as most of us are attached to the
fruits of our actions.
 BHAKTI YOGA

sri-bhagavan uvaca
mayy avesya mano ye mam
nitya-yukta upasate
sraddhaya parayopetas
te me yuktatama matah

The Blessed Lord said: He whose mind is fixed on My personal form, always engaged in
worshiping Me with great and transcendental faith, is considered by Me to be most perfect.

ye tu dharmamrtam idam
yathoktam paryupasate
sraddadhana mat-parama
bhaktas te ‘tiva me priyah

He who follows this imperishable path of devotional service and who completely engages
himself with faith, making Me the supreme goal, is very, very dear to Me.

Bhakti yoga is based on the doctrine “Love is God and God is Love”. The Deity is the
beloved and the devotee is the lover. In Bhakti yoga, everything is but a manifestation of the
divine and all else is meaningless, including the Ego. When the Bhakta is blessed by divine
grace he feels an undivided union and non-dual consciousness prevails. Bhakti Yoga is
regarded as the most direct method to merge in cosmic consciousness.

This path appeals particularly to those of an emotional nature. Through prayer, worship,
chanting and ritual one surrenders himself to God or object of faith, channeling and
transmuting his emotions into unconditional love and devotion. Continuous meditation of
God or object of faith gradually decreases the ego of the practitioner. Suppressed emotions
get released and the purification of the inner self takes place. Slowly the practitioner looses
the self identity and becomes one with God or the object of faith, this is the state of self-
realization.
 JNANA YOGA

uddhared atmanatmanam
natmanam avasadayet
atmaiva hy atmano bandhur
atmaiva ripur atmanah

A man must elevate himself by his own mind, not degrade himself. The mind is the friend of
the conditioned soul, and his enemy as well.

jnana-vijnana-trptatma
kuta-stho vijitendriyah
yukta ity ucyate yogi
sama-lostrasma-kancanah

A person is said to be established in self-realization and is called a yogi when he is fully

satisfied by virtue of acquired knowledge and realization. Such a person is situated in
transcendence and is self-controlled. He sees everything–whether it be pebbles, stones or
gold–as the same.

Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what
is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction
between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a Jnani. This
is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regards to the difference between the
immortal soul (atman) and the body.

Jnana Yoga is the process of converting intellectual knowledge into practical wisdom. Jnana
literally means ‘knowledge’, but in the context of yoga it means the process of meditative
awareness which leads to illuminative wisdom. It is not a method by which we try to find
rational answers to eternal questions, rather it is a part of meditation leading to self-enquiry
and self-realisation. Before practicing Jnana Yoga, the aspirant needs to have integrated the
lessons of the other yogic paths – for without selflessness and love of God, strength of body
and mind, the search for self-realization can become mere idle speculation.

Taking the philosophy of Vedanta the Jnana Yogi uses his mind to inquire into its own
nature. We perceive the space inside and outside a glass as different, just as we see ourselves
as separate from God. Jnana Yoga leads the devotee to experience his unity with God directly
by breaking the glass, dissolving the veils of ignorance (maya).

Brahma Satyam. Jagat Mithya. Jivo Brahmaiva Na Parah

– Sri Shankaracharya

God only is real. The world is unreal. The individual is none other than God.

As my Teacher once said when asked which path He follows:

In the world I am a Karma Yogi, performing my actions for others and the Lord. In the
company of my friends, family, and students I am a Jnani Yogi. And in the depths of my heart,
in my most private chambers, I am a Bhakti Yogi, offering complete love and devotion to the
One.

What are the other types of yoga explained in Bhagavad gita?

Related Topics:

Yoga, types of

Question:

What are the other types of yoga explained in Bhagavad gita?

Our Answer:
In the Bhagavad-gita, Krishna talks about three main divisions of yoga practice: astanga-
yoga, jnana-yoga, and bhakti-yoga.

Astanga-yoga, also known as dhyana or hatha-yoga, refers to the system of sitting postures
and breath control meant to bring about the peace of mind required for meditating on the
Supersoul, the feature of the Supreme Person residing within each material body.

Jñana-yoga, refers to philosophical analysis of the material elements to become free from
attachment to material existence. Practice of jnana-yoga enables one to merge into brahman,
the impersonal feature of the Supreme.
Bhakti-yoga is the direct process of establishing a relationship of loving service to the
Supreme Person, Krishna.

Krishna mentions each of these processes in His conversation with Arjuna. He then gives His
opinion that since bhakti-yoga is the most direct process—it immediately puts one into direct
contact with the Supreme Person, rather than after long practice of asanas or mental
gymnastics—it is the best of the three.

The Four Margas (Paths) of Yoga

Yoga is a way of life, an integrated system for the body, mind and soul. This art of living was
perfected and practiced in India thousands of years ago. Yoga is a science of universal truth
and its teachings are as valid today as they were in ancient times. According to yoga, the
goal of life is to discover our true nature to connect with our divine nature. As people have
different temperaments, there are different techniques, yogas, to help them find the
truth. There are various paths to the union of yoga but there is ultimately only one
truth. Swami Sivananda recognised that every individual possesses and identifies with the
Intellect, heart, body and mind. He therefore advocated everyone to practice certain
techniques from each path. This came to be known as the Yoga of Synthesis. Swami
Sivananda also taught that according to our own individual nature/personality, we may be
drawn to going deeper into one path of yoga. For example, a person of a more loving,
devotional nature, may naturally be drawn to practice predominantly Bhakti Yoga. There are
four main paths of Yoga -

 Karma Yoga
 Bhakti Yoga
 Raja Yoga
 Jnana Yoga

Karma Yoga - The path of action (selfless service)

Karma Yoga is the path of action, service to others, mindfulness, and remembering the levels
of our being while fulfilling our actions or karma in the world.

karmany evadhikaras te ma phalesu kadacana ma karma-phala-hetur bhur ma te sango ’stv

akarmani
"You have a right to perform your prescribed duty, but you are not entitled to the fruits of
action. Never consider yourself the cause of the results of your activities, and never be
attached to not doing your duty"
- Bhagavad Gita 2.47

Bhakti Yoga - the path of devotion

Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion, emotion, love, compassion, and service to God and
others. All actions are done in the context of remembering the Divine

patram pushpam phalam toyam yo me bhaktya prayacchati tad aham bhakty-

upahritam ashnami prayatatmanah
"Whoever offers Me with devotion a leaf, a flower, a fruit or a little water - that, so offered
devotedly by the pure-minded, I accept" - Bhagavad Gita 9.26

Jnana Yoga - the path of knowledge

Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection and contemplation. It involves
deep exploration of the nature our being by systematically exploring and setting aside false
identities.

śrī-bhagavān uvācaprajahāti yadā kāmānsarvān pārtha mano-gatānātmany evātmanā

tus ̣taḥ
̣ sthita-prajñas tadocyate
"When a man puts away all the desires of his mind, O Partha [Arjuna], and when his spirit is
content in itself, then is he called stable in intelligence" - Bhagavad Gita 2.55

Raja Yoga - the path of the mind & meditation

Raja Yoga is a comprehensive method that emphasizes meditation, while encompassing the
whole of Yoga. It directly deals with the encountering and transcending thoughts of the mind.

bandhur atmatmanas tasya yenatmaivatmana jitah anatmanas tu satrutve vartetatmaiva

satru-vat
"For him who has conquered the mind, the mind is the best of friends; but for one who has
failed to do so, his mind will remain the greatest enemy" - Bhagavad Gita 6.6

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Home » About Krishna » Krishna Consciousness » Applications » Bodies and Souls

Karma, Jnana, and Bhakti Yoga

Complexity:

by Jayadvaita Swami

[Yoga literally means to unite, to link with, to connect with God. The physical exercises we
commonly associate with yoga help align our body, mind and spirit to achieve a peaceful
state of samadhi, complete absorption in our spiritual reality. In this article, Jayadvaita
Swami briefly explains three main paths of yoga given by Krishna in Bhagavad-gita.]

According to the Vedic literature, there are three realms of human endeavor—the realm of
karma, that of jnana, and that of bhakti.

Karma

Karma refers to action performed for the sake of the body and its senses. The work we do to
earn a living is karma. The work we put into having a good time is karma too. When we eat,
that's karma. When we sleep, that's karma. When we watch TV, listen to Beethoven, or Ravi
Shankar, or Madonna, when we have kids, or drive our car—when we do just about
anything—that's karma.

Karma can be "extended" too. It's not only what we do directly for ourselves but also what we
do for others, in relation to the body and senses. When we help out a friend, give food to the
poor, serve in the Army, or show our uncle how to cheat on his tax returns—again, it's all
karma.

Karma may be "good" or "bad" (or, for that matter, mixed). So karma may bring good or bad
results (or, again, mixed). These results are also sometimes called karma. (More precisely,
they are karmic reactions.)

Sometimes the results of karma are quick and obvious: work hard and get a good grade,
overeat and get indigestion. But sometimes the results may take years—or, according to
Vedic literature, lifetimes. I may do something this life and get the results in the next—or ten
lifetimes from now, or thousands. So karma and its results form an intricate web.

If someone's born ugly or poor or sick, that's a sign of bad karma. Or if someone gets in
trouble with the police, or gets in legal trouble—bad karma again. And good looks, good
money, good health—good karma.

We're getting reactions now for what we've done in the past, and creating future reactions by
what we're doing now. Gets complicated, doesn't it
The scriptures of the world—the Vedas included—try to warn us away from bad karma and
guide us towards good.

But we don't always go along. And even when we do, the best that we get are good karmic
results. And good or bad, we're still caught in the net, still entangled. Good karma or bad,
we're still tied to the wheel of repeated birth and death.

Jnana

Jnana (pronounced "gyana") is the pursuit of knowledge. Of course, we may pursue any sort
of knowledge—how to hammer a nail, or play the piano, or program a computer. Knowledge
of history, or business, or medicine. But that's hardly above karma, and that's not really
what's meant. Jnana, more precisely, pertains to the ultimate questions in life: Who am I?
Why am I here? Why am I suffering? Where does everything come from? What is the
purpose of life? What is everything finally all about?

The realm of jnana is that of the philosopher, the intellectual, the thinker. By reflection, by
speculation, by logic, intuition, and discourse, by exploring and evaluating ideas, we try to
understand what is ultimately what. We may approach those ultimate questions through
physics or biology or psychology—or, if we go deep enough, by thinking about almost
anything. When somehow or other those questions come upon us, we enter the realm of
jnana.

But this too is a world we can get stuck in. We can spend lifetimes in speculation, questing
and questing, and still be doing hardly more than playing games in our minds.

The Vedic literature, therefore, offers guidance on the path of knowledge. It gives us access
to the thoughts and realizations of sages who have been through this territory before. It aims,
finally, to bring us from speculation to knowledge, from wondering to seeing, from seeking
to finding.

Bhakti

Early along the path of Vedic knowledge, one comes to understand that he's a spark of pure
consciousness, above the body, above even the mind. He sees that he uses the body and
mind—when he tells his finger to scratch his head it does so; when he directs his thoughts,
they go from one subject or another—yet the body and mind are distinct from his inner
identity, his inner being. This understanding is called self-realization.

Yet self-realization is not the end of it. By further introspection—unless one gets stuck—one
comes to understand that his own consciousness, his own spiritual existence, is not ultimate.
Even in his own essential identity, he himself is not the be-all and end-all of everything.
There are other living beings too, and they're not just projections of himself. And there's a
material cosmos out there, hard and tangible and unlikely to be something he has merely
imagined up. And even if he thinks that in reality such distinctions at last no longer exist, that
in truth there is only absolute oneness, and that all else is but an illusion, a dream, he still has
to ask himself, "Where does this illusion come from?"

In this way his thoughts bring him to realize that there is an Absolute Truth, a source of all
energies, all realities, and he sees himself to be a part of that Supreme Absolute. By
considering his own identity as a conscious individual—a conscious person—he ultimately
realizes the individual personal nature of that Supreme Absolute. He recognizes the eternal
relationship between himself and the Absolute. And in this way he enters the realm of bhakti,
the realm of personal spiritual dealings between himself and the Absolute. In bhakti, the
individual person joyfully devotes himself to serving the absolute Personality of Godhead,
who joyfully and unlimitedly reciprocates. This is the postgraduate stage of self-realization.

Ramayana, Mahabharata
http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/Ramayana.pdf

http://www.gita-society.com/pdf2011/mahabharata.pdf

http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/Ramayana.pdf

18 Puranas: - - Saiva Vaishnava Puranas (general

studies)

https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Puranas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puranas

http://www.advaita-vedanta.in/authenticity-of-puranas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishnavism

Agamas – Saiva and Vaishnava Agamas –

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Hinduism)

http://www.dlshq.org/religions/agamas.htm
http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Agama

http://veda.wikidot.com/agama

http://saivaphilosophy.blogspot.in/2010/01/saiva-agamas.html

http://www.kamakotimandali.com/blog/index.php?p=849&more=1&c=1&tb=1&pb=1

4000 Prabhandams
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabhandham

http://www.upanyasam.com/scriptures/divya_prabhandham

http://www.srivaishnavam.com/prabandham.htm

http://www.divyaprabandham.org/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvars

http://divineavatars.com/saints/alwars.html

Panniruthirumurais (General studies).

http://www.tamilsurangam.com/literatures/panniru_thirumurai/index.html#.WTpTKGe50nE

http://www.skandagurunatha.org/deities/siva/thirumurai/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirumurai