Mathemati

al Olympiads' Corresponden e Program - 1997-1998

The following are the problems and solutions from the 1997-1998 Olympiads Corresponden e Program
operated for the Canadian Mathemati al So iety and the Mathemati s Department of the University of
Toronto by Ed Barbeau. Most (with lu k, all) of the errors that appeared in previous versions have been
orre ted, but I would be grateful to re eive further orre tions. In writing up the solutions, I have attempted
to follow up ideas submitted by the parti ipants, and have a knowledged some of the authors. The diagrams
appear after the solutions. In addition, problems from some of this year's Olympiads are appended as
additional pra ti e problems.
Ed Barbeau, Department of Mathemati s, University of Toronto

1
 Problems - Mathemati al Olympiads' Corresponden e Program - 1997-1998

Problem Set 1

1. (a) Let m be any positive integer greater than 2, su h that x  1 (mod m) whenever the greatest
2

ommon divisor of x and m is equal to 1. An example is m = 12. Suppose that n is a positive integer
for whi h n + 1 is a multiple of m. Prove that the sum of all of the divisors of n is divisible by m.
(b) Does the result in (a) hold when m = 2?
( ) Find all possible values of m that satisfy the ondition in (a).
(Note: (a) and ( ) are posed as Problem 2229 in CM + MM , April, 1997. Part ( ) was submitted by
the proposer without a solution.
2. (a) Prove that, for ea h pair (m; n) of integers with 1  m  n,
n
X
i(i 1)(i 2)


(i m + 1) =
(n + 1)n(n 1)


(n m + 1)
:
i=1
m+1

(b) Suppose that 1  r  n and onsider all subsets of r elements of the set f1; 2; 3;


; ng. The elements
of this subset are arranged in as ending order of magnitude. For 1  i  r, let ti denote the ith smallest
element in the subset, and let T (n; r; i) denote the arithmeti mean of the elements ti. Prove that
 
n+1
T (n; r; i) = i :
r+1

(Note: Part (b) is Problem 2239 in CM + MM , May, 1997.)

3. Let 0 < a < b. Prove that, for any positive integer n,
s r
b+a bn an n an + bn
2  
+1 +1
n :
(b a)(n + 1) 2

4. How many distin t a ute angles  are there for whi h os  os2 os4 = 1=8?
(Note: This is Problem 2249 in CM + MM , May, 1997.)
5. A onvex losed gure lies inside a given ir le. The gure is seen from every point of the ir umferen e
of the ir le at right angles (that is, the two rays drawn from the point and supporting the onvex gure
are perpendi ular). Prove that the entre of the ir le is a entre of symmetry of the gure.
6. The nonisos eles right triangle ABC has 6 CAB = 90Æ. The ins ribed ir le with entre T tou hes the
sides AB and AC at U and V respe tively. The tangent through A of the ir ums ribed ir le meets
UV produ ed in S . Prove that
(a) ST k BC ;
(b) jd d j = r, where r is the radius of the ins ribed ir le and d and d are the respe tive distan es
from S to AC and AB.
1 2 1 2

(Note: This is Problem 2235 in CM + MM .)

Solutions - Mathemati al Olympiads' Corresponden e Program - 1997-1998

1.

2
1. (a) First solution. Let n + 1 be a multiple of m. Then g d(m; n) = 1. We observe that n annot be a
square. Suppose, if possible, that n = r . Then g d(r; m) = 1. Hen e r  1 (mod m). But r + 1  0
2 2 2

(mod m) by hypothesis, so that 2 is a multiple of m, a ontradi tion.

As a result, if d is a divisor of n, then n=d is a distin t divisor of n. Suppose djn (read \d divides n").
Sin e m divides n + 1, therefore g d(m; n) = g d(d; m) = 1, so that d = 1 + bm for some integer b.
2

Also n + 1 = m for some integer . Hen e

n d + n 1 + bm + m 1 (b + )m
d+ = = =
2

:
d d d d
Sin e g d(d; m) = 1 and d + n=d is an integer, d divides b + and so d + n=d  0 (mod m).
Hen e X X p
d = f(d + n=d) : djn; d < ng  0 (mod m)
djn
as desired.
(a) Se ond solution. Suppose that n + 1  0 (mod m). As in the rst solution, it an be established
that n is not a perfe t square. Let x be any positive divisor of n and suppose that xy = n; x and y are
distin t. Sin e g d (x; m) = 1, x  1 (mod m), so that
2

y = x y  xn  x (mod m)
2

when e x + y is a multiple of m. Thus, the divisors of n omes in pairs, ea h of whi h has sum divisible
by m, and the result follows.
(a) Third solution. [M. Boase℄ As in the se ond solution, if xy = n, then x  y  1 (mod m) so that
2 2

0  x y  (x y)(x + y) (mod m):

2 2

For any divisor r of m, we have that

x(x y)  x xy  1 (mod r) 2

from whi h it follows that the greatest ommon divisor of m and x y is 1. Therefore, m must divide
x + y and the solution an be ompleted as before.
1. (b) When m = 2, the result does not hold. The hypothesis is true. However, the on lusion fails when
n = 9 sin e 9 + 1 is a multiple of 2, but 1 + 3 + 9 = 13 is odd.
1. ( ) First solution. By inspe tion, we nd that m = 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 8; 12; 24 all satisfy the ondition in (a).
Suppose that m is odd. Then g d(2; m) = 1 ) 2 = 4  1 (mod m) ) m = 1; 3.
2

Suppose that m is not divisible by 3. Then g d(3; m) = 1 ) 9 = 3  1 (mod m) ) m = 1; 2; 4; 8.

2

Hen e any further values of m not listed in the above must be even multiples of 3, that is, multiples of
6.
Suppose that m  30. Then, sin e 25 = 5 6= 1 (mod m), m must be a multiple of 5.
2

It remains to show that in fa t m annot be a multiple of 5. We observe that there are innitely many
primes ongruent to 2 or 3 modulo 5. [To see this, let q ;


; qs be the s smallest odd primes of this
form and let Q = 5q


qs +2. Then Q is odd. Also, Q annot be a produ t only of primes ongruent to
1

1 modulo 5, for then Q itself would be ongruent to 1. Hen e Q has an odd prime fa tor ongruent
1

to 2 modulo 5, whi h must be distin t from q ,


, qs . Hen e, no matter how many primes we have
of the desired form, we an always nd one more.℄ If possible, let m be a multiple of 5 with the stated
1

property and let q be a prime ex eeding m ongruent to 2 modulo 5. Then g d(q; m) = 1 ) q  1 2

3
 (mod m) ) q  1 (mod 5) ) q 6 2 (mod 5), yielding a ontradi tion. Thus, we have given a
2

omplete olle tion of suitable numbers m.

( ) Se ond solution. [D. Arthur℄ Suppose that m = ab satises the ondition of part (a), where the
greatest ommon divisor of a and b is 1. Let g d (x; a) = 1. Sin e a and b are oprime, there exists
a number t su h that at  1 x (mod b), so that z = x + at and b are oprime. Hen e, the greatest
ommon divisor of z and ab equals 1, so that z  1 (mod ab), when e x  z  1 (mod a). Thus a
2 2 2

(and also b) satises the ondition of part (a).

When m is odd and ex eeds 3, then g d (2; m) = 1, but 2 = 4 6 1 (mod m), so m does not satisfy the
2

ondition. When m = 2k for k  4, then g d (3; m) = 1, but 3 = 9 6 1 (mod m). It follows from the
2

rst paragraph that if m satises the ondition, it annot be divisible by a power of 2 ex eeding 8 nor
by an odd number ex eeding 3. This leaves the possibilities 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 8; 12; 24, all of whi h satisfy the
ondition.
2.

2. (a) First solution. i(i 1)(i 2)


(i m + 1) = i

(i 1)(i 2)


(i m + 1)
[( +1) (i m)℄
m+1 i

= (i + 1)i(i 1)


(i m + 1) i(i 1)(i 2)


(i m + 1)(i m)

m+1
so that
n
X nX
+1
i(i
1)


(i m) n
X i(i
1)


(i m)
i(i 1)(i 2)


(i m + 1) =
i=0 i =2
m+1 i=1
m+1
= (n + 1)n(n m1)+

1
(n m + 1)
0
= (n + 1)n(n m1)+

1
(n m + 1)
:

(a) Se ond solution. [K. Yeats℄ Let n = m + k. Then

X n
i(i 1)(i 2)


(i m + 1) = m! +
(m + 1)! +


+ n!
i=1
1! (n m)!
 
1
= (m + 1)k! (m + 1)!k! + (m + 1)!k!(m + 1) (m + 2)!k!(m + 1)
+ +


+ n!(m + 1)
1! 2!
 
= ((mm++1)1)!k! k! + k1!! (m + 1) + k2!! (m + 2)(m + 1) +


+ n(n 1)


(m + 2)(m + 1) :
The quantity in square bra kets has the form (with q = 0)
k! k! k! k!
+
q! (q + 1)!
(m + 1) +
(q + 2)! ( m + q + 2)(m + 1) +
(q + 3)! (m + q + 3)(m + q + 2)(m + 1) +



+ kk!! n(n 1)


(m + q + 2)(m + 1)
 
= (m + q +2) (q +k!1)! + (q +k!2)! (m +1)+ (q +k!3)! (m + q +3)(m +1)+


+ kk!! n


(m + q +3)(m +1) :
Applying this repeatedly with q = 0; 1; 2;


; k 1 leads to the expression for the left sum in the problem
of
(m + k + 1)!  k!  = (n + 1)! = (n + 1)n(n 1)


(n m + 1) :
(m + 1)k! k! (m + 1)(n m)! m+1
4
 [A variant, due to D. Ni holson, uses an indu tion on r to prove that, for m  r  n,
r
X
i(i 1)


(i m + 1) =
(r + 1)! :℄
i=m
(r m)!(m + 1)

(a) Third

solution. For 1  i  m 1, i(i 1)


(i m +1) = 0. For m  i  n, i(i 1)


(i m +1) =
m! mi . Also,
(n + 1)n


(n m + 1) = m! n + 1 
m+1 m+1
so the statement is equivalent to n    
X i n+1
m
= m+1
:
m
This is lear for n = m. Suppose it holds for n = k  m. Then
+1        
kX
i k+1 k+1 k+2
m
= m+1
+ m
= m+1
i=m

and the result follows by indu tion.

(a) Fourth solution. Use indu tion on n. If n = 1, then m = 1 and both sides of the equation are equal
to 1. Suppose that the result holds for n = k and 1  m  k. Then, for 1  m  k,
kX
+1

i(i 1)


(i m + 1) =
(k + 1)k(k 1)


(k m + 1) + (k + 1)k(k 1)


(k m + 2)
i=1
m+1
= (k + 1)k(k m1)+

1
(k m + 2) [(k m + 1) + (m + 1)℄
= (k + 2)(k + 1)k(mk + 1)1


(k m + 2)
as desired. When m = n = k + 1, all terms on the left have k + 1 terms and so they vanish ex ept for
the one orresponding to i = k + 1. This one is equal to (k + 1)! and so to the right side.
2. (b) First solution. For 1  i  r  n, let S (n; r; i) be the sum of the elements ti where (t ; t ;


; tr )
runs over r-tples with 1  t < t <


< tr  n. Then S (n; r; i) = nr
T
(n; r;
i). For 1
 k  n,
1 2

1 2

1 
i  r, the number of ordered r tples (t ; t ;


; tr ) with ti = k is ki nr ki where = 1 and

1 2
1 0

a = 0 when b > a. Hen e

1 0

b   X n   
n k 1 n k
r
= i 1 r i
:
k=1
Repla ing n by n + 1 and r by r + 1 yields a reading
  +1 
n+1
=
nX
k 1 n + 1 k  for 1  i  r + 1 :
r+1 k=1
i 1 r (i 1)
Repla ing i 1 by i yields
  +1 
n+1
=
nX
k 1n + 1 k

for 0  i  r :
r+1 k=1
i r i

5
 When 1  i  r, the rst term of the sum is 0, so that
  n    n   
n+1 X k 1 +1
n (k 1) X k n k
r+1
= i r i
= i r i
:
k =2 k =1

Thus n    n     
X k 1 n k X k n k n+1
S (n; r; i) = k = i = i
k =1
i 1 r i k
i r i =1
r+1
so n+1
T (n; r; i) = i :
r+1
2. (b) Se ond solution. When r = 1, we have that
T (n; 1; 1) =
1+2+


+n = n+1 :
n 2
When r = 2, the subsets are f1; 2g; f1; 3g;


; f1; ng; f2; 3g; f2; 4g;


f2; ng;


; fn 1; ng, so that
T (n; 2; 1) =
1  (n 1) + 2  (n
2) +


+ (n 1)  1
n
2

= [(n 1) + (n 2) +


+ 1℄ + [(n
2) + (n 3) +


+ 1℄ +


+ 1
n
2
Pn 1 Pn 1
[1 + 2 +


+ (n j )℄ = (n j + 1)(n j )=2
= j =1
n(n 1)=2
j =1
n(n 1)=2
(1=6)(n + 1)n(n 1) n + 1
= (1=2)n(n 1) = 3 ;
and
T (n; 2; 2) =
(n 1)  n + (n 2) 
(n 1) +


+ 1  2
n
2
 
= (n +n(1)nn(n1)=21)=3 = 2 n +3 1 :
Thus, the result holds for n = 1; 2 and all i; r with 1  i  r  n, and for all n and 1  i  r  2.
Suppose as an indu tion hypothesis, we have established the result up to n 1n and
all appropriate r
and i, and for


n and 1  i  r 1. The r element subsets of f1; 2;


; ng have r instan es without 1

n and nr instan es with n.

1
1

Let 1  i  r 1. Then
n
T (n 1; r; i) + n
T (n 1; r 1; i)
1 1

T (n; r; i) = r r

n
1

r
i[ n 1
n + n 1
n ℄ = i[ r n
+
nr
℄
= r r+1

n
r 1 r +1
n
r r


= ++ 11
n+1
n
=i r+1

n i
r
r
Also


n 1
T (n 1; r;
r) + n 1
n
T (n; r; r) = r
n
r 1

r

n 1
rn n

=
n 1 rn
r r+1
r 1 r + = r[ r+1
+ nr
℄ = r n + 1  :
n
r
n
r r+1
6
(b) Third solution. For 1  i  r  n, let S (n; r; i) be the sum of then
elements ti where (t ; t ;


; tr )
runs over r-tples with 1  t < t <


< tr  n. Then S (n; r; i) = r T (n; r; i). We observe rst that
1 2

1 2

S (n; r; i) = S (n 1; r 1; i) + S (n 2; r 1; i) +


+ S (r 1; r 1; i)
for 1  i  r 1. This is true, sin e, for ea h j with 1  j  n r + 1, S (n j; r 1; i) adds the ti over
all r tples for whi h tr = n j + 1.
Now S (n; 1; 1) = 1 + 2 +


+ n = (n + 1)n and S (n; 2; 1) = n(n 1) +


+ 1 = (n + 1)n(n 1).
1 1 1

As an indu tion hypothesis, suppose that S (n; r 1; 1) = r (n + 1)n(n 1)


(n r + 2). Then

2 2 3!
1
!

nX1
S (n; r; 1) = S (k; r 1; 1)
k=r 1

1
= r!
nX 1

(k + 1)k(k 1)


(k r + 2) =
1 X n
k(k 1)


(k r + 1)
k r = 1
r! k =1
    
= (r +1 1)! (n + 1)n(n 1)


(n r + 1) =
n+1 n!
r + 1 r!(n r)!
n+1 n
= r+1 r :
Thus, for ea h r with 1  r  n, S (n; r; 1) = nr
(n + 1)=(r + 1) so that T (n; r; 1) = (n + 1)=(r + 1).
Let n  2. Suppose that for 1  k  n 1 and 1  i  r  k, it has been established that
S (k; r; i) = iS (k; r; 1). Then for 1  i  r  n,
S (n; r; i) = S (n 1; r 1; i) + S (n 2; r 1; i) +


+ S (r 1; r 1; i)
= i[S (n 1; r 1; 1) + S (n 2; r 1; 1) +


+ S (r 1; r 1; 1) = iS (n; r; 1) :
Dividing by n
yields
r  
n+1
T (n; r; i) = iT (n; r; 1) = i :
r+1

Comments. (1) There is a one-one orresponden e

(t ; t ;


; tr ) ! (n + 1 tr ; n + 1
1 2 tr ;


; n + 1 tr )
1

of the set of suitable r tples to itself, it follows that

    
S (n; r; r) =
n
(n + 1) S (n; r; 1) = nr (n + 1) 1 1 
r r+1
 
r(n + 1) n
= r+1 r
= rS (n; r; 1)
from whi h T (n; r; r) = r(n + 1)=(r + 1) = rT (n; r; 1).
(2) To illustrate another method for getting and using the re ursion, we prove rst that T (n; r; 2) =
2T (n; r; 1) for 2  r  n. Consider the ase r = 2. For 1  t < t  n, (t ; t ) $ (t t ; t )
denes a one-one orresponden e between suitable pairs. Sin e t = t + (t t ), it follows from this
1 2 1 2 2 1 2

orresponden e that S (n; 2; 2) = 2S (n; 2; 1). Dividing by n
yields T (n; 2; 2) = 2T (n; 2; 1).
2 1 2 1

Suppose that r  2. For ea h positive integer j with 1  j  n r +1, we dene a one-one orresponden e

between r tples (t ; t ;


; tr ) with 1  t < t <


< tr  n and t t = j and (r 1) tples
(s ; s ; s ;


; sr ) = (t ; t ; t j;


; tr j ) with 1  s = t < s = t < s = t j <


< sr =
1 2 1 2 3 2

1 2 3 1 2 4 1 1 2 2 3 4

7
tr j  n j . The sum of the elements t over all r tples with t t = j is equal to the sum of t
over all the (r 1) tples. Hen e
2 3 2 2

S (n; r; 2) = S (n 1; r 1; 2) + S (n 2; r 1; 2) +


+ S (r 1; r 1; 2) :

More generally, for 1  j  n r 1, there is a one-one orresponden e between r tples (t ; t ;


; tr )

with ti ti = j and (r 1) tples (s ; s ;


; sr ) = (t ;


; ti ; ti j;


; tr j ) with 1  s =
1 2

t <


< si = ti < si = ti j <


< sr = tr j  n j . We now use indu tion on r. We

+1 1 2 1 1 +2 1

have that
1 +1 +2 1

S (n; r; i) = S (n 1; r 1; i) + S (n 2; r 1; i) +


+ S (r 1; r 1; i) :

(b) Fourth solution. [Y. Shen℄ We establish that

n r)     
n+1
i+(X
k n k
i r i
= r+1
:
k=i

Consider the (r +1) element sets where ti = k +1 and tr  n +1. We must have i  k  n (r i)
and there are ki
nr ki
ways of sele ting t ;


; ti and ti ;


; tr . The desired equation follows from
+1 +1

a ounting argument over all possibilities for ti .

1 +2 +1

+1

In a similar way, we note that ti = k for ki
nr ki
sets ft ;


; tr g hosen from f1;


; ng, where
1

1  k  n r + 1. Observe that
1 1

     
k 1 n k i k n k
i 1 r i
=k i r i :
Then Pn r k
n k

k i k
i
+1 1

T (n; r; i) = n
= r i 1

r
Pn r+i k
n k

i k=i i r i
= n

r
n+1
 
= r+1

i
n
= +1 :
n
r r +1
(b) Fifth solution. [Christopher So℄ Note that
r+i  
nX 
k n k
k=i
i r i

is the oeÆ ient of xi yr i in the polynomial

nX
r+i
(1 + x)k (1 + y)n k
k=i

or in
(1 + x)k (1 + y)n k = (1 + y) (1 + x)n
n
X +1 n+1 +1

k=0
y x
Pn+1 n+1
j
y ( xj )
= j =0 j
y x
:

8
 Now the only summand whi h involves terms of degree r orresponds to j = r +1, so that the oeÆ ient
of xi yr in the sum is the oeÆ ient in the single term
1

 
n + 1 yr +1
xr +1

r+1 y x
namely, nr
. We an now omplete the argument as in the fourth solution.
+1
+1

(b) Comment.
Let r and n be xed values and onsider i to be variable.

The nr
r term sets ontain
altogether r nr numbers, ea h number o urring equally often: nr nr times. The sum of all the elements
in the set is
   
r n r(n + 1) n
S (n; r; 1) + S (n; r; 2) +


+ S (n; r; r) = (1 + 2 +


+ n) =
n r 2 r
where S (n; r; i) is the sum of the elements ti over the nr
subsets. The ordered r element subsets
(t ; t ;


; tr ) an be mapped one-one to themselves by
1 2

1 (t ; t ;


; tr ) ! (n + 1 tr ; n + 1 tr ;


; n + 1 t ) :
2 1 1

From this, we see that, for 1  r,

 
n
S (n; r; r + 1 i) = (n + 1) S (n; r; i)
r
so that
 
n
S (n; r; 1)+ S (n; r; r) = S (n; r; 2)+ S (n; r; r 1) =


= S (n; r; i)+ S (n; r; r +1 i) =


= (n +1) :
r
This is not enough to imply that S (n; r; i) is an arithmeti progression in i, but along with this fa t
would give a qui k solution to the problem.
3.

3. First solution. Dividing the inequality through by (b + a)=2 yields the equivalent inequality
s r
1 n b0n +1
a0n +1

 n a0n + b0n
(b a )(n + 1)
0 0 2
with a0 = (2a)=(b + a) and b0 = (2b)=(b + a). Note that (a0 + b0)=2 = 1, and we an write b0 = 1 + u and
a0 = 1 u with 0 < u < 1. The entral term be omes the nth root of



(1 + u)n (1 u)n = 2[(n + 1)u + n u + n u +


℄
+1 +1 +1 3 +1 5

2(n + 1)u 2(n+ 1)u

3 5

 
= 1 + 13 n2 u + 51 n4 u +



2 4

whi h learly ex eeds 1 and gives the left inequality. The right term be omes the nth root of
1 [(1 + u)n + (1 u)n℄ = 1 + nu + nu +



2 2 4
2 4

and the right inequality is learly true.

9
3. Se ond solution. The inequality
s r
n bn an+1 +1

 n an + bn
(b a)(n + 1) 2
is equivalent to
0  (n + 1)(an + bn) 2(b b ):
n +1
an +1

a
The right side is equal to
(n + 1)(an + bn) 2(bn + bn a + bn a


+ b an + ban + an)
1 2 2 2 2 1

= (an bn) + (an bn a) + (an bn a) +


+ (an ban ) + (an an)

1 2 1

+ (bn bn) + (bn bn a) +


+ (bn ban ) + (bn an )

1 1

= (an bn) + a(an bn ) + a (an bn ) +


+ an (a b) + 0

1 1 2 2 2 1

+ 0 + bn (b a) +


+ b(an an ) + (bn an)

1 1 1

= 0 + (b a)(bn an ) + (b a )(bn an ) +


+ (bn an )(b

1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
a)
>0:

The left inequality s

b+a bn an
2 
+1 +1
n
(b a)(n + 1)
is equivalent to  n
b+a n+1 n+1
2  (bb a)(na + 1) :
Let v = (b a) so that b + a = 2(a + v). Then
1
2

 n
b+a
bn an
= (a +(b 2v)a)(n + a1)
n+1 n+1
(a + v)n
+1 +1

(b a)(n + 1) 2
n
X n + 1 
= 2v(n1+ 1)
+1

an k (2v)k (a + v )n +1

k
k =1
 nX   
= n +1 1 n+1 n k
+1

k
a (2 v )k (a + v)n ( 1) 1

k =1
X n    X n  
= n +1 1 n+1 n k k
k + 1 a (2v)
n n k k
k
a v
k =0 k =0
X   n   
=
n
1 n n k k X
a (2v)
n n k k
a v
k
k+1 k
=0 k
k =0
n  k
=
X 2 1nan k vk  0 ;
k
k+1
=0
k

sin e 2k = (1+1)k = 1+ k + k
+


 1+ k with equality if and only if k = 0 or 1. The result follows.

2

3. Third solution. [D. Ni holson℄ (partial) Let n  2i + 1. Then

(bn i ai + bian i ) (bn i ai + bi an i ) = (b a)ai bi(bn i an i )  0 :
1 +1 +1 1 2 1 2 1

10
 Hen e, for 0  j  (n + 1),
1
2

bn + an  bn 1
a + abn 1



 bn j aj + bj an j :
When n = 2k + 1,
+ bi an i)  (k + 1)(bn + an) = n +2 1 (bn + an)
k
X
bn + bn a +


+ ban
1 1
+ an = (bn i ai
i=0
and when n = 2k, we use the Arithmeti -Geometri Means Inequality to obtain bk ak  (a k + b k ), so 1 2 2

that
2

kX 1
bn + an n + 1 n n
bn + bn a +


+ ban + an = (bn i ai + bi an i ) + bk ak  k(bn + an ) +
2 = 2 (b + a ) :
1 1

i =0

Hen e
bn an bn + an

+1 +1

(b a)(n + 1) 2 :
3. Fourth solution. [Y. Shen℄ Let 1  k  n and 1  i  k. Then
(bk + ak ) (biak i + aibk i ) = (bi ai )(bk i ak i )  0 :
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1

Hen e k k
X X
k(bk + ak )  (bi ak i + ai bk i ) = 2 bi ak i :
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1

i=1 i=1
This is equivalent to
kX
+1 k
X
(2k + 2) bi ak +1 i = (2k + 2)(bk + ak ) + (2k + 2)
+1 +1
bi ak +1 i
i=0 i=1
k
X
 (k + 2)(bk + ak ) + (2k + 4)
+1 +1
bi ak +1 i
i=1
k
X
= (k + 2)(bk + 2 +1
bi ak +1 i + ak ) +1

i=1
k
X
= (k + 2)(b + a) bi ak i
i=0
whi h in turn is equivalent to
Pk+1 i k+1 i Pk
 (b + a)(2(k +i 1)b a ) :
i k i
i=0 b a
k+2
=0

We establish by indu tion that  n

b+a
 n +1 1
n
X
ba i n i
2 i =0

whi h will yield the left inequality. This holds for n = 1. Suppose that it holds for n = k. Then
     
b+a b+a b+a k
2 = 2
2
   X
b+a 1 k
1 kX bi ak i : +1

 2
k+1 bi ak i 
k+2 i
i =0 =0

11
 As above, we have, for k = n 1,
n
X1
(n 1)(bn + an)  2 bi an i
i=1

so that n  n+1 
X b an
(n + 1)(bn + an)  2 =2
+1

bi an i
i=0
b a
from whi h the right inequality follows.
3. Comment. The inequality s
b+a bn an
2 
+1 +1
n
(b a)(n + 1)
is equivalent to
0  2 (b b aa ) (n + 1)(b + a)n :
n n n +1 +1

When n = 1, the right side is equal to 0. When n = 2, it is equal to

4(b + ba + a ) 3(b + a) = (b a) > 0 :
2 2 2 2

When n = 3, we have
8(b + b a + ba + a ) 4(b + a) = 4b 4b a 4ba + 4a = 4(b a )(b a) = 4(b + a)(b a) > 0 :
3 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2

When n = 4; 5 and 6, the right side is, respe tively,

(11b + 18ab + 11a )(b a)
2 2 2

(26b + 54b a + 54ba + 26a )(b a)

3 2 2 3 2

(57b + 136b a + 174b a + 136ba + 57a )(b a) :

4 3 2 2 3 4 2

There is a pattern here; an anyone express it in a general way that will yield the result, or at least
show that the right side is the produ t of (b a) and a polynomial with positive oeÆ ients?
2

4.

4. First solution.
8 sin  os  os2 os4 = 4 sin2 os2 os4 = 2 sin4 os4 = sin 8 :
Hen e the given equation is equivalent to sin 8 = sin  with sin  6= 0. Hen e, we must have  +8 = ,
8 Æ= 2 +  or 8 = 3 , sin e Æ lies stri tly between 0 and =2. These lead respe tively to  = =9
(20 ),  = 2=7 and  = =3 (60 ). Thus, there are three a ute angles  for whi h the equation is
satised.
Comment. Alternatively, note that
0 = sin 8 sin  = 2 sin 72 os 92
when e 7 = 2 or 9 =  or 3.
Se ond solution. Let x = os . Then os2 = 2x 1 and os4 = 2(2x 1) 1 = 8x 8x + 1,
2 2 2 4 2

so that
os  os2 os4 = x(2x 1)(8x 8x + 1) : 2 4 2

12
Let f (x) = x(2x 1)(8x 8x + 1) 1=8. Using the fa t that  = =3 orresponding to x = 1=2 is
2 4 2

an obvious solution of the equation f (x) = 0, we nd that

8f (x) = 128x 192x + 80x 8x 17 5 3

= (2x 1)(64x + 32x 80x 40x + 20x + 10x + 1) :

6 5 4 3 2

Consider the fa tor

g(x) = 64x + 32x 80x 40x + 20x + 10x + 1
6 5 4 3 2

= (2x + 1)(32x 40x + 10x) + 1 : 5 3

By Des artes' Rule of Signs, g(x) = 0 has at most two positive roots (there are two hanges of signs as
one reads along the oeÆ ients from left to right). Now g(1) = 7, g( ) = 3 and g( ) = ( )( )+1 < 0. 1 3 5 177

Hen e g(x) = 0 has pre isely two roots, one in ea h of the intervals (1=2; 3=4) and (3=4; 1). These along
2 4 2 32

with x = 1=2, onstitute the three roots of f (x) = 0. Sin e all roots lie in (0; 1), they are osines of
a ute angles  for whi h os  os2 os4 = 1=8.
Comment. g(x) = (8x + 4x 4x 1)(8x 6x 1). By Des artes' Rule of Signs, ea h fa tor has one
3 2 3

positive root, and sin e ea h is negative for x = 0 and positive for x = 1, that root must lie between 0
and 1. We need to dispose of the possibility that both fa tors have the same root. If is su h a ommon
root, then 8 + 8 4 1 = 8 6 1 = 0 ) 8 + 2 = 0 whi h yields a ontradi tion.
3 2 3 2

Third solution. [A. Birka℄ An obvious solution is  = =3. Observe that the produ t os  os2 os4
vanishes exa tly when  = =8 and  = =4. On the interval [0; =8℄, os , os2, os4 are all
nonnegative and de reasing, so the produ t de reases from 1 to 0. Hen e, by the Intermediate Value
Theorem and the ontinuity of the fun tions, os  os2 os4 = 1=8 has pre isely one solution in this
interval. On the interval (=8; =4), os  and os2 are positive and os4 is negative, so there are
no solutions. Similarly, on the interval (3=8; =2), os  and os4 are positive and os2 is negative,
so there are no solutions. Hen e any remaining solutions must lie in (=4; 3=8), where os  > 0,
os2 < 0 and os4 < 0.
We need a preliminary result. Suppose that u() and v() are nonnegative twi e dierentiable fun tions
on an open interval (a; b) su h that u() is in reasing, v() is de reasing and both fun tions are on ave
( , have negative se ond derivative). Then u()v() is also on ave. This follows immediately from
i.e.
(uv)00 = u00v + 2u0v0 + uv00 .
Apply this to the interval (  ;  ) and u() = os2, v() = os  to obtain that u()v() is on ave.
Observe that u()v() is nonnegative and
4 3

(uv)0() = [ os ( os2)℄0 = ( os  2 os )0 3

= sin (6 os  1)  12 sin (6 os 3 1) = 14 sin  > 0

2 2

so u()v() is in reasing.
On the interval (  ;  ), os4 is nonnegative, de reasing and on ave, so we an apply the result again
with u() = os os2  and v() = os4 to obtain that f ()  os  os2 os4p  is nonnegative
4 3

and on ave on ( ;  ). It an be he ked that f (  ) = 0, f (  ) = and f 0(  ) = 3 3=8 < 0, so an 1

analysis of the graph reveals exa tly one solution of f () = 1=8 for =4 <  < =3.
4 3 4 3 8 3

Finally, we onsider =3 <  < 3=8. If g()  os2 os4= 2 os 2 os2, then g0() = 3

2 sin2[1 6 os 2℄ < 0, so g() is positive and de reasing on ( ; ). Sin e g(=3) = 1=4, it follows

2 3

that f () < ( os )=4 < 1=8 for =3 <  < 3=8. The result follows.
3 8

Comment: It is interesting that the three solutions, given in in reasing order of omplexity, with
the se ond requiring some sophisti ated algebrai ma hinery and the last a reasonably sophisti ated
analysis, are also in reasingly loath to provide information. The rst solution is not only the easiest,
13
 but in fa t allows us to expli itly state the values of . In the se ond solution, we at least have the
tools to make some kind of approximation to the solutions, although the one orresponding to the fa tor
(2x 1) an be given exa tly. The analyti theory (intermediate value theorem) in the third solution
just tells us that some interval has a solution without spe ifying very exa tly where.
5.

5. First solution. Let the gure be denoted by F and the ir le by C , and let  be the entral re e tion
through the entre of the ir le. Suppose that m is any line of support for F and that it interse ts the
ir le in P and Q. Then there are lines p and q through P and Q respe tively, perpendi ular to m,
whi h support F . Let p meet the ir le in P and R, and q meet it in Q and S ; let t be the line RS .
Sin e P QRS is on y li with adja ent right angles, it is a re tangle, and t is a line of support of F .
Sin e P S and RQ are both diameters of C , it follows that S = (P ), R = (Q) and t = (m).
Hen e, every line of support of F is arried by  into a line of support of F . We note that F must be
on the same side of its line of support as the entre of the ir le.
Suppose that X 2 F . Let Y = (X ). Suppose, if possible that Y 62 F . Then there must be a dis
ontaining Y that does not interse t F , so we an nd a line m of support for F su h that F is on one
side and Y is stri tly on the other side of m. Let n = (m). Then n is a line of support for F whi h
has X = (Y ) on one side and O = (O) on the other. But this is not possible. Hen e Y 2 F and so
(F )  F . Now  Æ  is the identity mapping, so F = ((F ))  (F ). It follows that F = (F ) and
the result follows.
Se ond solution. Let P be any point on the ir le C . There are two perpendi ular lines of support from
P meeting the ir le in Q and S . As in the rst solution, we see that P is one vertex of a re tangle
P QRS ea h of whose sides supports F . Let G be the interse tion of all the re tangles as P ranges over
the ir umferen e of the ir le C . Sin e ea h re tangle has entral symmetry about the entre of C , the
same is true of G . It is lear that F  G . It remains to show that G  F . Suppose a point X in G does
not belong to F . Then there is a line r of support to F for whi h X and F are on opposite sides. This
line of support interse ts C at the endpoints of a hord whi h must be a side of a supporting re tangle
for F . The point X lies outside this re tangle, and so must lie outside of G . The result follows.
Third solution. [D. Arthur℄ If the result is false, then there is a line through the entre of the ir le su h
that OP > OQ, where P is where the line meets the boundary of the gure on one side and Q is where
it meets the boundary on the other. Let m be the line of support of the gure through Q. Then, as
shown in Solution 1, its re e tion t in the entre of the ir le is also a line of support. But then P and
O lie on opposite sides of t and we obtain a ontradi tion.

6.

6. (a) First solution. Wolog, suppose that the situation is as diagrammed. 6 BAC = 6 AUT = 6 AV T =
90Æ, so that AUV T is a re tangle with AU = AV and UT = V T . Hen e AUT V is a square with
diagonals AT and UV whi h right-bise t ea h other at W . Sin e SW right-bise ts AT , by re e tion in
the line SW , we see that
ASU 
UST , and so 6 UT S = 6 UAS .
Let M be the midpoint of BC . Then M is the ir um entre of
ABC , so that MA = MC and
14
 6 MCA = 6 MAC . Sin e AS is tangent to the ir um ir le of
ABC , AS ? AM . Hen e
6 UT S = 6 UAS = 6 SAM 6 BAM = 90Æ 6 BAM = 6 MAC = 6 MCA :
Now UT ? AB implies that UT kAC . Sin e 6 UT S = 6 ACB, it follows that ST kBC .
(a) Se ond solution. Wolog, suppose that S is on the opposite side of AB to C .
BT , being a part of the diameter produ ed of the ins ribed ir le, is a line of re e tion that takes
the ir le to itself and takes the tangent BA to BC . Hen e 6 UBT = 6 ABC . Let  = 6 ABT . 1

By the tangent- hord theorem applied to the ir ums ribed ir le, 6 XAC = 6 ABC = 2, so that
2

6 SAU = 90Æ 2.
Consider triangles SAU and ST U . Sin e AUT V is a square (see the rst solution), AU = UT and
6 AUV = 6 T UV = 45Æ so 6 SUA = 6 SUT = 135Æ. Also SU is ommon. Hen e
SAU 
ST U , so
6 ST U = 6 SAU = 90Æ 2. Therefore,
6 ST B = 6 UT B 6 ST U = (90Æ ) (90Æ 2) =  = 6 T BC
from whi h it results that ST kBC .
(a) Third solution. As before
AUS 
T US , so 6 SAU = 6 ST U . Sin e UT kAC , 6 ST U = 6 SY A.
Also, by the tangent- hord theorem, 6 SAB = 6 ACB. Hen e 6 SY A = 6 ST U = 6 SAB = 6 ACB, so
ST kBC .
(a) Fourth solution. In the Cartesian plane, let A  (0; 0), B  (0; b), C  ( ; 0). The entre of the
ir ums ribed ir le is at M  ( =2; b=2). Sin e the slope of AM is b= , the equation of the tangent
to the ir ums ribed ir le through A is y = ( =b)x. Let r be the radius of the ins ribed ir le. Sin e
AU = AV , the equation of the line UV is y = x r. The abs issa of S is the solution of x r = ( x)=b,
so S  ( bbr ; b r ). Sin e T  (r; r), the slope of ST is b= and the result follows.

6. (b) First solution. [


℄ denotes area. Wolog, suppose that d > d , as diagrammed.
1 2

Let r be the inradius of
ABC . Then [AV U ℄ = r , [AV S ℄ = rd and [AUS ℄ = rd . From
1 2 1 1

[AV U ℄ = [AV S ℄ [AUS ℄, it follows that r = rd rd , when e r = d d .

2 2 1 2 2
2
1 2 1 2

(b) Se ond solution. [F. Crnogora ℄ Suppose that the situation is as diagrammed. Let P and Q be the
respe tive feet of the perpendi ulars from S to AC and AB. Sin e 6 P V S = 45Æ and 6 SP V = 90Æ,

P SV is isos eles and so P S = P V = P A + AV = SQ + AV , , d = d + r. i.e. 1 2

(b) Third solution. Using the oordinates of the fourth solution of (a), we nd that
   
 r   br 
d1 = 
b 
 and d 2 = 
b 


15
when e jd d j = r as desired.
2 1

(b) Fourth solution. [M. Boase℄ Wolog, assume that the onguration is as diagrammed.
Sin e 6 SUB = 6 AUV = 45Æ, SU is parallel to the external bise tor of 6 A. This bise tor is the lo us
of points equidistant from AB and CA produ ed. Wolog, let P S meet this bise tor in W , as in the
diagram. Then P W = P A so that P S P A = P S P W = SW = AU and thus d d = r. 1 2

16